BS 3rd (Evening B)

Course Title: Electricity and Magnetism I

Course code: PHY-407
Lecture No. 5
Topic: Flux of a vector field
Flux of an electric field
Gauss’s Law
Teacher Name
Dr. Nayyab Mansoor
Contents
In this lecture we will learn about…
• The flux of a vector field
• The flux of the electric Field
• Gauss’s Law
• Integral form of Gauss’s Law
• Differential form of Gauss’s Law
The flux of a vector field
• The word “flux” comes from Latin word which means “to flow”
• The flux of a vector field is the measure of flow of the field vector through a fixed
element of surface in the field
• Let us take an example of velocity field of a flowing fluid. If we place a square
loop of area A in the stream of steady flowing fluid in such a way that its plane is
perpendicular to the direction of flow. We write the flux of velocity field as
following
Φ = 𝑣𝐴
Here 𝑣 is magnitude of velocity and 𝐴 is area of loop
The flux is a measure of fluid lines passing through the loop
Continue…
• If the loop is rotated so that its plane is no more
perpendicular to the velocity direction, so same number
of lines are passing through the area A cosθ as was
passing through perpendicular surface. The magnitude
of the flux is given as :
Φ = 𝑣𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
• Now rotate the loop such that fluid velocity is parallel to
its surface. As here 𝜃 =90ᵒ so the flux is zero as no field
lines pass through loop.
• In the case of closed surface we distinguish between
positive and negative flux passing through the surface.
As normal to the surface can point in both directions so
we need to specify that direction. Conventionally it is
taken outward normal to the surface. The flux leaving
the surface is taken as positive while the flux entering
the volume is taken as negative.
Continue…
• For a closed surface consisting of different surfaces we can write flux as
Φ = ෍ 𝑣. Ԧ 𝐴Ԧ

• Flux is a scalar quantity as it is dot product of two vectors.

• For a surface of arbitrary shape, it is divided into small area elements 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ that are
approximately plane surfaces. The net flux is obtained by adding the contribution of all
elements and integrating over the entire surface
Ԧ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ
Φ = න 𝑣.

Here vector 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ direction is outward normal to the small area element.

• The results obtained from above relation remain valid over a closed surface and flux is :
➢Zero if no source or sink is enclosed by surface
➢Positive if surface contains only source
➢Negative if surface contains only sinks
 The Flux of the Electric Field
• The electric flux can be defined as defined as a measure of number of
lines of electric field that passes through the surface.
Mathematically
Φ𝐸 = ෍ 𝐸. 𝐴Ԧ

• The flux of electric field is a scalar and its unit is N.m2/C.

• Consider an arbitrary surface where 𝐸 is not constant. Here we divide
the surface into small area elements ΔA so each small area is plane.
The vector has magnitude of area ΔA and its direction is outward
normal to surface. We can write electric flux as
Φ𝐸 = ෍ 𝐸. ∆𝐴Ԧ
Continue…
• 𝐸. ∆𝐴Ԧ is positive if 𝐸 is outward (θ<90ᵒ)
• 𝐸. ∆𝐴Ԧ is negative if 𝐸 is inward (θ>90ᵒ)
• 𝐸. ∆𝐴Ԧ is zero if 𝐸 is parallel to surface (θ=90ᵒ)
For entire surface we replace sum by the integral over the surface
Φ𝐸 = න 𝐸. 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ

The surface integral shows that surface in question is to be divided into small
elements of area 𝑑𝐴Ԧ and the scalar quantity 𝐸. 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ is evaluated for each
element and is summed over the entire surface.
 Gauss’s Law
• Gauss’s law relates the net flux of an electric field through a closed surface (also
called gaussian surface) to the net charge q that is enclosed by that surface.
• It tells us that
𝜀0 Φ = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
Substituting the value of electric flux
Φ𝐸 = ර 𝐸. 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ

𝜀0 ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝐴Ԧ = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙

Here 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 is the algebraic sum of all positive and negative charges enclosed by the
surface, which can be positive, negative or zero. We include sign with the charge
enclosed which tells us about the net flux through gaussian surface. If is positive
the net flux is outward, if is negative the flux is inward.
• The electric field of charge outside the Gaussian surface contributes zero flux
through the surface because as many field lines due to charge enter the surface,
leave the same also.
Continue…
• Let us consider two particles of equal charges and
opposite signs. Here are four Gaussian surface
discussed here.
• For surface S1, electric field is outward for all points on
this surface. The flux of electric field through this
surface is positive and so the enclosed charge.
• For surface S2, electric field is inward for all points on
this surface. The flux of electric field through this
surface is negative and so the enclosed charge
• Surface S3 encloses no charge and so 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙 = 0
because all the field lines pass entirely through the
surface, which enters the top and leaves at the bottom
• The surface S4 encloses no net charge because
enclosed negative and positive charges have equal
magnitudes. According to Gauss’s law the net flux of
the electric field through this surface is zero
 Gauss’ Law and Coulomb’s Law

• We can apply Gauss’ law to find the electric field of a charged

particle. This field ha spherical symmetry and so we enclose the
particle in Gaussian sphere with appositive charge q centered.
• On any point on the sphere at same distance r the electric field E
magnitude is same.
• Take a small surface element with area vector directed outward
perpendicular to patch. The electric field E is also radially outward
and makes angle θ=0 with 𝑑𝐴. Ԧ
𝜀0 ර 𝐸. 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ = 𝜀0 ර 𝐸𝑑𝐴 = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
Continue…
• Here total charge enclosed=q. Also the magnitude of electric field is
same t every patch element so it can be taken out of integral
𝜀0 ර 𝐸𝑑𝐴 = 𝑞

• As total area is 4𝜋𝑟 2 so substituting this value in above equation, we

get
𝜀0 𝐸 ර 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝑞
1 𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
• This is the same equation obtained from coulomb’s law.
 Integral form of Gauss’s Law
• Let us consider a body of volume V has continuous charge distribution over the volume
bounded by the surfaces having the volume charge density . By using Gauss’s Law
𝑞
Ԧ
Φ = ර 𝐸. 𝑑 𝐴 =
𝜀0
As volume charge density is given as
𝑑𝑞
=𝜌
𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑞 = 𝜌𝑑𝑣
Integrating,

𝑞 = න 𝜌𝑑𝑣
𝑣
Substituting the value of q in above equation we obtain
1
Φ = ‫𝐸 ׯ‬. 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ = ‫𝑣𝑑𝜌 ׬‬ eq. (1)
𝜀0 𝑣
Continue…
• Similarly consider the charge is distributed over a surface S with
surface charge density given as following
𝑑𝑞
=𝜎
𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎𝑑𝐴
𝑞 = න 𝜎𝑑𝐴
𝑠
Substituting the value of q in Gauss’s Law equation we obtain
1
Ԧ
Φ = ‫𝐸 ׯ‬. 𝑑 𝐴 = ‫𝐴𝑑𝜎 𝑠׬‬
𝜀0
eq. (2)
Both eq.(1) and eq.(2) are called the integral forms of Gauss’s law.
 Differential Form of Gauss’s Law
• Now we transform surface normal integral into on the left hand side of
volume density integral using Gauss’s divergence theorem we get
1
Ԧ
ර 𝐸. 𝑑 𝐴 = න 𝜌𝑑𝑣
𝜀0
𝑣
Also
1 𝜌
න 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐸𝑑𝑣 = න 𝜌𝑑𝑣 = න 𝑑𝑣
𝜀0 𝜀0
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
𝜌
න 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐸 − 𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝜀0
As 𝑑𝑣 ≠ 0
𝜌
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐸 − = 0
𝜀0
Continue…
𝜌
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐸 = eq. (3)
𝜀0
• This is called the differential form of Gauss’s Law. This is first of Maxwell’s
equations of electromagnetism in free space. It is also called microscopic
equation.
• By using the definition of displacement vector.
𝐷 = 𝐸𝜀0
We can write the eq. 3 as
𝜌
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐷 =
𝜀0
This equation is also differential form of Gauss’s law. It is called macroscopic
equation
References

➢ Serway, R. A., and J. W. Jewett. 2010. Physics for Scientists and Engineers.
Golden Sunburst Series, 8th Edition
➢Halliday, D., R. Resnick and J. Walker. 2010. Fundamentals of Physics.
JohnWiley & Sons, 9th Edition