James T.

Shipman
Jerry D. Wilson
Charles A. Higgins, Jr.

Chapter 9
Atomic Physics
 Atomic Physics
• Classical physics (Newtonian physics) – development of
physics prior to around 1900
• Classical physics was generally concerned with
macrocosm – the description & explanation of large-
scale phenomena
– cannon balls, planets, wave motion, sound, optics,
electromagnetism
• Modern physics (after about 1900) – concerned with the
microscopic world – microcosm – the subatomic world is
difficult to describe with classical physics
• This chapter deals with only a part of modern physics
called Atomic Physics – dealing with electrons in the
atom.
Audio Link
 Early Concepts of the Atom

• Greek Philosophers (400 B.C.) debated whether

matter was continuous or discrete, but could
prove neither.
– Continuous – could be divided indefinitely
– Discrete – ultimate indivisible particle
– Most (including Aristotle) agreed with the continuous
theory.
• The continuous model of matter prevailed for
2200 years, until 1807.

Section 9.1
 Dalton’s Model –
“The Billiard Ball Model”
• In 1807 John Dalton presented evidence that
matter was discrete and must exist as particles.
• Dalton’s major hypothesis stated that:
• Each chemical element is composed of small
indivisible particles called atoms,
– identical for each element but different from atoms of
other elements
• Essentially these particles are featureless
spheres of uniform density.

Section 9.1
Dalton’s Model

• Dalton’s 1807 “billiard

ball model”
pictured the atom as a
tiny indivisible,
uniformly dense, solid
sphere.

Section 9.1
Thomson – “Plum Pudding Model”

• In 1903 J.J. Thomson discovered the electron.

• Further experiments by Thomson and others
showed that an electron has a mass of 9.11 x
10-31 kg and a charge of –1.60 x 10-19 C.
• Thomson produced ’rays’ using several different
gas types in cathode-ray tubes.
– He noted that these rays were deflected by electric
and magnetic fields.
• Thomson concluded that this ray consisted of
negative particles (now called electrons.)

Section 9.1
 Thomson – “Plum
Pudding Model” (cont.)
• Identical electrons were produced no matter
what gas was in the tube.
• Therefore he concluded that atoms of all types
contained ’electrons.’
• Since atoms as a whole are electrically neutral,
some other part of the atom must be positive.
• Thomson concluded that the electrons were
stuck randomly in an otherwise homogeneous
mass of positively charged “pudding.”

Section 9.1
Thompson’s Model

• Thomson’s 1903
“plum pudding
model”
conceived the
atom as a sphere
of positive charge
in which
negatively
charged electrons
were embedded.

Section 9.1
 Ernest Rutherford’s Model

• In 1911 Rutherford discovered that 99.97% of

the mass of an atom was concentrated in a tiny
core, or nucleus.
• Rutherford’s model envisioned the electrons as
circulating in some way around a positively
charged core.

Section 9.1
 Rutherford’s Model

• Rutherford’s 1911
“nuclear model”
envisioned the
atom as having a
dense center of
positive charge
(the nucleus)
around which the
electrons orbited.

Section 9.1
 Evolution of the
Atomic Models 1807 - 1911

Section 9.1
 Classical Wave Theory of Light

• Scientists have known for many centuries that

very hot (or incandescent) solids emit visible
light
– Iron may become “red” hot or even “white” hot, with
increasing temperature
– The light that common light bulbs give off is due to
the incandescence of the tungsten filament
• This increase in emitted light frequency is
expected because as the temperature increases
the greater the electron vibrations and ∴ the
higher the frequency of the emitted radiation

Section 9.2
 Red-Hot Steel

• The radiation
component of
maximum intensity
determines a hot
solid’s color.

Section 9.2
 Thermal Radiation

• As the
temperature
increases the
peak of maximum
intensity shifts to
higher frequency
– it goes from red
to orange to
white hot. Wave
theory correctly
predicts this.

