JMBSCHOLAR n5 - Che - 1chemicalChangesAndStructure

SCHOLAR Study Guide
National 5 Chemistry
Chemical changes and structure
Authored by:
Emma Maclean (George-Heriot’s School)
Heriot-Watt University
Edinburgh EH14 4AS, United Kingdom.
First published 2021 by Heriot-Watt University.
This edition published in 2021 by Heriot-Watt University SCHOLAR.
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SCHOLAR Study Guide National 5 Chemistry: Chemical changes and structure
National 5 Chemistry Course Code: C813 75
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v
Contents
1 Rates of reaction 1
1.1 Prior knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Rate of reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Collision theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Factors affecting rate of reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Progress of chemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 Understanding graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.7 Calculating average rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.9 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.10 End of topic test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2 Atomic structure 27
2.1 Prior knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 The periodic table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3 Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4 Electron arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.5 Valency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.6 Nuclide notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.7 Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.9 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.10 End of topic test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3 Covalent bonding 53
3.1 Prior knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.2 Types of bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.3 Covalent bonding in elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.4 Covalent bonding in compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.5 Covalent molecular substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.6 Covalent network substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.8 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.9 End of topic test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4 Ionic compounds 95
4.1 Prior knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.2 Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Ionic bonds 105
Ionic structure .................................................................................................................................... 109
Properties of ionic compounds .......................................................................................................... 111
vi CONTENTS
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 117

Resources ..................................................................................................................... 119
End of topic test ............................................................................................................ 120
5 Chemical formulae 123

Prior knowledge ............................................................................................................ 125
Naming compounds ...................................................................................................... 126
Valency ......................................................................................................................... 129
Simple formulae ............................................................................................................ 130
Formulae from prefixes ................................................................................................. 135
Ionic formulae ............................................................................................................... 136
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 144
Resources ..................................................................................................................... 146
End of topic test ............................................................................................................ 147
6 Calculations involving the mole and balanced equations 149

Prior knowledge ............................................................................................................ 151
Balanced equations....................................................................................................... 151
Gram formula mass....................................................................................................... 157
The mole ....................................................................................................................... 160
Solutions ....................................................................................................................... 166
Calculations involving mass and volume ...................................................................... 170
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 172
Resources ..................................................................................................................... 174
End of topic test ............................................................................................................ 175
7 Percentage composition 177

Prior knowledge ............................................................................................................ 179
Percentage composition................................................................................................ 179
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 183
Resources ..................................................................................................................... 183
End of topic test ............................................................................................................ 184
8 Acids and bases: pH 185

Prior knowledge ............................................................................................................ 188
The pH scale ................................................................................................................. 189
pH and concentration .................................................................................................... 194
Water equilibrium .......................................................................................................... 199
Bases ............................................................................................................................ 202
Non-metal oxides and pH .............................................................................................. 206
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 209
Resources ..................................................................................................................... 211
End of topic test ............................................................................................................ 212
9 Neutralisation reactions 215

Prior knowledge ............................................................................................................ 218
Neutralisation reactions................................................................................................. 219
Neutralisation: acid reacting with a metal oxide ............................................................ 219
Acid reacting with a metal hydroxide ............................................................................. 225
Titration ......................................................................................................................... 227
Titration calculations ..................................................................................................... 232
© HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY
CONTENTS vii
Acid reacting with a metal carbonate ............................................................................ 238
Naming salts ................................................................................................................. 242
Spectator ions ............................................................................................................... 243
Summary ...................................................................................................................... 247
Resources..................................................................................................................... 249
End of topic test ............................................................................................................ 250
10 End of section test 255
Glossary 263
Hints for activities 270
Answers to questions and activities 271
1
Topic 1
Rates of reaction
Contents
1.1
Prior knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2
Rate of reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3
Collision theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4
Factors affecting rate of reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.1 Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.2 Particle size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.3 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.4 Use of a catalyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Progress of chemical reactions .................................................................................................................... 10
Measuring change of volume of a gas in a reaction .............................................................................................10
Measuring mass loss in a reaction .......................................................................................................................12
Displacement of air 12
Understanding graphs.................................................................................................................................. 14
Calculating average rate .............................................................................................................................. 16
Change in volume 16
Change in mass 18
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 19
Resources .................................................................................................................................................... 20
End of topic test............................................................................................................................... 21
Prerequisites
Before you begin this topic, you should already know that:
factors which affect rates of reaction include:
temperature;
surface area/particle size;

presence of a catalyst.
to compare rates of chemical reactions, changes in mass, volume and other quantities
can be measured;
2 TOPIC 1. RATES OF REACTION
Prerequisites continued
graphs can be drawn to compare the rate of chemical reactions;
graphs plotting change in mass, volume etc vs time can be interpreted in terms of:
rate (qualitative only);

end-point of a reaction;
quantity of product;
quantity of reactant used;
effect of changing conditions (qualitative only).
Learning objective
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
• state that the progress of chemical reactions can be followed by measuring changes in
mass, volume and other quantities;
• draw and interpret graphs in terms of the:
◦ end-point of a reaction;
◦ quantity of product;
◦ quantity of reactant used;
◦ effect of changing conditions.
• describe how rates of reaction can be increased:
◦ by increasing the temperature;
◦ by increasing the concentration of a reactant;
◦ by increasing the surface area/decreasing the particle size;
◦ through the use of a catalyst.
• state that catalysts are substances that speed up chemical reactions but can be
recovered chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction;
• calculate the average rate of a chemical reaction, with appropriate units, using the
equation: rate = Δ quantity
Δt
;
• show that the rate of a reaction decreases over time by calculating the average rate at
different stages of the reaction.
TOPIC 1. RATES OF REACTION 3
Prior knowledge
Test your prior knowledge by answering the following questions.
Prior knowledge: Questions Go online
Q1: Which three of the following variables can be altered to change the rate of a reaction?
• Concentration • Temperature
• Particle size/surface area • Time the experiment runs for

• Size of beaker • Volume of solution used
...............................................
Q2: Which of the following variables can be monitored to follow the course of a reaction?
• Concentration of • Mass of reactants
products • Mass of gas given off
• Volume of products
• Concentration of • Mass of products
reactants • Volume of reactants
...............................................
Q3: A student obtains the following set of results when carrying out two experiments with
marble chips and dilute hydrochloric acid.
3.5
3.0
2.5
Mass of CO2 evolved / g
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
Time / s
Which experiment had the faster rate of reaction?
a) The lower line

b) The upper line
Rate of reaction
In the world around us, there are lots of different chemical reactions all happening at different
speeds.
Some reactions can be very slow, such as when iron rusts.
Rust
Other reactions, such as fireworks going off, happen incredibly quickly.
Fireworks
Different chemical reactions occur at different speeds and we call this the rate of the chemical
reaction.
Being able to control the rate of a chemical reaction is very important in the school lab and in
industry. If the rate is too slow then the reaction may appear not to be happening at all but if it is too
fast then we risk explosions.
This topic focuses on understanding:
• the factors which can affect the rate of reaction;

• how we can follow the progress of chemical reactions;
• how to calculate the rate of a reaction.
Collision theory
In order for a chemical reaction to occur particles must collide.
However, not all collisions are successful.
In order to be successful particles must collide with:
1. enough energy;
2. correct orientation (the way reacting particles line up).
Collision theory: Activity Go online
Not all collisions are successful.

Sufficient energy is needed when particles collide for a reaction to occur.
The orientation of colliding particles must be correct for a reaction to occur.
Key point
orientation.
Factors affecting rate of reaction

In the lab, we can investigate a variety of variables which can affect the rate of a chemical reaction.
These variables include:
• concentration;
• particle size;
• temperature;
• use of a catalyst.
A suitable reaction which will be used to study this over the next three activities is the reaction of
hydrochloric acid with a sample of calcium carbonate (chalk).
Concentration
The following interactivity shows the result of collisions between two different concentrations of
hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate, both over the first 10 seconds of reaction.
The hydrochloric acid is represented as a large sphere and the calcium carbonate as a small sphere.
Products of the reaction are shown as a combination of a small sphere and a large sphere.
Concentration: Activity Go online
Concentration: Questions Go online
-1
Q4: How many successful collisions have occurred using 1 mol acid after 10 seconds?
...............................................
-1
Q5: How many successful collisions have occurred using 2 mol acid after 10 seconds?
...............................................
Q6: When the concentration of a reactant is increased, the rate of reaction:
increases.
decreases.
stays the same.
Key point
Rates of reaction can be increased by increasing the concentration of a reactant.
Particle size
If one of the reactants is a solid, we can alter the particle size of the reactant. For example, with
calcium carbonate we can use large particles (lumps) or small particles (powder).
The following interactivity shows the result of collisions between hydrochloric acid and calcium
carbonate with two different particle sizes, both over the first 10 seconds of reaction.
Particle size: Activity Go online
Particle size: Questions Go online
Q7: Which sample of calcium carbonate has the greater surface area?
Small
Large
...............................................
Q8: How many successful collisions have occurred using large particle after 10 seconds?
...............................................
Q9: How many successful collisions have occurred using small particles after 10 seconds?
...............................................
Q10: When the particle size of a reactant is increased, the rate of reaction:
increases.
decreases.
stays the same.
Key point
Rates of reaction can be increased by decreasing the particle size (which increases the
surface area) of a solid reactant.
Temperature
We can change the temperature of a reaction by heating it up or cooling it down.
The following interactivity shows the result of collisions between hydrochloric acid and calcium
carbonate at two different temperatures, both over the first 10 seconds of reaction.
Temperature: Activity Go online
Temperature: Questions Go online
Q11: How many successful collisions have occurred at (T)◦C after 10 seconds?
...............................................
Q12: How many successful collisions have occurred at (T + 10)◦C after 10 seconds?
...............................................
Q13: When the temperature of a reactant is increased, the rate of reaction:
increases.
decreases.
stays the same.
Key point
Rates of reaction can be increased by increasing the temperature of the reaction.
Use of a catalyst
Catalysts are substances which alter the rates of reactions, but are chemically unchanged at the
end of the reactions.
They can be recovered at the end of reactions chemically unchanged.
They are neither reactants nor products and do not appear in the chemical equation.
Catalysts are amongst the most important chemicals in the world around us and are essential in the
production of materials such as plastics and fuels.
Key point
Rates of reaction can be increased by use of a catalyst. Catalysts are not changed during a
chemical reaction and so can be recovered at the end unchanged.
Progress of chemical reactions

Different chemical reactions occur at different speeds and we call this the rate of the chemical
reaction.
The rate of a chemical reaction is therefore a measure of the change in quantity of a reactant or a
product over a period of time.
To be able to measure the rate of reaction we need to be able to follow the progress of chemical
reactions.
This can be done by taking different measurements, such as changes in the:
• mass of the reactants or products;

• volume of the reactants or products;
• concentration of the reactants or products.
We can carry out experiments and use our results to plot rate graphs.
Measuring change of volume of a gas in a reaction

Reactions in which gases are given off are easy to follow the course of as we can observe the
change in volume as the gas is released.
Collecting a gas by displacement of water
This method is the most common in the lab and can be used for insoluble gases, such as carbon
dioxide.
Collecting a gas by displacement of water can be set up as shown in the following activity.
Collecting a gas by displacement of water: Activity Go online
Collecting gas by displacement of water
Collecting a gas by gas syringe

This method is more accurate than using an upturned measuring cylinder.
A gas syringe can be set up as shown in the following activity.
Collecting a gas by gas syringe: Activity Go online
Collecting gas by gas syringe
Measuring change of volume of a gas in a reaction: Question Go online
the displacement of water?

The apparatus is easier to set up.
The scale is easier to read.
It will work for both soluble and insoluble gases.
All of the above.
Measuring mass loss in a reaction

For reactions involving gases, we can also measure the mass lost from the reaction vessel at regular
intervals as the reaction proceeds.
The gas evolved will leave the reaction vessel and go into the air, so the total mass of the apparatus
will decrease. We can measure this if we carry out the reaction on a balance. This way, the reading
on the balance will show the change in mass as the reaction proceeds and we can use this data to
plot a graph.
The following activity shows how this experiment can be set up in the lab.
Measuring mass loss in a reaction: Activity Go online
Measuring mass loss in a reaction
The cotton wool is placed in the neck of the conical flask to ensure that only the gas can escape. The
gas evolved will pass through the conical flask but nothing else, for example splashes of solution,
will leave the reaction vessel.
Measuring mass loss in a reaction: Question Go online
Q15: Why is cotton wool used in the conical flask instead of a stopper?
Displacement of air
Gases can also be collected by displacement of air.
Downward displacement of air
For gases which are less dense (lighter) than air, they can be collected by downward displacement
of air.
Suitable apparatus for this experiment is shown in the following diagram.
Collecting gas by upward displacement of air

The gas rises up into the collection apparatus, usually a gas jar or boiling tube and pushes the air
down and out at the bottom of the vessel.
Ammonia, which we will meet later, can be collected from fertilisers in this way.
Upward displacement of air
For gases which are more dense (heavier) than air, they can be collected by upward displacement
of air.
Suitable apparatus for this experiment is shown in the following diagram.
Collecting gas by downward displacement of air
The gas moves through the delivery tube and into the collection apparatus, usually a gas jar or
boiling tube and pushes the air up and out at the top of the vessel.
Go online
Q16: What safety precaution would you need to observe if collecting chlorine using this
method?
Carry out the reaction in a fume cupboard as chlorine is a toxic gas.
Wear gloves.
Keep out of contact with naked flames.
All of the above.
...............................................
Q17: Why would this method not be useful for determining rate?
Understanding graphs
Rate graphs can be interpreted in two parts:
1. Rate
The gradient (steepness) of a graph tells about the rate of a chemical reaction.
The steeper the gradient, the faster the rate of reaction.
Generally, the rate of reaction will slow as it progresses since the reactants are being used up.
We can see that the gradient of the rate graph starts steepest (fastest rate), then slows down
(rate is decreasing) before becoming straight (reaction is finished).
2. End point
When a line graph becomes flat (horizontal) is called the end point.
This tells you the total volume of gas produced during the reaction. At this point the reaction
has finished as no more gas is being produced.
Go online
Q18: What is the end point in the reaction?
0 minutes
3 minutes
7 minutes
10 minutes
Key point
To follow the progress of chemical reactions, changes in mass, volume and other quantities
can be measured. Graphs can then be drawn and be interpreted in terms of:
end-point of a reaction;
quantity of product;
quantity of reactant used;
effect of changing conditions.
Calculating average rate

We have already seen how the progress of a chemical reaction can be followed experimentally.
We can use the results from these experiments to calculate the average rate of reaction. This is
done by dividing the change in the quantity measured (such as change in volume or change in
mass) over a time interval.
The formula for calculating average rate of a reaction is therefore:
Change in quantity
Average reaction rate = Change in time
This formula can be found on page three of the data book in the form:
quantity
Average reaction rate = Δ
Δt
The Δ symbol is the mathematical symbol delta and is used to represent the 'change in'.
Average rate units
The units for average rate change depending on the quantity which has been measured.
The units for rate will always be the units for the quantity which has been measured followed by the
units of the time interval with the -1 symbol after it.
The -1 symbol can be pronounced as 'per' when you see it written down.
This is best illustrated by looking at examples.
Change in volume
An experiment was carried out as shown in the following diagram.
The following results were obtained.
Time / minutes Volume gas procued / cm3

0 0
1 8
2 15
3 17
4 23
5 28
6 32
7 35
8 37
9 37
We can calculate the average rate of reaction by dividing the change in volume over a measured
time interval.
In the first 3 minutes:
Change in quantity
Average reaction rate =
Change in time
(17 − 0)
(3 − 0)
Average reaction rate = 5 · 67
The average reaction rate has measured the change in volume over time so the units for this rate
are cm3 min-1 (centimetres cubed per minute).
The final answer should be written as 5·67 cm3 min-1
From 3 - 6 minutes:
Change in quantity
Change in time
(32 − 17)
(6 − 3)
Average reaction rate = 5 cm3 min−1
The average reaction rate between 3 and 6 minutes is 5 cm 3 min-1
From 6 - 9 minutes:
Change in quantity
Change in time
(37 − 32)
(9 − 6)
Average reaction rate = 1 · 67 cm3 min−1
The average reaction rate between 6 and 9 minutes is 1·67 cm 3 min-1
The rate of reaction decreases as the reaction proceeds.
Change in mass
An experiment was carried out as shown in the following diagram.
The following results were obtained.
Time / minutes Mass loss / g

0 0
1 0·040
2 0·060
3 0·075
4 0·082
5 0·088
6 0·090
7 0·097
8 0·100
9 0·100
We can calculate the average rate of reaction by dividing the change in volume over a measured
time interval.
In the first 3 minutes:
Change in quantity
Change in time
(0 · 075 − 0)
(3 − 0)
Average reaction rate = 0 · 025 g min−
1
The average reaction rate has measured the change in mass over time so the units for this rate are
g min-1 (grams per minute).
The final answer should be written as 0·025 g min-1
Change in mass: Questions Go online
...............................................
Q20: What happens to the rate of reaction as it proceeds?
It increases.
It decreases.
It remains the same.
Key point
The average rate of a chemical reaction can be calculated, with appropriate units, using the
Δt
The rate of a reaction can be shown to decrease over time by calculating the average rate at
Summary
Summary
• State that the progress of chemical reactions can be followed by measuring changes in
mass, volume and other quantities.
• Draw and be interpret graphs in terms of:
◦ end-point of a reaction;
◦ quantity of product;
◦ quantity of reactant used;
◦ effect of changing conditions.
• Describe how rates of reaction can be increased:
◦ by increasing the temperature;
◦ by increasing the concentration of a reactant;
◦ by increasing surface area/decreasing particle size;
◦ through the use of a catalyst.
• State that catalysts are substances that speed up chemical reactions but can be
recovered chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction.
• Calculate the average rate of a chemical reaction, with appropriate units, using the
equation: rate = Δ quantity
Δt
.
• Show that the rate of a reaction decreases over time by calculating the average rate at
Summary: Activity Go online
Q21: Match the following key words to their definition.

Key word Definition
a measure of the change of a quantity over a period of time.
a substance which speeds up chemical reactions.
on a line graph, this is the point when the line becomes horizontal .
something that we can change during a chemical reaction.
Key words: Catalyst, End point, Rate, Variable.
Resources
Texts
• SQA National 5 Chemistry Data Book ,

https://www.sqa.org.uk/files_ccc/ChemistryDataBookletSQPN5.pdf
• National 5 Chemistry Student Book , Tom Speirs and Robert Wilson, Leckie and Leckie,
ISBN 978-0007549306
• National 5 Chemistry with Answers: Second Edition, Barry McBride, John Anderson,
Stephen Jeffrey, Paul McCranor and Fran Macdonald, Hodder Gibson, ISBN 978-1510429192
• How to Pass National 5 Chemistry: Second Edition, Barry McBride, Hodder Gibson ISBN
978-1510420861
• The Ultimate Interactive Revision Book National 5 Chemistry 2nd Edition, Peter Johnson
and Lesley Johnson, Kitchen Chemistry, ISBN 978-0993449413
Practical work
Several experiments and animations can be used to demonstrate factors that affect reaction rates.
RSC LearnChemistry offers a range of experimental procedures that can be used to produce
reaction progress graphs including 'the rate of reaction of magnesium with hydrochloric acid', in
which magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid in a conical flask which is connected to an
inverted measuring cylinder in a trough of water. The volume of hydrogen gas produced is measured
over a few minutes and the results are used to plot a graph.
RSC LearnChemistry's 'Rate of Reaction Graphs' offers an assessment for learning activity in which
candidates match pre-drawn graphs to different reaction conditions for the reaction between calcium
carbonate and hydrochloric acid.
RSC LearnChemistry's website offers a wide range of practical experiments to show the effect
of changing reaction conditions. For example, 'in the effect of concentration and temperature on
reaction rate', when two colourless solutions are mixed, a dark blue colour forms. Changing the
concentration or temperature of the solutions changes the time required for the blue colour to
develop.
Rates and Rhubarb uses rhubarb sticks to decolourise potassium permanganate. The experiment
can be used to show how the rate of reaction is affected by surface area or concentration.
The 'burning milk powder' activity shows how a pile of dried milk powder will not ignite even using
a roaring Bunsen burner. However, if the powder is sprinkled onto a flame, a spectacular fireball is
produced (a video of the experiment is also available).
In August 2000 one of the world's most advanced submarines, the Kursk, sank to the bottom of the
sea with no survivors. It is believed that rusty ironwork acted as a catalyst for the decomposition
of hydrogen peroxide. In LearnChemistry's 'what sank the Kursk?', instructions are provided for
experiments to record reaction progress graphs using different transition metals as catalysts.
In the simpler 'hydrogen peroxide decomposition using different catalysts' activity, measuring
cylinders are set up containing a washing-up liquid, a catalyst and some hydrogen peroxide. The
rate at which foam forms depends on the effectiveness of the catalyst (a video of the experiment is
also available).
Candidates can see the effect of a catalyst using experiments such as 'catalysis of the reaction
between zinc and sulfuric acid' or in the demonstration experiment 'catalysis of the reaction between
sodium thiosulfate and hydrogen peroxide'.
The RSC LearnChemistry's 'involvement of catalysts in reactions' experiment provides visible
evidence that, although a catalyst does actively participate in a reaction, it is regenerated at the
end. In this reaction, a pink cobalt catalyst solution is used which changes to dark green while the
catalyst is active and is seen to change back to pink once the reaction is over.
End of topic test

Rates of reaction topic test Go online
Q22: In a reaction, 80 cm3 of hydrogen gas was collected in 20 s. What is the average rate
of reaction, in cm3 s-1, over this time?
a)
b)
c)
d)
...............................................
Q23: The table shows the times taken for 1 g of calcium carbonate to react completely with
acid under different conditions.
Acid concentration / mol l-1 Temperature / ◦C Reaction time / s
0·1 20 80
0·1 25 60
0·2 30 20
0·2 40 10
The time for 1 g of calcium carbonate to react completely with 0·2 mol l-1 acid at 25◦C will be:
a) less than 10 s.
b) between 10 s and 20 s.
c) between 20 s and 60 s.
d) more than 80 s.
...............................................
Q24: The graph shows the volume of gas produced in an experiment over a period of time.
State the time, in seconds, when the reaction finished.
...............................................
Q25: Which would be the best piece of apparatus for measuring the volume of a soluble gas?
a) Inverted measuring cylinder over water
b) Inverted test tube over water
c) Gas jar
d) Gas syringe
...............................................
Q26: The following graph shows that the rate of reaction decreases as the reaction proceeds.
Suggest a possible reason for this.
a) The concentration of reactants is increasing.

b) The concentration of reactants is decreasing.
c) The concentration of products is increasing.
d) The concentration of products is decreasing.
...............................................
Q27: In the Haber process, nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas react together to form ammonia.
Iron is added to the reaction mixture and is recovered unchanged at the end of the reaction.
What is the role of iron in this reaction?
a) Catalyst
b) Reactant
c) Product
d) Apparatus
...............................................
Q28: The following results were obtained when a student carried out a reaction of zinc with
hydrochloric acid.
Volume hydrogen gas

Time / seconds
produced / cm3
0 0
10 27
20 48
30 53
40 57
What is the average rate of reaction between 10 and 20 seconds?
a) 2·4 cm3 s-1

b) 2·1 cm3 s-1
c) 1·4 cm3 s-1
d) 0·5 cm3 s-1
...............................................
Q29: Which of the following would not speed up a chemical reaction?
a) Use of a catalyst.
b) Increasing the concentration.
c) Increasing the particle size.
d) Increasing the temperature.
...............................................
Q30: A reaction was carried out and the following results were obtained.
Time / minutes Volume gas produced / cm3

0 0
1 8
2 12
3 14
4
Predict how much gas will be produced after four minutes.

...............................................
Q31: Graph A (upper line) shows the results when a 1 g magnesium lump was reacted with
1 mol l-1 sulfuric acid at 25◦C.
B (lower line)?
Reaction carried out at 35◦C.

0·5 g magnesium reacted.
0·5 mol l-1 sulfuric acid used.
Magnesium powder used.
27
Topic 2
Atomic structure
Contents
Prior knowledge ........................................................................................................................................... 29
The periodic table ........................................................................................................................................ 29
Groups in the periodic table .................................................................................................................................30
Names of groups 32
Metals and non-metals ......................................................................................................................................... 33
Atoms 35
Electron arrangement .................................................................................................................................. 38
Valency ........................................................................................................................................................ 40
Nuclide notation ........................................................................................................................................... 41
Atomic number 41
Mass number 41
Nuclide notation 42
Ions 43
Isotopes ....................................................................................................................................................... 44
Relative atomic mass ........................................................................................................................................... 45
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 47
Resources .................................................................................................................................................... 49
End of topic test............................................................................................................................... 50
Prerequisites
the periodic table is structured in terms of groups and periods;
all matter is made of atoms;
when a substance contains only one kind of atom it is known as an element;
atoms contain protons, neutrons and electrons;
the number of protons defines an element and is known as the atomic number;
atoms do not have an electric charge and are said to be neutral;

elements are arranged in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number;
28 TOPIC 2. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
elements in the group have similar chemical properties;
the position of metals and non-metals in the periodic table.
Learning objective
By the end of this topic, you should know:
• the periodic table:

◦ elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number;
◦ the periodic table can be used to determine whether an element is a metal or non-
metal;
◦ groups are columns in the periodic table containing elements with the same
number of outer electrons, indicated by the group number;
◦ elements within a group share the same valency and have similar chemical
properties because they have the same number of electrons in their outer energy
levels;
◦ the electron arrangement of the first twenty elements can be written.
• atoms:
◦ an atom has a nucleus, containing protons and neutrons, and electrons that orbit
the nucleus;
◦ protons have a charge of one-positive, neutrons are neutral and electrons have a
charge of one-negative;
◦ protons and neutrons have an approximate mass of one atomic mass unit and
electrons, in comparison, have virtually no mass;
◦ the number of protons in an atom is given by the atomic number;
◦ in a neutral atom the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons;
◦ the mass number of an atom is equal to the number of protons added to the number
of neutrons.
• isotopes:
◦ isotopes are defined as atoms with the same atomic number but different mass
numbers, or as atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons;
◦ nuclide notation is used to show the atomic number, mass number (and charge)
of atoms (ions) from which the number of protons, electrons and neutrons can be
determined;
◦ most elements have two or more isotopes;
◦ the average atomic mass has been calculated for each element using the mass
and proportion of each isotope present. These values are known as relative atomic
masses.
TOPIC 2. ATOMIC STRUCTURE 29
Prior knowledge
Q1: A row in the periodic table is called a:
group.
period.
...............................................
Q2: Which group of elements are found on the left-hand side of the periodic table?
Metals
Non-metals
...............................................
Q3: An element is defined as:
a substance which appears on the periodic table.

a group of atoms.
a substance which contains only one kind of atom.
The periodic table

The periodic table is where chemists arrange the elements. They are arranged in order of
increasing atomic number and by chemical properties.
The atomic number of an element is the number of protons that the element has. It is shown in the
box which represents the element in the periodic table.
The elements are represented in the periodic table by their atomic symbol. This is a unique for each
element and consists of one or more letters. The first letter is always a capital letter and any other
letters are lower case.
The periodic table
The periodic table: Questions Go online
Q4: What is the atomic number for aluminium?

