Grammar – Level 12

Degrees of Probability
In this section we will examine the different ways of expressing possibility, probability and certainty about situations or events in
the present and the future.

To do this, we often use modal auxiliary verbs. These are verbs that act as auxiliaries and give a meaning to the main verb in
the sentence.

Look at the checklist below to remind you of the most important rules about using modal auxiliaries.

 They do not have an ‘s’ in the third person singular form:

John may come for supper, but he is not sure.

 The negative is formed with not:

I may not / might not be able to come to supper.

 Some of these verbs do not have a past form – other verbs are used:

present:I must go. past:I had to go.

 They are followed by an infinitive without to (except ought).

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 The language for expressing degrees of probability is relatively simple. Look at the tables below.

PRESENT SIMPLE
Grammar – Level 12
CERTAINLY PROBABLY PERHAPS
95-100% sure 45-55% sure 10-20% sure
His name is Vladimir. He must His name is George Brown. He His name is Lars. He may /
AFFIRMATIVE be Russian. could be from Britain. might be Danish.
I am sure that he is. It is probable that he is. It is possible that he is.
His name is Vladimir. He can’t His name is George, so he is His name is Lars, but he may /
be* Portuguese. probably not** Russian. might not be Danish.
NEGATIVE
It is possible that he is not / I
I am sure that he is not. It is probable that he is not.
don’t know if he is.

* The negative form of must for expressing certainty is not must not. It is cannot or can’t.

** You cannot use the negative form of could for something that is probably not true. A good way of expressing this concept is
with probably not.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS

There is also a continuous structure using a continuous infinitive (be + -ing: be swimming). This is used in exactly the same way
as any other continuous structure to emphasise a continuous action or situation.

CERTAINLY PROBABLY PERHAPS

95-100% sure 45-55% sure 10-20% sure
He hasn’t arrived at work and His house is being painted, so he
They are not in the office. They
there is a bus strike, so he could may / might be staying at his
AFFIRMATIVE must be having lunch.
still be waiting for a bus. parents’ house.
I am sure that they are having It is probable that he is still It is possible that he is staying at
lunch. waiting. his parents’ house.
There’s a bus strike, but he said
They are not in the office, but it’s His house is being painted, so he
he was going to drive to work, so
four o’clock, so they can’t be may / might not be living there
he probably isn’t waiting for a
NEGATIVE having lunch. at the moment.
bus.
I am sure that they are not It is probable that he is not It is possible that he is not living
having lunch. waiting for a bus. at his house.
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 FUTURE

The modal auxiliary verbs must and could are not normally used to express probability in the future.
Grammar – Level 12
We usually use expressions such as will definitely:

 If we continue to waste the earth’s resources we will definitely have serious problems in the future.
 I definitely will not use* my car when it is not necessary.

Note the inversion of the word order: definitely + will not / won’t.

Or, will probably:

 There will probably be less demand for new cars in the future because people
will use public transport more.
 There probably won’t* be as many new motorbikes either.

Note the inversion of the word order: probably + will not / won’t.

We do, however, use may and might to express future possibility:

 If we continue to produce nuclear power, there may / might be more terrible

disasters like the one in Chernobyl in 1986.
 If we do not protect our rivers, there may / might not be any fish in them in the
future.

May and might can also be used in the continuous structure that we saw in the section on the present tense, but with a future
meaning.

 I might be watching the football match on TV when you call this evening.
 I know it’s raining now, but it may not be raining this afternoon for the barbecue – don’t worry.

A very important note about the use of CAN for expressing probability:

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 CAN is only used for general or theoretical possibility:

 Horses can live for more than thirty years. (It is a theoretical possibility).
 Human beings cannot survive in sub-zero temperatures without special equipment. (It is a general
Grammar – Level 12
impossibility).

If you want to express possibility on a specific occasion or in a certain

situation, you must use COULD, MAY or MIGHT:

 It can rain this afternoon.

 It could rain this afternoon.
 The phone is ringing, it can be John.
 The phone is ringing, it may be John.

ASKING ABOUT PROBABILITY:

It is not usual to use a modal verb to ask about probability. The simplest question is:

Do you think…?

 Do you think she’s from Ireland?

She can’t be from Ireland because she speaks with a Scottish accent.
 What do you think we will be having for lunch?
We may be having pasta because I saw the cook filling a large pan with water.

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Grammar – Level 12

Gerunds & Infinitives

You already know that an infinitive is the base form of a verb. But what is a gerund and when should you use one in a
sentence? The objective of this section is to show you some of the more common verbs that must be followed by an infinitive
and others that take a gerund. We will also take a look at some other simple uses of gerunds and infinitives which will help you
in the construction of sentences and when you are speaking.

Gerund is another name for the –ing form of the verb that you are familiar with from constructing the continuous tenses: walking,
singing, asking, etc. It is formed in exactly the same way and the same rules apply. In some grammar books it is also called a
verbal noun. Here we will refer to it as the –ing form.