Section 9.2
 Classical Wave Theory

• According to
classical wave
theory, I α f 2. This
means that I
should increase
rapidly
(exponentially) as
f increases.
• This is NOT what
is actually
observed.

Section 9.2
 The Ultraviolet Catastrophe

• Since classical wave could not explain why the

relationship I α f 2 is not true, this dilemma was
coined the “ultraviolet catastrophe”
– “Ultraviolet” because the relationship broke down at high
frequencies.
– And “catastrophe” because the predicted energy intensity fell
well short of expectations.
• The problem was resolved in 1900 by Max
Planck, a German physicist

Section 9.2
 Max Planck (1858-1947)

• In 1900 Planck introduced the idea of a quantum

– an oscillating electron can only have discrete,
or specific amounts of energy
• Planck also said that this amount of energy (E)
depends on its frequency ( f )
• Energy = Planck’s constant x frequency (E = hf )
• This concept by Planck took the first step toward
quantum physics

Section 9.2
 Quantum Theory

• Planck’s hypothesis correctly accounted for the

observed intensity with respect to the frequency
squared
• Therefore Planck introduce the idea of the
“quantum” – a discrete amount of energy
– Like a “packet” of energy
• Similar to the potential energy of a person on a
staircase – they can only have specific potential-
energy values, determined by the height of each
stair

Section 9.2
 Concept of Quantized Energy
four specific potential energy values

Quantized Energy Continuous Energy

Section 9.2
 Photoelectric Effect

• Scientists noticed that certain metals emitted

electrons when exposed to light– The
photoelectric effect
• This direct conversion of light into electrical
energy is the basis for photocells
– Automatic door openers, light meters, solar energy
applications
• Once again classical wave theory could not
explain the photoelectric effect

Section 9.2
 Photoelectric Effect Solved by
Einstein using Planck’s Hypothesis
• In classical wave theory it should take an
appreciable amount of time to cause an electron
to be emitted
• But … electrons flow is almost immediate when
exposed to light
• Thereby indicating that light consists of
“particles” or “packets” of energy
• Einstein called these packets of energy
“photons”

Section 9.2
Wave Model – continuous flow of energy
Quantum Model – packets of energy

Section 9.2
 Photoelectric Effect

• In addition, it was shown that the higher the

frequency the greater the energy
– For example, blue light has a higher frequency than
red light and therefore have more energy than
photons of red light.
• In the following two examples you will see that
Planck’s Equation correctly predict the relative
energy levels of red and blue light

Section 9.2
 Determining Photon Energy
Example of how photon energy is determined

• Find the energy in joules of the photons of red

light of frequency 5.00 x 1014 Hz (cycles/second)
• You are given: f and h (Planck’s constant)
• Use Planck’s equation E = hf
• E = hf = (6.63 x 10-34J s)(5.00 x 1014/sec)
• = 33.15 x 10-20 J

Audio Link
Section 9.2
 Determining Photon Energy
Another example of how photon energy is determined

• Find the energy in joules of the photons of blue

light of frequency 7.50 x 1014 Hz (cycles/second)
• You are given: f and h (Planck’s constant)
• Use Planck’s Equation E = hf
• E = hf = (6.63 x 10-34J s)(7.50 x 1014/sec)
• = 49.73 x 10-20 J

• ** Note the blue light has more energy than red light

Section 9.2
 The Dual Nature of Light

• To explain various phenomena, light sometimes

must be described as a wave and sometimes as
a particle.
• Therefore, in a specific experiment, scientists
use whichever model (wave or particle theory) of
light works!!
• Apparently light is not exactly a wave or a
particle, but has characteristics of both
• In the microscopic world our macroscopic
analogies may not adequately fit

Section 9.2
 Two Types of Spectra

• Recall from chapter 7 that white light can be

dispersed into a spectrum of colors by a prism
– Due to differences in refraction for the specific
wavelengths
• In the late 1800’s experimental work with gas-
discharge tubes revealed two other types of
spectra
– Line emission spectra displayed only bright spectral
lines of certain frequencies
– Line absorption spectra displays dark lines of missing
colors

Section 9.3
Continuous Spectrum of Visible Light
Light of all colors is observed

Section 9.3
Line Emission Spectrum for Hydrogen
• When light from a gas-discharge tube is analyzed only
spectral lines of certain frequencies are found

Section 9.3
Line Absorption Spectrum for Hydrogen
• Results in dark lines (same as the bright lines of the line
emission spectrum) of missing colors.