...............................................
Q5: What is the atomic symbol for nitrogen?

...............................................
Q6: What is the atomic number for argon?

...............................................
Q7: What is the atomic symbol for silicon?
Key point
Elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
Groups in the periodic table

A column of elements in the periodic table is called a group.
Groups contain elements with the same number of outer electrons, indicated by the group number.
Groups in the periodic table
Groups in the periodic table: Questions Go online
Q8: Which group in the periodic table contains the element lithium?
...............................................
Q9: Which group in the periodic table contains the element boron?
...............................................
Q10: Which group in the periodic table contains the element helium?
...............................................
Q11: Which group in the periodic table contains the element hydrogen?
...............................................
Q12: Which group in the periodic table contains the element fluorine?
...............................................
Q13: Which group in the periodic table contains the element argon?
Key point
Groups are columns in the periodic table containing elements with the same number of outer
electrons, indicated by the group number.
Names of groups
Names of groups: Activity Go online
Some groups are known by their names:
• Group 1: Alkali metals

The alkali metals are all very reactive metals.
They include the elements lithium, sodium and potassium.
• Middle block: Transition metals
The transition metals make up the middle block of the periodic table.
Many common metals are here including gold, mercury and tungsten.
• Group 7: Halogens
The Group 7 elements are reactive non-metals.
They include the elements fluorine, chlorine and bromine.
• Group 0: Noble gases
The Group 0 elements are all very unreactive non-metals.
They include the elements helium, neon and argon.
A row of elements in the periodic table is called a period.
There are only two elements which are liquids in the periodic table, bromine and mercury.
Names of groups: Questions Go online
Q14: Which group of the periodic table does bromine belong to?
Alkali metals
Transition metals
Halogens
Noble gases
...............................................
Q15: Which group of the periodic table does mercury belong to?
Alkali metals
Transition metals
Halogens
Noble gases
Metals and non-metals

The periodic table can be easily grouped into metals and non-metals.
Elements below the dark line across the periodic table are metals
Metallic elements appear on the left hand side of the periodic table and non-metal elements appear
on the right hand side.
There is a stepped line in the periodic table on page 4 of the SQA Data Book to show this.
Testing properties
In the lab, we can test if elements are metals or non-metals by carrying out an experiment to test if
they will conduct electricity.
Metals will conduct electricity but non-metals will not. There is one exception to this, carbon in the
form of graphite is a non-metal which will conduct electricity.
Metals and non-metals: Questions Go online
Are the following elements metals or non-metals?
Q16: Berylium
a) Metal
b) Non-metal
...............................................
Q17: Carbon
a) Metal
b) Non-metal
...............................................
Q18: Oxygen
a) Metal
b) Non-metal
...............................................
Q19: Calcium
a) Metal
b) Non-metal
...............................................
Q20: Chlorine
a) Metal
b) Non-metal
...............................................
Q21: Sodium
a) Metal
b) Non-metal
Key point
The periodic table can be used to determine whether an element is a metal or non-metal.
Atoms
Every element is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
An atom has a nucleus, containing protons and neutrons, and electrons that orbit the nucleus in
energy levels.
Atoms: Activity Go online
Protons
Protons are positively charged particles with a charge of 1+ and a relative mass of 1. They are found
in the nucleus of an atom.
Neutrons
Neutrons have a relative mass of 1 but are neutral and so have no charge. They are found in the
nucleus of an atom.
Electrons
Electrons are negatively charged with a charge of 1- and have virtually no mass. They are found
orbiting the nucleus of an atom.
Atoms are neutral because the number of negatively charged electrons is equal to the number of
positively charged protons.
Atoms: Building a sodium atom activity Go online
Eleven positively charged protons and twelve neutrons form the nucleus.
Two electrons fill the first shell.
Eight electrons are in a completed shell.
A single electron is in the outer (valency) shell.
Therefore, the eleven negatively charged electrons balance the eleven positive protons in
the nucleus.
Remember, this is not to scale. If the whole atom were the size of a football stadium, the
nucleus would only be the size of a pea!
Atoms: Question Go online
Q22: Complete the following table of the properties of subatomic particles in an atom by
choosing from the values listed.
Subatomic particle Location Mass Charge
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Values: Nucleus, Orbiting nucleus, 0, 1, 1+, 1-.
Key point
An atom has a nucleus, containing protons and neutrons, and electrons that orbit the
nucleus.
of one-negative.
in comparison, have virtually no mass.
In a neutral atom the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons.
Electron arrangement
Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties. This is because they have the same
number of outer electrons.
A periodic table showing the electron arrangements of elements can be found on page 6 of the SQA
National 5 Data Book.
Electron arrangements of elements in the periodic table
Q23: What is the link between the group number in the periodic table and the number of
outer electrons?
Electrons are arranged in energy levels in an atom.
Energy levels in an atom

Electrons fill the energy levels (sometimes called shells) from the shell closest to the nucleus and
then move outwards. One shell must be filled before moving onto the next one.
• The first energy level can only hold 2 electrons.

• The second energy level can only hold 8 electrons.
• The third energy level can only hold 8 electrons.
When writing electron arrangements, a comma (,) is used to show moving from one orbital to the
next, e.g. 2,8,8 etc.
Electron arrangement: Questions Go online
Use your SQA National 5 Data Book to help you determine the electron arrangement for the
following elements (give your answers in the form of numbers separated by commas without
any spaces, e.g. 2,8,8).
Q24: Phosphorus
...............................................
Q25: Potassium
...............................................
Q26: Neon
Key point
The electron arrangement of the first 20 elements can be written.
Valency
Each element has a valency number. This is the ability of the element to combine with another
element, sometimes called it's combining power.
For main group elements, this is linked to the group number of the element in the periodic table.
Group
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
number
Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
Elements in the same group have the same valency because they have the same number of
electrons in their outer energy levels. This is also why elements in the same group have similar
chemical properties.
Some elements, usually the transition metals, can have more than one valency, and use Roman
numerals instead to show the valency.
This will be given to you in the name of the compound name.
For example, in the compound silver (I) oxide the valency of the silver is one.
In copper (II) chloride the valency of the copper is two.
Valency: Questions Go online
Use your SQA National 5 Data Book to help you determine the valency of the following
elements.
Q27: Carbon
...............................................
Q28: Hydrogen
...............................................
Q29: Oxygen
...............................................
Q30: Helium
...............................................
Q31: The iron in iron (II) sulfide

...............................................
Q32: The chromium in chromium (III) oxide
Key point
Elements within a group share the same valency and have similar chemical properties
because they have the same number of electrons in their outer energy levels.
Nuclide notation
Nuclide notation is composed of atomic number and mass number.
Atomic number
The atomic number is the number of protons in an atom. The atoms of a particular element always
contain the same number of protons.
In most periodic tables, the atomic number is given next to the atomic symbol for the element.
The periodic table is arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
Atomic number: Question Go online
Q33: Use your SQA National 5 Data Book to help you fill in the following table.
Element Atomic number Number of protons

Sulfur
Magnesium
Neon
Nickel
If the number of protons in an atom changes then the atom becomes a different element.
This is very rare but we will come back to it later when we cover nuclear chemistry.
Key point
The number of protons in an atom is given by the atomic number.
Mass number
We saw earlier that electrons have virtually no mass. This means that the mass of an atom is almost
entirely due to the protons and neutrons present.
The mass number of an atom can be calculated by adding together the number of protons and
neutrons in an atom.
This means that we can calculate the number of neutrons in an atom if we know the atomic number
and the mass number as the number of neutrons will equal the mass number minus the atomic
number.
Mass number: Question Go online
Mass Atomic Number of Number of Number of

Element
number number protons neutrons electrons
Iodine 127
16 8
Magnesium 12 12
7 3
Hydrogen 1 1
Key point
The mass number of an atom is equal to the number of protons added to the number of
neutrons.
Key point
Important numbers summary

In a neutral atom the number of positive protons is equal to the number of negative electrons.
Atomic number = number of protons in as atom
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
Number of neutrons = mass number - atomic number
Nuclide notation
Nuclide notation is a representation used to show the atomic symbol, atomic number and mass
number of a particle.
It is written in the following way.
Nuclide notation to gives us a lot of information. Take the nuclide notation for chlorine shown as
follows.
The top number tells us that the mass number of chlorine is 35
35
17Cl ← Symbol
The bottom number tells us that the atomic number of chlorine is 17.
Therefore the chlorine atom has 17 protons.
We can use this information to work out the number of electrons.
Atoms are neutral because they contain the same number of positive protons and negative
electrons.
If the atom has 17 protons then it must also have 17 electrons.
We can also calculate the number of neutrons in the atom.
Number of neutrons = mass number − atomic number
= 35 − 17
= 18 neutrons
A helium atom could be represented as follows: 24He
Nuclide notation: Questions Go online
Q35: What is the atomic number of helium?

...............................................
Q36: How many neutrons does this helium atom have?

...............................................
Q37: How many electrons will this helium atom have?
Key point
Nuclide notation is used to show the atomic symbol, atomic number and mass number of
atoms from which the number of protons, electrons and neutrons can be determined.
Ions
When there is an imbalance in the number of positive protons and negative electrons the particle is
known as an ion.
Ions are charged particles which are formed when a particle gains or loses electrons.
If an atom loses electrons, it will form a positive ion.
If an atom gains electrons, it will form a negative ion.
Ions: Questions Go online
Ion Electrons Protons Neutrons
Mg2+ 12
N3- 7
Li+ 4
Use the nuclide notation examples to complete the information in the following table.
Nuclide Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of

notation number number protons electrons neutrons
19F−
9
27Al3+
13
39K+
19
Key point
Nuclide notation can be used to show the atomic number, mass number and charge of ions
from which the number of protons, electrons and neutrons can be determined.
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element will always have the same number of protons but they may have different
numbers of neutrons.
Because neutrons have mass, atoms of the same element can have different mass numbers.
Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers, also known as atoms
with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Most elements will have two or more isotopes and atoms which differ in this way are almost identical
in their chemical reactions.
Physical properties of the atoms, such as melting point and density will be different in different
isotopes.
Example
Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes. We can get lots of information about the
subatomic particles in the different types of chlorine atoms from their nuclide notation.
17Cl
35 37Cl
17
Mass number = 35 Mass number = 37
Atomic number = 17 Atomic number = 17
Number of protons = Atomic number Number of protons = Atomic number
= 17 = 17
Number of electrons = Number of protons Number of electrons = Number of protons
= 17 = 17
Number of neutrons = Mass no − atomic no Number of neutrons = Mass no − atomic no
= (35 − 17) = (37 − 17)
= 18 = 20
Isotopes: Question Go online
Q39: Bromine has two naturally occurring isotopes. Use the information in the nuclide
notations to complete the following table.
81Br 79Br
35 35
Mass number = ? Mass number = ?

Atomic number = ? Atomic number = ?
Number of protons = ? Number of protons = ?
Number of electrons = ? Number of electrons = ?
Number of neutrons = ? Number of neutrons = ?
Key point
Isotopes are defined as atoms with the same atomic number but different mass
neutrons.
Most elements have two or more isotopes.
Relative atomic mass

Most elements have two or more isotopes and so different atoms of the element can have different
masses.
The average atomic mass calculated for an element using the mass and proportion of isotopes
present is called the relative atomic mass.
The relative atomic masses for elements can be found on page 7 of your SQA National 5 Data Book.
The relative atomic masses of the first 20 elements are shown in the following table.
Element Atomic symbol Relative atomic mass

Hydrogen H 1
Helium He 4
Lithium Li 7
Beryllium Be 9
Boron B 11
Carbon C 12
Nitrogen N 14
Oxygen O 16
Fluorine F 19
Neon Ne 20
Sodium Na 23
Magnesium Mg 24·5
Aluminium Al 27
Silicon Si 28
Phosphorus P 31
Sulfur S 32
Chlorine Cl 35·5
Argon Ar 40
Potassium K 39
Calcium Ca 40
Relative atomic masses are usually rounded to the nearest 0·5 of a number and have no units as
they are measured relative to each other.
Relative atomic mass: Questions Go online
There are two table isotopes of lithium 6Li and 7Li. Lithium has a relative atomic mass of 6·9
Q40: What is different about the two different types of lithium atom?
...............................................
Q41: What can be determined about the proportions of the isotopes ?
Key point
The average atomic mass has been calculated for each element using the mass and
proportion of each isotope present. These values are known as relative atomic masses.
Summary
Summary
• The periodic table:
◦ elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number;
◦ the periodic table can be used to determine whether an element is a metal or non-
metal;
◦ groups are columns in the periodic table containing elements with the same
number of outer electrons, indicated by the group number;
◦ elements within a group share the same valency and have similar chemical
properties because they have the same number of electrons in their outer energy
levels;
◦ the electron arrangement of the first twenty elements can be written.
• Atoms:
◦ an atom has a nucleus, containing protons and neutrons, and electrons that orbit
the nucleus;
◦ protons have a charge of one-positive, neutrons are neutral and electrons have a
charge of one-negative;
◦ protons and neutrons have an approximate mass of one atomic mass unit and
electrons, in comparison, have virtually no mass;
◦ the number of protons in an atom is given by the atomic number;
◦ in a neutral atom the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons;
◦ the mass number of an atom is equal to the number of protons added to the number
of neutrons.
• Isotopes:
◦ isotopes are defined as atoms with the same atomic number but different mass
neutrons;
◦ nuclide notation is used to show the atomic number, mass number (and charge)
of atoms (ions) from which the number of protons, electrons and neutrons can be
determined;
◦ most elements have two or more isotopes;
◦ the average atomic mass has been calculated for each element using the mass
and proportion of each isotope present. These values are known as relative atomic
masses.
Key word Definition

a column of elements in the periodic table.
a row of elements in the periodic table.
the combining power of an element, the number of bonds the
element can make.
the positively charged central core of an atom, it contains protons
and neutrons and all its mass.
a subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom which has a
mass of 1 amu and a charge of 1+.
a subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom which has a
mass of 1 amu and no charge.
a subatomic particle found orbiting the nucleus of an atom which has
a negligible mass and a charge of 1-.
a substance which contains only one type of atom.
where chemists arrange the elements based on their atomic number
and properties.
the number of protons in an atom;
the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom;
a representation used to show the atomic number and mass number
of a particle;
atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers,
atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons;
average atomic mass calculated for an element using the mass and
proportion isotopes present.
Key words: atomic number, electron, element, group, isotopes, mass number, neutron,
nucleus, nuclide notation, period, periodic table, proton, relative atomic mass, valency.
Resources
Texts

ISBN 978-0007549306
978-1510420861
Practical work
The RSC's online periodic table is fully interactive. Filters can be used to update the table in a way
that highlights:
• metallic or non-metallic elements;

• individual groups;
• individual periods;
• the state of the elements at any temperature.
Clicking on the video tab gives access to a bank of videos providing profiles of all 118 elements.
The RSC periodic table is also available as a free-of-charge app for both Android and iOS devices.
RSC LearnChemistry's 'secondary support pack' has been produced to support the use of elements Top
Trumps cards to help candidates become familiar with the arrangement of elements within the
periodic table. These activities can help develop the skill of making predictions and generalisations.
RSC LearnChemistry's Interactive periodic table game allows candidates to test their knowledge of
the periodic table by exploring trends and patterns in elements and their position in the table.
The LearnChemistry 'build an atom simulation activity' allows candidates to build an atom from
scratch, using protons, neutrons, and electrons. Nuclide notation can be explored using the 'symbol'
option. This allows candidates to explore the effect of changing the numbers of protons, neutrons
and electrons. The 'game' option can be used to provide a revision activity.
LearnChemistry offers a selection of short video clips covering a wide range of topics. In Royal
Institution Christmas Lectures® 2012: Atomic Structure, Dr Peter Wothers explores the structure of
an atom and reveals that it is the number of protons that defines an element.
End of topic test

Atomic structure topic test Go online
Q43: Complete the following table for the subatomic particles in an atom.

Proton
Neutron
Electron
...............................................
Q44: What is the valency of sulfur?
a) 0
b) 2
c) 4
d) 6
...............................................
Q45: Gold is the heaviest element to have only one naturally occurring isotope. The isotope
has a mass number of 197.
Complete the following table to show the number of each subatomic particle present.
Particle Number
Proton
Neutron
Electron
...............................................
Q46: Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes 35Cl and 37Cl. The relative atomic mass
17 17
of chlorine is 35·5.
What can you conclude about the proportions of the isotopes?
a) There are equal proportions of the two isotopes.

b) Only the 17
35
Cl is present.
c) There is more of the 35Cl isotope present than the 37Cl isotope.
17 17
d) There is more of the 37Cl isotope present than the 35Cl isotope.
17 17
...............................................
Q47: The number of neutrons in an atom is the same as:
a) the number of protons.

b) the number of protons plus the mass number.
c) the mass number minus the number of protons.
d) the mass number.
...............................................
Q48: Isotopes are atoms with:

a) atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
b) atoms with the same number of neutrons but different numbers of protons.
c) atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of electrons.
d) atoms with the same number of protons and neutrons.
...............................................
Q49: To which group of elements in the periodic table does sodium belong?
a) Noble gases
b) Halogens
c) Transition metals
d) Alkali metals
...............................................
Q50: An atom has 26 protons, 26 electrons and 30 neutrons. The atom has:
a) atomic number 26, mass number 56.
b) atomic number 56, mass number 30.
c) atomic number 30, mass number 26.
d) atomic number 52, mass number 56.
...............................................
Q51: The following table shows the numbers of protons, electrons and neutrons in four
particles A, B, C and D.
Particle Protons Electrons Neutrons
A 17 17 18
B 11 11 12
C 17 17 20
D 18 18 18
Which pair of particles are isotopes?
a) A and B
b) A and C
c) A and D
d) B and C
e) B and D
f) C and D
...............................................
Q52: Which of the following particles contains a different number of electrons from the
others?
a) Cl-
b) S2-
c) Ar
d) Na+
53
Topic 3
Covalent bonding
Contents
Prior knowledge ........................................................................................................................................... 56
Types of bonding ......................................................................................................................................... 56
Covalent bonding in elements...................................................................................................................... 58
Covalent bonding in hydrogen .............................................................................................................................58
Covalent bonding in fluorine .................................................................................................................................59
Covalent bonding in oxygen .................................................................................................................................60
Covalent bonding in nitrogen ...............................................................................................................................61
Covalent bonding in chlorine ................................................................................................................................62
Diatomic elements 63
Covalent bonding in elements: Summary ............................................................................................................64
Covalent bonding in compounds.................................................................................................................. 66
Covalent bonding in hydrogen chloride ................................................................................................................67
Covalent bonding in carbon dioxide .....................................................................................................................68
Covalent bonding in water ....................................................................................................................................69
Covalent bonding in ammonia ..............................................................................................................................71
Covalent bonding in methane ..............................................................................................................................72
Covalent bonding in compounds: Summary ........................................................................................................74
Covalent molecular substances ................................................................................................................... 76
Covalent molecular properties..............................................................................................................................79
Physical states 80
Covalent molecular summary ...............................................................................................................................82
Covalent network substances ...................................................................................................................... 83
Diamond 83
Graphite 84
Silicon dioxide 86
Covalent networks summary ................................................................................................................................87
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 88
Resources .................................................................................................................................................... 90
End of topic test ........................................................................................................................................... 91
54 TOPIC 3. COVALENT BONDING
Prerequisites
• all matter is made of atoms;

• groups are columns in the periodic table containing elements with the same number of
outer electrons, indicated by the group number;
• elements within a group share the same valency and have similar chemical properties
because they have the same number of electrons in their outer energy levels;
• the electron arrangement of the first 20 elements can be written;
• an atom has a nucleus, containing protons and neutrons, and electrons that orbit the
nucleus;
• protons have a charge of one-positive, neutrons are neutral and electrons have a charge
of one-negative;
• protons and neutrons have an approximate mass of one atomic mass unit and electrons,
in comparison, have virtually no mass;
• the number of protons in an atom is given by the atomic number;
• in a neutral atom the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons.
TOPIC 3. COVALENT BONDING 55
Learning objective
• covalent bonding:
◦ covalent bonds form between non-metal atoms;
◦ a covalent bond forms when two positive nuclei are held together by their common
attraction for a shared pair of electrons;
◦ diagrams can be drawn to show how outer electrons are shared to form the
covalent bond(s) in a molecule;
◦ seven elements exist as diatomic molecules through the formation of covalent
bonds: H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2;
◦ the shape of simple covalent molecules depends on the number of bonds and the
orientation of these bonds around the central atom - these molecules can be
described as linear, angular, trigonal pyramidal or tetrahedral;
◦ more than one bond can be formed between atoms leading to double and triple
covalent bonds;
◦ covalent substances can form either discrete molecular or giant network structures.
• covalent molecular substances:
◦ have strong covalent bonds within the molecules and only weak attractions
between the molecules;
◦ have low melting and boiling points as only weak forces of attraction between the
molecules are broken when a substance changes state;
◦ do not conduct electricity because they do not have charged particles which are
free to move;
◦ covalent molecular substances which are insoluble in water may dissolve in other
solvents.
• covalent network structures:
◦ have a network of strong covalent bonds within one giant structure;
◦ have very high melting and boiling points because the network of strong covalent
bonds is not easily broken;
◦ do not dissolve;
◦ in general, covalent network substances do not conduct electricity - this is because
they do not have charged particles which are free to move.
Prior knowledge
Q1: In which group of the periodic table is iron found?
Alkali metals
Transition metals
Halogens
Noble gases
...............................................
Q2: An atom is neutral because it has the same number of:
protons and neutrons.

electrons and neutrons.
protons and electrons.
...............................................
Q3: What is the correct electron arrangement for potassium?
a) 2,8,8
b) 2,8,8,1
c) 2,8,8,2
d) 2,8,5
Types of bonding
The most stable elements in the periodic table are group 0 (sometimes called group 8), the noble
gases.
Helium is a noble gas used to fill balloons.
Neon is a noble gas used to make bright signs.

Why are they so unreactive?
The noble gases have full outer electron shells.
Noble gas Electron arrangement

Helium 2
Neon 2,8
Argon 2,8,8
This means that they are very unreactive. They are in fact so unreactive that they exist as single
atoms and do not form bonds; we say they are monatomic.
But what about the other elements?
Elements in the other groups of the periodic table do not have full outer electron shells and are
therefore less stable than the noble gases.
In order to become more stable, these atoms will form bonds with other atoms in order to achieve a
full outer electron shell.
There are three different types of bonding.
1. Covalent
2. Ionic
3. Metallic
In this topic, we will focus on covalent bonding. Ionic and metallic bonding is covered later in the
course.
Covalent bonding in elements

Non-metal elements and hydrogen achieve a stable, full outer electron shell by sharing electrons,
this is known as covalent bonding.
Covalent bonds are strong bonds.
A covalent bond forms when two positive nuclei are held together by their common attraction for a
shared pair of electrons.
A covalent bond
Covalent bonding is a balance between attraction (of negatively charged electrons for positive nuclei)
and repulsion (between the two positively charged nuclei).
We represent covalent bonding using outer electron diagrams of the atoms involved in making the
bond.
Covalent bonding in hydrogen

Covalent bonding in hydrogen: Activity Go online
The sharing of a pair of electrons (one electron from each atom) to complete an outer shell
of electrons is called a single covalent bond.
The two hydrogen atoms share their outer electrons to complete their outer shells.
Covalent bonding in hydrogen
The two hydrogen atoms have joined to form a hydrogen molecule.

We can simplify the molecular structure to H-H where the line in between the atoms
represents a shared pair of electrons.
There are two atoms in the molecule so it is diatomic.
The molecular formula for a hydrogen molecule is H2.
Q4: How many outer electrons does hydrogen have?

...............................................
Q5: How many more electrons does hydrogen require in order to have a full outer shell?
...............................................
Q6: How many outer electrons are shared?

...............................................
Q7: How many outer electrons are now in each shell?
Covalent bonding in fluorine

Covalent bonding in fluorine: Activity Go online
The two fluorine atoms share their outer electrons to complete their outer shells.
Covalent bonding in fluorine

The two fluorine atoms have joined to form a fluorine molecule.
a shared pair of electrons.

The molecular formula for a fluorine molecule is F2.
Q8: How many outer electrons does fluorine have?

...............................................
Q9: How many more electrons does fluorine require in order to have a full outer shell?
...............................................

...............................................
Covalent bonding in oxygen

Covalent bonding in oxygen: Activity Go online
The sharing of two pairs of electrons (two electrons from each atom) to complete an outer
shell of electrons is called a double covalent bond.
The two oxygen atoms share two pairs of outer electrons to complete their outer shells.
Covalent bonding in oxygen

The two oxygen atoms have joined to form an oxygen molecule.
We can simplify the molecular structure to O=O where each line in between the atoms
The molecular formula for an oxygen molecule is O2.
Q12: How many outer electrons does oxygen have?

...............................................
Q13: How many more electrons does oxygen require in order to have a full outer shell?
...............................................

...............................................
Covalent bonding in nitrogen

Covalent bonding in nitrogen: Activity Go online
The sharing of three pairs of electrons (three electron from each atom) to complete an outer
shell of electrons is called a triple covalent bond.
The two nitrogen atoms share three pairs of outer electrons to complete their outer shells.
Covalent bonding in nitrogen

The two nitrogen atoms have joined to form an nitrogen molecule.
We can simplify the molecular structure to N≡N where each line in between the atoms
The molecular formula for a nitrogen molecule is N2.
Q16: How many outer electrons does nitrogen have?

...............................................
Q17: How many more electrons does nitrogen require in order to have a full outer shell?
...............................................

...............................................
Covalent bonding in chlorine

Covalent bonding in chlorine: Activity Go online
The two chlorine atoms share their outer electrons to complete their outer shells.
Covalent bonding in chlorine

The two chlorine atoms have joined to form a chlorine molecule.
We can simplify the molecular structure to Cl-Cl where the line in between the atoms
The molecular formula for a chlorine molecule is Cl2.
Q20: How many outer electrons does chlorine have?

...............................................
Q21: How many more electrons does chlorine require in order to have a full outer shell?
...............................................

...............................................
Diatomic elements
Some elements are not found as individual atoms but instead exist as molecules made up of two
atoms.
These are known as the diatomic elements.
Diatomic elements highlighted in the periodic table
There are seven diatomic elements on the periodic table.

These are hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine.
Hint: If you look from nitrogen to iodine on the periodic table then you can see that the diatomic
elements (except hydrogen) are arranged in the shape of a '7'.
We can write the formulae for each of these elements as follows:
Diatomic element Formulae

Hydrogen H2
Nitrogen N2
Oxygen O2
Fluorine F2
Chlorine Cl2
Bromine Br2
Iodine I2
Key point
Seven elements exist as diatomic molecules through the formation of covalent bonds:
H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
Covalent bonding in elements: Summary

Covalent bonding in elements: Summary questions Go online
Q24: What type of bonding do non-metal elements take part in?
Ionic
Covalent
Metallic
...............................................
Q25: What is the definition of a covalent bond?
Sharing electrons in non-metals.

