2

IGCSE BIOLOGY

Cells and Organisation

Learning Objectives

• Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes

• Identify and describe the structure of plant cells and animal

cells, and describe the functions of their parts.

• Describe the difference between animal cells and plant cells.

• Explain the structure and function of specialised cells: red blood

cell, muscle cells, ciliated cells, xylem vessels and root hair
cells.

• Define the terms tissue, organ and organ systems, with

examples.
 Cutting sections
The slice of tissue must be only 0.01-0.1 mm thick if cells
are to be seen clearly.
Thin slices of plant tissue can be made by hand using a
sharp razor blade
The slices are called sections.
Special apparatus and techniques are needed to make
very thin sections.
Cutting sections

Transverse section Longitudinal section

 2.1

Cell structure
 CELL STRUCTURE (ANIMAL)
2.2 describe cell structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, chloroplast and vacuole

You need to know the differences between plant and animal cells, the functions of the
organelles and be able to recognize them in a microscope picture or drawing.

Micro
scope
 A section through a liver cell

cell membrane nucleus

contains the DNA,
0.00001mm thick,
regulates all chemical
encloses cytoplasm &
changes in cytoplasm
controls what enters and
& sends chemical
leaves the cell
signals to cytoplasm to
signal start or stop
cytoplasm reactions
contains many structures &
all metabolic (chemical) DNA
reactions occur here
contains the coded
instructions to make
proteins & controls cell
division

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Cell Membrane

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 Complexity of Animal Cells
smooth ER
mitochondria

rough ER Golgi
apparatus
nucleus
vacuole
DNA
centriole

cytoplasm ribosome

cell membrane

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Electron micrograph of Animal Cell
with Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

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 Liver Cells
Nucleus
(large)

Cytoplasm
Cell membrane

Liver cells are particularly active in protein synthesis and lipid synthesis.
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 8

Cells from the Cheek Lining

cytoplasm

nucleus

cell membrane

0.01mm © Biophoto Associates

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Plant Cells

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 CELL STRUCTURE (PLANT)
2.2 describe cell structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, chloroplast and vacuole
ONION CELL

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The cell wall is made of cellulose. Many animals digest cellulose using bacterial enzymes,
but humans cannot digest it.
The cell wall protects, supports and gives shape to the plant cell.
 vacuole
nucleus

cell wall
mitochondria

chloroplast
cell
cytoplasm membrane

Like a storage area for the cell. It contains a liquid

called cell sap. It also helps support the cell.
(Plant cells usually have big vacuoles.)
 10

0.2mm
vacuole

chloroplast

cell wall

© Biophoto Associates
Green plants contain the pigment chloroplast.
This is where sun light is absorbed and photosynthesis takes place.
Starch is also stored in the chloroplast.
 cell membrane chloroplast

partially permeable & green pigment where starch is

contains cytoplasm produced and stored

large sap vacuole

nucleus
fluid filled cell sap which exerts
controls all activities of pressure to keep shape
cell

cellulose cell wall

cytoplasm support, protect, keep shape

metabolic reactions take

place here
COMPLEXITY OF PLANT CELL

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Cytoplasm - site of chemical reactions in the cell

Cell Membrane - controls what enters / leaves the cell (selectively permeable)

Nucleus - contains nucleic acids, which code for the synthesis of specific proteins. These proteins
control all activity in the cell

Mitochondrion (mitochondria if plural) - site of aerobic respiration (an example of a membrane

bound organelle)

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER) – supports ribosome and is where proteins are
produced. Proteins made at the rough ER will be exported out of the cell.

Free ribosomes – there are free ribosomes in the cytoplasm, proteins made by them are used
inside the cell

Chloroplast - site of photosynthesis (contains chlorophyll) (another example of a membrane

bound organelle)

Cell Wall - made from cellulose. Strengthens the cell and allows it to be turgid

Sap Vacuole - contains the cell sap. Acts as a store of water, or of sugars or, in some cases, of
waste products the cell needs to excrete. Helps keep plant cell turgid.
 12

STRUCTURE OF A LEAF CELL

cell wall
Longitudinal
cell membrane section

cytoplasm
vacuole
Transverse
section
nucleus

The diagram shows how a 3-dimensional leaf cell would appear in transverse
and longitudinal section
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Comparing animal and plant cells

Found in both animal Found only in plant cells

and plant cells

cell membrane cellulose cell wall

nucleus large sap vacuole

cytoplasm chloroplast

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ClickBiology
 Prokaryotes
• Almost all cells have mitochondria and rough ER,
except prokaryotes.

• Also, prokaryotes do not have a nucleus.

A bacteria cell structure

No nucleus around the

DNA.