Section 9.3
 Spectra & the Bohr Model

• Spectroscopists did not initially understand why

only discrete, and characteristic wavelengths of
light were
– Emitted in a line emission spectrum, and
– Omitted in a line absorption spectrum
• In 1913 an explanation of the observed spectral
line phenomena was advanced by the Danish
physicist Niels Bohr

Section 9.3
 Bohr and the Hydrogen Atom

• Bohr decided to study the hydrogen atom

because it is the simplest atom
– One single electron “orbiting” a single proton
• As most scientists before him, Bohr assumed
that the electron revolved around the nuclear
proton – but…
• Bohr correctly reasoned that the characteristic
(and repeatable) line spectra were the result of a
“quantum effect”

Section 9.3
 Bohr and the Hydrogen Atom

• Bohr predicted that the single hydrogen electron

would only be found in discrete orbits with
particular radii
– Bohr’s possible electron orbits were given whole-
number designations, n = 1, 2, 3, …
– “n” is called the principal quantum number
– The lowest n-value, (n = 1) has the smallest radius

Section 9.3
 Bohr Electron Orbits

• Each possible electron

orbit is characterized
by a quantum number.
• Distances from the
nucleus are given in
nanometers.

Section 9.3
 Bohr and the Hydrogen Atom

• Classical atomic theory indicated that an

accelerating electron should continuously
radiate energy
– But this is not the case
– If an electron continuously lost energy, it would soon
spiral into the nucleus
• Bohr once again correctly hypothesized that the
hydrogen electron only radiates/absorbs energy
when it makes an quantum jump or transition to
another orbit

Section 9.3
 Photon Emission and Absorption

• A transition to a lower
energy level results in
the emission of a
photon.
• A transition to a higher
energy level results in
the absorption of a
photon.

Section 9.3
 The Bohr Model

• According to the Bohr model the “allowed orbits”

of the hydrogen electron are called energy
states or energy levels
– Each of these energy levels correspond to a specific
orbit and principal quantum number
• In the hydrogen atom, the electron is normally at
n = 1 or the ground state
• The energy levels above the ground state (n = 2,
3, 4, …) are called excited states

Section 9.3
 Orbits and Energy Levels of the Hydrogen Atom
Bohr theory predicts that the hydrogen
electron can only occupy discrete radii.

• Note that the

energy levels
are not evenly
spaced.

Section 9.3
 The Bohr Model

• If enough energy is applied, the electron will no

longer be bound to the nucleus and the atom is
ionized
• As a result of the mathematical development of
Bohr’s theory, scientists are able to predict the
radii and energies of the allowed orbits
• For hydrogen, the radius of a particular orbit can
be expressed as
– rn = 0.053 n2 nm
• n = principal quantum number of an orbit
• r = orbit radius

Section 9.3
 Confidence Exercise
Determining the Radius of an Orbit in a Hydrogen Atom

• Determine the radius in nm of the second orbit

(n = 2, the first excited state) in a hydrogen atom
• Solution:
• Use equation 9.2  rn = 0.053 n2 nm
• n=2
• r1 = 0.053 (2)2 nm = 0.212 nm
• Same value as Table 9.1!