Two positive nuclei which are held together by their common attraction for a shared pair
of electrons.
...............................................
Q26: How many atoms are in a diatomic molecule?
...............................................
Q27: What do the lines represent in the structural formula for oxygen, O=O?
A shared pair of electrons.

Two shared pairs of electrons.
Three shared pairs of electrons.
...............................................
Q28: Which of the following elements does not exist as diatomic molecules?
Oxygen
Hydrogen
Bromine
Mercury
...............................................
Q29: Why do atoms form bonds?
Opposites attract.
They cannot exist as individual atoms.
Summary
Covalent bonds form between non-metal atoms.
A covalent bond forms when two positive nuclei are held together by their common
attraction for a shared pair of electrons.
Diagrams can be drawn to show how outer electrons are shared to form the covalent
bond(s) in a molecule.
bonds.
Seven elements exist as diatomic molecules through the formation of covalent bonds:
H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
Covalent bonding in compounds

Compounds made from non-metal elements will also bond covalently.
Remember, non-metal elements form covalent bonds in order to achieve a full outer electron shell.
Q30: Where are non-metal elements found in the periodic table?
The left hand side of the stepped line.

The right hand side of the stepped line.
The middle of the periodic table.
This section investigates compounds which are formed through the formation of covalent bonds.
You will already be familiar with many of these compounds such as water and methane (the gas that
comes out of the gas taps in the lab).
Water
Methane
Covalent bonding in hydrogen chloride

Covalent bonding in hydrogen chloride: Activity Go online

...............................................
...............................................
Q33: How many outer electrons does chlorine have?

...............................................
Q34: How many more electrons does chlorine require in order to have a full outer shell?
The hydrogen and the chlorine form a single covalent bond. They share a pair of electrons
(one electron from each atom) to complete their outer shells.
The hydrogen atom and the chlorine atom share a pair of outer electrons to complete their
outer shells.
Covalent bonding in hydrogen chloride

The new molecule is called hydrogen chloride.
Q35: How many outer electrons are shared between the hydrogen atom and the chlorine
atom?
...............................................
Q36: How many outer electrons are now in hydrogen's outer shell?
...............................................
Q37: How many outer electrons are now in chlorine's outer shell?
We can simplify the molecular structure to H-Cl where the line in between the atoms
Because the two atoms are joined together in a line, their shape is linear.
H-Cl
The molecular formula for a hydrogen chloride molecule is HCl.
Covalent bonding in carbon dioxide

Covalent bonding in carbon dioxide: Activity Go online
Q38: How many outer electrons does carbon have?

...............................................
Q39: How many more electrons does carbon require in order to have a full outer shell?
...............................................

...............................................
The carbon atom forms a double covalent bond with each of the oxygen atoms. The carbon
atom shares two pairs of electrons with each oxygen atom to complete their outer shells.
The carbon atom and each of the oxygen atoms share two pairs of outer electrons to
complete their outer shells.
Covalent bonding in carbon dioxide

The new molecule is called carbon dioxide.
Q42: How many outer electrons are shared between the carbon atom and each oxygen
atom?
...............................................
Q43: How many outer electrons are now in carbon's outer shell?
...............................................
Q44: How many outer electrons are now in each oxygen's outer shell?

Because the three atoms are joined together in a line, their shape is linear.
O=C=O
The molecular formula for carbon dioxide is CO2.
Covalent bonding in water

Covalent bonding in water: Activity Go online

...............................................
...............................................
...............................................
The oxygen atom forms a single covalent bond with each of the hydrogen atoms. The
oxygen atom shares a pair of electrons with each hydrogen atom to complete their outer
shells.
The oxygen atom shares a pair of electrons with each of the hydrogen atoms to complete
their outer shells.
Covalent bonding in water

The new molecule is called water.
Q49: How many outer electrons are shared between the oxygen atom and each hydrogen
atom?
...............................................
Q50: How many outer electrons are now in oxygen's outer shell?
...............................................
Q51: How many outer electrons are now in each hydrogen's outer shell?
The three atoms join together to form the following shape.
We call this shape angular.

Remember, each single line between the atoms represents a shared pair of electrons.
The molecular formula for water is H2O.
Covalent bonding in ammonia

Covalent bonding in ammonia: Activity Go online
Q52: How many outer electrons does nitrogen have?

...............................................
Q53: How many more electrons does nitrogen require in order to have a full outer shell?
...............................................

...............................................
The nitrogen atom forms a single covalent bond with each of the hydrogen atoms. The
nitrogen atom shares a pair of electrons with each hydrogen atom to complete their outer
shells.
The nitrogen atom shares a pair of electrons with each of the hydrogen atoms to complete
their outer shells.
Covalent bonding in ammonia

The new molecule is called ammonia.
Q56: How many outer electrons are shared between the nitrogen atom and each hydrogen
atom?
...............................................
Q57: How many outer electrons are now in nitrogen's outer shell?
...............................................
The four atoms join together to form the following shape.
We can represent this shape using perspective formula as follows.
We call this shape trigonal pyramidal.

The solid line is a bond which is in line with your screen.
The dashed line is a bond which is going away from you (into the screen).
The wedge line is a bond which is going towards you (out of the screen).
The molecular formula for ammonia is NH3.
Covalent bonding in methane

Covalent bonding in methane: Activity Go online
Q59: How many outer electrons does carbon have?

...............................................
Q60: How many more electrons does carbon require in order to have a full outer shell?
...............................................
...............................................
The carbon atom forms a single covalent bond with each of the hydrogen atoms. The carbon
atom shares a pair of electrons with each hydrogen atom to complete their outer shells.
The carbon atom shares a pair of electrons with each of the hydrogen atoms to complete
their outer shells.
Covalent bonding in methane

The new molecule is called methane.
Q63: How many outer electrons are shared between the carbon atom and each hydrogen
atom?
...............................................
Q64: How many outer electrons are now in carbon's outer shell?
...............................................
The five atoms join together to form the following shape.
We can represent this shape using perspective formula as follows.
We call this shape tetrahedral.

The solid lines are bonds which are in line with your screen.
The dashed line is a bond which is going away from you (into the screen).
The wedge line is a bond which is going towards you (out of the screen).
The molecular formula for methane is CH4.
Covalent bonding in compounds: Summary
Key point
Covalent bonds form between non-metal atoms.
A covalent bond forms when two positive nuclei are held together by their common
Diagrams can be drawn to show how outer electrons are shared to form the covalent
bond(s) in a molecule.
bonds.
The shape of simple covalent molecules depends on the number of bonds and the
orientation of these bonds around the central atom.
These molecules can be described as linear, angular, trigonal pyramidal or tetrahedral.
Covalent bonding in compounds: Summary questions Go online
Q66: What shape will a hydrogen iodide (HI) molecule be?
Linear
Angular
Trigonal pyramidal
Tetrahedral
...............................................
Q67: What shape will a silicon hydride (SiH4) molecule be?
Linear
Angular
Trigonal pyramidal
Tetrahedral
...............................................
Q68: What shape will a phosphorus hydride (PH3) molecule be?
Linear
Angular
Trigonal pyramidal
Tetrahedral
...............................................
Q69: What shape will a hydrogen sulfide (H2S) molecule be?
Linear
Angular
Tetrahedral
Covalent bonding in compounds: Activity Go online
Q70: Match the following common shapes of molecules with the names listed:
Names: angular, linear, tetrahedral, trigonal pyramidal.
Summary
The shape of simple covalent molecules depends on the number of bonds and the
orientation of these bonds around the central atom.
These molecules can be described as linear, angular, trigonal pyramidal or tetrahedral.
Covalent molecular substances

There are two types of covalent structure; covalent molecular and covalent network.
Covalent molecular substances
Most covalent substances (including all those mentioned in the previous section) exist as small
molecules. These are sometimes called discrete molecules.
We have already learned that some elements exist as diatomic molecules (molecules that are made
up of two atoms chemically joined together).
Diatomic molecules
Go online
Q71: Name the seven diatomic elements.

...............................................
Q72: What shape are the molecules that make up the diatomic elements?
Linear
Angular
Trigonal pyramidal
Tetrahedral
These are not the only elements that form covalent molecules. Phosphorus and sulfur form
larger molecules; phosphorus exists as P4 molecules and sulfur exists as S8 molecules.
Q73: How many atoms are in a molecule of phosphorus?

...............................................
Q74: How many atoms are in a molecule of sulfur?
Larger molecules
We can take a closer look at each of these elements to examine the molecules that make them up.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is present in matches to help them light.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus (in the common form of 'white' phosphorus) forms P4 molecules with each phosphorus
atom at the corner of a tetrahedron.
Covalent molecular substances: White phosphorus: Activity Go online
White phosphorus
Sulfur
Sulfur is a yellow solid which is often found near volcanoes.
Sulfur
Molecules of sulfur (in the normal solid state as rhombic sulfur) consist of puckered rings of eight
sulfur atoms, written S8.
This would be cumbersome to write in equations so sulfur is often written as S rather than S 8.
Covalent molecular substances: Sulfur: Activity Go online
Sulfur
Covalent molecular properties

Covalent molecular substances cannot conduct electricity because they do not have any charged
particles which are free to move.
Some covalent molecular substances, such as sugar and chlorine are soluble and water and will
dissolve to form a solution.
For example, chlorine gas is dissolved in swimming pool water to help keep the water clean.
Swimming pool
Other covalent molecular substances such as nail varnish are insoluble in water but are soluble in
other covalent substances. Nail varnish will dissolve in acetone.
Nail varnish
Physical states
Covalent molecular substances can be solids, liquids or gases at room temperature.
The halogens are a good example of covalent substances which are different states at room
temperature.
Halogens: iodine (solid, top), bromine (liquid, left), chlorine (gas, right)
Many covalent compounds also exist in different states.
Other covalent compounds: glucose (sold, left), water (liquid, right), methane (gas, bottom)
Forces of attraction
Covalent molecular substances have strong covalent bonds within the molecules and only weak
attractions between the molecules.
These attractions are called intermolecular because they are forces between molecules.
Covalent molecular substances tend to have low melting and boiling points as only weak forces of
attraction between the molecules are broken when a substance changes state. The molecules are
then free to move further apart.
Weak attractions between molecules

Many small covalent molecules are gases (e.g. fluorine, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, sulfur
dioxide etc).
Larger molecules make structures which are liquids (such as water) or low melting point solids (think
of candle wax with a low melting point around 70 ◦C).
Remember: The strong covalent bonds are not broken during these changes in state!
Physical states: Activity Go online
at room temperature.
Covalent
Molecular Melting point / Boiling point / State at room
molecular ◦C ◦C
formula temperature
structure
Ammonia NH3 -78 -33
Phosphorus P4 44 280
Water H2O 0 100
Bromine Br2 -7 59
Carbon dioxide CO2 -57 -78
Nitrogen N2 -210 -196
States: gas, liquid, solid.
Covalent molecular summary
Covalent molecular summary: Questions Go online
Q76: What state can covalent molecular substances be at room temperature?
Solid
Liquid
Gas
All of the above.
...............................................
Q77: What is broken when a covalent molecular substance melts or boils?
Attractions between molecules.

Bonds between atoms.
...............................................
Q78: Which property is true for all covalent molecular substances?
Low melting and boiling points.

Soluble in water.
Conduct electricity.
...............................................
Q79: What is another name for covalent molecular compounds?
Network
Lattice
Monatomic
Discrete
Summary
molecules;
have low melting and boiling points as only weak forces of attraction between the
do not conduct electricity because they do not have charged particles which are free to
move;
covalent molecular substances which are insoluble in water may dissolve in other
solvents.
Covalent network substances

Some covalent substances form giant, three dimensional structures where all of the atoms are
covalently bonded to each other. These structures are called covalent networks.
In a covalent network there are no individual molecules, the substance is one giant structure. This
makes covalent network substances very strong with very high melting and boiling points.
Covalent network substances will always be in the solid state and are generally insoluble in water.
Covalent substances (with the exception of graphite) do not conduct electricity as they have no free
electrons to carry charge.
Diamond, Graphite and Silicon Dioxide are examples of covalent networks.
Covalent networks: diamond (left), silicon dioxide (right), graphite (bottom)
Diamond
Diamond is a covalent network form of the element carbon.
Diamond
Diamond consists solely of a network of carbon atoms held together by covalent bonds.
Each carbon atom makes covalent bonds to four different carbon atoms, which each bond to three
more carbons, and so on, binding the whole structure together as shown.
Structure of diamond Go online
Arrangement of carbon atoms in diamond
Diamond is the hardest known substance on Earth. Its covalent network structure has the
characteristic properties of hardness and a high melting point, both due to the strong bonding
throughout the structure.
Diamond cannot conduct electricity as there are no free electrons to carry the charge.
Diamond: Questions Go online
Q80: How many bonds does each carbon atom make?

...............................................
Q81: What type of bond holds the carbon atoms together in diamond?
Graphite
Graphite is another covalent network form of the element carbon.
It is soft and slippery and is most commonly used as the lead in pencils.
Graphite
Graphite consists solely of a network of carbon atoms held together by covalent bonds.
In graphite, only three of the four outer electrons in the carbon atom form covalent bonds to
surrounding carbon atoms. Layers of carbon atoms are formed.
Graphite sheet: Activity Go online
Graphite sheet
Graphite is able to conduct electricity because it has one free electron which does not form a
covalent bond.
This free electron can carry charge and move between the layers of carbon atoms.
Layers of graphite: Activity Go online
Layers of graphite
Graphite: Questions Go online
Q82: How many bonds does each carbon atom make?

...............................................
Q83: What type of bond holds the carbon atoms together in diamond?
Silicon dioxide
Silicon dioxide is a covalent network compound consisting of silicon atoms and oxygen atoms held
together by single covalent bonds.
It is found naturally as quartz and often goes by the name silica.
Silicon dioxide
Structure of silica: Activity Go online
Structure of silicon dioxide (silica)
Each silicon atom makes four covalent bonds to four different oxygen atoms, which each bond to
another silicon atom, and so on, binding the whole structure together as shown.
In a covalent network, the formula of the compound tells us the ratio of the atoms present.
In silicon dioxide, there are twice as many oxygen atoms as there are silicon atoms and so its
formula is SiO2.
Silicon dioxide: Questions Go online
Q84: How many bonds does each silicon atom make?

...............................................
Q85: How many bonds does each oxygen atom make?

...............................................
Q86: What type of bond holds the atoms together in silicon dioxide?
Covalent networks summary
Covalent networks summary: Questions Go online
Q87: What state can covalent network substances be at room temperature?
Solid
Liquid
Gas
All of the above.
...............................................
Q88: Which of these covalent network substances can conduct electricity?
Silicon dioxide
Diamond
Graphite
...............................................
Q89: Which property is true for covalent network substances?
High melting and boiling points.

Soluble in water.
Low melting and boiling points
Summary
Covalent network structures:
have a network of strong covalent bonds within one giant structure;
is not easily broken;
do not dissolve;
In general, covalent network substances do not conduct electricity. This is because they do
not have charged particles which are free to move.
Summary
Summary
• Covalent bonding:
◦ covalent bonds form between non-metal atoms;
◦ a covalent bond forms when two positive nuclei are held together by their common
◦ diagrams can be drawn to show how outer electrons are shared to form the
covalent bond(s) in a molecule;
◦ seven elements exist as diatomic molecules through the formation of covalent
bonds: H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2;
◦ the shape of simple covalent molecules depends on the number of bonds and the
orientation of these bonds around the central atom. These molecules can be
described as linear, angular, trigonal pyramidal or tetrahedral;
◦ more than one bond can be formed between atoms leading to double and triple
covalent bonds;
◦ covalent substances can form either discrete molecular or giant network structures.
• Covalent molecular substances:
◦ have strong covalent bonds within the molecules and only weak attractions
between the molecules;
◦ have low melting and boiling points as only weak forces of attraction between the
◦ do not conduct electricity because they do not have charged particles which are
free to move;
◦ covalent molecular substances which are insoluble in water may dissolve in other
solvents.
• Covalent network structures:
◦ have a network of strong covalent bonds within one giant structure;
◦ have very high melting and boiling points because the network of strong covalent
bonds is not easily broken;
◦ do not dissolve;
◦ in general, covalent network substances do not conduct electricity. This is because
they do not have charged particles which are free to move.

Key word Definition
a substance which exists as single, unbonded atoms. The noble
gases are described this way.
forms between non-metals when two positive nuclei are held
together by their common attraction for a shared pair of electrons.
can be drawn to show how outer electrons are shared to form the
covalent bond(s) in a molecule.
molecules made up of two atoms.
H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
two positive nuclei are held together by their common attraction for a
one shared pair of electrons.
two positive nuclei are held together by their common attraction for
two shared pairs of electrons.
two positive nuclei are held together by their common attraction for
three shared pairs of electrons.
the 3D arrangement of simple covalent molecules depends on the
number of bonds and the orientation of these bonds around the
central atom.
small covalent molecules with low melting and boiling points as only
weak forces of attraction between the molecules are broken when a
substance changes state.
strong covalent bonds within one giant structure which has a very
high melting and boiling point.
Key words: covalent bond, covalent network, diatomic, diatomic elements, discrete, double
covalent bond, monatomic, outer electron diagram, single covalent bond, shape, triple
covalent bond.
Resources
Texts

ISBN 978-0007549306
978-1510420861
Practical work
The formation of a covalent compound can be shown using activities from the RSC LearnChemistry
website:
Exploding bubbles of hydrogen and oxygen is a particularly fun way to show two non-metal elements
reacting together (a video is also available).
Chemistry exciting elements has an online video showing the reaction of hydrogen gas with fluorine,
chlorine and bromine. The explosive reaction of hydrogen and chlorine is also shown in Fire and
Flame: Part 4 (clips 43 and 44) and The Chemistry of Light: Part 3 (clip 26).
Instructions on how to carry out the reaction between hydrogen and chlorine gases safely in a school
or college lab is provided by SSERC (SSERC Bulletin 223, page 10, 2007).
PhET at the University of Colorado have created Build a molecule, a simulation that lets candidates
assemble molecules on screen and view their structures in 3D.
NBC Learn: Chemistry Now, available through RSC LearnChemistry, introduces the formation of
double bonds, as a way of atoms acquiring a stable octet in the video Carbon, Captured: Carbon
dioxide — The Chemistry of CO2: Carbon dioxide.
LearnChemistry's Which substances conduct electricity? experiment enables candidates to
distinguish between electrolytes and non-electrolytes and to verify that covalent substances never
conduct electricity even when liquefied, whereas ionic compounds conduct in the molten state.
The Exhibition Chemistry: Red hot carbon resource from LearnChemistry has been created to show
that graphite has an exceptionally high melting point, and is a good conductor of heat in an
experiment that results in the dramatic destruction of a pencil (a video is also available).
The Royal Institution Christmas Lectures 2012: Allotropes of Carbon video, available on
LearnChemistry, discusses the properties of diamond and graphite and, by burning samples of both
in liquid oxygen, provides proof that they are both forms of carbon.
End of topic test

Covalent bonding topic test Go online
Q91: Complete the following table to show the state at room temperature and the structure
of the following substances.
Covalent substance Melting point / ◦C Boiling point / ◦C State Structure

Oxygen -219 -183
Silicon dioxide 1713 2950
Water 0 100
Ammonia -78 -33
Bromine -7 59
Decomposes at -
Diamond
3550
...............................................
Q92: Chlorine gas is made up of diatomic molecules.

Draw a diagram, showing all outer electrons, to represent a molecule of chlorine, Cl 2.
...............................................
Q93: Chloromethane is a covalent gas with a faint sweet odour. The structure of a
chloromethane molecule is shown.
State the name used to describe the shape of a molecule of chloromethane.

...............................................
Q94: Which of the options below correctly lists the diatomic elements?
a) Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine and iodine

b) Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine and bromine
c) Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, sulfur and iodine
d) Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine
...............................................
Q95: Which of the following elements exists as a covalent network element?
a) Fluorine
b) Helium
c) Silicon
d) Sulfur
...............................................
Q96: A covalent bond is when:
a) pairs of electrons are shared equally between atoms.

b) one electron is shared equally between atoms.
c) oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other.
d) positively charged ions are attracted to delocalised electrons.
...............................................
Q97: Which of the following compounds exists as diatomic molecules?
a) Silicon dioxide
b) Carbon dioxide
c) Carbon tetrafluoride
d) Hydrogen chloride
...............................................
Q98: Methane is a gas at room temperature because it has:
a) weak covalent bonds between atoms.

b) weak forces of attraction between atoms.
c) weak forces of attraction between molecules.
d) no covalent bonds between atoms.
...............................................
Q99: Which of the following diagrams represents a covalent molecular element?
a)
b)
c)
d)
...............................................
Q100: Which of the following substances is a good conductor of electricity?
Chlorine
Ammonia
Diamond
Graphite
95
Topic 4
Ionic compounds
Contents
Prior knowledge ........................................................................................................................................... 97
Ions 97
Positive ions 98
Negative ions 101
Group ions 103
Ionic bonds................................................................................................................................................. 105
Formation of ionic bonds ....................................................................................................................................105
Ionic structure ............................................................................................................................................ 109
Properties of ionic compounds...................................................................................................................111
Melting and boiling points ...................................................................................................................................111
Solubility in water 112
Conduction of electricity .....................................................................................................................................114
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 117
Resources .................................................................................................................................................. 119
End of topic test ......................................................................................................................................... 120
96 TOPIC 4. IONIC COMPOUNDS
Prerequisites
the position of metals and non-metals in the periodic table;
elements within a group share the same valency and have similar chemical properties
the electron arrangement of the first twenty elements can be written;
an atom has a nucleus, containing protons and neutrons, and electrons that orbit the
nucleus;
in a neutral atom the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons;
covalent bonds form between non-metal atoms;
a covalent bond forms when two positive nuclei are held together by their common
Learning objective
• ions:
◦ ions are formed when atoms lose or gain electrons to obtain the stable electron
arrangement of a noble gas;
◦ in general, metal atoms lose electrons forming positive ions and non-metal atoms
gain electrons forming negative ions;
◦ ion-electron equations can be written to show the formation of ions through loss or
gain of electrons.
• ionic bonding:
◦ ionic bonds are the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions;
◦ ionic compounds form lattice structures of oppositely charged ions with each
positive ion surrounded by negative ions and each negative ion surrounded by
positive ions.
• properties of ionic substances:
◦ ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points because strong ionic bonds
must be broken in order to break up the lattice;
◦ many ionic compounds are soluble in water - as they dissolve the lattice, structure
breaks up allowing water molecules to surround the separated ions;
◦ ionic compounds conduct electricity only when molten or in solution as the lattice,
structure breaks up allowing the ions to be free to move;
◦ conduction in ionic compounds can be explained by the movement of ions towards
oppositely charged electrodes.
TOPIC 4. IONIC COMPOUNDS 97
Prior knowledge
a) To achieve an empty outer shell of electrons.

b) To achieve a full outer shell of electrons.
c) To have an equal number of protons and electrons.
d) To have an equal number of protons and neutrons.
...............................................
Q2: An atom is neutral because it has the same number of:
a) protons and neutrons.

b) electrons and neutrons.
c) protons and electrons.
...............................................
Q3: What is the correct electron arrangement for calcium?
a) 2,8,8
b) 2,8,8,1
c) 2,8,8,2
d) 2,8,5
Ions
Ions are particles that have an imbalance in the number of positive protons and negative electrons.
They are charged particles.
Negative ions are formed when non-metal atoms gain electrons. Atoms that gain electrons have
more negative electrons than positive protons and so have a negative charge.
Positive ions are formed when metal atoms lose electrons. Atoms that lose electrons have more
positive protons than negative electrons and so have a positive charge.
Why do atoms gain or lose ions?
Remember, the most stable atoms in the periodic table are group 0 (sometimes called group 8), the
noble gases.
Noble gas Electron arrangement
Helium 2
Neon 2,8
Argon 2,8,8
Ions: Questions Go online
Q4: Why are they so stable?
They are gases.

