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Theme 2. CELL MORPHOLOGY. STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF CYTOPLASM AND

NUCLEUS

NUCLEUS
A nucleus contains the basic genetic material (DNA) which guides and controls the entire structural pat-
tern and working of the cell in accordance with the "coded information" contained in it.
Nuclear structure: nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, chromatin and nucleolus.
Nuclear envelope: A delimiting envelope of the nucleus, called karyotheca, consists of two concentric
unit membranes with a narrow, fluid-filled perinuclear space in between. It is perforated by a number of circu-
lar or octagonal nuclear pores situated at specific points. Each pore is bordered by a specific set of proteins,
and is plugged by a cylinder of protein material. These proteins, combined with certain other fibrillar and
granular components, make the pore a complicated structure called "nuclear pore complex". The two unit
membranes are fused together at the borders of the pores which are, thus, separated from the perinuclear
space. Besides its normal selective permeability for ions and small molecules, the nuclear envelope utilizes its
pores as channels for a regulated movement of macromolecules between nucleus and cytoplasm. The outer
membrane of the envelope usually bears ribosomes. At several places, it is connected with the rough endo-
plasmic reticulum (RER) so that the perinuclear space is continuous with the lumen or core cavity of RER.
During cell division, the nuclear membrane disappears in earlier stages and reappears in later stages.
Nuclear matrix (Nucleoplasm Karyoplasm): Like the cytosol, nucleoplasm is a specialized form of
protoplasm that fills the nuclear cavity. Thus it is, basically, a complex crystallo-colloidal system of structural
and functional (enzymatic) proteins and other molecules, but differs from cytosol in containing a considerable
amount of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), and certain special basic proteins (either histones or protamines) as-
sociated with nucleic acids to form nucleoproteins.
Chromatin: The most important component substance of nucleus is the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
which transmits coded information of structure and function from cell to cell. Molecules of DNA are always
complexed with some ribonucleic acid (RNA), some basic histone proteins in 1:1 ratio with DNA and tight-
ly bound to it, and certain non-histone acidic proteins (both structural and enzymatic). This complex is a vis-
cous, gelatinous substance called chromatin. At the time of cell division, all chromatin fibers condense, main-
ly by coiling and supercoiling, into easily visible, thick and discrete threads called chromosomes.
Nucleolus: The largest and most prominent component part of the nucleus is an eccentrically located,
dense and spheroidal mass called nucleolus. Commonly, there is a single nucleolus in a nucleus, but two or
more may be present. It is without a limiting membrane. It is the structure in which ribosomes are formed.
During cell division, the nucleolus disappears, like the nuclear envelope, in early stages and reappears in later
stages.

CYTOPLASM
The part of a cell between its plasma membrane and nucleus is called cytoplasm. It is a highly organized
compartment with a number of different kinds of formed structures suspended in a continuous fluid phase
called cytoplasmic matrix or cytosol or hyaloplasm. Cytosol is usually diffefentiated into a thin, but more
rigid, hyaline and homogeneous cortical layer, called ectoplasm, and a central mass of less rigid and granular
endoplasm.
FORMED STRUCTURES OF CYTOPLASM.
These are of two types—the metabolically active components of the cytoplasm, called'"cytoplasmic
organelles or organoids", and the inactive metabolic byproducts or "cytoplasmic inclusions".
CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES OR ORGANOIDS
These are rather permanent parts of a cell, which can be divided into two categories,
(A) Membrane-bound organelles,
(B) Nonmembranous organelles.

MEMBRANE-BOUND ORGANELLES

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Bulk of the cytoplasmic compartment of a cell is occupied by a complex, continuous network of closed,
membrane-bound and intercommunicating branched tubules, vesicles and flattened sacs. This system is named
"endoplasmic reticulum" (ER). It is distinguished into two parts—rough or granular endoplasmic reticulum
(RER) and smooth or agranular endoplasmic reticulum (SER). At places, tubules of the ER may be seen con-
nected with plasma membrane and nuclear envelope.
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The wall of endoplasmic reticulum is a "unit membrane" structurally resembling the plasma membrane.
The roughness of the RER is because of numerous minute particles, called ribosomes, attached to its outer
surface.
Functions of endoplasmic reticulum:
1. It provides mechanical support to the cytoplasm as an accessory to the cytoskeleton.
2. It acts as a continuous intracellular transport system between nucleus and cytosol and between the
cytosol and extracellular medium, exchanging materials with the cytosol by osmosis, diffusion and active
transport.
3. The RER collects and stores, within its lumen, the proteins synthesized by its surface-bound ribo-
somes. Many of these proteins are first processed by means of enzymes and, then, transported to Golgi com-
plex, or to the cytosol for use by various other organelles.
4. The SER is rich in other important metabolic enzymes which bring about synthesis of triglycerides
for storage such as in adipose tissues," of phospholipids and cholesterol in all cells for generating new 'unit
membrane' required for cell repair, growth and division, and of steroid hormones in certain endocrine glands.
5. In liver cells, the SER is involved in synthesis of lipoproteins and glycogen and storage of glycogen,
and its subsequent breakdown into glucose (glycogenolysis).
6. Its vesicles reform the nuclear membrane at telophase stage of cell division.
7. In lymphocytes, plasma cells and liver cells, etc., SER is involved in detoxification of endogenous
and exogenous antigens.