Section 9.3
 Energy of a Hydrogen Electron

• The total energy of the hydrogen electron in an

allowed orbit is given by the following equation:
• En = -13.60/n2 eV (eV = electron volts)
– The negative sign means it is in a potential well
• The ground state energy value for the hydrogen
electron is –13.60 eV
– ∴ it takes 13.60 eV to ionize a hydrogen atom
– the hydrogen electron’s binding energy is 13.60 eV
• Note that as the n increases the energy levels
become closer together

Section 9.3
 Problem Example
Determining the Energy of
an Orbit in the Hydrogen Atom
• Determine the energy of an electron in the first
orbit (n = 1, the ground state) in a hydrogen
atom
• Solution:
• Use equation 9.3  En = -13.60/n2 eV
• n=1
• En = -13.60/(1)2 eV = -13.60 eV
• Same value as Table 9.1!

Section 9.3
 Confidence Exercise
Determining the Energy of
an Orbit in the Hydrogen Atom
• Determine the energy of an electron in the first
orbit (n = 2, the first excited state) in a hydrogen
atom
• Solution:
• Use equation 9.3  En = -13.60/n2 eV
• n=2
• En = -13.60/(2)2 eV = -3.40 eV
• Same value as Table 9.1!

Section 9.3
Explanation of Discrete Line Spectra

• Recall that Bohr was trying to explain the

discrete line spectra as exhibited in the -
– Line Emission & Line Absorption spectrum
– Note that the observed and omitted spectra
coincide!

Line Emission Spectra Line Absorption Spectra

Section 9.3
 Explanation of
Discrete Line Spectra
• The hydrogen line emission spectrum results
from the emission of energy as the electron de-
excites
– Drops to a lower orbit and emits a photon
– Etotal = Eninitial = Enf + Ephoton
• The hydrogen line absorption spectrum results
from the absorption of energy as the electron is
excited
– Jumps to a higher orbit and absorbs a photon

Section 9.3
 Bohr Hypothesis
Correctly Predicts Line Spectra
• The dark lines in the hydrogen line absorption
spectrum exactly matches up with the bright
lines in the hydrogen line emission spectrum
• Therefore, the Bohr hypothesis correctly predicts
that an excited hydrogen atom will emit/absorb
light at the same discrete frequencies/amounts,
depending upon whether the electron is being
excited or de-excited

Section 9.3
 Spectral Lines for Hydrogen

• Transitions among
discrete energy orbit
levels give rise to
discrete spectral lines
within the UV, visible,
and IR wavelengths

Section 9.3
 Quantum Effect

• Energy level arrangements are different for all of

the various atoms
• Therefore every element has a characteristic
and unique line emission and line absorption
“fingerprints”
• In 1868 a dark line was found in the solar
spectrum that was unknown at the time
– It was correctly concluded that this line represented a
new element – named helium
– Later this element was indeed found on Earth

Audio Link
Section 9.3
 Molecular Spectroscopy

• Modern Physics and Chemistry actively study

the energy levels of various atomic and
molecular systems
– Molecular Spectroscopy is the study of the spectra
and energy levels of molecules
• As you might expect, molecules of individual
substances produce unique and varied spectra
• For example, the water molecule has rotational
energy levels that are affected and changed by
microwaves

Section 9.3
 Microwaves

• Electromagnetic radiation that have relatively

low frequencies (about 1010 Hz)

Section 9.4
 The Microwave Oven

• Because most foods contain moisture, their

water molecules absorb the microwave radiation
and gain energy
– As the water molecules gain energy, they rotate more
rapidly, thus heating/cooking the item
– Fats and oils in the foods also preferentially gain
energy from (are excited by) the microwaves

Section 9.4
 The Microwave Oven

• Paper/plastic/ceramic/glass dishes are not

directly heated by the microwaves
– But may be heated by contact with the food
(conduction)
• The interior metal sides of the oven reflect the
radiation and remain cool
• Do microwaves penetrate the food and heat it
throughout?
– Microwaves only penetrate a few centimeters and
therefore they work better if the food is cut into small
pieces
– Inside of food must be heated by conduction

Section 9.4
 “Discovery” of
Microwaves as a Cooking Tool
• In 1946 a Raytheon Corporation engineer, Percy
Spencer, put his chocolate bar too close to a
microwave source
• The chocolate bar melted of course, and …
• Within a year Raytheon introduced the first
commercial microwave oven!