The area of gerunds and infinitives is very large and rather complex. As this is an introduction to their use, we will look at some
of the more basic rules to give you a good understanding of their role in the English language. It must be stressed, however,
that some of the verbs you will see in this section can, in fact, be followed by either a gerund or an infinitive, but with a change in
meaning.

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 INFINITIVES

1. Common verbs that are followed by an infinitive without to.

2. Common verbs that are followed by an infinitive with to.
Grammar – Level 12
3. Common verbs that are followed by a direct object and an infinitive.
4. Adjectives that are followed by an infinitive with to.

1. Common verbs that are followed by an infinitive without to.

These are verbs that are followed by an infinitive, but you do not need to use to.

a) Modal verbs: can / could / may / might / will / shall / should / must, etc.

 Jean cannot ride a motorbike.

 That must be Mrs. Jones’ daughter.

Note: Ought is different as it is always followed by to:

 We ought to look after our environment better.

b) Other verbs include:

would rather:

 I would rather live in the country than in the city.

let (as an auxiliary verb for making suggestions):

 Let’s not go to the cinema later.

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 2. Common verbs that are followed by an infinitive with to.
afford expect* plan threaten
agree fail prepare want*
arrange help pretend
Grammar – Level 12
ask* hope promise
attempt learn refuse like
choose manage seem *would love
decide offer tend prefer

* You will see these verbs again in Section 3 because they can also be used with a direct object.

 We can’t afford to go on holiday this year because we have installed solar heating in our house.
 I want to go to the conference in Budapest about global warming.
 He decided not* to do environmental studies at university and chose medicine instead.
 Brigitte hopes to return to France one day.

** Note the position of not to form a negative infinitive.

3. Common verbs that are followed by a DIRECT OBJECT and an infinitive.

a. Verbs that are followed by a direct object and an infinitive without to.

Verbs of perception or sensation:

see feel hear listen(to) watch

 I saw the boy break the window.

direct object infinitive
 Louise listened to the professor explain the problem of acid rain.
direct object infinitive

When let is a normal verb that means allow, it is used with a direct object and the infinitive without to:

 Their mother lets them stay out until midnight at weekends.

direct object infinitive

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 When make means cause or compel, it is used with a direct object and the infinitive without to:

 Their mother makes them come home at midnight at weekends.

direct object infinitive
Grammar – Level 12
b. Verbs that are followed by a direct object and an infinitive with to.

advise force
remind
allow help
teach like
ask* instruct
tell *would love
cause invite
want* prefer
encourage order
warn
expect* persuade

* Remember that you can use these verbs without a direct object and with to.

 The doctor advised my father to stop smoking.

direct object infinitive with to
 Freddy encouraged his wife to learn to drive.
direct object infinitive with to

4. Adjectives that are followed by an infinitive with to.

Certain adjectives are followed by to and an infinitive. They include

amazed happy
difficult pleased
disappointed possible
easy simple
free surprised

 She was disappointed to find that her boyfriend had forgotten her birthday.
 I was pleased to hear your exciting news.
 John was very surprised to see that he had passed the exam.

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 THE –ING FORM
a. Common verbs that are followed by the –ing form.
b. The –ing form after prepositions.
Grammar – Level 12
c. The –ing form as the subject of a sentence.
d. The –ing form after certain expressions.
e. The –ing form after certain phrasal verbs.

If you are uncertain about the spelling changes you may have to make when forming the -ing form, it is a good idea to revise
the rules. Here are some examples of the typical irregularities that can also be applied to other verbs of a similar type.

like ➔ liking stop ➔ stopping lie ➔ lying

a. Common verbs that are followed by the –ing form.

admit detest feel like mind
appreciate dislike finish miss
avoid enjoy can’t help postpone
burst out (crying / laughing) escape can’t stand practise
consider excuse imagine resist
delay face involve risk
deny fancy mention suggest

 I suggest talking to the boss about this problem.

 Joe could not face telling his girlfriend that he wanted to end their relationship.
 Laura cannot resist buying chocolate, even though she knows it is bad for her.

b. The –ing form after prepositions.

When a verb comes after a preposition, we use the –ing form:

 I am thinking about going to Norway on holiday.

 After eating an enormous lunch, he fell asleep.

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 c. The –ing form as the subject of a sentence.

When a verb is the subject of the sentence, we use the –ing form:
Grammar – Level 12
 Smoking is very bad for your health.
 Shopping is the most boring activity I know.

Be careful not to make the typical mistakes:

 To smoke is very bad for your health.

 Smoke is very bad for your health.

d. The –ing form after certain expressions.

There are some common and very useful expressions that are followed by the –ing form of the verb. Here are four that are
worth learning:

 It is worth reading the book because it contains some very interesting information.
 There is no point in trying to explain the problem to him because he won’t understand.
 It is no good pretending that you know nothing about the crime, because everyone knows that you were there at the time.
 I am looking forward to going on holiday and doing nothing but lying in the sun and relaxing.

e. The –ing form after certain phrasal verbs.