GOLGI COMPLEX (GOLGI APPARATUS)

Structurally, Golgi complex consists of one or more units called dictyosomes. Each dictyosome, in turn,
consists of 3 to 7 (up to 20 in some cells) overlapping, flattened and curved sacs (cisternae) bordered by tu-
bules, vesicles and vacuoles. Each dictyosome is a polarized structure, having a convex and proximal forming
or cis face close to the nucleus or endoplasmic reticulum, and a concave and distal maturing or trans face
towards plasma membrane. The cis face is marked by the presence of small transition vesicles or tubules
which continuously form by the breaking off of adjacent smooth endoplasmic reticulum and, then, unite to
form a new proximal cisterna of a dictyosome. At its maturing face, the distal cisterna is continously lost by its
breaking off into secretory vesicles. Thus, there is a continuous renewal of the dictyosomes. Each component
of a dictyosome is bound by trilaminar unit membrane like the ER and plasma membrane.
Functions of Golgi complex:
1. Golgi complex play the key role in biosynthesis, transport and release, not only of secretory proteins,
but also of certain intracellular enzymes contained in lysosomes and peroxisomes.
2. Glycosidation of lipids and proteins to produce several types of glycolipids and glycoproteins. Fin-
ished glycolipids and glycoproteins are packaged into secretory vesicles at maturing faces of the dictyosomes.
Ultimately these vesicles fuse with plasma membrane and become incorporated in it.
3. Since many of the lysosomal enzymes are glycoproteins, it has been suggested that the distal cister-
nae of dictyosomes are capable of selective segregation of enzymes and of packaging only hydrolysing en-
zymes into some secretory vesicles which are ultimately destined to become lysosomes.
4. The maturing face of dictyosomes appears also to be involved in the formation of melanin granules,
in lipid metabolism, and in the formation of acrosome of sperm cells.

MITOCHONDRIA
These are conspicuous, hollow, sac-like cell organelles found in all eukaryotic cells except mature red
blood corpuscles (RBCs) of mammals. Unlike most other organelles, the mitochondria are large enough to be
resolved with light microscopes. Mitochondria widely vary in their number, shapes and sizes in different types
of cells.
Structurally, a mitochondrion consists of a fluid-filled cavity surrounded by two trilaminar unit mem-
branes—an outer limiting membrane and somewhat thicker inner membrane. The outer membrane is smooth
and straight. The inner membrane is infolded into the cavity forming a number of simple or branched plate-
like septa, or tubular ridges, both called cristae. The two mitochondrial membranes are .separated by a nar-
row, fluid-filled intermembrane or perimitochondrial space which continues as a thin core into the cristae.
The fluid of mitochondrial cavity, called mitochondrial matrix, is a dense, jelly-like proteinaceous material.
Functions of mitochondria: Mitochondria are the "energy-converting organelles". Oxidative degrada-
tion of 'fuel substances' occurs stepwise in these organelles, resulting into the release of their chemical energy.
The latter is stored as readily available "bioenergy" in high-energy phosphate bonds of an energy-carrier sub-
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stance called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This is done by phosphorylation of adenosine diphosphate
(ADP) molecules.
Besides their main function as "power houses" of the cells, mitochondria also serve for the storage of
calcium ions, and regulate the concentration of these ions in the cytosol.

LYSOSOMES
Lysosomes are membrane-bound and dense, fluid-filled, sac-like cytoplasmic organelles of all eukaryot-
ic cells. These differ from mitochondria in their smaller size and typically spherical or ovoid shape, in having
a single limiting unit membrane, and in containing only hydrolytic enzymes in their watery matrix.
These organelles arise as "primary lysosomes from distal cisterna at the maturing face of a Golgi com-
plex unit. Each primary lysosome contains 40 to 50 hydrolytic enzymes.
Functions of lysosomes: Intracellular and extracellular digestion of most biological substances (pro-
teins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids, etc.) is the sole function of lysosomes.
In endocytosis (pinocytosis and phagocytosis), the plasma membrane invaginates, forming small vesi-
cles carrying engulfed material. The vesicles are respectively called phagosomes. These soon pinch off from
the plasma membrane and merge with one or more primary lysosomes, the two together forming secondary
lysosomes which are also called respectively 'digestive vacuoles'. The engulfed material is progressively di-
gested (hydrolysed) within the secondary lysosome. The products of this digestive breakdown diffuse out from
the lysosomes and become incorporated into the cytoplasmic material. A secondary lysosome containing un-
digestible residue of engulfed material and denatured enzymes becomes a "residual body". Its contents are
eliminated by the cell by exocytosis or defecation.