Section 9.4
 X-Rays

• Accidentally discovered in 1895 by the German

physicist Wilhelm Roentgen
– He noticed while working with a gas-discharge tube
that a piece of fluorescent paper across the room
was glowing
• Roentgen deduced that some unknown/unseen
radiation from the tube was the cause
– He called this mysterious radiation “X-radiation”
because it was unknown

Section 9.4
 X-Ray Production

• Electrons from the cathode are accelerated

toward the anode. Upon interacting with the
atoms of the anode, the atoms emit energy in
the form of x-rays.

Section 9.4
 Early use of X-Rays

• Within few months of

their discovery, X-rays
were being put to
practical use.
• This is an X-ray of bird
shot embedded in a
hand.
• Unfortunately, much of
the early use of X-rays
was far too
aggressive, resulting
in later cancer.
Section 9.4
 Lasers

• Unlike the accidental discovery of X-rays, the

idea for the laser was initially developed from
theory and only later built
• The word laser is an acronym for
– Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation
• Most excited atoms will immediately return to
ground state, but …
• Some substances (ruby crystals, CO2 gas, and
others) have metastable excited states

Section 9.4
 Photon Absorption

• An atom absorbs a photon and becomes excited

(transition to a higher orbit)

Section 9.4
 Spontaneous Emission

• Generally the excited atom immediately returns

to ground state, emitting a photon

Section 9.4
 Stimulated Emission

• Striking an excited atom with a photon of the

same energy as initially absorbed will result in
the emission of two photons

Section 9.4
Stimulated Emission –
the Key to the Laser

a) Electrons absorb energy and

move to higher level
b) Photon approaches and
stimulate emission occurs
c) Stimulated emission chain
reaction occurs

Section 9.4
 Laser

• In a stimulated emission an excited atom is

struck by a photon of the same energy as the
allowed transition, and two photons are emitted
• The two photon are in phase and therefore
constructively interfere
• The result of many stimulated emissions and
reflections in a laser tube is a narrow, intense
beam of laser light
– The beam consists of the same energy and
wavelength (monochromatic)

Section 9.4
 Laser Uses

• Very accurate measurements can be made by

reflecting these narrow laser beams
– Distance from Earth to the Moon
– Between continents to determine rate of plate
movement
• Communications, Medical, Industrial, Surveying,
Photography, Engineering
• A CD player reads small dot patterns that are
converted into electronic signals, then sound

Section 9.4
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

• In 1927 the German physicist introduced a new

concept relating to measurement accuracy.
• Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle can be stated
as: It is impossible to know a particle’s exact
position and velocity simultaneously.

Audio Link

Section 9.5
 The very act of measurement may
alter a particle’s position and velocity.
• Suppose one is interested in the exact position
and velocity of an electron.
• At least one photon must bounce off the electron
and come to your eye.
• The collision process between the photon and
the electron will alter the electron’s position or
velocity.

Section 9.5
 Bouncing a photon off
the electron introduces a great
deal of measurement uncertainty

Section 9.5
 How much does measurement
alter the position and velocity?
• Further investigation led to the conclusion that
several factors need to be considered in
determining the accuracy of measurement:
– Mass of the particle (m)
– Minimum uncertainty in velocity (∆v)
– Minimum uncertainty in position (∆x)
• When these three factors are multiplied together
they equal a very small number.
– Close to Planck’s constant (h = 6.63 10-34 J.s)

Section 9.5
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

• Therefore: m(∆v)(∆x) ≅ h
• Although this principle may be philosophically
significant, it is only of practical importance
when dealing with particles of atomic and
subatomic size.

Section 9.5
 Matter Waves or de Broglie Waves

• With the development of the dual nature of light

it became apparent that light “waves” sometime
act like particles.
• Could the reverse be true?
• Can particles have wave properties?
• In 1925 the French physicist de Broglie
postulated that matter has properties of both
waves and particles.