When a verb comes after a phrasal verb, we often use the –ing form:

 Why does John always get out of washing the dishes?

 I’m looking forward to meeting your parents.
 Michael said he’s given up smoking.
 I don’t know when I’ll get round to cleaning out that cupboard.

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Grammar – Level 12

The Past Perfect and the 3rd Conditional

In this section we will take a look at two important structures which are essential to know at this level: the past perfect tense,
and as a logical progression, the 3rd conditional, which contains the past perfect.

Perfect tenses relate what was completed before a certain point in time. The past perfect tense does just that. It is used when
we want people to understand that one event in the past took place before another event in the past. We use the past
simple or continuous tense for the ‘most recent’ past event, and the past perfect simple or continuous tense to describe the
‘distant past’ event. Look at the form and examples:

HAD + PAST PARTICIPLE

left
I / you / he / she / it HAD
eaten
we / you / they ‘D
painted

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Grammar – Level 12

She had broken her leg while she was on holiday, so she couldn’t go to work.

TWO WEEKS BEFORE PAST NOW

She had broken her leg She couldn’t go to work.

NEGATIVE FORM:

 I hadn’t seen snow before I went to Austria.

 Jane had not done her homework so she could not go swimming.

QUESTION FORM:

 Had you ever been to Germany before you went last month?
 Had she read the book before?

SHORT ANSWER:

 Yes, I had / No, I hadn’t.

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 THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

The basic concepts for the use of the past perfect continuous are exactly the same as for the past perfect simple. However, in
English we prefer to use a continuous tense when it is possible. Therefore, we use the past perfect continuous when the
Grammar – Level 12
duration of an action, activity or state is the most important thing. Verbs that imply duration (exercise, jog, run, study, etc.) are
much more common in the continuous tenses than verbs that do not imply duration (cut, start, die, lose, etc.).

HAD BEEN + -ING

playing
I / you / he / she / it had
been painting
we / you / they ‘d
dancing

 I had been waiting for the bus for half an hour when at last it arrived.

NEGATIVE FORM:

 She hadn’t been studying English for very long when she went to London for the
weekend.

QUESTION FORM:

 You looked hot when you came in. Had you been running?

SHORT ANSWER:

 Yes, I had / No, I hadn’t.

Time Expressions with the Past Perfect

There are some time words that are often used with the past perfect tense.

 They had been married for five years when they had their first child.
 He had been studying German since he was a child, so when he went to live in Berlin he did not have any problems with
the language.

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  I had just arrived at the bar when Wendy walked in.
 Wendy had already had lunch, so we only had a cup of coffee.
 After I had written the letter I took it to the postbox.
 Before Clare could finish her lunch, he had paid the bill and put his coat on.
Grammar – Level 12

THE 3rd CONDITIONAL

Now that you are familiar with the form and use of the past perfect tense, it is time to progress onto its use in conditional
sentences. The 3rd conditional or unreal past is the last of the four types of conditionals that you will study. First, remember the
form and use of the other three types and look at the concept expressed by the 3 rd conditional:

Conditional sentences basically express the following concepts:

 what is always true - zero conditional

If you leave ice out of the fridge, it turns to water.
 real situations with real conditions - 1st conditional
If it rains, I’ll take my umbrella.
 hypothetical or imaginary situations - 2nd conditional
If I won the lottery, I would buy a sports car.

At this stage it would be a good idea to revise the theory in the Conditionals section of Unit 11 to remind yourself of the basic
rules, alternatives to if, and other structures.

Whereas all the other types of conditionals refer to present or future time, the 3rd conditional refers to the past. The condition (if
part of the sentence) is unreal because it did not happen, so the result is also imaginary because it refers to a situation that
never happened. The 3rd conditional therefore refers to hypothetical past situations.

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 Form: If + past perfect, WOULD (NOT) HAVE + past participle

condition result
Grammar – Level 12
 If we had known it was going to rain, we would have brought our umbrellas.
(we didn’t know it was going to rain, so we didn’t bring our umbrellas)

You can also use the contracted form of had and would:

 If she’d realised that the film started at 8pm., she’d have arrived an hour earlier.
(she didn’t realise, so she didn’t arrive earlier)

Here are some more examples:

If she hadn’t forgotten that she was filling the bath, it wouldn’t have overflowed.

 If I’d gone to Greece on holiday, I would have visited the Acropolis.

 If I’d known you were coming, I would have made an omelette.
 They wouldn’t have bought the car if they had known it had done 500,000. km.

Be careful about these two points:

 Do not make the typical mistake of adding would to the condition:

If I would have known you were coming, I would have made you some
supper. 
If I had known you were coming, I would have made you some supper. 

 Do not be confused by the contraction ’d. As you know, this is the contracted
form of both would and had. Therefore, in a 3rd conditional sentence it is
possible to see or hear two contracted ’d:
If you’d (had) been here yesterday, you’d (would) have seen Mary.

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