PEROXISOMES
Certain ovoid and unit membrane-bound, sac-like cytoplasmic organelles, resembling lysosomes in size
and appearance, contain oxidative enzymes (e.g., peroxidase, D-amino acid oxidase, and urate oxidase) which
catalyse oxidation of amino, uric and lactic acids to synthesize hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and catalase en-
zyme which decomposes H2O2. Some peroxisomal enzymes are related to the catabolism of purines, some to
oxidation of fatty acids, and some to the biosynthesis of certain components of cellular membranes.
The number of peroxisomes per cell varies from 70 to 100. Peroxisomes have a brief life span of 5 or 6
days. Hence, old ones are regularly dissolved by autophagy and new ones are formed.

NONMEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES.

RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes are minute nonmembranous and dense spheroidal particles or granules. Being only about 25
nm in diameter, these are the smallest, but most abundant of all cytoplasmic organelles. Every cell contains
several thousands to millions of ribosomes. Most of these are linked at the surface ofendoplasmic reticulum,
many are free in the cytosol, and some are found in the nucleus and mitochondria (also in chloroplasts of plant
ceils).
Structurally, each ribosome has two parts—a proximal larger subunit linked to the endoplasmic reticu-
lum, and a distal smaller subunit. Chemically, the ribosomes are composed of RNA and proteins approxi-
mately in equal amounts. The ribosomal RNA (rRNA) has only four macromolecules, three in the larger subu-
nit and one in the smaller subunit. The ribosomal proteins include 82 macromolecules, 49 in large and 33 in
small subunits.
Ribosomal subunits are assembled from their component rRNA and protein molecules in the nucleolus
of nucleus.
Functions of ribosomes: Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. All structural and functional (en-
zymes) proteins, coded by the nuclear DNA, are synthesized upon cytoplasmic ribosomes.

CYTOSKELETAL ELEMENTS AND MICROTUBULAR ORGANELLES

Cytoskeletal elements: Suspended in the cytosol, there is an extensive, spongy and flexible supporting
and dynamic framework called cytoskeleton. The main part of the cytoskeleton is a 3-dimensional network
called microtrabecular lattice, because it is formed of extremely fine, interlacing microfilaments. The net-
work is continuous with similar filaments found beneath and associated with the plasma membrane to form the
cell cortex. Other components of the cytoskeleton are microtubules and intermediate filaments. Microtu-
bules are long, remarkably straight and rather rigid cylindrical elements of uniform size, dispersed throughout
the cytosol. Intermediate filaments are intermediate in thickness between microfilaments and microtubules.
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All elements of cytoskeleton are composed of contractile fibrous proteins. Microfilaments are com-
posed mainly of actin protein. The microtubules are composed mainly of tubulin. Intermediate filaments are
very heterogeneous in that these are composed of different types of proteins in different types of cells.
All cytoskeletal elements give the characteristic shape and support to the cell, and keep all organelles in
their respective places. These also play an important part in sol-gel transformations of the cytosol.
Microtubular organelles: These include the centrioles, cilia and flagella and their basal bodies, and the
division spindle.
A pair of small cylindrical structures, open at both ends and called centrioles, are lying close to the nu-
cleus at right angles to each other. These remain suspended in a specially differentiated, small and spherical
region of cytosol called centrosome, cell centre, centrosphere or division centre. The centrosome is firmly
attached to the nuclear envelope. A number of short microtubules radiate from the centrosome making it a
star-like structure called "aster". Usually, the asters are visible only during cell division. The wall of a centri-
ole contains nine groups of microtubules in a circle, and each group is a triplet of three parallel and tiered tu-
bules. During cell division, centrioles are apparently involved in the formation of division spindle. These are
also involved in the formation of cilia and flagella and their basal bodies.

CYTOPLASMIC INCLUSIONS
These are metabolically inactive, nonliving and unstable, formed sometimes in every cell as byproducts
of metabolism and decomposed or discharged out at other times. Obviously, these are not components of the
protoplasm. These may be reserve food materials, or secretory or excretory products in the form of granules,
globules or concretions.