They are in group 0 of the periodic table.
They have incomplete outer electron shells.
Atoms can obtain full outer electron shells by losing or gaining outer electrons.
Positive ions
Positive ions are formed when metal atoms lose electrons.
Ions that have lost electrons have more positive protons than negative electrons and so have a
positive charge.
The metals in the periodic table have only 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outer shell and so it is easier
for them to lose outer electrons to obtain a full outer shell than to gain electrons.
When we write an ion charge, we show it as a '+' superscript at the top right hand side of the
atomic symbol. If more than one electron has been lost to form the ion then we also show a number
to indicate how many electrons have been lost.
The name of a positive ion is the same as the name of the atom.
Examples
1. Sodium ion
Sodium is in group 1 of the periodic table and so will lose one outer electron to form an ion
with a one positive charge (+).
Sodium ion
Electron arrangement = 2, 8, 1 Electron arrangement = 2, 8
Number of protons = 11 Number of protons = 11
Number of electrons = 11 Number of electrons = 10
Total charge = 0
...............................................
2. Magnesium ion
Magnesium is in group 2 of the periodic table and so will lose two outer electrons to form an
ion with a two positive charge (2+).
Magnesium atom Magnesium ion

Electron arrangement = 2, 8, 2
Total charge = 0
Positive ions: Questions Go online
Q5: Complete the following sentence and table with reference to the diagram and equation.
Aluminium is in group 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 of the periodic table and so will lose one / two / three / four
outer electrons to form an ion with a one / two / three / four positive charge (1+ / 2+ / 3+ / 4+).
Aluminium atom Aluminium ion

Electron arrangement = Electron arrangement =
Number of protons = Number of protons =
Number of electrons = Number of electrons =
Total charge = Total charge =
Transition metal ions
The transition metals are found in the middle section of the periodic table.
Transition metals
Transition metals, like all metals, will lose electrons to form positive ions.
Most transition metals can make more than one type of ion by losing different numbers of electrons.
The number of electrons lost is shown using roman numerals after the name of the metal.
For example, rust is the chemical compound iron (III) oxide.
Rust
The Roman numeral (III) in the compound name tells us that the iron atom has lost three electrons
+
to form an ion with a 3 charge.
Transition metal ions: Questions Go online
Q6: Complete the following table to show the names and charges of different compounds
containing transition metals.
Name of transition metal Charge of transition metal
Name of compound
present ion
Copper (II) chloride
Silver (I) oxide
Iron (III) sulfate
Negative ions
Negative ions are formed when non-metal atoms gain electrons.
Ions that have gained electrons have more negative electrons than positive protons and so have a
negative charge.
The non-metals in the periodic table that form bonds have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outer shell and
so it is easier for them to gain outer electrons to obtain a full outer shell than to lose electrons.
Remember, the noble gases (group 0) already have a full outer shell of electrons and so will not
form ions.
When we write an ion charge, we show it as a '-' superscript at the top right hand side of the atomic
symbol. If more than one electron has been gained to form the ion then we also show a number to
indicate how many electrons have been gained.
The name of a negative ion is the name of the atom with the ending changed to 'ide'. For example,
a bromine atom will gain one electron to form a bromide ion.
Examples
1. Chloride ion
Chlorine is in group 7 of the periodic table and so will gain one outer electron to form an
chloride ion with a one negative charge (-).
Chlorine atom Chloride ion

Electron arrangement = 2, 8, 7 Electron arrangement = 2, 8, 8
Total charge = 0 (Neutral) Total charge = 1−
An ion electron equation can be written to show formation of this ion: Cl + e - → Cl-
...............................................
2. Oxide ion
Oxygen is in group 6 of the periodic table and so will gain two outer electrons to form an oxide
ion with a two negative charge (2-).
Oxygen atom Oxide ion

Electron arrangement = 2, 6 Electron arrangement = 2, 8
An ion electron equation can be written to show formation of this ion: O + 2e - → O2-
Negative ions: Questions Go online
Q7: Complete the following sentence and table with reference to the diagram and equation.
Nitrogen is in group 4 / 5 / 6 / 7 of the periodic table and so will gain one / two / three / four
outer electrons to form a nitrogen / nitride ion with a one / two / three / four negative charge
(1- / 2- / 3- / 4-).
Nitrogen atom Nitrogen ion

Electron arrangement = Electron arrangement =
Number of electrons = Number of electrons =

Total charge = Total charge =
...............................................
Q8: Complete the following table to show the ions formed when elements gain or lose
electrons.
Name of element Electron arrangement Charge on ion formed
2,8,6
2,1
2,8,8,2
2,8,5
2,7
2,8,8,1
Group ions
Some ions contain more than one type of atom and are referred to as group ions.
Group ions should be treated as a single particle with a charge.
The elements present are represented by their atomic symbols followed by a subscript to show
how many of each type of atom there are.
Some common group ions are shown in the following table.
One positive
Ion Formula
Ammonium NH4+
One negative
Ion Formula
Ethanoate CH3COO-
Hydrogencarbonate HCO3-
Hydrogensulfate HSO4-
Hydrogensulfite HSO3-
Hydroxide OH-
Nitrate NO3-
Permanganate MnO4-
Two negative
Ion Formula
Carbonate CO32-
Chromate CrO42-
Dichromate Cr2O72-
Sulfate SO42-
Sulfite SO32-
Thiosulfate S2O32-
Three negative
Ion Formula
Phosphate PO43-
Examples of group ions can be found on Page 8 of your SQA National 5 Data Book.
Key point
Ions are formed when atoms lose or gain electrons to obtain the stable electron
arrangement of a noble gas.
In general, metal atoms lose electrons forming positive ions and non-metal atoms gain
electrons forming negative ions.
Ion-electron equations can be written to show the formation of ions through loss or gain
of electrons.
Ions containing more than one type of atom are often referred to as group ions.
Ionic bonds
Positive ions and negative ions are strongly attracted to each other.
This attraction is the attraction between positive and negative charges and is known as electrostatic
attraction.
This electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions is an ionic bond.
Ionic bonds are very strong and all ionic compounds are solids at room temperature with high melting
and boiling points.
4.3.1 Formation of ionic bonds

Ionic bonds are formed when a metal reacts with a non-metal. One or more electrons are transferred
from the metal atom to the non-metal atom to form charged ions with full outer electron shells.
Formation of ionic bonds: Activity Go online
Sodium donates an electron to the chlorine atom.
The oppositely charged ions are mutually attracted.
Q9: How many outer electrons does a sodium atom have?

...............................................
Q10: How many outer electrons does a chlorine atom have?

...............................................
Q11: When a sodium atom loses its outer electron to a chlorine atom, how many outer
electrons do both ions then have?
...............................................
Q12: Why is this special?
The ions are smaller than atoms.

Both ions have a stable noble gas electron configuration.
Both ions have only a single charge.
These charged ions are strongly attracted to each other through electrostatic attractions and this is
the ionic bond.
Examples
1. Sodium chloride
Sodium has one electron in its outer shell.
It will lose this electron to form a sodium ion with a one positive charge.
But where does this electron go?

Chlorine has seven electrons in its outer shell and must gain one more electron to obtain a
full, stable arrangement. This forms a chloride ion with a one negative charge.
A sodium ion and a chloride ion have been formed.
The positively charged sodium ion and the negatively charged chloride ion are strongly
attracted to each other by electrostatic attractions.
An ionic bond has formed.
...............................................
2. Magnesium oxide
Magnesium has two electrons in its outer shell.
It will lose its two outer electrons to form a magnesium ion with a two positive charge.
But where do these electrons go?

Oxygen has six electrons in its outer shell and must gain two more electrons to obtain a full,
stable arrangement. This forms an oxide ion with a two negative charge.
The two electrons that have been lost by the magnesium atom have been transferred to the
oxygen atom.
A magnesium ion and an oxide ion have been formed.
The positively charged magnesium ion and the negatively charged oxide ion are strongly
attracted to each other by electrostatic attractions.
Formation of ionic bonds: Questions Go online
Q13: Complete the following sentences and with reference to the diagrams.
Aluminium has three electrons in its outer shell.
It will lose one / two / three / four electrons to form an aluminium ion with a one / two / three /
four positive charge.

Fluorine has five / six / seven / eight electrons in its outer shell and must gain one / two / three
/ four more electron to obtain a full, stable arrangement. This forms a chloride ion with a one
/ two / three / four negative charge.
Key point
Ions are formed when atoms lose or gain electrons to obtain the stable electron
arrangement of a noble gas.
In general, metal atoms lose electrons forming positive ions and non-metal atoms gain
electrons forming negative ions.
Ionic bonds are the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions.
Ionic structure
In an ionic compound, millions and millions of ions are arranged in a regular, repeating structure.
This huge, 3D structure is called a lattice.
The electrostatic attraction of positive and negative ions extends in all directions.
When solid ionic compounds form, a positive ion will be surrounded by several negative ions, which,
in turn, will attract more positive ions.
This process results in the formation of a lattice of regularly arranged ions, all held together by
electrostatic forces.
There are no molecules formed.
Structure of sodium chloride Go online
Arrangement of sodium and chloride ions in sodium chloride
Table salt is the ionic compound sodium chloride and is made up of positively charged sodium ions
and negatively charged chloride ions.
Salt
All ionic compounds are solids at room temperature because the ionic bonds in the lattice are very
strong.
Key point
Ionic bonds are the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions.
Ionic compounds form lattice structures of oppositely charged ions with each positive
ion surrounded by negative ions and each negative ion surrounded by positive ions.
be broken in order to break up the lattice.
Properties of ionic compounds

Ionic compounds can be identified by their properties.
Melting and boiling points

A table showing the melting points and boiling points of some common ionic substances is shown
as follows.
Melting and boiling points: Questions Go online
Q14: Complete the following table to show the names of the positive and negative ions
present and the state of the compound at room temperature.
State at
Name of Name of Name of Melting Boiling
room
compound positive ion negative ion point / ◦C point / ◦C
temperature
Barium
961 1560
chloride
Calcium
2614 2850
oxide
Lithium
550 1265
bromide
Magnesium
714 1412
chloride
Potassium
681 1323
iodide
Sodium
801 1465
chloride
All ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points because strong ionic bonds must be broken
in order to break up the lattice.
This is why all ionic compounds will be solids at room temperature.
Key point
Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points because strong ionic bonds must be
broken in order to break up the lattice.
Solubility in water
Most ionic compounds are soluble in water.
Page eight of your SQA data book gives the solubilities of some ionic compounds in cold water.
Solubilities of selected compounds in water
Bromide Carbonate Chloride Iodide Nitrate

Aluminium vs - vs vs vs
Ammonium vs vs vs vs vs
Barium vs i vs vs vs
Calcium vs i vs vs vs
Copper (II) vs i vs - vs
Iron (II) vs i vs vs vs
Iron (III) vs - vs - vs
Lead (II) s i s i vs
Lithium vs vs vs vs vs
Magnesium vs i vs vs vs
Nickel vs i vs vs vs
Potassium vs vs vs vs vs
Silver i i i i vs
Sodium vs vs vs vs vs
Tin (II) vs i vs s -
Zinc vs i vs vs vs
Phosphate Sulfate Oxide Hydroxide

Aluminium i vs i i
Ammonium vs vs - -
Barium i i vs vs
Calcium i s s s
Copper (II) i vs i i
Iron (II) i vs i i
Iron (III) i vs i i
Lead (II) i i i i
Lithium i vs vs vs
Magnesium i vs i i
Nickel i vs i i
Potassium vs vs vs vs
Silver i s i -
Sodium vs vs vs vs
Tin (II) i vs i i
Zinc i vs i i
• vs means very soluble (a solubility greater than 10 g l-1)

• s means soluble (a solubility of between 1 and 10 g l-1)
• i means insoluble (a solubility less than 1 g l-1)
• - means no data
Solubility in water: Questions Go online
Q15: Which of the following ionic compounds is soluble?
Calcium carbonate
Lead (II) phosphate
Ammonium nitrate
Aluminium hydroxide
...............................................
Q16: Which of the following ionic compounds is insoluble?
Copper (II) chloride

Tin (II) iodide
Silver nitrate
Zinc oxide
When an ionic compound dissolves in water, the individual ions are separated from the lattice
structure.
The regular pattern of the lattice disappears and the ions are surrounded by water molecules.
Solubility in water: Activity Go online
The electrostatic attractions in the ionic lattice are replaced by forces of attraction between the
individual ions and the water molecules.
When ions dissolve in water, aqueous solutions are formed.
We can show this using sodium chloride dissolving as an example.
Sodium chloride + Water → Sodium chloride solution

NaCl (s)+ H2O (l) → NaCl (aq)
Remember, the lattice structure has been broken down and the sodium ions and chloride ions are
free to move in the solution.
Key point
Many ionic compounds are soluble in water. As they dissolve the lattice structure breaks up
allowing water molecules to surround the separated ions.
Conduction of electricity
In the previous section, Solubility in water, we saw that when dissolved in solution, the ionic lattice
breaks up.
Ions are charged particles; therefore, they can carry an electric current.
Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity when they are solid because the ions are packed closely
together in the lattice and are not free to move.
Structure of sodium chloride Go online
Arrangement of sodium and chloride ions in sodium chloride
When an ionic compound is dissolved in water or molten the lattice structure is broken up and the
ions are then free to move. This allows them to conduct electricity.
Conduction of electricity in solids and melts: Activity Go online
heating to
break bonds
between ions
solid ionic lattice
molten ionic compound
When the ions are free in the solution they will move towards the oppositely charged electrode. For
example, when sodium chloride ions are free to move in solution the positively charged sodium ions will
be attracted to the negative electrode and the negative charged chloride ions are attracted to the
positive electrode.
Conduction of electricity in solutions: Activity Go online
Go online
Q17: When will lithium chloride conduct electricity?
In the solid state.

When molten or in solution.
...............................................
Q18: Why can ionic substances conduct electricity when molten or in solution?
The ions are held in place.

The ions are free to move.
The electrons are held in place.
The electrons are free to move.
...............................................
will the sulfate ions be attracted to?
Positive electrode
Negative electrode
Key point
Ionic compounds conduct electricity only when molten or in solution as the lattice
structure breaks up allowing the ions to be free to move.
Conduction in ionic compounds can be explained by the movement of ions towards
Summary
Summary
• Ions:
gain of electrons.
• Ionic bonding:
◦ -ionic compounds form lattice structures of oppositely charged ions with each
positive ions.
• Properties of ionic substances:
◦ many ionic compounds are soluble in water. As they dissolve the lattice structure
◦ ionic compounds conduct electricity only when molten or in solution as the lattice
Key word Definition

a particle with an imbalance of positive protons and negative
electrons.
a particle that has more protons than electrons. Metals lose electrons
to form these.
a particle that has more electrons than protons. Non-metals gain
electrons to form these.
when an atom has obtained the electron arrangement of a noble gas.
a small number that is written at the top right hand side of an atomic
symbol to indicate charge on an ion, e.g. the '3+' in Al3+.
a small number that is written at the bottom right hand side of an
atomic symbol to indicate how many of that type of atom are present,
e.g. the '3' in AlCl3.
shows the formation of ions through loss or gain of electrons.
the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions.
the attraction between positive and negative charges.
the structure formed by ionic compounds consisting of oppositely
charged ions. Each positive ion surrounded by negative ions and
each negative ion surrounded by positive ions.
the temperature at which a substance changes from a solid into a
liquid.
the temperature at which a substance changes from a liquid into a
gas.
when a solid has been heated and has changed from a solid into the
liquid state.
contain more than one type of atom.
a substance that will dissolve.
the result of a solid being dissolved in water.
Key words: aqueous solution, boiling point, electrostatic, full outer electron shell, group ions,
ion, ion-electron equation, ionic bond, lattice, melting point, molten, negative ion, positive ion,
soluble, subscript, superscript.
Resources
Texts

ISBN 978-0007549306
978-1510420861
Practical work
The formation of an ionic compound can be shown using experiments from the RSC LearnChemistry
website that include: Reaction between aluminium and iodine, Reaction of zinc with iodine,
Exhibition Chemistry: The reaction between aluminium and bromine, Reactions of chlorine, bromine and
iodine with aluminium, Iron and sulfur reaction (a video is also available), Reacting elements with
chlorine, Heating Group 1 metals in air and in chlorine (a video is also available), The combustion
of iron wool and Halogen reactions with iron wool (a video is also available).Explodingbubbles of
hydrogen and oxygen is a particularly fun way to show two non-metal elements reactingtogether (a
video is also available).
The PhET team at the University of Colorado have created Sugar and Salt Solutions, a simulation
that lets candidates add sugar or salt to water and watch what happens at an atomic scale. They
can also use a virtual conductivity tester to test the conductivity of the solutions.
The LearnChemistry experiments Electrolysing molten lead(II) bromide and Electrolysis of molten
zinc chloride (a video is also available) demonstrate that conduction is possible when ionic
compounds are molten, and show the products of electrolysis.
LearnChemistry's Microscale Chemistry — Using a microscale conductivity meter gives details of
how to make a cheap and simple conductivity meter that can be used to test the conductivity of
solids (eg metals) or solutions.
LearnChemistry offers descriptions of experiments that allow candidates to observe the movement
of coloured ions.
In The migration of ions: evidence for the ionic model a glass microscope slide is used to support
a wet strip of filter paper on which a crystal of potassium manganate(VII) is placed. Applying a DC
voltage across the filter paper causes a purple plume to move towards the positive terminal.
It is relatively rare to be able to see the motion of both the positive and negative ions in the same
experiment, but an example is given in Exhibition Chemistry: Migration of coloured ions by
electrolysis.
LearnChemistry's Which substances conduct electricity? experiment enables candidates to
distinguish between electrolytes and non-electrolytes and to verify that covalent substances never
conduct electricity even when liquefied, whereas ionic compounds conduct in the molten state.
End of topic test

Ionic compounds topic test Go online
Q21: The following table gives information about some particles.
Number of Number of
Particle Number of protons
neutrons electrons
A 9 10 10
B 11 12 11
C 15 16 15
D 19 20 18
a) Identify the particle which is a positive ion.

b) Identify the particle which is a negative ion.
...............................................
Q22: Which line in the following table shows the properties of an ionic compound?
Conducts Conducts
Melting point / Boiling point /
◦C ◦C electricity as a electricity as a
solid? liquid?
A 181 1347 Yes Yes
B -95 69 No No
C 686 1330 No Yes
D 1700 2230 No No
...............................................
Q23: Solid ionic substances do not conduct electricity because:
a) the ions are not free to move.

b) the electrons are not free to move.
c) solid substances never conduct electricity.
d) there are no charged particles in ionic compounds.
...............................................
Q24: Atoms of an element form ions with a single positive charge and electron arrangement
2,8.
The element is:
a) fluorine.
b) lithium.
c) sodium.
d) neon.
...............................................
Q25: Which of the following pairs of elements combine to form an ionic compound?
a) Lead and fluorine.
b) Sulfur and oxygen.
c) Carbon and nitrogen.
d) Phosphorus and chlorine.
...............................................
Q26: Which of the following particles contains a different number of electrons from the
others?
a) Cl-
b) S2-
c) Ar
d) Na+
...............................................
Q27: What is the charge on a chromium ion in CrCl3?
a) 1+
b) 1-
c) 3+
d) 3-
...............................................
Q28: A metal X reacts with oxygen to form the metal oxide X2O3.
During the reaction, each atom of metal X:
a) gains two electrons.

b) gains three electrons.
c) loses two electrons.
d) loses three electrons.
...............................................
Q29: Which of the following diagrams represents an ionic compound?
a)
b)
c)
d)
...............................................
Q30: Which of the following substances is most likely to be soluble in water?
a) Iron
b) Carbon dioxide
c) Lithium iodide
d) Graphite
123
Topic 5
Chemical formulae
Contents
Prior knowledge ......................................................................................................................................... 125
Naming compounds ................................................................................................................................... 126
'ide' compounds 126
'ate' and 'ite' compounds ....................................................................................................................................128
Valency ...................................................................................................................................................... 129
Simple formulae ......................................................................................................................................... 130
Working out formulae .........................................................................................................................................132
Formulae from prefixes .............................................................................................................................. 135
Ionic formulae ............................................................................................................................................ 136
Formulae involving group ions ...........................................................................................................................136
Writing ionic formulae .........................................................................................................................................141
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 144
Resources .................................................................................................................................................. 146
End of topic test ......................................................................................................................................... 147
Prerequisites
Before you begin this topic, you should already have a working knowledge of the structure of
the Periodic Table in terms of groups and periods, and know that:

the position of metals and non-metals in the periodic table;
elements within a group share the same valency and have similar chemical properties
covalent bonds form between non-metal atoms;
a covalent bond forms when two positive nuclei are held together by their common
covalent structures can be molecular or a network;
ions are particles which have an imbalance in the number of positive protons and
negative electrons;
124 TOPIC 5. CHEMICAL FORMULAE
negative ions are formed when non-metal atoms gain electrons;
positive ions are formed when metal atoms lose electrons;
ionic bonds are the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions;
ionic compounds form lattice structures of oppositely charged ions with each positive
ion surrounded by negative ions and each negative ion surrounded by positive ions.
Learning objective
• naming compounds:
◦ compound names are derived from the names of the elements from which they are
formed;
◦ most compounds with a name ending in '-ide' contain the two elements indicated;
◦ the ending '-ite' or '-ate' indicates that oxygen is also present.
• formulae:
◦ chemical formulae can be written for two element compounds using valency rules
and a Periodic Table;
◦ Roman numerals can be used, in the name of a compound, to indicate the valency
of an element;
◦ the chemical formula can also be determined from names with prefixes;
◦ the chemical formula of a covalent molecular substance gives the number of each
type of atom present in a molecule;
◦ the formula of a covalent network gives the simplest ratio of each type of atom in
the substance.
• ionic formulae:
◦ ions containing more than one type of atom are often referred to as group ions;
◦ chemical formulae can be written for compounds containing group ions using
valency rules and the data book;
◦ ionic formulae give the simplest ratio of each type of ion in the substance and can
show the charges on each ion, if required;
◦ in formulae, charges must be superscript and numbers of atoms/ions must be
subscript.
TOPIC 5. CHEMICAL FORMULAE 125
Prior knowledge
...............................................
Q2: What is the valency of oxygen?
...............................................
Q3: What is the correct representation of a nitrogen ion?
a) N+
b) N-
c) N3+
d) N3-
Naming compounds
The names of compounds are derived from the names of the elements from which they are formed.
The ending of a compound name also gives us information about how many elements are present
in the compound.
At National 5, you should be able to identify the elements present in ' ide' compounds, 'ate'
compounds and 'ite' compounds.
Key point
Compound names are derived from the names of the elements from which they are formed.
'ide' compounds
Compounds ending in 'ide' contain only two elements.
To name simple compounds of metals and non-metals:
1. Write down the name of the metal element.
2. Write down the name of the non-metal element, changing the ending of the word to '-ide'.
For example, a compound containing potassium and iodine would be called potassium iodide.
A compound made from lithium and fluorine would be called lithium fluoride.
We can reverse this process to determine the elements present when we are given the name of a
compound.
For example, sodium chloride (table salt) contains sodium and chlorine.
Salt
The exception to the 'ide' rule

There is one the exception to the 'ide' rule: hydroxide.
Hydroxide (OH-) is a group ion and can be found in the table on page 8 of your data book. The ion
contains two elements (hydrogen and oxygen) and so compounds which contain hydroxide will have
three elements present.
For example, sodium hydroxide contains sodium, hydrogen and oxygen.
Sodium hydroxide (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sodium_hydroxide_solution.jpg by http

s://www.flickr.com/people/22925444@N05, licensed under http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by
/2.0/deed.en)
'ide' compounds: Questions Go online
Q4: Complete the following table with the names of the 'ide' compounds formed by reacting
two elements together.
Element 1 Element 2 Name of compound

Iron Sulfur
Magnesium Nitrogen
Tin Oxygen
Aluminum Bromine
Nickel Fluorine
Lithium Chlorine
...............................................
Q5: Match the following names of compounds with the elements that they contain.
Lead iodide
Carbon tetrafluoride
Silicon hydride
Copper chloride
Manganese dioxide
Calcium nitride
Nickel sulfate
Iron bromide
Elements: bromine, calcium, carbon, chlorine, copper, fluorine, hydrogen, iron, iodine, lead,
magnesium, manganese, nickel, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, silicon, sulfur.
...............................................
Q6: Which elements are present in copper hydroxide?
Key point
Most compounds with a name ending in '-ide' contain the two elements indicated.
'ate' and 'ite' compounds

Compounds ending in 'ate' or 'ite' contain three elements, one of which is oxygen.
For example, the compound calcium carbonate contains calcium, carbon and oxygen.
Sodium nitrate is a compound made from sodium, nitrogen and oxygen.
'ate' and 'ite' compounds: Questions Go online
Q7: Match the following names of compounds with the elements that they contain.
Iron sulfite
Lead phosphate
Magnesium nitrate
Potassium permanganate
Copper chromate
Elements: chrominum, copper, iron, lead, magnesium, manganese, nitrogen, oxygen,

phosphorus, potassium, sulfur.
Key point
The ending '-ite' or '-ate' indicates that oxygen is also present.
Valency
Each element has a valency number. This is the ability of the element to combine with another
element, sometimes called its combining power.
For main group elements, this is linked to the group number of the element in the periodic table.
Group number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
Elements in the same group have the same valency because they have the same number of
electrons in their outer energy levels. This is also why elements in the same group have similar
chemical properties.
Some elements, usually the transition metals, have more than one valency, and use roman numerals
instead to show the valency.
Roman numeral Number

I 1
II 2
III 3
IV 4
V 5
VI 6
This will be given to you in the name of the compound.

For example, in the compound copper (II) chromate the valency of the copper is two.
In iron (III) chloride the valency of the iron is 3.
Valency: Questions Go online
Use your SQA National 5 data book to help you answer the following questions.
What is the valency of the following elements?
Q8: Sulfur
...............................................
Q9: Neon
...............................................
Q10: Silicon
...............................................
Q11: Nitrogen
What is the valency of the elements in the following compounds?
Q12: Iron in iron (II) oxide

...............................................
Q13: Chromium in tin (IV) chloride
Key point
Elements within a group share the same valency and have similar chemical properties
because they have the same number of electrons in their outer energy levels.
Roman numerals can be used, in the name of a compound, to indicate the valency of
an element.
Simple formulae
A compound contains atoms from different elements that are chemically joined together.
A compound always contains a fixed number of atoms of each element.
Compound names can get quite long and complicated, so symbols of the elements are used as a
shorthand. The symbols of the elements in a compound are combined to give the formula of the
compound.
When there is more than one atom of each element, the number is always written after the symbol
as a subscript.
For covalent molecular substances the formula shows the number of each type of atom present in
the substance. For example in methane, CH4 there is one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms.
Methane
Perspective formula for methane

In covalent networks, the formula shows the ratio of atoms present. For example in silicon dioxide,
SiO2 there are two times the number of oxygen atoms as silicon atoms.
Silicon dioxide
Structure of silicon dioxide Go online
Arrangement of silicon and oxygen atoms in silicon dioxide
Note: If there is only one of a type of atom in a formula (for example there is one carbon atom in
methane, CH4) then we do not show the number '1' as a subscript - the atomic symbol tells you
there is one present.
Working out formulae

There is a way of predicting the simple chemical formula of a two-element compound using valency
numbers.
The steps to follow are as follows.
1. Write out the atomic symbols of the elements in the compound.

2. Write the valency for each element underneath it.
3. Swap the valencies over.
4. Check if you can simplify the valencies by dividing by a common factor.
5. Write out the formula.
Examples
Magnesium oxide
Write out the atomic symbols for magnesium and oxygen.
Mg
Write the valency for each element underneath it.
Mg O
Remember valencies are related to group number in the periodic table.

Swap the valencies over.
Mg O

Mg O
Here, we can divide both the valencies by 2.

Mg O
MgO
Remember we do not show the number '1' when we write out formula.
...............................................
2. Aluminium chloride
1. Write out the atomic symbols for aluminium and chlorine.

Al Cl
Al Cl
3 1
Al Cl
3 1
1 3
Al Cl
3 1
1 3
1 3
These valencies cannot be simplified.
Al Cl
3 1
1 3
1 3
AlCl3
...............................................
Silicon oxide
Write out the atomic symbols for silicon and oxygen.