Section 9.6
 De Broglie’s Hypothesis

• Any moving particle has a wave associated with

it whose wavelength is given by the following
formula
• λ = h/mv
• λ = wavelength of the moving particle
• m = mass of the moving particle
• v = speed of the moving particle
• h = Planck’s constant (6.63 x 10-34 J.s)

Section 9.6
 de Broglie Waves

• The waves associated with moving particles are

called matter waves or de Broglie waves.
• Note in de Broglie’s equation (λ = h/mv) the
wavelength (λ) is inversely proportional to the
mass of the particle (m)
• Therefore the longest wavelengths are
associated with particles of very small mass.
• Also note that since h is so small, the resulting
wavelengths of matter are also quite small.

Section 9.6
 Finding the de Broglie Wavelength
Exercise Example

• Find the de Broglie wavelength for an electron

(m = 9.11 x 10-31 kg) moving at 7.30 x 105 m/s.
• Use de Broglie equation: λ = h/mv
• We are given h, m, & v

6.63 x 10-34 Js
λ =
(9.11 x 10-31 kg)(7.30 x 105 m/s)

Section 9.6
 Finding the de Broglie Wavelength
Exercise Example (cont.)

λ = 1.0 x 10-9m = 1.0 nm (nanometer)

6.63 x 10-34 kg m2s/s2
λ =
(9.11 x 10-31 kg)(7.30 x 105 m/s)

This wavelength is only several times larger than the

diameter of the average atom, therefore significant
for an electron.

Section 9.6
 Finding the de Broglie Wavelength
Confidence Exercise

• Find the de Broglie wavelength for a 1000 kg car

traveling at 25 m/s
• Use de Broglie equation: λ = h/mv
• We are given h, m, & v
6.63 x 10-34 Js 6.63 x 10-34 kg m2s/s2
λ = =
(1000 kg)(25 m/s) (1000 kg)(25 m/s)

λ = 2.65 x 10 –38
m = 2.65 x 10-29 nm

A very short wavelength!

Section 9.6
 de Broglie’s
Hypothesis – Early Skepticism
• In 1927 two U.S. scientists, Davisson and
Germer, experimentally verified that particles
have wave characteristics.
• These two scientists showed that a bean of
electrons (particles) exhibits a diffraction pattern
(a wave property.)
• Recall Section 7.4 – appreciable diffraction only
occurs when a wave passes through a slit of
approximately the same width as the wavelength

Section 9.6
 de Broglie’s
Hypothesis – Verification
• Recall from our Exercise Example that an
electron would be expected to have a λ ≅ 1 nm.
• Slits in the range of 1 nm cannot be
manufactured
• BUT … nature has already provided us with
suitably small “slits” in the form of mineral crystal
lattices.
• By definition the atoms in mineral crystals are
arranged in an orderly and repeating pattern.

Section 9.6
 de Broglie’s
Hypothesis – Verification
• The orderly rows within a crystal lattice provided
the extremely small slits needed (in the range of
1 nm.)
• Davisson and Germer photographed two
diffraction patterns.
– One pattern was made with X-rays (waves) and one
with electrons (particles.)
• The two diffraction patterns are remarkably
similar.

Section 9.6
 Similar Diffraction Patterns
Both patterns indicate wave-like properties

X-Ray pattern Diffraction pattern

of electrons

Section 9.6
 Dual Nature of Matter

• Electron diffraction demonstrates that moving

matter not only has particle characteristics, but
also wave characteristics
• BUT …
• The wave nature of matter only becomes of
practical importance with extremely small
particles such as electrons and atoms.

Section 9.6
 Electron Microscope

• The electron microscope is based on the

principle of matter waves.
• This device uses a beam of electrons to view
objects.
• Recall that the wavelength of an electron is in
the order of 1 nm, whereas the wavelength of
visible light ranges from 400 – 700 nm

Section 9.6
 Electron Microscope

• The amount of fuzziness of an image is directly

proportional to the wavelength used to view it
• therefore …
• the electron microscope is capable of much finer
detail and greater magnification than a
microscope using visible light.