CELL METABOLISM
Cell metabolism is the process (or really the sum of many ongoing individual processes) by which living cells
process nutrient molecules and maintain a living state. Metabolism has two distinct divisions: anabolism and
catabolism.
Anabolism is a constructive metabolic process whereby energy is consumed to synthesize or combine simpler
substances, such as amino acids, into more complex organic compounds, such as enzymes and nucleic acids.
Catabolism is a type of metabolic process occurring in living cells by which complex molecules are broken
down to produce energy and reducing power. On balance, catabolic reactions are normally exothermic.
Stages of Energy Metabolism

Stages of Energy Localization of process and distinctive alteration

Biological significance
Metabolism of substances

Complex organic components (polymers) are decomposed into Some amount of energy is dispersed as
Preparatory heat. The substances that are necessary
stage for the following stage are synthesized.
In the gastrointestinal tract, parietal digestion.
Subsequent breakdown of organic substances. E.g., glycolysis occurs in cytosol, and 2
Anoxic
This enzymatic process takes place in cytoplasm without partici- ATP molecules are produced per 1 glu-
(“oxygenless”)
pation of oxygen. cose molecule
stage
The enzymatic processes take place within mitochondria with par- 36 ATP molecules are produced.
ticipation of oxygen: Hence, for each molecule of glucose de-
Krebs cycle (tricarbonic acid cycle) takes place within the mi- graded to carbon dioxide and water by
Oxygen tochondrial matrix respiration, the cell makes up to 38
stage oxidative phosphorylation takes place on the inner mitochon- (36+2) molecules of ATP
drial membranes, where electron transport chain is located.
Substances are finally decomposed into end products (CO2 and
H2O)

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP)

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the nucleotide known in biochemistry as the "molecular currency" of intra-
cellular energy transfer; that is, ATP is able to store and transport chemical energy within cells. ATP also
plays an important role in the synthesis of nucleic acids. Chemically, ATP consists of adenine, ribose and
three phosphate groups (triphosphate).
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ALTERATIONS OF SOME CELLULAR STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED TO SOME STATES OF ORGANISM
Organelles Damage factor Alteration of ultrastructure Alteration of function

Cellular Ionizing radiation, carcinogens, chemical poi- Fragmentation, disintegration of membrane. Disorder of a barrier function of membrane,
membrane sons, viral infection, variations of tempera- receptor function of membrane and cell me-
ture. tabolism.
Hyaloplasm Ionizing radiation, hypoxia, intoxication, viral Increase of hyaloplasm viscosity. Disorder of streaming or “cyclosis” of the
infection. protoplasm.
Mitochondria Hypoxia, intoxication, hypovitaminosis, star- Swelling, vacuolization of matrix, fragmentation of cris- Reduction of ATP synthesis.
vation. tae (disintegration), destruction of outer membrane.
Increase of mitochondria number and their size.
Hypertrophy, inflammation, tumoral process- Increase of ATP synthesis.
es.
Rough endo- Intoxication, viral infection. Hypertrophy of endoplasmic reticulum: increase of cis- Increase of protein synthesis.
plasmic re- ternae dimensions and number of surface-bound ribo-
ticulum somes.

Starvation, tumoral processes, physiological Atrophy of endoplasmic reticulum: decrease of cisternae Decrease of protein synthesis.
aging of cell. dimensions, fragmentation, swelling, disintegration of
membranes and disappearance of surface-bound ribo-
somes.
Smooth en- Intoxication, viral infection, starvation. Hypertrophy of endoplasmic reticulum Increase of synthesis of non-protein sub-
doplasmic re- stances (steroid hormones, phospholipids,
ticulum cholesterol, glycogen).
Liver diseases, physiological aging of cell. Atrophy of endoplasmic reticulum: fragmenta-tion of tu- Decrease of synthesis of non-protein sub-
bules and formation of dusty vesicles. stances.
Lysosomes Any factors that are caused gene mutation. Dilatation of lysosomes that is caused by accumulation Decrease of activity of lysosomal enzymes.
of different substances.

Ionizing radiation, shock, intoxication, hypo- Defect of lysosomal membranes. Necrosis. Autolysis.
vitaminosis, effect of bacterial endotoxin.
Peroxisomes Intoxication, viral infection. Increase of peroxisomes number. Intensification of oxidation.

Hypoxia, inflammation, ionizing radiation, tu- Decrease of peroxisomes number. Disoder of oxidation of amino, uric and lac-
moral processes. Decrease of activity of peroxisomal enzymes. tic acids. Disturbance of decomposition
H2O2.
Ribosomes Intoxication Decrease of ribosomes number. Reduction of protein synthesis.
Nucleus Hypoxia, ionizing radiation, physiological ag- Condensation of nucleus (piknosis), change of its sizes, Decrease of nucleic acids synthesis.
ing of cell. reduction of chromatin, destruction of nuclear mem-
brane.
Regeneration, intensive reproduction in the Formation of diverticulum, increase of surface and vol- Increase of nucleic acids synthesis.
embryonal period. ume of nucleus, increase of quantity of nucleoli.