Si O
Si O

Si O

Si O

Si O
Working out formulae: Questions Go online
What is the correct formula for the following compounds?
Q14: Sodium bromide

...............................................
Q15: Phosphorus fluoride
...............................................
Q16: Nitrogen hydride
...............................................
Q17: Magnesium chloride
Key point
Chemical formulae can be written for two element compounds using valency rules and a
Periodic Table.
Formulae from prefixes

The valency number method does not work for every compound.
Sometimes a prefix in the compound name tells us the chemical formula.
Prefix Meaning
mono 1
di 2
tri 3
tetra 4
penta 5
Examples
1. Carbon monoxide
This compound contains a carbon atom and one oxygen atom (mono is the prefix for one).
The formula is CO.
...............................................
2. Carbon dioxide
This compound contains a carbon atom and two oxygen atoms (di is the prefix for two).
The formula is CO2.
...............................................
3. Silicon tetrachloride
This compound contains a silicon atom and four chlorine atoms (tetra is the prefix for four).
The formula is SiCl4.
...............................................
4. Phosphorus pentafluoride
This compound contains a phosphorus atom and five fluorine atoms (penta is the prefix for
five).
The formula is PF5.
Formulae from prefixes: Questions Go online
Use prefixes to work out the formula of the following compounds.
Q18: Nitrogen trihydride

...............................................
Q19: Carbon tetraiodide

...............................................
Q20: Dihydrogen oxide

...............................................
Q21: Sulfur trioxide
Key point
The chemical formula can be determined from names with prefixes.
Ionic formulae
We can write formulae for ionic substances using the same method as for covalent substances.
Ionic formulae give the simplest ratio of each type of ion in the substance and can show the charges
on each ion, if required.
In ionic formulae, charges must be superscript and numbers of atoms/ions must be subscript.
Formulae involving group ions

In a previous topic we learned that some ions contain more than one type of atom and are referred
to as group ions.
Some common group ions are shown as follows.
One positive
Ion Formula
ammonium NH4+
One negative
Ion Formula
Ethanoate CH3COO-
Hydrogencarbonate HCO3-
Hydrogensulfate HSO4-
Hydrogensulfite HSO3-
Hydroxide OH-
Nitrate NO3-
Permanganate MnO4-
Two negative
Ion Formula
Carbonate CO32-
Chromate CrO42-
Dichromate Cr2O72-
Sulfate SO42-
Sulfite SO32-
Thiosulfate S2O32-
Three negative
Ion Formula
Phosphate PO43-
Examples of group ions can be found on page 8 of your SQA National 5 data book.
The valency of a group ion is the same as the value of its charge.
For example, the nitrate ion (NO3-) has a one negative charge and so its valency is one.
The nitrate ion (PO43-) has a three negative charge and so its valency is three.
Q22: Complete the following table to show the valency of some common group ions.
Group Ion Name Group Ion Formula Valency
+
Ammonium NH4
Carbonate CO32-
Sulfate SO42-
Phosphate PO43-
Ethanoate CH3COO-
Hydrogen carbonate HCO3-
Formulae for compounds containing group ions

We work out the formula for compounds containing group ions in the same way as before.
Example : Calcium nitrate
1. Write out the atomic symbol for calcium and the formula for the nitrate ion.
Ca NO3
Remember the group ion formulae can be found on page 8 of your SQA National 5 data
book.

Ca NO3
2 1
Remember valencies for group ions are the same as the value of their charge.

Ca NO3
2 1
1 2
Ca NO3
2 1
1 2
1 2
Here, we cannot simplify.

Ca NO3
2 1
1 2
1 2
Ca(NO3)2
Using brackets in formula

When there is more than one of the same group ion in a formula we put brackets around the group
ion and show a subscript outside the brackets to show how many there are present.
Everything inside the bracket is multiplied by the subscript outside the bracket.
For example the formula for calcium nitrate in the previous example is represented as Ca(NO 3)2
rather than CaNO32 which would have an entirely different meaning!
Examples
1. Magnesium sulfate
1. Write out the atomic symbol for magnesium and the formula for the sulfate ion.
Mg SO4
book.
Mg SO4
2 2
Mg SO4
2 2
2 2
Mg SO4
2 2
2 2
1 1
Mg SO4
2 2
2 2
1 1
MgSO4
...............................................
Ammonium carbonate
Write out the formulae for ammonium and the carbonate ion.
book.
NH4 CO3
Check if you can simplify the valencies by dividing by a common factor.

NH4 CO3

Write out the formula.
NH4 CO3
Formulae involving group ions: Questions Go online
What is the correct formula for the following compounds containing group ions?
Q23: Copper (II) sulfate

...............................................
Q24: Sodium hydroxide

...............................................
Q25: Barium hydrogensulfate

...............................................
Q26: Beryllium permanganate
Writing ionic formulae

In a previous topic (Ions), we found that when forming ionic compounds metals in groups 1, 2 and
3 lose their outer electrons to obtain the stable electron arrangement of a noble gas.
Non metals in groups 5, 6 and 7 gain electrons to obtain the stable electron arrangement of a noble
gas.
In group 4, the non-metals carbon and silicon do not form ions based on single atoms.
The charges on the ions of main group elements can be summarised as follows.
Group number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Charge on ion 1+ 2+ 3+ NA 3- 2- 1-
Ionic formulae shows us the ionic charges within the formula.

If there is more than one of either of the ions in the ionic formulae then we use brackets as in the
example below.
The positive and negative charges shown on the ions in an ionic formula should always balance.
Examples
Calcium chloride
Write out the ionic formulae for the calcium and chloride ions.
Ca 2+ Cl -
Remember the charge on a main group ion is linked to its group number in the periodic
table.
Ca2 + Cl -
Remember valencies for main group elements are linked to their group in the periodic
table.
Ca2 + Cl -

Ca 2+ Cl -
2 1
1 2
1 2
Ca 2+ Cl -
2 1
1 2
1 2
Ca 2+ (Cl - )2
Remember if there is more than one of either of the ions in the ionic formulae we use
brackets.
...............................................
2. Copper (II) nitrate
We have already seen how a Roman numeral can be used to show the valency of a metal
atom.
The Roman numeral also gives the size of the charge on the ion that is present.
1. Write out the ionic formulae for the copper and nitrate ions.
Cu 2+ NO3 -
book.
Cu 2+ NO3 -
2 1
Cu 2+ NO3 -
2 1
1 2
Cu 2+ NO3 -
2 1
1 2
1 2

Cu 2+ NO3 -
2 1
1 2
1 2
Cu 2 + (NO3 - ) 2
brackets.
...............................................
3. Ammonium carbonate
1. Write out the ionic formulae for the ammonium and carbonate ions.
NH4 + CO 3 2-
book.
NH4 + CO 3 2-
1 2
NH4 + CO 3 2-
1 2
2 1
NH4 + CO 3 2-
1 2
2 1
2 1
NH4 + CO 3 2-
1 2
2 1
2 1
(NH4 + )2CO32 -
brackets.
Writing ionic formulae: Questions Go online
What is the ionic formula for the following compounds containing group ions?
Q27: Nickel (II) sulfate

...............................................
Q28: Potassium permanganate

...............................................
Q29: Barium hydrogencarbonate

...............................................
Q30: Ammonium phosphate
Key point
Ions containing more than one type of atom are often referred to as group ions.
Chemical formulae can be written for compounds containing group ions using valency
rules and the data book.
Ionic formulae give the simplest ratio of each type of ion in the substance and can show
the charges on each ion, if required.
Summary
Summary
formed;
most compounds with a name ending in '-ide' contain the two elements indicated;
the ending '-ite' or '-ate' indicates that oxygen is also present.
Formulae:
chemical formulae can be written for two element compounds using valency rules
and a Periodic Table;
roman numerals can be used, in the name of a compound, to indicate the valency
of an element;
the chemical formula can also be determined from names with prefixes;
Summary continued
the chemical formula of a covalent molecular substance gives the number of each
type of atom present in a molecule;
the formula of a covalent network gives the simplest ratio of each type of atom in
the substance.
Ionic formulae:
ions containing more than one type of atom are often referred to as group ions;
chemical formulae can be written for compounds containing group ions using
valency rules and the data book;
ionic formulae give the simplest ratio of each type of ion in the substance and can
show the charges on each ion, if required;
in formulae, charges must be superscript and numbers of atoms/ions must be
subscript.

Key word Definition
the combining power of an element; the number of bonds the element
can make.
a formula giving the number of atoms present in a covalent molecular
substance.
part of the compound name which tells us the chemical formula eg mono,
di, tri etc.
a small compound formed between non metals which have strong
covalent bonds within the molecules and only weak attractions between
the molecules.
one giant structure containing strong covalent bonds which are not easily
broken.
a bond formed by the electrostatic attraction between positive and
negative ions.
these are formed when atoms lose or gain electrons to obtain the stable
electron arrangement of a noble gas.
a substance made up of two or more elements chemically joined together.
ions which contain more than one type of atom.
these give the simplest ratio of each type of ion in the substance and can
show the charges on each ion, if required.
Key words: Chemical formula, Compound, Covalent molecular, Covalent network, Group
ions, Ionic, Ionic formulae, Ions, Prefix, Valency
Complete the following sentences.
contain elements.
...............................................
Q33: 'ate' compounds contain elements, one of which is .

...............................................
Q34: 'ite' compounds contain elements, one of which is .
Resources
Texts

ISBN 978-0007549306
978-1510420861
Practical work
In LearnChemistry's Writing formulae for ionic compounds, ion formulae cards are used to help
candidates check, consolidate and demonstrate their ability to write correct formulae for ionic
compounds.
End of topic test

Chemical formulae topic test Go online
Q35: Which elements are present in the compound hydrogen sulphide?
a) Hydrogen and silicon

b) Hydrogen and sulfur
c) Hydrogen and selenium
d) Hydrogen only
...............................................
Q36: What is a possible name for the compound CuCl2?
a) Copper chlorate
b) Copper chlorite
c) Copper chloride
d) Copper chlorine
...............................................
Q37: Complete the following table to show the valency of the substances.
Element Valency
Carbon
Hydrogen
Hydroxide
Nitrogen
Sulfate
Aluminium
...............................................
Q38: What is the name of the compound with the formula Ag 2O?
a) Silver(I) oxide
b) Silver(II) oxide
c) Silver(III) oxide
d) Silver(IV) oxide
...............................................
Q39: What is the chemical formulae for potassium permanganate?

You may wish to use the data book to help you.
a) KMn
b) KMnO4
c) PMn
d) PMnO4
...............................................
Q40: Determine the ionic formulae for iron (III) hydroxide.

a) Fe+OH-
b) Fe2+(OH-)2
c) Fe3+(OH-)3
d) Fe4+(OH-)4
...............................................
Q41: What is the charge on the zinc ion in zinc dichromate, ZnCr2O7?
a) 2+
b) 2-
c) 1+
d) 1-
...............................................
Q42: What is the chemical formulae for ammonium carbonate?
a) NH3CO3
b) (NH3)2CO3
c) NH4CO3
d) (NH4)2CO3
...............................................
Q43: Determine the chemical formulae for dinitrogen monoxide.
a) NO
b) N2O3
c) N2O2
d) N2O
...............................................
Q44: What does the ionic formulae of magnesium oxide, Mg2+O2-, represent?
a) The simplest ratio (1:1) of magnesium and oxide ions.

b) There is one magnesium ion and one oxide ion.
c) There are two magnesium ions and two oxide ions.
d) The ions are free to move in solution.
149
Topic 6
Calculations involving the mole and

balanced equations
Contents
Prior knowledge ......................................................................................................................................... 151
Balanced equations ................................................................................................................................... 151
Gram formula mass ................................................................................................................................... 157
The mole .................................................................................................................................................... 160
The mole and mass 160
The mole and balanced equations .....................................................................................................................163
Solutions .................................................................................................................................................... 166
Calculations involving solutions .........................................................................................................................167
Preparing a standard solution ............................................................................................................................ 169
Calculations involving mass and volume ...................................................................................................170
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 172
Resources .................................................................................................................................................. 174
End of topic test ......................................................................................................................................... 175
Prerequisites
chemical formulae can be written for two element compounds using valency rules and
a Periodic Table;
Roman numerals can be used in the name of a compound to indicate the valency of an
element;
chemical formulae can be written for compounds containing group ions using valency
rules and the data booklet;
150 TOPIC 6. CALCULATIONS INVOLVING THE MOLE AND BALANCED EQUATIONS
Learning objective
• balanced equations:
◦ chemical equations, using formulae and state symbols, can be written and
balanced.
• gram formula mass:
◦ the mass of a mole of any substance, in grams (g), is equal to the gram formula
mass and can be calculated using relative atomic masses.
• the mole:
◦ calculations can be performed using the relationship between the mass and the
number of moles of a substance;
◦ given a balanced equation, the mass or number of moles of a substance can be
calculated given the mass or number of moles of another substance in the reaction.
• solutions:
◦ a solution is formed when a solute is dissolved in a solvent;
◦ for solutions, the mass of solute (grams or g), the number of moles of solute (moles or
mol), the volume of solution (litres or l) or the concentration of the solution (moles per
litre or mol l-1) can be calculated from data provided.
TOPIC 6. CALCULATIONS INVOLVING THE MOLE AND BALANCED EQUATIONS 151
Prior knowledge
Q1: What is the chemical formulae for carbon tetrachloride?

...............................................
Q2: What is the valency of oxygen?

...............................................
Q3: What is the chemical formulae for aluminium hydride?

...............................................
Q4: What is the chemical formulae for magnesium nitrate?

...............................................
Q5: What is the ionic formulae for calcium bromide?
Balanced equations
In a chemical reaction, one or more new substances are formed.
An arrow → is used to show that reactants have been changed into products.
reactants → products
An equation shows reactants on the left hand side and products on the right hand side.
Word equations can be used to show this. For example, for the reaction where magnesium is
burned in oxygen to produce magnesium oxide, we could write:
magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
All word equations can be written as formulae equations using chemical symbols and formulae for
reactants and products.
A formulae equation is a shorthand way of showing a chemical reaction.
Formulae equations must always be balanced.
A chemical equation is balanced when there is the same number of each type of atom on both sides
of the equation.
Examples
1.
For the reaction above, where magnesium is burned in oxygen to produce magnesium oxide,
the formulae equation is:
Mg+ O2 → MgO
There are more oxygen atoms on the left hand side than the right hand side so the equation
is not balanced.
We need to balance this equation.
1. List the elements present underneath the arrow and count how many of each element
are on each side.
Mg + O2 → MgO
1 Mg 1
2 O 1
2. There are more oxygen atoms on the left hand side. Add more oxygen atoms to the right
hand side by adding another magnesium oxide. Show this by putting the number '2' in
front of the magnesium oxide.
Mg + O2 → 2MgO
1 Mg 1
2 O 1
3. Update your total count of elements on each side of the equation underneath the arrow.
Mg + O2 → 2MgO
1 Mg 2
2 O 2
4. Now that the oxygen atoms are balanced, we need to balance the magnesium atoms.
Add more magnesium atoms to the left hand side. Show this by putting the number '2'
in front of the magnesium.
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
1 Mg 2
2 O 2
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
2 Mg 2
2 O 2
6. Double check that there are the same number of each type of atom on both sides of the
equation.
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
2 Mg 2
2 O 2
7. The equation is now balanced.
...............................................
2.
Phosphorus reacts with chlorine to produce phosphorus trichloride.
P + Cl2 → PCl3
There are more chlorine atoms on the right hand side than the left hand side so the equation
is not balanced.
are on each side.
P + Cl2 → PCl3
1 P 1
2 Cl 3
2. There are more chlorine atoms on the right hand side. Add more chlorine atoms to the
left hand side by adding another chlorine molecule. Show this by putting the number '2'
in front of the chlorine.
P + 2Cl2 → PCl3
1 P 1
4 Cl 3
3. The chlorines still are not balanced. Add more chlorine atoms to both sides until each
side has 6 chlorine atoms. Show this by putting the number '3' in front of the chlorine
and a '2' in front of the phosphorus trichloride.
P + 3Cl2 → 2PCl3
P + 3Cl2 → 2PCl3
1 P 2
6 Cl 6
5. Now that the chlorine atoms are balanced, we need to balance the phosphorus atoms.
Add more phosphorus atoms to the left hand side. Show this by putting the number '2'
in front of the phosphorus.
2P + 3Cl2 → 2PCl3
2 P 2
6 Cl 6
equation.
2P + 3Cl2 → 2PCl3
2 P 2
6 Cl 6
...............................................
3.
Silver (I) nitrate reacts with barium chloride to produce barium nitrate and silver (I) chloride.
Ag(NO3) + BaCl2 → Ba(NO3)2 + AgCl

There are more nitrates and chlorine atoms on the left hand side than the right hand side so
the equation is not balanced.
are on each side.
Ag (NO3) + BaCl2 → Ba(NO3)2 + AgCl

1 Ag 1
1 NO3 2
1 Ba 1
2 Cl 1
2. Add more nitrates to the left hand side. Show this by putting the number '2' in front of
the silver (I) nitrate.
2Ag (NO3) + BaCl2 → Ba(NO3)2 + AgCl
1 Ag 1
1 NO3 2
1 Ba 1
2 Cl 1
2Ag (NO3) + BaCl2 → Ba(NO3)2 + AgCl
2 Ag 1
2 NO3 2
1 Ba 1
2 Cl 1
4. Now that the nitrates are balanced, we need to balance the chlorine. Add more chlorine
to the right hand side. Show this by putting the number '2' in front of the silver chloride.
This also balances the silver.
2Ag (NO3) + BaCl2 → Ba(NO3)2 + 2AgCl
2 Ag 1
2 NO3 2
1 Ba 1
2 Cl 1
2 Ag 2
2 NO3 2
1 Ba 1
2 Cl 2
equation.
2 Ag 2
2 NO3 2
1 Ba 1
2 Cl 2
Key point
Rules for balancing equations

Chemical equations can only be balanced by putting numbers before the formulae.
Never change the formulae of a substance.
Balanced equations: Questions Go online
Balance the following equations.

Hint: You might need to go through an equation more than once so make sure you do a final
check at the end.
Q6: Mg + HCl → MgCl2 + H2

...............................................
Q7: SO2 + O2 → SO3
...............................................
Q8: C2H4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
...............................................
Q9: Al + Cl2 → AlCl3
...............................................
Q10: Cl- → Cl2 + e-
...............................................
Q11: H2SO4 + NaOH → Na2SO4 + H2O
The following are optional questions which are a little more challenging!
Q12: When solid hydrated barium hydroxide is mixed with solid ammonium chloride in
a beaker. An endothermic reaction takes place to produce and the temperature drops
dramatically to about -20◦C.
Ba(OH)2 + NH4Cl → NH3 + BaCl2 + H2O
Balance the equation.
...............................................
Q13: Silver can be displaced from a solution of silver (I) nitrate as shown.
AgNO3 (aq) + Cu (s) → Ag (s) + Cu(NO3)2 (aq)
...............................................
Q14: A student carried out an experiment to find the mass of calcium carbonate required to
neutralise a dilute hydrochloric acid solution. The equation for the reaction is as follows.
CaCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Key point
Chemical equations, using formulae and state symbols, can be written and balanced.
Gram formula mass

The gram formula mass of a substance (more correctly called the relative formula mass) is the
sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms present in the formula.
The relative atomic mass of an element is found on page 7 of the SQA Data Book. The relative
atomic mass of the first twenty elements are shown in the following table.
Atomic Relative Atomic Relative

Name Name
symbol atomic mass symbol atomic mass
Hydrogen H 1 Sodium Na 23
Helium He 4 Magnesium Mg 24·5
Lithium Li 7 Aluminium Al 27
Berylium Be 9 Silicon Si 28
Boron B 11 Phosphorus P 31
Carbon C 12 Sulfur S 32
Nitrogen N 14 Chlorine Cl 35·5
Oxygen O 16 Argon Ar 40
Fluorine F 19 Potassium K 39
Neon Ne 20 Calcium Ca 40
The mass of a mole of any substance, in grams (g), is equal to the gram formula mass and can be
calculated using relative atomic masses.
This can be shown in the following examples.
Examples
1.
Calculate the gram formula mass of carbon dioxide, CO2.
Write out the formula and draw an arrow from each element to its formula mass.
If there is more than one of an element, multiply the formula mass by how many of the
element there are.
3. Add all the masses together to get the formula mass in grams.
The gram formula mass of carbon dioxide is 44 g.

...............................................
2.
Calculate the gram formula mass of sodium sulfate, Na2SO4.
1. Write out the formula and draw an arrow from each element to its formula mass.
2. If there is more than one of an element, multiply the formula mass by how many of the
element there are.
The gram formula mass of sodium sulfate is 142 g.

...............................................
3.
Calculate the gram formula mass of magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO3)2.
1. Write out the formula and draw an arrow from each element to its formula mass.
2. If there is more than one of an element, multiply the formula mass by how many of the
element there are.
Note: If there is a number outside a bracket, everything in the bracket is multiplied by
that number.
The gram formula mass of magnesium nitrate is 148·5 g.
Gram formula mass: Questions Go online
Calculate the gram formula mass of the following substances.
Q15: H2O
...............................................
Q16: CH4
...............................................
...............................................
Q18: CaCO3
...............................................
Q19: Cu(NO3)2
...............................................
Q20: Carbon monoxide

...............................................
Q21: Magnesium chloride

...............................................
Q22: Oxygen
...............................................
Q23: Ammonium carbonate

...............................................
Q24: Sulfur dioxide
Key point
The mass of a mole of any substance, in grams (g), is equal to the gram formula mass and
can be calculated using relative atomic masses.
The mole
Have you ever wondered how the quantities of the chemicals you use are worked out?
Chemists use a quantity called the mole to carry out chemical calculations. One mole of a substance
is equal to the gram formula mass of the substance in grams.
The term mole is often abbreviated to mol.
Example One mole of carbon dioxide (CO2) will have a mass of 44 g because the gram
formula mass of carbon dioxide is 44 g.
The mole and mass

The mole lets us calculate quantities of reactants or products from balanced equations.
We can use a triangle to help us remember the relationship between the mole, mass and gram
formula mass.
This relationship can be found on Page 3 of your SQA data book.

We can use this relationship to perform calculations involving the mass and the number of moles of
a substance.
Examples
1.
What is the mass of 3 moles of ethanol (C2H5OH)?
We can calculate the gfm for C2H5OH using the data book.
Use the mass triangle to determine the relationship.
m = n × gfm
= 3 × 46
= 138 g
Therefore, 3 moles of ethanol has a mass of 138 g.
...............................................
2.
What is the mass of 0·5 moles of ammonia, (NH3)?
We can calculate the gfm of NH3using the data book.
m = n × gfm
= 0 · 5 × 17
=8·5 g
Therefore, 0·5 moles of ammonia has a mass of 8·5 g.
...............................................
3.
How many moles are there in 45 g of water (H2O)?
We can calculate the gfm of H2O using the data book.
m
n=
gfm
45
=
18
= 2 · 5 mol
Therefore, 45 g of water contains 2·5 moles.
...............................................
4.
How many moles are there in 100 g of salt (NaCl)?
We can calculate the gfm of NaCl using the data book.
m
n=
gfm
100
=
58 · 5
= 1 · 7 mol
Therefore, 100 g of water contains 1·7 moles.
The mole: Questions Go online
Q25: What is the mass of 0·1 mol of calcium sulfate?

...............................................
Q26: How many moles are present in 36 g of carbon?

...............................................
Q27: How many moles are present i n 5 g of sodium hydroxide?

...............................................
Q28: How many moles are present in 50 g of methane?
The mole and balanced equations

We can take this a step further and use this relationship to calculate the mass or the number of
moles of a substance from a balanced equation.
Examples
1.
Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide that will be produced when 32 g of methane burns
completely in air.
This calculation is simple if you remember the following steps.
Write the balanced equation for the reaction. CO2 + H2O
Determine the mole ratio. 1 mol 1 mol
Gather information from the question. m = 32 g m=?
gfm =
Calculate the number of moles.

gfm
Apply the mole ratio. n = 2 mol

gfm =
Answer the question.
Therefore, 88 g of carbon dioxide is produced.
...............................................
2.
Calculate the mass of oxygen required to react with 4 g of calcium.
Write the balanced equation for the reaction. 2Ca + O2 → 2CaO
Determine the mole ratio. 2 mol : 1 mol
Gather information from the question. m= 4g m=?
gfm = Ca
= 40 g
m
n=
Calculate the number of moles. gfm
4
=
40
= 0 · 1 mol
n = 0·05
Apply the mole ratio. × 0·5 →
mol
gfm= O2
= 2 × 16
= 32g
m = n × gfm
= 0 · 05 × 32
=1·6g
Therefore, 1·6 g of oxygen is required.

...............................................
3.
Ammonia is made by reacting nitrogen with hydrogen. Calculate the mass of hydrogen
required to produce 1 kg of ammonia.
Write the balanced equation for the reaction.

Determine the mole ratio. 3 mol 1 mol
Gather information from the question. m=? m = 1 kg
gfm =
Calculate the number of moles.

gfm
Apply the mole ratio. n = 0·177 mol

g f m= H = 2
Therefore, 0·354 kg of hydrogen is required.
The mole and balanced equations: Questions Go online
Q29: Dinitrogen monoxide (N2O) can be used to increase power in racing cars.
2N2O(g) → 2N2(g) + O2(g)

Calculate the mass of oxygen produced in grams when 22 grams of dinitrogen monoxide
decomposes.
...............................................
Q30: Molten iron is produced when aluminium reacts with iron oxide. The equation for the
reaction is as follows.
2Al+ Fe2O3 → 2Fe + Al2O3

Calculate the mass of iron produced from 40 g of iron oxide.
...............................................
Q31: The equation for burning nonane is as follows.
C9H20 + 14O2 → 9CO2 + 10H2O

Calculate the mass of water produced when 6·4 grams of nonane is burned.
Key point
of moles of a substance.
Given a balanced equation, the mass or number of moles of a substance can be
Solutions
A mixture is two or more substances that are mixed together but not chemically joined.
A solution is a special type of mixture that is made when a solid dissolves in a liquid.
Solute + Solvent → Solution

For example, a cup of instant coffee is a solution.
The solid that dissolves (e.g. coffee granules) is called the solute. The liquid that does the dissolving
(e.g. hot water) is called the solvent.
A concentrated solution is a solution with a high proportion of solute to solvent; this can be diluted
by adding more solvent forming a dilute solution.
A substance is said to be soluble if it can dissolve in a solvent.
A substance is said to be insoluble if it does not dissolve in a solvent.
Dissolving is not a chemical reaction but a physical change.
Key point
A solution is formed when a solute is dissolved in a solvent.
Calculations involving solutions

The mole gives us the ability to calculate quantities of liquids or solutions.
We use a different triangle to help us remember the relationship between the mole, concentration
and volume.
This relationship can be found on Page 3 of your SQA data book.

We can use this relationship to perform calculations involving the concentration, volume and the
number of moles of a substance.
Examples
1.
How many moles of solute are in 200 cm3 ethanoic acid with a concentration of 0·4 mol l-1?
Use the volume triangle to determine the relationship.
0·4 0·2
Therefore, the solution contains 0·08 moles of solute.