Section 9.6
 Electron Cloud Model of an Atom

• Recall that Bohr chose to analyze the hydrogen

atom, because it is the simplest atom
• It is increasingly difficult to analyze atoms with
more that one electron, due to the myriad of
possible electrical interactions
• In large atoms, the electrons in the outer orbits
are also partially shielded from the attractive
forces of the nucleus

Audio Link
Section 9.7
 Electron Cloud Model of an Atom

• Although Bohr’s theory was very successful in

explaining the hydrogen atom …
• This same theory did not give correct results
when applied to multielectron atoms
• Bohr was also unable to explain why the
electron energy levels were quantized
• Additionally, Bohr was unable to explain why the
electron did not radiate energy as it traveled in
its orbit

Section 9.7
Bohr’s Theory – Better Model Needed

• With the discovery of the dual natures of both

waves and particles …
• A new kind of physics was developed, called
quantum mechanics or wave mechanics
– Developed in the 1920’s and 1930’s as a synthesis of
wave and quantum ideas
• Quantum mechanisms also integrated
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
– The concept of probability replaced the views of
classical mechanics in describing electron movement

Section 9.7
 Quantum Mechanics

• In 1926, the Austrian physicist Erwin

Schrödinger presented a new mathematical
equation applying de Broglie’s matter waves.
• Schrödinger’s equation was basically a
formulation of the conservation of energy
• The simplified form of this equation is …
• (Ek + Ep)Ψ = EΨ
– Ek, Ep, and E are kinetic, potential, and total energies,
respectively
– Ψ = wave function

Section 9.7
 Quantum Mechanical
Model or Electron Cloud Model
• Schrödinger’s model focuses on the wave
nature of the electron and treats it as a standing
wave in a circular orbit
• Permissible orbits must have a circumference
that will accommodate a whole number of
electron wavelengths (λ)
• If the circumference will not accommodate a
whole number λ, then this orbit is not ’probable’

Section 9.7
 The Electron as a Standing Wave

• For the electron wave to be stable, the

circumference of the orbit must be a whole
number of wavelengths

Section 9.7
 Wave Function & Probability

• Mathematically, the wave function (Ψ )

represents the wave associated with a particle
• For the hydrogen atom it was found that the
equation r2Ψ 2 represents …
– The probability of the hydrogen electron being a
certain distance r from the nucleus
• A plot of r2Ψ 2 versus r for the hydrogen electron
shows that the most probable radius for the
hydrogen electron is r = 0.053nm
– Same value as Bohr predicted in 1913!

Section 9.7
r2Ψ 2 (Probability) versus r (Radius)

Section 9.7
 Concept of the Electron Cloud

• Although the hydrogen electron may be found at

a radii other than 0.053 nm – the probability is
lower
• Therefore, when viewed from a probability
standpoint, the “electron cloud” around the
nucleus represents the probability that the
electron will be at that position
• The electron cloud is actually a visual
representation of a probability distribution

Section 9.7
 Changing Model of the Atom

• Although Bohr’s “planetary model” was brilliant

and quite elegant it was not accurate for
multielectron atoms
• Schrödinger’s model is highly mathematical and
takes into account the electron’s wave nature

Section 9.7
 Schrödinger’s
Quantum Mechanical Model
• The quantum mechanical model only gives the
location of the electrons in terms of probability
• But, this model enables scientists to determine
accurately the energy of the electrons in
multielectron atoms
• Knowing the electron’s energy is much more
important than knowing its precise location

Section 9.7
 Chapter 9 - Important Equations

• E = hf Photon Energy (h= 6.63 x 10-34 Js)

• rn = 0.053 n2 nm Hydrogen Electron Orbit Radii
• En = (-13.60/n2) eV Hydrogen Electron Energy
• Ephoton = Eni – Enf Photon Energy for Transition
• λ = h/mv de Broglie Wavelength

Review