The flagellum is for

movement.

The pilus (pili for plural) can

be used to transfer genetic
materials or adhesion.

Plasmids are small circular

DNA that allows genetic
materials to be shared
amongst other bacteria (e.g.
antibiotic resistance genes).

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 Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

• Unicellular • Unicellular/multicellular
• No membrane bound organelles e.g. • membrane bound organelles e.g.
mitochondria mitochondria
• Have cell wall (peptidoglycan) • Have cell wall (Cellulose/chitin)
• Might have slime capsule, flagella • DNA found in nucleus associated with
• Naked DNA histone protein
• Small loops of DNA found as plasmid • Cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes
• Cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes present
present
Try these
from your
textbook!
 2.3

Specialized Cells
You should be able to:
• Identify and describe the structure of plant cells and animal
cells, and describe the functions of their parts.

• Describe the difference between animal cells and plant cells.

• Explain the structure and function of specialised cells: ciliated

cells, root hair cells, xylem vessels, palisade mesophyll, red
blood cell and nerve cell.

• Define the terms tissue, organ and organ systems, with

examples.
 CELL STRUCTURE (PLANT & ANIMAL)
2.2 describe cell structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, chloroplast and vacuole

SOME SAMPLE CELL DIAGRAMS:

SPERM
CELL
Root hair cell

White blood cell

Ciliated cells move mucus from the
lungs

cilia

Cilia are small extensions of the

cell. They beat rhythmically to
sweep mucus (secreted by
nearby goblet cells), which has
trapped bacteria and dust, away
from the lungs in the trachea
and bronchi
nucleus

magnification X3000
Root hair cells absorb minerals and water
from the soil
Xylem vessels transport water and minerals up
the plant
xylem vessels are continuous tubes

xylem vessel

no cytoplasm
hollow: allows for
continuous flow of water
and dissolved mineral
ions

lignin
water-proof and strong;
helps support the plant
cross-section longitudinal section
Palisade mesophyll cells where most
photosynthesis takes place

cell wall
made of cellulose nucleus
fully permeable cytoplasm

vacuole
sap filled to keep chloroplast cell membrane
the shape of cell green pigment where
photosynthesis takes place partially
permeable
Nerve cells carry electrical impulses

Axon
part of the cell that
carries nerve impulses

gap between two neurons where

neurotransmitters/neurochemicals
are passed
 Sperm and egg Cell
Gametes produced during sexual reproduction

Jelly coat: provides protection Acrosome: enzyme to digest through the jelly coat

Cytoplasm: contains food reserves Tail : allows it to swim through semen

Mitochondria: provides energy for sperm tail (to swim)

Red blood cells transport oxygen
cell surface membrane cytoplasm contains no
nucleus

allows more room for

haemoglobin

cytoplasm contains
haemoglobin

haemoglobin is a protein
which carries the oxygen bi-concave disc shape
molecules
increases surface area over which
absorption of oxygen can occur
Try This
 2.5

microscopy and
magnification
The difference between
magnification and resolution.

• Magnification is the degree to which the size

of an image is larger than the image itself.
• Resolution is the degree to which it is possible
to distinguish between two objects that are
very close together.
 mm

1000 1000
Micrometre

1000 1000

nm
 Nanometre Micrometre Millimetre

5 0.005 0.000005
1 0.001 0.000001
1000 1 0.001
1 000 000 1000 1
3000 3 0.003
7 0.007 0.000007
500 000 500 0.5
How do we find the overall magnification of a light microscope?

Eyepiece

Objective lens

Eyepiece
Objective Magnification Overall Magnification
Magnification

X10 X4 40x
X10 X10 100x
X10 X40 400x
X10 X100 1000x
 Observing cells

• You must be able to calculate the magnification

or actual size from a micrograph (picture from a
microscope).
• To do this use the IAM triangle.

Copyright © 2015 Henry Exham

 Example
An image of an animal cell is 35 mm in size and it has
been magnified by a factor of x 300. What is the actual size of the
cell?

Image size: 3.5 cm = 35mm

Actual size = 35 mm

= 0.116mm
300 Or 116 um
The diagram below is a drawing of an organelle from a ciliated cell as seen with
an electron microscope.

Calculate the actual length of the organelle as shown by the line AB in the
diagram. Express your answer to the nearest micrometer (µm).
Show your working.
I 102mm 102000μm
A= = =
M 20000 20000
5.1
Answer = ........................................... μm
The diagram below is a drawing of an alveolus together with an associated
blood capillary.
blood
capillary
alveolus lined with
squamous epithelium

A
M= I
A
21mm B
=
1.5m
21000m
= cell X
1.5m
The line AB in the diagram represents an actual distance of 1.5 µm.
Calculate the magnification of the drawing. Show your working.
14000
Answer = × .................................................
The diagram below shows the general structure of an animal cell as seen under
an electron microscope.