...............................................
2.
Calculate the number of moles of permanganate ions (MnO 4-) in 250 cm3 of a 1·0 mol l-1
solution.
c = 1 · 0 mol l−1
V = 250 cm3
= 0 · 25 l
n=c×V
= 1 · 0 × 0 · 25
= 0 · 25 mol
Therefore, the solution contains 0·25 moles of permanganate ions.
...............................................
3.
Calculate the concentration of iron sulfate solution if 0·4 moles was dissolved and made up
to 50 cm3 in a standard flask.
n =0 · 4 mol
V = 50 cm3
=0 · 05 l
n
c=
V
0·4
=
0 ·05
=8 mol l−1
Therefore, the iron sulfate solution has a concentration of 0·8 mol l-1.
Go online
Q32: Which of the following solutions contains the least number of moles of solute?
100 cm3 of 0·4 mol l-1 solution

...............................................
Q33: A 330 cm3 can of 'FizzX' has a carbohydrate concentration of 0·05 mol l-1. Calculate
the number of moles of carbohydrate in the can of 'FizzX'.
...............................................
Q34: 0·15 mole of sodium chloride is dissolved into a 500 cm3 volumetric flask. What is the
concentration of the resulting solution?
Key point
For solutions, the mass of solute (grams or g), the number of moles of solute (moles or mol),
the volume of solution (litres or l) or the concentration of the solution (moles per litre or mol
l-1) can be calculated from data provided.
Preparing a standard solution

A standard solution is a solution whose concentration is accurately known.
Remember, concentration is measured in moles per litre of solution (mol l-1).
To make a standard solution, an exact mass of solute is weighed out, dissolved and made up to an
exact volume in a volumetric flask (sometimes called a standard flask).
The weighed solid is then carefully dissolved in about 50 cm3 of deionised water in a clean beaker.
This solution is then carefully poured into the correct size of volumetric flask and deionised water is
used to rinse the beaker into the flask.
Volumetric flasks come in a range of sizes depending on how much solution is needed.
The flask is then filed to just below the line, stoppered and inverted several times to mix the solution.
Finally the flask is carefully topped up to the mark with deionised water (bottom of meniscus level
with line), stoppered and inverted several more times to mix.
Preparing a standard solution: Video Go online
View a short video for preparing a standard solution by the Royal Society of Chemistry at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iPYyRNjXkgY.
Calculations involving mass and volume

Sometimes in the lab we will need to perform calculations which use both mole triangles.
This allows switch between masses and volumes of substances which are in different states.
A good example of this is making up a standard solution.
Examples
1.
Calculate the mass of copper (II) sulfate required to prepare 100 cm3 of 0·1 mol l-1 copper
sulfate solution.
sulfate solution.
Remember to divide the volume by 1000 to convert cm3 to litres.
Step 2: Calculate the mass of copper sulfate in 0·01 moles.

We can calculate the gfm using the data book.
m = n × gfm
= 0 · 01 × 159 · 5
= 1 · 60 g
Therefore, 1·60 g copper (II) sulfate required to prepare 100 cm3 of 0·1 mol l-1 copper sulfate
solution.
...............................................
2.
Calculate the mass of solid obtained when 300 cm3 of a 1 mol l-1 solution of sodium nitrate
was evaporated to dryness.
Step 1: Calculate the number of moles in 300 cm3 of 1 mol l-1 sodium nitrate solution.
Remember to divide by 1000 to convert cm3 to litres.
c = 1 · 0 mol l−
1
V = 300 cm3
=0·3 l
n=c×V
=1×0·3
= 0 · 3 moles
Step 2: Calculate the mass of sodium nitrate in 0·3 moles.
We can calculate the gfm using the data book.
Therefore, 25·5 g solid sodium sulfate would be obtained.
Summary
Summary
• Balanced equations:
◦ chemical equations, using formulae and state symbols, can be written and
balanced.
• Gram formula mass:
◦ the mass of a mole of any substance, in grams (g), is equal to the gram formula
mass and can be calculated using relative atomic masses.
• The mole:
◦ calculations can be performed using the relationship between the mass and the
number of moles of a substance;
◦ given a balanced equation, the mass or number of moles of a substance can be
• Solutions:
Q35: Match the following definitions with the terms listed:

• a small amount of solute dissolved in a large volume of solvent.
• a large amount of solute dissolved in a small volume of solvent.
• the liquid that does the dissolving.
• the substance that is dissolved.
• the substances that react in a chemical reaction.
• substances which have been put together but are not chemically joined.
• a special mixture formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent.
• the substances formed in a chemical reaction.
• a process in which reactants are converted into products and a new substance is formed.
• the number of atoms for each element reaction is the same for both the reactants and
the products.
• the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms present in the formula.
• a quantity used to carry out chemical calculations.
• a substance which can dissolve in a solvent.
• a substance which does not dissolve in a solvent.
• a solution whose concentration is accurately known.
• a measure of moles per litre of solution.
Terms: Balanced equation, Chemical reaction, Concentrated, Concentration, Dilute, Gram

formula mass, Insoluble, Mixture, Products, Reactants, Solute, Solution, Solvent, Soluble,
Standard solution, The mole.
...............................................
Q36: A chemical equation is a reaction expressed in words or formulae.

CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O is an example of a:
a) formulae equation
b) word equation
Resources
Texts

ISBN 978-0007549306
978-1510420861
Practical work
LearnChemistry's Eggsplosive Chemistry provides instructions and videos to carry out spectacular
demonstrations to show that getting your reactants in the right proportions can be the difference
between a bang and a fizzle.
The PhET team at the University of Colorado have created Balancing Chemical Equations, a
simulation that lets candidates learn how to tell if a chemical equation is balanced. It also allows
them explore how to balance equations with an interactive game.
The Molarity Simulation from PhET is an ideal way to introduce the idea of the measurement of
concentrations, allowing you to vary the volume of solvent and the amount of solute used to form
solutions.
The Concentration Simulation available on RSC LearnChemistry allows even more variables to be
explored.
Using the balanced equation, candidates can calculate the mass of magnesium oxide formed when
a known mass of magnesium burns. The change in mass when magnesium burns provides a
method to allow candidates to carry out an experiment to confirm their calculated value. This
resource extends the procedure into the calculation of an empirical formula. National 5 candidates
do not need to be able to calculate empirical formula.
End of topic test

Calculations involving the mole and balanced equations topic test Go online
Q37: Balance the following equation. (1 mark)
Li2CO3(s) + HCl(aq) → LiCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

...............................................
Fe2O3 + CO → Fe + 3CO2
...............................................
Al(s) + Br2(l) → AlBr3(s)

...............................................
Q40: What is the gram formula mass of silver (I) oxide, Ag2O? (1 mark)
...............................................
Q41: What is the gram formula mass of potassium permanganate, KMnO 4? (1 mark)
...............................................
Q42: 0·2 mol of a gas has a mass of 12·8 g. Which of the following could be the molecular
formula for the gas? (1 mark)
Hint: Use the mass triangle to work out the gfm of the gas.
a) CO
b) CO2
c) NH3
d) SO2
...............................................
Q43: There is 0·86 g of potassium in every 100 g of raisins. Calculate the number of moles
of potassium in 100 g of raisins. (2 marks)
...............................................
Q44: Nonane burns to produce carbon dioxide and water.
C9H20 + 14O2 → 9CO2 + 10H2O

Calculate the mass, in grams, of carbon dioxide produced when 32 g of nonane is burned. (3
marks)
Hints:
• Work out the ratio of moles of C9H20 used to moles of CO2 produced.
• Use the mass formula triangle to work out the number of moles of C9H20 in the reaction.
• Use the mass formula triangle to find the mass of CO2 produced.
...............................................
Q45: In a reaction 1 g of calcium carbonate reacted with excess dilute hydrochloric acid.
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g)+ H2O (l)
Calculate the mass, in grams, of carbon dioxide produced. (3 marks)
Hints:
• Work out the ratio of moles of CaCO3 used to moles of CO2 produced.
• Use the mass formula triangle to work out the number of moles of CaCO 3 in the reaction.
• Use the mass formula triangle to find the mass of CO2 produced.
...............................................
Q46:
The concentration of chloride ions in water affects the ability of some plants to grow. A student
investigated the concentration of chloride ions in the water at various points along a river.
The concentration of chloride ions in water can be determined by reacting the chloride ions
with silver ions.
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)

A 20 cm3 water sample gave a precipitate of silver chloride with a mass of 1·435 g.
a) Calculate the number of moles of silver chloride, AgCl, present in this sample.(2 marks)
b) Using your answer to part a, calculate the concentration, in mol l-1, of chloride ions in
this sample. (2 marks)
Hints:
• Use the mass formula triangle to work out the number of moles of silver chloride.
• Work out the mole ratio of chloride ions to silver chloride.
• Use the volume formula triangle to find the concentration of chloride ions in the sample.
177
Topic 7
Percentage composition
Contents
Prior knowledge ......................................................................................................................................... 179
Percentage composition ............................................................................................................................ 179
Calculating percentage composition ..................................................................................................................180
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 183
Resources .................................................................................................................................................. 183
End of topic test ......................................................................................................................................... 184
178 TOPIC 7. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
Prerequisites
chemical formulae can be written for two element compounds using valency rules and
a Periodic Table;
Roman numerals can be used in the name of a compound to indicate the valency of an
element;
chemical formulae can be written for compounds containing group ions using valency
rules and the data booklet;
of moles of a substance;
given a balanced equation, the mass or number of moles of a substance can be

Learning objective
the percentage composition of an element in any compound can be calculated from the
formula of the compound.
TOPIC 7. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION 179
Prior knowledge
Q1: What is the chemical gram formula mass for carbon tetrachloride?
...............................................
Q2: What is the gram formula mass of oxygen?

...............................................
Q3: How many moles are in 60 g of iron (III) chloride?

...............................................
Q4: What mass is 0·2 moles of sodium ethanoate?

...............................................
Q5: What is the correct formulae for calcium bromide?
CaBr2
CaBr
Ca2Br
CaBr2
The percentage composition of an element in any compound can be calculated from the formula
of the compound.
This means that we can calculate how much of any particular element is present in a compound.
This is very important in chemical industries such as fertiliser production and extraction of metals.
Malachite is an ore which copper can be Farmers need to know the percentage
extracted from. composition of fertilisers.
Percentage composition can be calculated using the formula:
% by mass =GFmM × 100

This can be found on page 3 of your data book.
Calculating percentage composition
Examples
1. Hematite
Hematite is an ore called iron (III) oxide.
Calculate the percentage of iron in hematite.

1. Calculate the GFM of the compound.
2. Determine the mass of iron in the GFM.
3. Use the equation to calculate percentage composition.

m (Fe2) = 112 g
GF M (Fe2O3) = 160 g
m
% by mass = × 100
GF M
112
% by mass = × 100
160
% by mass = 70 %
Therefore, the percentage by mass of iron in hematite is 70 %.
...............................................
2. Urea
Urea, H2NCONH2, can be used as a fertiliser.
Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in urea.

1. Calculate the GFM of the urea.
2. Determine the mass of nitrogen in the GFM.

m (N) = 28g
GF M (H2NCONH2) = 60g
m
% by mass = × 100
GF M
28
% by mass = × 100
60
% by mass = 46 · 6 %
Therefore, the percentage by mass of nitrogen in urea is 46·6 %.

...............................................
3. Aluminium sulfate
Aluminium sulfate, Al2(SO4)3, can be used as a fertiliser.
Calculate the percentage of aluminium in aluminium sulfate.

1. Calculate the GFM of the aluminium sulfate.
2. Determine the mass of aluminium in the GFM.

m (Al) = 54g
GF M Al2(SO4)3 = 342g
m
% by mass = × 100
GF M
54
% by mass = × 100
342
% by mass = 15 · 8 %
Therefore, the percentage by mass of aluminium in aluminium sulfate is 15·8 %.
Key point
The percentage composition of an element in any compound can be calculated from the
Summary
Summary
the percentage composition of an element in any compound can be calculated from the

Key word Definition
a calculation to determine how much of any particular element is
present in a compound.
the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms present in
the formula.
a naturally occurring solid material from which a metal or valuable
mineral can be extracted.
Key word: gram formula mass, ore, percentage composition
Resources
Texts
• SQA National 5 Chemistry Data Book , https://www.sqa.org.uk/files_ccc/ChemistryDataBoo

kletSQPN5.pdf
ISBN 978-0007549306
978-1510420861
End of topic test

Percentage composition topic test Go online
Q7: Some rocks contain andalusite with the formula Al2SiO5.
Calculate the percentage mass of silicon in andalusite.

...............................................
Q8: Hematite is a common iron oxide which is often found in rocks and soils. It's main
component is iron oxide, Fe2O3.
Calculate the percentage mass of iron in hematite.
185
Topic 8
Acids and bases: pH
Contents
Prior knowledge ......................................................................................................................................... 188
The pH scale .............................................................................................................................................. 189
Measuring pH 191
pH and concentration ................................................................................................................................. 194
Dilution 195
Strong and weak 198
Water equilibrium ....................................................................................................................................... 199
Bases 202
Metal oxides 203
Metal hydroxides 204
Metal carbonates 204
Solubility of bases 205
Non-metal oxides and pH .......................................................................................................................... 206
Sulfur dioxide 206
Carbon dioxide 207
Non-metal oxides summary................................................................................................................................ 208
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 209
Resources .................................................................................................................................................. 211
End of topic test ......................................................................................................................................... 212
186 TOPIC 8. ACIDS AND BASES: PH
Prerequisites
• ions:
gain of electrons.
• ionic bonding:
◦ ionic compounds form lattice structures of oppositely charged ions with each
positive ions.
• properties of ionic substances:
◦ many ionic compounds are soluble in water. As they dissolve the lattice, structure
◦ ionic compounds conduct electricity only when molten or in solution as the lattice,
• solutions:
TOPIC 8. ACIDS AND BASES: PH 187
Learning objective
• the pH scale:
◦ the pH scale is an indication of the hydrogen ion concentration and runs from below
0 to above 14;
◦ a neutral solution has equal concentrations of H+(aq) and OH-(aq) ions;
◦ acidic solutions have a higher concentration of H+(aq) ions than OH-(aq) and have
a pH below 7;
◦ alkaline solutions have a higher concentration of OH-(aq) ions than H+(aq) ions
and have a pH above 7;
◦ dilution of an acidic solution with water will decrease the concentration of H+(aq)
and the pH will increase towards 7;
◦ dilution of an alkaline solution with water will decrease the concentration of OH-(aq)
and the pH will decrease towards 7.
• water equilibrium:
◦ water is neutral as it dissociates according to the equation:
H2O (l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq)

◦ producing equal concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxide ions;
◦ at any time, only a few water molecules are dissociated into free ions;
◦ the symbol indicates that a reaction is reversible and occurs in both directions.
• bases:
◦ metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates and ammonia neutralise acids
and are called bases. Those bases that dissolve in water form alkaline solutions.
• oxides and pH:
◦ soluble non-metal oxides dissolve in water forming acidic solutions;
non metal oxide + water → acid

◦ soluble metal oxides dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions:
metal oxide + water → metal hydroxide
Prior knowledge
Q1: Solid ionic substances do not conduct electricity because:
the electrons are not free to move.

solid substances never conduct electricity.
the ions are not free to move.
there are no charged particles in ionic compounds.
...............................................
Q2: Which of the following substances is most likely to be soluble in water?
Lead
Methane
Aluminium nitrate
Silicon dioxide
...............................................
Q3: 500 cm3 of a solution contains 0·1 moles of solute. The concentration of the solution,
in mol l-1, is:
a) 0·0002
b) 0·2
c) 5
d) 5000
The pH scale
Acids and bases are all around us. They can be found in the foods we eat, many household
cleaning supplies, medicines and cosmetics.
Phosphoric acid is an ingredient in cola.
Toothpaste contains bases such as sodium bicarbonate.
The pH scale
The pH scale is used to measure how acidic or alkaline a solution is. It measures the
'concentration of hydrogen ions, H+(aq) present. pH values range from below 0 (highly acidic) to
above 14 (highly alkaline).
A substance behaves as an acid if it produces H+(aq) ions in solution and has a pH of less than 7.
The lower the pH, the more acidic the solution.
A substance behaves as an alkali if it produces OH-(aq) ions in solution and has a pH of greater
than 7. The higher the pH, the more alkaline the solution.
The middle number on the scale is seven (7) and solutions with this pH are neither acidic or alkaline,
they are neutral. A neutral solution has equal concentrations of H+(aq) and OH-(aq) ions.
In general, many foods contain acids and cleaning products contain alkalis.
Key point
The pH scale is an indication of the hydrogen ion concentration and runs from below 0
to above 14.
A neutral solution has equal concentrations of H+(aq) and OH-(aq) ions.
below 7.
Alkaline solutions have a higher concentration of OH-(aq) ions than H+(aq) ions and
have a pH above 7.
The pH scale: Questions Go online
Q4: Classify each of the following substances as acidic, alkaline or neutral.
Substance pH value Type of solution

Lemon juice 2
Oven cleaner 13
Alcohol 7
Pure water 7
Vinegar 3
Baking soda 9
Hand soap 10
Tomatoes 4
Bananas 5
Measuring pH
In order to measure the pH of a substance, it must be in solution.
The use of litmus paper was a traditional way to identify acids and alkalis.
Acids turn litmus paper red.

Alkalis turn litmus paper blue.
Universal indicator
Universal Indicator and the pH scale provide a better way of doing this. This method allows us not
only to identify acids and alkalis but also to determine how acidic or alkaline a solution is.
There are three main ways of measure the pH of a solution.
1. Universal indicator solution

A few drops of universal indicator solution can be added to a substance to produce a colour.
Universal Indicator colours can then be matched to a colour chart to give an approximate pH
value.
2. pH paper
pH paper has been soaked in universal indicator solution and is dipped into a solution to give
a colour change.
Universal Indicator colours can then be matched to a colour chart to give an approximate pH
value.
3. pH meter
A pH meter is the most accurate way of measuring pH as they are accurate to two decimal
places.
The pH meter is dipped into the solution and displays the pH.
Measuring pH: Video Go online
The following video shows how different types of indicators can be used to determine pH:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ckbsHM2igT0
pH and concentration
We looked at solutions in the 'Calculations involving the mole and balanced equations' topic. A
reminder is given below.
A mixture is two or more substances that are mixed together but not chemically joined.
A solution is a special type of mixture that is made when a solid dissolves in a liquid.
Solute + Solvent → Solution

For example, a cup of instant coffee is a solution.
The solid that dissolves (e.g. coffee granules) is called the solute.
The liquid that does the dissolving (e.g. hot water) is called the solvent.
A concentrated solution is a solution with a high proportion of solute to solvent; this can be diluted
by adding more solvent forming a dilute solution.
A substance is said to be soluble if it can dissolve in a solvent.
A substance is said to be insoluble if it does not dissolve in a solvent.
Dissolving is not a chemical reaction but a physical change.
We can use the following triangle to carry out calculations involving concentration and volume.
of 0·1 mol l-1?
V = volume in litres
= 450 cm3 = 0 · 45 l
Use the triangle to determine the relationship.
n = cV
Therefore the solution contains 0.045 moles of solute.
Key point
A solution is formed when a solute is dissolved in a solvent.
For solutions, the mass of solute (grams or g), the number of moles of solute (moles or
litre or mol l-) can be calculated from data provided.
Dilution
The concentration of an acid or an alkali solution can be changed by diluting it with water.
An accurate dilution can be carried out using a pipette and a volumetric flask.
Dilution of an acid and an alkali Go online
An acid will be successively diluted by a factor of 10 each time.

First dilution:
Note the concentration of acid. The pH meter shows 1.0 after it has been dipped into
the hydrochloric acid.
Use a clean 10 cm3 pipette with filter and a clean 100 cm3 standard flask.
Exactly 10 cm3 of acid is sucked up into pipette.
10 cm3 of acid is transferred to the standard flask.
The volume in the flask is made up to exactly 100 cm3 with distilled water.
• The flask is shaken thoroughly to ensure complete mixing.

• Note the pH and concentration (2.0) of the acid. (c will be 1/10 of previously)
Second dilution:
• First dilution used.

• 10 cm3 of acid is transferred to the standard flask.
• The volume in the flask is made up to exactly 100 cm3 with distilled water.
Third dilution:
• Second dilution used.

• 10 cm3 of acid is transferred to the standard flask.
Dilution of alkalis
An alkaline will be successively diluted by a factor of 10 each time.
First dilution:
• Note the concentration of alkaline. The pH meter shows 13.0 after it has been dipped
into the sodium hydroxide.
• Use a clean 10 cm3 pipette with filter and a clean 100 cm3 standard flask.
• Exactly 10 cm3 of alkaline is sucked up into pipette.
• 10 cm3 of alkaline is transferred to the standard flask.
Second dilution:
• First dilution used.

• Note the pH and concentration (11.0) of the alkaline. (c will be 1/10 of previously)
Third dilution:
• Second dilution used.

• Note the pH and concentration (10.0) of the alkaline. (c will be 1/10 of previously)
Q5: If the same process of diluting the acid was continued for another 3 times, what would
be the final pH?
...............................................
Q6: The solution produced in the previous question was subjected to another tenfold
dilution. What will be the pH now? Think carefully before answering.
...............................................
Q7: If the process of diluting the alkali was continued for another 3 times, what would be the
pH? Think about the answers to the previous two questions.
...............................................
Q8: The solution produced in the previous question was subjected to 2 more tenfold
dilutions. What will be the pH now? Think carefully before answering.
Diluting an acid by a factor of 10 moves its pH towards 7 by one pH unit. This effect will continue
until the pH reaches 7 (neutral).
Diluting a solution which is already neutral has no affect on the pH.
Key point
Dilution of an acidic solution with water will decrease the concentration of H+(aq) and
the pH will increase towards 7.
Dilution of an alkaline solution with water will decrease the concentration of OH-(aq)
Strong and weak

Consider the following statements:
• When making a pot of tea, the longer you leave the tea leaves in the hot water the stronger
the tea.
• If your coffee is too strong, adding water will make it weaker.
Most people would see nothing wrong with these statements. However, to a chemist, the words
'stronger' and 'weaker' are being used incorrectly. Both statements are describing changes in
concentration. In the first, it would be better to say that the tea gets more concentrated. In the
second, the coffee becomes more dilute.
In Chemistry, the words 'strength' and 'concentration' have very different meanings.
Concentration is a measure of how much solute is dissolved in a given volume of solution, normally
expressed in moles per litre. If there is a lot of solute dissolved, the solution is concentrated, like
'strong' coffee. If there is only a little solute dissolved, the solution is dilute, like 'weak' tea.
The terms 'strong' and 'weak' refer to how acidic or alkaline the solution is. They do not refer to the
concentration of the solution.
A strong acid (such as stomach acid) has a pH close to zero where a weak acid (such as lemon
juice) has a pH of around 5.
pH 1 pH 5
A strong alkali (such as oven cleaner) has a pH close to 14 where a weak alkali (such as baking
soda) has a pH of around 9.
pH 13 pH 9
Water equilibrium
Electrical conductivity can help us understand more about water and aqueous solutions.
Electrical conductivity is a property of ionic solutions.
A substance is a conductor of electricity if it allows an electric current to pass through it. Conducting
liquids and solutions are known as electrolytes.
Electrolytes can conduct because the charged particles (ions) are free to move and can carry an
electric current.
The size of the electric current can be used as a measure of the conductivity of the substance.
Conductivity of liquids Go online
The on-line version of this topic contains an animated experiment. If you do not have access
on-line, the apparatus used and the results obtained are shown as follows.
Substance Current Reading
0.1 mol -1
NaCl 125 mA
Tap water 7 mA
Pure water 20 µA
Hexane 0 µA
Conductivity results
Conductivity apparatus
Answer the following questions, bearing in mind that 1000 µA are equal to 1 mA.
Q9: What variables would need to be kept constant to ensure a fair comparison?
a) The temperature of the liquid.

b) The applied voltage.
c) The volume of the liquid.
d) The apparatus (to ensure the same distance between the electrodes).
e) All of these.
...............................................
Q10: Which substance is an insulator?

...............................................
Q11: What type of bonding is in this substance?

...............................................
Q12: Which has the higher conductivity - tap or pure water?

...............................................
Q13: What conclusion about pure water can be drawn from the results of the above
experiment?
a) The bonding in water is ionic.

b) Pure water is an insulator.
c) Pure water must contain a very small number of ions.
d) Pure water contains more ions than tap water.
Pure water is neutral and has a low conductivity. There must be a low concentration of ions present.
Water equilibrium Go online
The following diagram can be used to explain the origin of these ions.
Water molecule H+ OH- ion
Q14: How many H+(aq) ions are present at any given time?
...............................................
When a molecule splits up to give ions, it is said to dissociate.
Q15: Does the same molecule dissociate each time?
a) Yes
b) No
Water is thought of as a covalent molecular substance, but its electrical conductivity shows there
must be some ions present.
The ions come from the break-up or dissociation of a few water molecules.
A water molecule can break up (dissociate) into one hydrogen ion (H+) and one hydroxide ion (OH-).
This process can be represented by the equation:
H2O (l) → H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Water mainly consists of molecules. Less than 1% of water molecules break up into ions at any
given moment!
The dissociation is reversible. The ions can combine back together to form a molecule of water.
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l)

Both the forward and the reverse reactions occur at the same time.
The equilibrium (reversible arrow) symbol can be used in a single equation to show these
reactions occurring in both directions.
H2O (l) H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

The small concentration of H+ (aq) produced is exactly equal to the concentration of OH- (aq), which
explains why water is neutral.
Q16: The concentration of H+ (aq) ions and OH- (aq) ions remains constant even although
the formation and combination of ions continues. What word describe this situation?
Key point
Water is neutral as it dissociates according to the equation:
H2O (l) H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
producing equal concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxide ions.
At any time, only a few water molecules are dissociated into free ions.
The symbol indicates that a reaction is reversible and occurs in both directions.
Bases
Bases are substances which neutralise acids forming a salt and water.
Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Bases may be soluble or insoluble in water and can be further divided into three groups:
• metal oxides;
• metal hydroxides;
• metal carbonates.
Metal oxides
Metal oxides are formed when a reactive metal element (such as magnesium) reacts with oxygen in
the air.
This a combustion reaction.
Example
Word equation:
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide

Balanced equation:
2 Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2 MgO (s)
Metal oxides are ionic substances as they contain a positively charged metal ion and a negatively
charged oxide ion. (See the topic on Ionic compounds). They are all solids with high melting and
boiling points.
Soluble metal oxides dissolve to form metal hydroxides (alkalis) in solution. Remember, solubilities
of selected compounds, including oxides can be found in your SQA data book.
The oxides of the transition metals are usually insoluble so do not form alkalis as they do not alter
the pH of water.
Insoluble metal oxides are classed as bases as they can neutralise acids.
In general, oxides of the group one and two metals can dissolve in water to produce alkaline
solutions.
This is because when a soluble metal oxide dissolves there is an increase in the concentration of
hydroxide ions (OH-) in solution.
This increases the pH of the solution.
Example : Magnesium oxide dissolving in water

Word equation:
Magnesium oxide + Water → Magnesium hydroxide

Balanced equation:
MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2

Ionic equation:
(Mg2+)(O2-) (s) + H2O (l) → (Mg2+) (aq) + 2 OH- (aq)

The reaction produces hydroxide ions (OH-) and so the solution is alkaline.
Metal hydroxides
Soluble bases dissolve in water to produce metal hydroxides, often called alkalis. This is a physical
change.
Soluble metal oxide + Water → Metal hydroxide

Metal hydroxides are ionic substances as they contain a positively charged metal ion and a
negatively charged hydroxide ion (OH-).
Alkalis have pH greater than 7. The higher the pH, the more alkaline the solution.
Example
Sodium Hydroxide is a strong alkali (pH 12).
Ammonia (ammonium hydroxide) is a weak alkali (pH 9).
Metal carbonates
Metal carbonates are compounds which contain a metal, carbon and oxygen.
Metal carbonates such as calcium carbonate (chalk) occur in nature.
Limestone is mainly calcium carbonate
Metal carbonates are ionic substances as they contain a positively charged metal ion and a
negatively charged carbonate ion (CO32-).
Solubility of bases
Solubility of bases - exercise Go online
Q17: Use your SQA data book to determine the solubility of the following bases.
Compound Formula Solubility
Ammonium hydroxide (NH4+)(OH-)
Calcium carbonate (Ca2+)(CO32-)

Copper (II) oxide (Cu2+)(O2-)
Sodium hydroxide (Na+)(OH-)
Potassium carbonate (K+)2(CO32-)
Calcium oxide (Ca2+)(O2-)
Some bases are soluble and others are insoluble.

Soluble metal oxides dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions:
Metal oxide + Water → Metal hydroxide

This is because they increase the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-) in the solution.
Insoluble compounds have no effect on pH as they do not produce ions in solution.
Q18: Which of the following when added to water is least likely to affect the pH?
Aluminium oxide
Calcium oxide
Key point
Metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates and ammonia neutralise acids and
are called bases.
Bases that dissolve in water form alkaline solutions.
Soluble metal oxides dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions:
Insoluble compounds do not affect the pH of a solution.
Non-metal oxides and pH

Non-metal oxides are formed when a reactive non-metal element (such as sulfur) reacts with oxygen
in the air.
Sulfur dioxide
This a combustion reaction
Example
Word equation:
Sulfur + Oxygen → Sulfur dioxide

Balanced equation:
S (s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (s)
Non-metal oxides are covalent substances as they are formed through non-metal elements sharing
pairs or electrons (See the topic on Convalent bonding).
They can be solids, liquids or gases with a range of melting and boiling points. However, they are
often gases as they are small, covalently bonded molecules with weak forces of attraction between
molecules.
Soluble non metal oxides dissolve to form acids in solution.
This is because when a soluble non metal oxide dissolves there is an increase in the concentration
of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution. This decreases the pH of the solution.
Example : Sulfur dioxide dissolving in water

Word equation:
Sulfur oxide + Water → Sulfurous acid

Balanced equation:
SO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO3 (aq)

Ionic equation:
SO2 (g)+ H2O (l) → 2 H+ (aq) + SO32- (aq)

The reaction produces hydrogen ions (H+) and so the solution is acidic.
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to produce weak carbonic acid
Example
Word equation:
Carbon dioxide + Water → Carbonic acid

Balanced equation:
CO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2CO3 (aq)

Ionic equation:
CO2 (g)+ H2O (l) → 2 H+ (aq) + CO32- (aq)

The reaction produces hydrogen ions (H+) and so the solution is acidic.
Soluble non-metal oxides dissolve in water forming acidic solutions.
Non-metal oxides summary

Not all non-metal oxides are soluble, e.g. silicon dioxide (SiO2) is a covalent network compound
which is insoluble in water. (See the topic about Covalent bonding)
Silicon dioxide is more commonly known as quartz

There is one exception to the rule, dihydrogen oxide has a neutral pH when tested with universal
indicator solution.
Non-metal oxides - exercise Go online
Q19: By which name is dihydrogen oxide more commonly known?

...............................................
Q20: Complete the following table of oxides.
Metal or non-metal Effect on pH of

Oxide name Oxide formula
oxide water
Magnesium oxide
Nickel (II) oxide
Calcium oxide
Sulfur dioxide
Silicon dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Summary
Summary
• The pH scale:
0 to above 14;
a pH below 7;
• Water equilibrium:
H2O (l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq)

◦ producing equal concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxide ions;
• Bases:
and are called bases. Those bases that dissolve in water form alkaline solutions.
• Oxides and pH:
◦ soluble non-metal oxides dissolve in water forming acidic solutions;
metal oxide + water → metal hydroxide
Key word Definition

A substance behaves as an acid if it produces H+(aq) ions in solution and
has a pH of less than 7. The lower the pH, the more acidic the solution.
Bases may be soluble or insoluble in water and can be further divided into
three groups; Metal oxides, Metal hydroxides and Metal carbonates.
The pH scale is used to measure how acidic or alkaline a solution is. It
measures the 'concentration of hydrogen ions, H+(aq) present.pH values
range from below 0 (highly acidic) to above 14 (highly alkaline).
A substance behaves as an alkali if it produces OH-(aq) ions in solution
and has a pH of greater than 7. The higher the pH, the more alkaline the
solution.
The middle number on the scale is seven (7) and solutions with this pH are
neither acidic or alkaline, they are neutral. A neutral solution has equal
concentrations of H+(aq) and OH-(aq) ions.
A special mixture formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent.
A small amount of solute dissolved in a large volume of solvent.
A large amount of solute dissolved in a small volume of solvent.
The liquid that does the dissolving.
The substance that is dissolved.
Substances which have been put together but are not chemically joined.
A substance which can dissolve in a solvent.
A substance which does not dissolve in a solvent.
A measure of moles per litre of solution (mol l-1).
A solution in which a solid has been dissolved in water.
Electrolytes are solutions which can can conduct because the charged
particles (ions) are free to move and can carry an electric current.
The concentration of H+(aq) ions and OH-(aq) ions remains constant even
although the formation and combination of ions continues. Represented by
the symbol (reversible arrow).
An exothermic reaction where a substance reacts with oxygen to produce
energy. Often referred to as burning.
Key words: acidic, alkaline, aqueous solutions, bases, combustion, concentrated,

concentration, dilute, electrolytes, equilibrium, insoluble, mixture, neutral, soluble, solute,
solution, solvent, the pH scale,
Resources
Texts
• SQA National 5 Chemistry Data Book , https://www.sqa.org.uk/files_ccc/ChemistryDataBoo

kletSQPN5.pdf
ISBN 978-0007549306
978-1510420861
Practical work
LearnChemistry's pH scale basics simulation can be used to explore the basics of pH. Candidates
can add a variety of common solutions, modify the concentration and see the effects on pH.
The pH scale advanced simulation, available from RSC.
LearnChemistry, provides a more sophisticated pH simulator to visualise and compare the numbers
of H+ and OH- ions present in different solutions.
Candidates can investigate the comparative conductivity of saline solution, tap water and distilled
water. These measurements can be linked to ion concentration to develop an understanding of the
dissociation of water molecules.
The effect of dilution on the pH of acidic and alkaline solutions can be explored using the
LearnChemistry activity The pH scale. It shows how a solution with a given pH number differs
in concentration from the one with the next pH number by a factor of 10.
Testing the pH of oxides from LearnChemistry offers an experiment which helps to establish the idea
that the soluble oxides of metals are alkaline and the oxides of non-metals are acidic.
If a supply of dry ice is available, the LearnChemistry activity Indicators and dry ice demonstration
is very dramatic. Dry ice is added to pH indicator solutions. Bubbles and 'fog' are produced along
with a gradual colour change. The experiment highlights that carbon dioxide dissolves to form an
acidic solution.
The video clip Free Range Chemistry: Part 3 (clip 27, 'Exploding Rock') available through
LearnChemistry shows the violent reaction that occurs when water is added to calcium oxide. This
is one of a series of clips produced by Peter Wothers of Cambridge University.
End of topic test

Acids and bases: pH topic test Go online
Q22: An acidic solution contains:

a) only hydrogen ions.
b) only hydroxide ions.
c) more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions.
d) more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions.
...............................................
Q23: Which of the following oxides, when shaken with water, would give an alkaline solution?
a) Calcium oxide
b) Nickel oxide
c) Nitrogen dioxide
d) Sulfur dioxide
...............................................
Q24: Sulfur dioxide gas is produced when fossil fuels containing sulfur are burned.
When sulfur dioxide dissolves in water in the atmosphere 'acid rain' is produced.
Compared with pure water, acid rain contains:
a) a higher concentration of hydrogen ions.

b) a lower concentration of hydrogen ions.
c) the same concentration of hydrogen ions.
...............................................
Q25: Which of the following statements correctly describes the concentrations of H+(aq) and
OH-(aq) ions in pure water?
a) The concentrations of H+(aq) and OH-(aq) ions are equal.
b) The concentrations of H+(aq) and OH-(aq) ions are zero.
c) The concentration of H+(aq) ions is greater than the concentration of OH-(aq) ions.
d) The concentration of H+(aq) ions is less than the concentration of OH-(aq) ions.
...............................................
Q26: Which of the following compounds is a base?
a) Sodium carbonate
b) Sodium chloride
c) Sodium nitrate
d) Sodium sulfate
...............................................
Q27: An element was burned in air. The product was added to water, producing a solution
with a pH less than 7. The element could be:
a) tin.
b) zinc.
c) carbon.
d) sodium.
...............................................
Q28: During dilution of an alkali, which of the following occurs
a) No change.
b) The pH increases towards 7.
c) The pH becomes 7.
d) The pH decreases towards 7
...............................................
Q29: Sulfur dioxide is an important industrial chemical.

Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water to produce sulfurous acid.
SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)

Explain the change in the pH of the solution as sulfur dioxide dissolves.
...............................................
Q30: Which of the following oxides, when shaken with water, would leave the pH unchanged?
You may wish to use the data booklet to help you.
a) Carbon dioxide
b) Copper oxide
c) Sodium oxide
d) Sulfur dioxide
...............................................
Q31: Which compound would not neutralise hydrochloric acid?
a) Sodium carbonate
b) Sodium chloride
c) Sodium hydroxide
d) Sodium oxide
215
Topic 9
Neutralisation reactions
Contents
Prior knowledge ......................................................................................................................................... 218
Neutralisation reactions ............................................................................................................................. 219
Neutralisation: acid reacting with a metal oxide ........................................................................................219
Preparation of copper(II) sulfate .........................................................................................................................220
Neutralisation reaction to make a solution of the salt .........................................................................................220
Filtration to remove excess solid ........................................................................................................................221
Evaporation and crystallisation to recover the solid salt.....................................................................................222
Summary 224
Acid reacting with a metal hydroxide .........................................................................................................225
Preparation of sodium chloride ..........................................................................................................................226
Titration ...................................................................................................................................................... 227
Titration apparatus 227
Carrying out a titration ........................................................................................................................................229
Titration calculations .................................................................................................................................. 232
Acid reacting with a metal carbonate .........................................................................................................238
Preparation of calcium nitrate.............................................................................................................................238
Neutralisation reaction to make a solution of the salt .........................................................................................238
Filtration to remove excess solid ........................................................................................................................239
Evaporation and crystallisation to recover the solid salt.....................................................................................240
Summary 241
Naming salts .............................................................................................................................................. 242
Spectator ions ............................................................................................................................................ 243
Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 247
Resources ..................................................................................................................................... 249
End of topic test............................................................................................................................. 250
216 TOPIC 9. NEUTRALISATION REACTIONS
Prerequisites
• the pH scale:
0 to above 14;
a pH below 7;
• water equilibrium:
H2O (l) H+(aq) + OH- (aq)
producing equal concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxide ions;
• bases:
and are called bases. Those bases that dissolve in water form alkaline solutions;
• oxides and pH:

◦ soluble non-metal oxides dissolve in water forming acidic solutions:
Non-metal oxide + Water → Acid
TOPIC 9. NEUTRALISATION REACTIONS 217
Learning objective
• neutralisation reactions:
◦ a neutralisation reaction is one in which a base reacts with an acid to form water.
A salt is also formed in this reaction;
◦ equations can be written for the following neutralisation reactions:
□ a metal oxide + an acid → a salt + water;
□ a metal hydroxide + an acid → a salt + water;
□ a metal carbonate + an acid → a salt + water + carbon dioxide.
◦ the name of the salt produced depends on the acid and base used:
□ hydrochloric acid produces chlorides;
□ sulfuric acid produces sulfates;
□ nitric acid produces nitrates.
• spectator ions:
◦ spectator ions are ions that remain unchanged by the reaction;
◦ reaction equations can be used to identify spectator ions;
◦ for neutralisation reactions, equations can be written omitting spectator ions:
□ 2H+ (aq) + O2- (s) → H2O (l) for metal oxides;
□ H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l) for metal hydroxides;
□ 2H+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) → H2O (l) + CO2 (g) for aqueous metal carbonates;
□ 2H+ (aq) + CO32- (s) → H2O (l) + CO2 (g) for insoluble metal carbonates.
• titration:
◦ titration can be used to produce a soluble salt;
◦ in an acid-base titration, the concentration of the acid or base is determined by
accurately measuring the volumes used in the neutralisation reaction;
◦ an indicator can be added to show the end-point of the reaction;
◦ given a balanced equation for the reaction occurring in any titration:
□ the concentration of one reactant can be calculated given the concentration of
the other reactant and the volumes of both solutions;
□ the volume of one reactant can be calculated given the volume of the other
reactant and the concentrations of both solutions.
◦ once the volumes of acid and alkali have been noted, the reaction can be repeated
without the indicator to produce an uncontaminated salt solution;
◦ the solution can then be evaporated to dryness.
• insoluble metal carbonates:
◦ insoluble metal carbonates and insoluble metal oxides can be used to produce
soluble salts;
◦ excess base is added to the appropriate acid, the mixture is filtered and the filtrate
evaporated to dryness.
Prior knowledge
Q1: The pH scale runs from:
a) 0 to 14.
b) 1 to 7.
c) 8 to 14.
d) below 0 to above 14.
...............................................
Q2: Which of the following statements correctly describes the concentrations of H+(aq) and
OH-(aq) ions in an alkali?
a) The concentrations of H+ (aq) and OH- (aq) ions are equal.

b) The concentrations of H+ (aq) and OH- (aq) ions are zero.
c) The concentration of H+ (aq) ions is greater than the concentration of OH- (aq) ions.
d) The concentration of H+ (aq) ions is less than the concentration of OH- (aq) ions
...............................................
Q3: Which compound could be used to neutralise hydrochloric acid?
a) Sodium carbonate
b) Sodium chloride
c) Sodium nitrate
d) Sodium sulfate
Neutralisation reactions
A neutralisation reaction is one in which a base reacts with an acid to form water and a salt.
Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Bases may be soluble or insoluble in water and can be further divided into three groups.
1. Metal oxides
2. Metal hydroxides
3. Metal carbonates
Neutralisation: acid reacting with a metal oxide

Metal oxides are ionic substances as they contain a positively charged metal ion and a negatively
charged oxide ion. (See the topic on Ionic compounds.) They are all solids with high melting and
boiling points.
Copper(II) oxide is a black solid

Soluble metal oxides dissolve to form metal hydroxides (alkalis) in solution. Remember, solubilities
of selected compounds, including oxides can be found in your SQA data book.
Q4: Which of the following is an insoluble metal oxide?
Calcium oxide
Lithium oxide
Zinc oxide
Sodium oxide
Insoluble metal oxides are classed as bases as they can neutralise acids.
Preparation of copper(II) sulfate

Sulfuric acid can be neutralised by the base copper oxide to produce the salt copper sulfate and
water.
Sulfuric acid + Copper(II) oxide → Copper(II) sulfate + Water

This reaction takes place in three stages:
1. Neutralisation reaction.
2. Filtration.
3. Evaporation and crystallisation.
Neutralisation reaction to make a solution of the salt

This reaction is slow at room temperature and often the reaction mixture will be heated to increase
the rate of reaction.
Acids are flammable and so should not be heated using a Bunsen burner, a water bath should be
used instead.
When excess copper(II) oxide is added to warm sulfuric acid, a blue solution is produced.
Neutralisation reaction to make a solution of the salt: Activity Go online
Stage 1: Reaction
stirring rod
sulfuric acid
hot water
metal
oxide heat
Filtration to remove excess solid

Filtration is used to separate an insoluble solid from a solid / liquid mixture.
A mixture is poured into a conical flask from a beaker, via a filter funnel lined with filter paper.
The liquid goes through the small holes in the filter paper but the solid does not and stays on the
filter paper.
The substance(s) left in the filter paper at the end is called the residue.
The substance(s) which pass through the filter paper into the conical flask are known as the filtrate.
Once the acid has been neutralised, the excess copper oxide can be removed by filtration.
Now only the salt solution (copper sulfate) remains in the filtrate.
Filtration to remove excess solid: Activity Go online
Stage 2: Filtration
Evaporation and crystallisation to recover the solid salt

Filtration is often followed by evaporation.
Evaporation is a technique for separating a solvent from a solution. The solution is either left to
evaporate in an evaporating dish or it can be heated so the process happens faster.
An evaporating dish on a gauze mounted on a tripod stand, with a Bunsen burner placed on a safety
mat heating the dish.
The disadvantage of this method is that the solvent is lost to the air. Therefore it should not be used
if your solvent is harmful or flammable.
Evaporation should now be carried out on the filtrate until approximately one half of the water has
been evaporated.
Evaporation and crystallisation to recover the solid salt: Activity Go online
Stage 3: Evaporation and crystallisation
The mixture should then be transferred to a crystallising dish and the remaining water will evaporate
in air.
Pure, blue copper(II) sulfate crystals will remain in the crystallising dish.
Copper(II) sulfate crystals
Summary
Copper(II) oxide reacts with sulfuric acid producing a salt called copper(II) sulfate and water.
Q5: Complete a word equation to show this reaction.
The balanced formulae equation to show this reaction is shown as follows.
CuO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
Q6: Complete the ionic equation for the reaction.

...............................................
Q7: Which ion appears unchanged on both sides of the equation?
The sulfate ion (SO42-) appears unchanged on both sides of the equation and so is known as a
spectator ion.
This ion has not taken part in the neutralisation reaction.
The copper ion (Cu2+) ion is also on both sides but changes from solid (s) to aqueous (aq) so is not
a spectator ion.
Spectator ions can be removed to give the equation:
Cu2+O2- (s) + 2 H+ (aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + H2O (l)

The oxide ions (O2-) in the copper(II) oxide have reacted with the hydrogen ions (H+) from the acid
and converted them to water molecules (H2O).
General equation
Most insoluble metal oxides react with acids in this way so a general equation can be written:
Acid + Metal oxide → Salt + Water
Key point
A neutralisation reaction is one in which a base reacts with an acid to form water. A salt
is also formed in this reaction.
Equations can be written for the following neutralisation reactions:
A metal oxide + An acid → A salt + Water
Acid reacting with a metal hydroxide

Metal hydroxides are ionic solutions as they contain a positively charged metal ion and a negatively
charged hydroxide ion.
Soluble metal oxides dissolve to form metal hydroxides (alkalis) in solution.
Alkalis have a pH greater than 7. The higher the pH, the more alkaline the solution.
Example
Sodium hydroxide is a strong alkali (pH 12).
Ammonia (ammonium hydroxide) is a weak alkali (pH 9).
Sodium hydroxide is a common metal hydroxide

Metal hydroxides are classed as bases as they can neutralise acids.
9.4.1 Preparation of sodium chloride

Hydrochloric acid can be neutralised by the base sodium hydroxide to produce the salt sodium
chloride and water.
Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide → Sodium chloride + Water

This reaction takes place following the neutralisation, filtration and evaporation steps that we saw
with the acid and metal oxide reaction. All of the reactants and products in this reaction are clear,
colourless solutions and so it is not obvious when the reaction is complete.
We must use a new practical technique called titration. (This is covered in detail in the next section.)
The balanced formulae equation to show this reaction is shown as follows:
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

...............................................
Q9: Which ions appear unchanged on both sides of the equation?

(Hint: Look at the state symbols)
The Sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-) ions appear unchanged on both sides of the equation and so
are known as a spectator ions.
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l)

General equation
A general equation can be written for the reaction of acids with metal hydroxides:
Acid + Metal hydroxide → Salt + Water
Key point
is also formed in this reaction.
metal hydroxide + acid → salt + water
Titration
Exact neutralisation of an acid by an alkali is carried out by a technique called titration.
Titration apparatus
The key to titration is accuracy and certain pieces of apparatus must be used to accurately measure
the volumes of both the acid and alkali solutions required.
Burette (A)
A burette measures out accurate volumes of solution between 0 and 50 cm 3 and is accurate to +/-
0·1 cm3.
A burette should always be rinsed with a small portion of the solution to be measured before it is
filled up and held with a clamp stand.
Burette readings should always be taken to one decimal place, e.g. 15·0 cm 3, rather than just 15
cm3.
Conical flask (B)
The conical flask holds one of the reactants (which has been measured out by the pipette) and the
indicator solution.
A conical flask should be rinsed with deionised water before use.
The other reactant is run from the burette into the conical flask carefully and the conical flask is
swirled throughout.
In a titration, the conical flask sits on top of a white tile to make it easier to see the end point (when
the indicator changes colour).
Volumetric flask (C)
Standard solutions are solutions of accurately known concentration and are made up using
volumetric flasks.
To make a standard solution, an exact mass of solute is weighed out, dissolved and made up to an
exact volume in a volumetric flask (sometimes called a standard flask).
The weighed solid is then carefully dissolved in about 50 cm3 of deionised water in a clean beaker.
This solution is then carefully poured into the correct size of volumetric flask and deionised water is
used to rinse the beaker into the flask.
Volumetric flasks come in a range of sizes depending on how much solution is needed.
The flask is then filed to just below the line, stoppered and inverted several times to mix the solution.
Finally, the flask is carefully topped up to the mark with deionised water (bottom of meniscus level
with line), stoppered and inverted several more times to mix.
Indicator solution (D)
A suitable indicator must be used to show the exact point where neutralisation occurs - this is called
the end point and is the exact moment when the reaction reaches pH 7.
A couple of drops of indicator are added to the conical flask with the reactants and a good indicator
will produce a clear and sharp colour change at the end-point.
Universal indicator is not used for titrations as it has a range of colours and so is hard to distinguish
the end point clearly.
A common indicator used in titrations is phenolphthalein which is colourless in acidic solutions and
pink in alkali solutions. The end point in a titration using phenolphthalein is when a clear colour
change occurs from pink to colourless or from colourless to pink.
Phenolphthalein is a common indicator used in titrations.

At pH 9 it has changed from colourless to pink.
Pipette (E)
A pipette measures out one specific volume of a solution and come in various sizes.
There is no scale as only one volume can be accurately measured out by a pipette. This is shown
by a mark is on the upper narrow part of the pipette.
Pipettes are filled using a pipette filler and should be rinsed out with the solution they are going to
measure out.
They should be filled so that the bottom of the meniscus is touching the graduated line on the pipette.
Carrying out a titration

Titration involves using a solution of known concentration (standard solution) in a reaction to
determine the concentration of the other reactant.
Titrations involve measuring one solution into a conical flask using a pipette. The other solution is
added from a burette until a permanent colour change of an indicator is seen in the conical flask.
Example
A solution of unknown concentration is pipetted into a conical flask and a few drops of
indicator added. A solution of known concentration is added to the burette.
The solution of known concentration is added to the conical flask from the burette until, at
the end point, the mixture turns a permanent pink colour.
Carrying out a titration: Video Go online
View a short video for carrying out a titration by the Royal Society of Chemistry at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rLc148UCT2w.
A titration is performed a minimum of three times.

A 'rough' titration is carried out first followed by more accurate titrations until concordant titre values
are achieved (titre volumes added from burette should be ±0·2 cm3 of each other).
The mean or average value of the concordant titres is used in calculations to determine
concentration of an unknown solution.
Key point
Titration can be used to produce a soluble salt.
In an acid-base titration, the concentration of the acid or base is determined by

accurately measuring the volumes used in the neutralisation reaction.
An indicator can be added to show the end-point of the reaction.
Titration calculations
Given a balanced equation for the reaction occurring in any titration, the concentration of one
reactant can be calculated given the concentration of the other reactant and the volumes of both
solutions or the volume of one reactant can be calculated given the volume of the other reactant and the
concentrations of both solutions.
Use the examples below to practice your calculation titrations.
Example
Vitamin C is found in fruits and vegetables.
Using iodine solution, a student carried out titrations to determine the concentration of vitamin
C in orange juice.
The results of the titration are given in the following table.
Initial burette Final burette

Titration Titre (cm3)
reading (cm3) reading (cm3)
1 0·0 16·8 16·8
2 16·8 32·7 15·9
3 32·7 48·8 16·1
a) Calculate the average volume, in cm3, that should be used in calculating the
concentration of vitamin C.
Hint: Remember that only concordant values should be used to calculate a titre volume.
b) The equation for the reaction is:
C6H8O6 (aq)+ I2 (aq) → C6H6O6 (aq)+ 2HI (aq)

vitamin C
Calculate the concentration, in mol l-1, of vitamin C in the orange juice. (3 marks)
ALWAYS show your working clearly.
a) 16·0 cm3
Working: = 16 · 0 cm
(15·9+16·1) 3
2
b) This calculation is simple if you remember the steps in the example answer.
1. Write the balanced equation for the reaction.

vitamin C iodine
2. Determine the mole ratio.
vitamin C iodine
1 mole : 1 mole
3. Gather information from the question.

vitamin C iodine
1 mole : 1 mole
c=? c = 0 · 0050 mol l−1
V = 25 cm3 V = 16 · 0 cm3 (from part a)
= 0 · 025 l = 0 · 016 l
4. Calculate the number of moles.

vitamin C iodine
1 mole : 1 mole
c=? c = 0 · 0050 mol l−1
= 0 · 025 l = 0 · 016 l
n = cV
= 0 · 005 × 0 · 016
= 0 · 00008 moles (1 mark)
5. Apply the mole ratio.

vitamin C iodine
1 mole : 1 mole
c=? c = 0 · 0050 mol l−
1

= 0 · 025 l = 0 · 016 l
n = cV
= 0 · 005 × 0 · 016
= 0 · 00008 moles
0 · 0008 moles (1 mark) ←
6. Calculate the concentration of the Vitamin C.
vitamin C iodine
1 mole : 1 mole
c=? c = 0 · 0050 mol l−
1

= 0 · 025 l = 0 · 016 l
n = cV
= 0 · 005 × 0 · 016
= 0 · 00008 moles
0 · 0008 moles ←
n
c=
V
0 · 00008
=
0 · 025
= 3 · 2 × 10−3 mol l−1 (1 mark)
Therefore, the Vitamin C concentration of the fruit juice is 3·2 × 10-3 mol l-1
Q10: A student carried out a titration experiment to determine the concentration of a sodium
hydroxide solution.
The results of the titration are given in the following table.

Titration Titre (cm3)
1 0·1 15·7 15·6
2 15·6 30·5 14·9
3 30·5 45·6 15·1
What is the role of betanin in the experiment?