I
M=
A
24mm
=
5μm
24000μm
=
5μm
= 4800
_________
5μm
1) Calculate the magnification factor of the diagram
The diagram below shows the general structure of an animal cell as seen under
an electron microscope.

I
A=
M
12mm
=
4800
12000μm
=
4800
= 2.5μm
_________
5μm
2) Calculate the actual length of structure G
The diagram below shows the general structure of an animal cell as seen
under an electron microscope.

A= I
M
8mm
=
4800
8000m
=
4800
= 1.666m
= 1.7m
_________
5m 3) Calculate the diameter of the nucleolus (structure B)
The diagram below shows the general structure of an animal cell as seen
under an electron microscope.

A= I
M
36mm
=
4800
36000m
=
4800
= 7.5m
_________
5m 4) Calculate the diameter of the nucleus
The diagram below shows the general structure of an animal cell as seen under
an electron microscope.

I
A=
M
116mm
=
4800
116000μm
=
4800
= 24.16666μm
_________
= 24.2μm
5μm
5) Calculate the diameter of the cell at its widest point
The diagram below shows the general structure of a plant cell when viewed under and
electron microscope.

I
M=
A
23mm
=
40μm
23000μm
=
40μm
___________
= 575
40μm

1) Calculate the magnification factor of the diagram

The diagram below shows the general structure of a plant cell when viewed
under and electron microscope.

A= I
M
3mm
=
575
3000m
=
575
= 5.2m
___________
40m
2) Calculate the thickness of the cellulose cell wall.
The diagram below shows the general structure of a plant cell when viewed
under and electron microscope.

A= I
M
98mm
=
575
98000m
=
575
= 170.4m
___________
40m
3) Calculate the length of the cell.
The diagram below shows the general structure of a plant cell when viewed
under and electron microscope.

A= I
M
24mm
=
575
24000m
=
575
= 41.7m
___________
40m
4) Calculate the length of structure C.
The diagram below shows the general structure of a plant cell when viewed
under and electron microscope.

A= I
M
71mm
=
575
71000m
=
575
= 123.5m
___________
40m
5) Calculate the length of the vacuole.
M= I
A
82mm
=
20m
82000m
=
20m
= 4100

Calculate the actual length of structure C.

Show your working and give your answer in micrometres (μ
M= I A= I
A M
82mm 15mm
= =
20m 4100
82000m 15000m
= =
20m 4100
= 4100 = 3.7m

Calculate the actual length of structure C.

Show your working and give your answer in micrometres (μ
 2.4

level of organisation
 You should be able to:

• Identify and describe the structure of plant cells and animal

cells, and describe the functions of their parts.

• Describe the difference between animal cells and plant cells.

• Explain the structure and function of specialised cells: red blood

cell, muscle cells, ciliated cells, xylem vessels and root hair cells.

• Define the terms tissue, organ and organ systems, with

examples.
A tissue is a group of cells of similar structure that
perform a shared function

Animal tissues:
Tissues found in the leaf
muscle tissue
upper epidermal
tissue
palisade mesophyll
tissue

nervous tissue
spongy mesophyll
tissue
lower epidermal
tissue

Cross-section of a leaf
An organ is a structure made of a group of tissues
working together to perform specific functions

heart lungs liver

stomach brain kidneys

Plant organs include the stem and the leaves
 An organ system is a group of organs with related
functions, working together to perform body
functions
lymphatic digestive reproductive skeletal endocrine
system system system system system

respiratory excretory muscular nervous circulatory

system system system system system

In plants the shoot is an organ system consisting of leaves and the stem
 Levels of organisation
cell tissue organ organ organism
systems

nerve cell nervous brain nervous Homo sapiens

tissue system

smallest largest
 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
Organisms are made from organizations of smaller structures. You
need to know the following hierarchy of structures.

Organelles - intracellular structures that carry out specific functions within a cell
Nucleus Chloroplast Mitochondria Ribosome Vacuole
Cells - the basic structural and functional unit from which all biological organisms are made
Neurone Skin cell Muscle cell Phagocyte Red Blood Cell

Tissues - a group of specialized cells, which are adapted to carry out a specific function
Muscle Nerves Blood Bone Adipose (Fat)

Organs - a collection of two or more tissues, which carries out a specific function or functions
Heart Skin Brain Artery Kidney

Organ Systems - a group of two or more organs

Pulmonary Cardiac Nervous Endocrine Skeletal
 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
2.1 describe the levels of organisation within organisms: organelles, cells, tissues, organs and systems.