...............................................
Q11: Using the results in the table, calculate the average volume, in cm3, of oxalic acid
required to neutralise the sodium hydroxide solution.
Example
10 cm3 of potassium hydroxide solution with a concentration of 0·25 mol l-1 is titrated with
sulfuric acid. It takes exactly 12·5 cm3 of the acid to neutralise the alkali.
Calculate the concentration in mol l-1, of the sulfuric acid. (3 marks)
ALWAYS show your working clearly.
1. Write the balanced equation for the reaction.
H2SO4 (aq)+ 2KOH (aq) → K2SO4 (aq)+ 2H2O (aq)

2. Determine the mole ratio.

acid alkali
1 mole : 2 moles
3. Gather information from the question.

acid alkali
1 mole : 2 moles
c=? c = 0 · 25 mol l−1
V = 12 · 5 cm3 V = 10 · 0 cm3
= 0 · 0125 l = 0 · 010 l
4. Calculate the number of moles.

acid alkali
1 mole : 2 moles
c=? c = 0 · 25 mol l−1
V = 12 · 5 cm V = 10 · 0 cm
3 3
= 0 · 0125 l = 0 · 010 l
n = cV
= 0 · 25 × 0 · 01
= 0 · 0025 moles (1 mark)
5. Apply the mole ratio.

acid alkali
1 mole : 2 moles
c=? c = 0 · 25 mol l−1
V = 12 · 5 cm3 V = 10 · 0 cm3
= 0 · 0125 l = 0 · 010 l
n = cV
= 0 · 25 × 0 · 01
= 0 · 0025 moles
0 · 0025
= 0 · 00125 moles (1 mark) ←
2
6. Calculate the concentration of the sulfuric acid.

acid alkali
1 mole : 2 moles
c=? c = 0 · 25 mol l−1
V = 12 · 5 cm3 V = 10 · 0 cm3
= 0 · 0125 l = 0 · 010 l
n = cV
= 0 · 25 × 0 · 01
= 0 · 0025 moles
0 · 0025
= 0 · 00125 moles ←
2 n
c=
V
0 · 00125
=
0 · 0025
= 0 · 5 mol l−1 (1 mark)
Therefore, the concentration of the sulfuric acid is 0·5 mol l-1.
Key point
Given a balanced equation for the reaction occurring in any titration:
the concentration of one reactant can be calculated given the concentration of the other
reactant and the volumes of both solutions;
the concentrations of both solutions.
Acid reacting with a metal carbonate

Metal carbonates are compounds which contain a metal, carbon and oxygen.
Metal carbonates are ionic substances as they contain a positively charged metal ion and a
negatively charged carbonate ion (CO32-).
Metal carbonates such as calcium carbonate (chalk) occur in nature.
Limestone is mainly calcium carbonate

Metal carbonates are classed as bases as they can neutralise acids.
Preparation of calcium nitrate

Nitric acid can be neutralised by the base calcium carbonate to produce the salt calcium nitrate,
water and carbon dioxide gas.
Nitric Acid + Calcium carbonate → Calcium nitrate + Water + Carbon Dioxide

This reaction takes place in three stages:
1. Neutralisation reaction
2. Filtration
3. Evaporation and crystallisation
It is easy to follow the course of the reaction as the gas carbon dioxide is produced.
Neutralisation reaction to make a solution of the salt

A spatula of calcium carbonate powder is carefully added to nitric acid in a side arm test tube,
stoppered and the gas produced bubbles through into some limewater.
Q12: Why should a stopper be used?

...............................................
More calcium carbonate is added to the acid and mixed with a stirring rod until it is neutralised and
there is no further reaction.
Q13: How can you tell the reaction has finished?
Neutralisation reaction to make a solution of the salt: Activity Go online
When the carbon dioxide gas produced bubbles through the limewater a colour change occurs from
colourless to cloudy/milky.
This is the test for carbon dioxide gas.
Key point
The test for carbon dioxide gas is that it turns limewater cloudy/milky.
Filtration to remove excess solid

Filtration is used to separate an insoluble solid from a solid/liquid mixture.
Once all the acid has ben neutralised, the excess calcium carbonate can be removed by filtration.
Filtration to remove excess solid: Activity Go online
Now only the salt solution (calcium nitrate) remains in the filtrate.
Evaporation and crystallisation to recover the solid salt

Filtration is often followed by evaporation to separate the soluble salt from the solvent.
The disadvantage of this method is that the solvent is lost to the air. Therefore it should not be used
if your solvent is harmful or flammable.
Evaporation should now be carried out on the filtrate until approximately one half of the water has
been evaporated.
Evaporation and crystallisation to recover the solid salt: Activity Go online
Evaporation and crystallisation
The mixture should then be transferred to a crystallising dish and the remaining water will evaporate
in air.
Pure, white calcium nitrate crystals will remain in the crystallising dish.
Summary
Nitric acid can be neutralised by the base calcium carbonate to produce the salt calcium nitrate,
Q14: Complete the word equation below to show this reaction.
CaCO3 (s) + HNO3 (aq) → Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)

...............................................

(Hint: Look at the state symbols.)
The nitrate ion (NO3-) appears unchanged on both sides of the equation and so is known as a
spectator ion.
The calcium ion (Ca2+) ion is also on both sides but changes from solid (s) to aqueous (aq) so not a
spectator ion.
Ca2+CO32- (s) + 2H+ (aq) → Ca2+ (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
The carbonate ions (CO32-) in the calcium carbonate have reacted with the hydrogen ions (H+) from
the acid to form water molecules (H2O) and carbon dioxide gas (CO2).
General equation
Most insoluble metal carbonates react with acids in this way so a general equation can be written:
Acid + Metal carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

Key point
and the gas carbon dioxide are also formed in this reaction.
The test for carbon dioxide gas is that it turns limewater cloudy/milky.
metal carbonate + acid → salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
Naming salts
The salt produced in a neutralisation reaction can be named using two simple steps.
1. The first part of the name (the metal) comes from the base used.
2. The second part of the name comes from the acid which has been neutralised.
Different acids produce different types of salt:
• Hydrochloric acid = Chloride salts

• Sulfuric acid = Sulfate salts
• Nitric acid = Nitrate salts
• Phosphoric acid = Phosphate salts
• Ethanoic acid = Ethanoate salts
Q17: Name the salt produced in a reaction where phosphoric acid reacts with lithium
hydroxide.
...............................................
Q18: Name the salt produced in a reaction where hydrochloric acid reacts with ammonium
carbonate.
...............................................
...............................................
Q20: Which acid has been neutralised when the salt lead (II) nitrate is produced?
...............................................
Q21: Name the salt produced in a reaction where calcium carbonate reacts with ethanoic
acid.
Key point
The name of the salt produced depends on the acid and base used:
hydrochloric acid produces chlorides;
sulfuric acid produces sulfates;

nitric acid produces nitrates.
Spectator ions
Spectator ions are ions that remain unchanged by the reaction. Reaction equations can be used
to identify spectator ions.
For neutralisation reactions, equations can be written omitting spectator ions:
• 2H+ (aq) + O2- (s) → H2O (l) for metal oxides

• H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l) for metal hydroxides
• 2H+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) → H2O (l) + CO2 (g) for aqueous metal carbonates
• 2H+ (aq) + CO32- (s) → H2O (l) + CO2 (g) for insoluble metal carbonates
Example : Acid and metal oxide reaction

Magnesium oxide reacts with nitric acid producing a salt called magnesium nitrate and water.
The word equation to show this reaction is shown as follows:
Nitric acid + Magnesium oxide → Magnesium nitrate + Water

MgO (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O (l)
Q22: Complete the ionic equation for the reaction between magnesium oxide and nitric acid.
...............................................

spectator ion.
The magnesium ion (Mg2+) ion is also on both sides but changes from solid (s) to aqueous (aq) so
not a spectator ion.
Spectator ions can be removed to give the following equation:
Mg2+O2- (s) + 2H+ (aq) → Mg2+ (aq) + H2O (l)

The oxide ions (O2-) in the magnesium oxide have reacted with the hydrogen ions (H +) from the acid
and convert them to water molecules (H2O).
General equation
Most insoluble metal oxides react with acids in this way so a general equation without spectator ions
can be written:
2H+ (aq) + O2-(s) → H2O (l)
Example : Acid and metal hydroxide reaction

Hydrochloric acid can be neutralised by the base potassium hydroxide to produce the salt
potassium chloride and water.
Hydrochloric acid + Potassium hydroxide → Potassium chloride + Water

HCl (aq) + KOH (aq) → KCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Q24: Complete the ionic equation for the reaction between hydrochloric acid and the base
potassium hydroxide.
...............................................
Q25: Which ions appear unchanged on both sides of the equation?

The potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl-) ions appear unchanged on both sides of the equation and so
are known as a spectator ions.
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l)
Example : Acid and metal carbonate reaction

Nitric acid can be neutralised by the base lithium carbonate to produce the salt lithium nitrate,
Li2CO3 (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → 2LiNO3 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
In ionic equations acids, bases and salts are ionic compounds and so can be written to show all of
the ions present.
State symbols are important as they show whether the ions are free to move freely in solution (aq)
or if they are 'fixed' in a solid crystal lattice (s).
Carbon dioxide and water are covalent compounds and so will never be separated into ions!
Q26: Complete the word equation below to show this reaction between nitric acid and the
base lithium carbonate.
...............................................
Q27: Complete the ionic equation for the reaction between nitric acid and the base lithium
carbonate.
...............................................

spectator ion.
The lithium ion (Li+) ion is also on both sides but changes from solid (s) to aqueous (aq) so not a
spectator ion.
(Li+)2CO32- (s) + 2H+ (aq) → 2Li+ (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
The carbonate ions (CO32-) in the lithium carbonate have reacted with the hydrogen ions (H+) from
the acid to form water molecules (H2O) and carbon dioxide gas (CO2).
General equation
Most insoluble metal carbonates react with acids in this way so a general equation can be written:
2H+ (aq) + CO32- (s) → H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Key point
Spectator ions are ions that remain unchanged by the reaction.
Reaction equations can be used to identify spectator ions.
For neutralisation reactions, equations can be written omitting spectator ions:
2H+ (aq) + O2- (s) → H2O (l) for metal oxides

H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l) for metal hydroxides
2H+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) → H2O (l) + CO2 (g) for aqueous metal carbonates
2H+ (aq) + CO32- (s) → H2O (l) + CO2 (g) for insoluble metal carbonates
Summary
Summary
• Neutralisation reactions:
◦ a neutralisation reaction is one in which a base reacts with an acid to form water.
A salt is also formed in this reaction;
◦ equations can be written for the following neutralisation reactions:
□ a metal oxide + an acid → a salt + water;
□ a metal hydroxide + an acid → a salt + water;
□ a metal carbonate + an acid → a salt + water + carbon dioxide.
◦ the name of the salt produced depends on the acid and base used:
□ hydrochloric acid produces chlorides;
□ sulfuric acid produces sulfates;
□ nitric acid produces nitrates.
• Spectator ions:
◦ spectator ions are ions that remain unchanged by the reaction;
◦ reaction equations can be used to identify spectator ions;
◦ for neutralisation reactions, equations can be written omitting spectator ions:
□ 2H+ (aq) + O2- (s) → H2O (l) for metal oxides;
□ H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l) for metal hydroxides;
□ 2H+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) → H2O (l) + CO2 (g) for aqueous metal carbonates;
□ 2H+ (aq) + CO32- (s) → H2O (l) + CO2 (g) for insoluble metal carbonates.
• Titration:
◦ titration can be used to produce a soluble salt;
◦ in an acid-base titration, the concentration of the acid or base is determined by
accurately measuring the volumes used in the neutralisation reaction;
◦ an indicator can be added to show the end-point of the reaction;
◦ given a balanced equation for the reaction occurring in any titration:
□ the concentration of one reactant can be calculated given the concentration of
the other reactant and the volumes of both solutions;
□ the volume of one reactant can be calculated given the volume of the other
reactant and the concentrations of both solutions.
◦ once the volumes of acid and alkali have been noted, the reaction can be repeated
without the indicator to produce an uncontaminated salt solution;
◦ the solution can then be evaporated to dryness.
• Insoluble metal carbonates:
◦ insoluble metal carbonates and insoluble metal oxides can be used to produce
soluble salts;
◦ excess base is added to the appropriate acid, the mixture is filtered and the filtrate
evaporated to dryness.
Key word Definition

a product of a neutralisation reaction.
a substance that produces OH-(aq) ions in solution and has a pH
above 7.
compounds which contain a metal, carbon and oxygen.
contain a positively charged metal ion and a negatively charged
hydroxide ion.
oxide ion.
particles with an imbalance of positive protons and negative
electrons.
a compound held together by the electrostatic attraction between
positive and negative ions.
a solution whose concentration is accurately known.
an equation where all of the charges on the ions are shown.
ions which appear unchanged on both sides of an equation, they
do not take part in a reaction.
substances which neutralise acids forming a salt and water.
a practical technique for separating a solvent from a solution.
a practical technique used to separate an insoluble solid from a
solid / liquid mixture.
a reaction in which a base reacts with an acid to form water and a
salt.
the exact neutralisation of an acid by an alkali.
titre volumes which are within ±0·2 cm3 of each other.

used to show the exact point where neutralisation occurs.
Key words: alkalis, bases, concordant, evaporation, filtration, indicator, ionic, ionic equation,
ions, metal carbonates, metal hydroxides, metal oxides, neutralisation, salt, spectator ions,
standard solution, titration.
Resources
Texts

ISBN 978-0007549306
978-1510420861
Practical work
In LearnChemistry's an effervescent universal indicator rainbow experiment, sodium carbonate
solution is added to a burette containing a little hydrochloric acid and universal Indicator. The two
solutions react, with effervescence, and the liquid in the burette shows a 'rainbow' of colours.
A striking alternative that candidates can carry out for themselves is neutralisation circles. Drops of
dilute acid and alkali are placed a few centimetres apart on a sheet of filter paper and allowed to
spread out until they meet. A few drops of universal Indicator are then placed over the moist area of
the filter paper and a band of colours showing the range of colours of the universal Indicator is seen
on the paper.
In reacting copper(II) oxide with sulfuric acid black, insoluble copper(II) oxide is reacted with sulfuric
acid and the product solution evaporated to form blue copper(II) sulfate crystals.
A very simple example of the reaction of an acid and a carbonate not often carried out in chemistry
classrooms is described in LearnChemistry's Outreach: bendy bones. Vinegar reacts with the
calcium carbonate in chicken bones to release bubbles of carbon dioxide.
The interactive lab primer - titration from LearnChemistry is a suite of videos, simulations and
animations created to show candidates how to use pipettes and burettes to carry out a titration.
The titration animation provides, in a very clear and simple way, an overview of how a titration
allows the concentration of a solution to be measured.
LearnChemistry's titration screen experiment is an interactive virtual lab resource. The activity has
four levels. The first level is suitable as a resource to revise and consolidate understanding of the
acids and bases topic at National 5 level. As this resource was created for world wide use,
concentration is expressed in mol dm-3. Before using this resource, it would be advisable to inform
candidates that 1 dm3 is equivalent to 1 litre.
In the titrating sodium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid experiment from LearnChemistry, sodium
hydroxide is titrated with hydrochloric acid and the product solution evaporated to produce sodium
chloride crystals.
LearnChemistry's preparing salts by neutralisation of oxides and carbonates provides well-tried
class experiments, which should take no more than thirty minutes to reach the point at which the
product solution has been filtered.
End of topic test

Neutralisation reactions topic test Go online
Q30: H+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) + K+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → K+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) + H2O (l )
The spectator ions present in the reaction are:
a) K+(aq) and NO3- (aq)

b) K+(aq) and H+ (aq)
c) OH-(aq) and NO3- (aq)
d) H+(aq) and OH- (aq)
...............................................
Q31: Which compound would not neutralise hydrochloric acid?
a) Sodium carbonate
b) Sodium chloride
c) Sodium hydroxide
d) Sodium oxide
...............................................
Q32: A student carried out the following neutralisation reaction.
Li2CO3 (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → 2LiNO3 (aq) + H2O (l ) + CO2 (g)

Identify the salt in the reaction.
a) LiNO3
b) H2O
c) CO2
d) Li2CO3
...............................................
Q33: In the production of the fertiliser ammonium phosphate, phosphoric acid (H 3PO4) reacts
with ammonium hydroxide as shown.
H3PO4 (aq) + NH4OH (aq) → (NH4)3PO4 (aq) + H2O (l )

Balance this equation.
...............................................
Q34: Which of the following are the spectator ions in this reaction?
AgNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) → AgCl (s) + KNO3 (aq)
a) Ag+ and Cl-

b) K+ and NO3-
c) Ag+ and NO3-
d) K+ and Cl-
...............................................
Q35: Which equation correctly shows the neutralisation reactions, omitting spectator ions, for
an acid and insoluble metal carbonate reaction?
a) 2H+ (aq) + O2- (s) → H2O (l )
b) H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l )
c) 2H+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) → H2O (l ) + CO2 (g)
d) 2H+ (aq) + CO32- (s) → H2O (l ) + CO2 (g)
...............................................
Q36: Which practical technique is best for carrying out an acid and metal hydroxide
neutralisation?
a) Filtration
b) Evaporation
c) Crystallisation
d) Titration
...............................................
Q37: Which piece of apparatus is best for measuring out accurately a known volume of
solution?
a) Measuring cylinder
b) Beaker
c) Burette
d) Pipette
A student carries out the following experiment in the lab.
HNO3 (aq) + KOH (aq) → KNO3 (aq) + H2O (l )
Q38: Name the type of chemical reaction taking place?

...............................................
Q39: State how a sample of solid potassium nitrate could be obtained from the potassium
nitrate solution.
Sodium carbonate solution can be added to the water in swimming pools to neutralise the
acidic effects of chlorine.
Q40: Using the results in the table, calculate the average volume, in cm3, of hydrochloric acid
required to neutralise the sodium carbonate solution.
Titre Volume used (cm3)
Rough 0·0 16·5 16·5
1 0·0 15·9 15·9
2 0·0 16·1 16·1
...............................................
Q41: The equation for the reaction is:
2HCl + Na2CO3 → 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O

Using your answer from the previous part, calculate the concentration, in mol l -1, of the sodium
carbonate solution.
...............................................
Q42: Which compound would neutralise hydrochloric acid?
Sodium sulfate
Sodium chloride
Sodium nitrate
Sodium oxide
255
Topic 10
End of section test

256 TOPIC 10. END OF SECTION TEST
Chemical changes and structure section test Go online
Q1: Which of the following pairs of reactants would produce hydrogen most slowly?
a) Magnesium powder and 4 mol l -1 acid

b) Magnesium ribbon and 2 mol l -1 acid
c) Magnesium powder and 2 mol l -1 acid
d) Magnesium ribbon and 4 mol l -1 acid
...............................................
Q2: Which of the following elements has similar chemical properties to argon?
a) Fluorine
b) Krypton
c) Potassium
d) Zinc
...............................................
Q3: Isotopes of the same element have identical:
a) nuclei.
b) mass numbers.
c) numbers of neutrons.
d) numbers of protons.
...............................................
Q4: An atom is neutral because the number of:
a) electrons equals the total number of protons plus neutrons.

b) neutrons equals the total number of electrons plus protons.
c) protons equals the number of neutrons.
d) electrons equals the number of protons.
...............................................
Q5: Which of the following diagrams could be used to represent the structure of a covalent
network compound?
a)
TOPIC 10. END OF SECTION TEST 257
b)
c)
d)
...............................................
Q6: What is the name of the compound with the formula Ag 2O?
a) Silver (I) oxide
b) Silver (II) oxide
c) Silver (III) oxide
d) Silver (IV) oxide
...............................................
Q7: Vinegar is prepared by dissolving ethanoic acid in water.
Identify which is the solute, solvent and solution from ethanoic acid, vinegar and water.
...............................................
Q8: 1 mole of sodium chloride can be used to prepare:
a) 250 cm3 of a 0·4 mol l -1 solution

b) 250 cm3 of a 4 mol l -1 solution
c) 200 cm3 of a 0·5 mol l -1 solution
d) 200 cm3 of a 1 mol l -1 solution
...............................................
Q9: When 100 cm3 of a 1 mol l -1 solution of sodium sulfate was evaporated to dryness, 14·2
g of solid was obtained.
To obtain 14·2 g of solid from a 2 mol l -1 solution of sodium sulfate the volume of solution
needed would be:
a) 25 cm3
b) 50 cm3
c) 100 cm3
d) 200 cm3
...............................................
Q10: Which of the following oxides, when shaken with water, would leave the pH unchanged?
You may wish to use your data booklet to help you.
a) Carbon dioxide
b) Copper oxide
c) Sodium oxide
d) Sulfur oxide
...............................................
Q11: Which of the following statements describes the concentrations of H+(aq) and OH-(aq)
ions in pure water?
a) The concentrations of H+(aq) and OH-(aq) ions are equal

b) The concentrations of H+(aq) and OH-(aq) ions are zero.
c) The concentration of H+(aq) ions is greater than the concentration of OH-(aq) ions.
d) The concentration of OH-(aq) ions is greater than the concentration of H+(aq) ions.
...............................................
Q12: In which of the following test tubes will a gas be produced?
a)
b)
c)
d)
...............................................
Q13: Sodium sulfate solution reacts with barium chloride solution.
Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

The spectator ions present in this reaction are:
a) Na+ and Cl-

b) Na+ and SO42-
c) Ba2+ and Cl-
d) Ba2+ and SO42-
...............................................
Q14: Hydrogen peroxide solution decomposes to give water and oxygen.
2H2O2 (aq) → 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)

The following graph shows the results of an experiment carried out to measure the volume of
oxygen gas released.
Calculate the average rate of reaction between 0 and 20 seconds.

...............................................
Q15: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a family of compounds which are highly effective as
refrigerants and aerosol propellants. However, they are now known to damage the ozone
layer.
One example of a CFC molecule (CCl2F2) is shown.
What term is used to describe the shape of this molecule?
Tin (IV) chloride, SnCl4, is used in the processing of glass and can be prepared as shown.
SnO2 + 4HCl → SnCl4 + 2H2O
Q16: Name the type of reaction taking place.

...............................................
Q17: Tin (IV) chloride is a liquid at room temperature and is made up of discrete molecules.
What type of bonding does this suggest is present in tin(IV) chloride?
...............................................
Q18: Magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid.
The equation for the reaction is shown.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

In an experiment, 4·9 g of magnesium reacted with excess dilute hydrochloric acid.
Calculate the mass of hydrogen produced in this reaction. (3 marks)
Hints:
• Work out the ratio of moles of magnesium used to moles of hydrogen produced.
• Use the mass formula triangle to work out the number of moles of magnesium in the
reaction.
• Use the mass formula triangle to find the mass of hydrogen produced.
A student investigated the reaction of carbonates with dilute hydrochloric acid.

In one reaction lithium carbonate reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid.
The equation for the reaction is:
Li2CO3 (s) + HCl (aq) → LiCl (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
Q19: Balance this equation.

...............................................
Q20: Identify the salt produced in this reaction.
Water, H2O, is essential to all life on Earth.
Q21: What is the pH of pure water?

...............................................
Q22: Calculate the percentage of hydrogen in water. (3 marks)

...............................................
Q23: What is the bonding and structure present in water?
When iron reacts with water and oxygen, rust forms.

The chemical name for rust is iron (III) oxide.
Q24: Write the chemical formula for rust.

...............................................
Q25: During rusting, iron initially loses 2 electrons to form iron (II) ions.
These react further to form iron (III) ions.
Write the ion-electron equation to show iron (II) ions forming iron (III) ions.
You may wish to use your data booklet to help you.
GLOSSARY 263
Glossary
Acid
a substance behaves as an acid if it produces H+(aq) ions in solution and has a pH of less
than 7. The lower the pH, the more acidic the solution
Acidic
a substance behaves as an acid if it produces H+(aq) ions in solution and has a pH of less
than 7. The lower the pH, the more acidic the solution
Alkaline
a substance behaves as an alkali if it produces OH-(aq) ions in solution and has a pH of greater
than 7. The higher the pH, the more alkaline the solution
Alkalis
a substance behaves as an alkali if it produces OH-(aq) ions in solution and has a pH of greater
than 7. The higher the pH, the more alkaline the solution
Aqueous solution
a solution in which a solid has been dissolved in water
ate
compounds contain three elements, one of which is oxygen
Atomic number
the number of protons in an atom
Balanced
a formulae equation where the number of atoms for each element reaction is the same for
both the reactants and the products
Base
a substance which neutralises an acid, forming a salt and water. Bases may be soluble or
insoluble in water and can be further divided into three groups; metal oxides, metal hydroxides
and metal carbonates
Bases
substances which neutralise acids forming a salt and water. Bases may be soluble or insoluble
in water and can be further divided into three groups; metal oxides, metal hydroxides and metal
carbonates
Boiling point
the temperature at which a substance changes from a liquid into a gas
Catalyst
a substance which speeds up chemical reactions but can be recovered chemically unchanged
at the end of the reaction
Chemical reaction
a process in which reactants are converted into products, forming a new substance
264 GLOSSARY
Combustion
an exothermic reaction where a substance reacts with oxygen to produce energy, often
referred to as burning
Compound
a substance made up of two or more elements chemically joined together
Concentrated
a large amount of solute dissolved in a small volume of solvent
Concentration
a measure of moles per litre of solution (mol l-1)
Concordant
titre volumes which are within ±0·2 cm3 of each other. The mean or average value of the
concordant titres is used in calculations to determine concentration of an unknown solution
Covalent bonding
a covalent bond forms between non-metals when two positive nuclei are held together by their
common attraction for a shared pair of electrons
Covalent molecular
a small compound formed between non metals which have strong covalent bonds within the
molecules and only weak attractions between the molecules
Covalent network
have a network of strong covalent bonds within one giant structure and very high melting and
boiling points because the network of strong covalent bonds is not easily broken
Diatomic
molecules made up of two atoms
Diatomic elements
there are seven element which exist as diatomic molecules through the formation of covalent
bonds: H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
Dilute
a small amount of solute dissolved in a large volume of solvent
Discrete molecule
small covalent molecules with low melting and boiling points as only weak forces of attraction
between the molecules are broken when a substance changes state
Double covalent bond

two positive nuclei are held together by their common attraction for two shared pairs of
electrons
Electrolytes
solutions which can conduct because the charged particles (ions) are free to move and can
carry an electric current
GLOSSARY 265
Electron
a subatomic particle found orbiting the nucleus of an atom. Electrons have a charge of 1- and
negligible mass
Electrostatic attraction
the attraction between positive and negative charges
Element
a substance which contains only one type of atom
End point
the point where the rate of change in a reaction is zero. On a line graph, this is the point when
the line becomes horizontal
Equilibrium
the concentration of H+(aq) ions and OH-(aq) ions remains constant even although the
formation and combination of ions continues. Represented by the symbol (reversible arrow)
Evaporation
a practical technique for separating a solvent from a solution. The solution is either left to
evaporate in an evaporating dish or it can be heated so the process happens faster
Filtration
a practical technique used to separate an insoluble solid from a solid / liquid mixture
Formula
the chemical formula of a covalent molecular substance gives the number of atoms present in
the molecule whereas the formula of a covalent network or ionic compound gives the simplest
ratio of atoms/ions in the substance
Formulae equation
a chemical reaction expressed using formulae e.g. CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Full outer electron shell

when an atom has obtained the electron arrangement of a noble gas
Gram formula mass

the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms present in the formula
Group
a column of elements in the periodic table
Group ions
ions that contain more than one type of atom
ide
compounds contain two elements; the exception to this rule are hydroxides which contain three
elements
266 GLOSSARY
Indicator
used to show the exact point where neutralisation occurs - this is called the end point and is
the exact moment when the reaction reaches pH 7. A couple of drops of indicator are added to the
conical flask with the reactants and a good indicator will produce a clear and sharp colour
change at the end-point
Insoluble
a substance which does not dissolve in a solvent
Ion
a particle with an imbalance in the number of positive protons and negative electrons
Ion-electron equation
an equation that shows the formation of ions through loss or gain of electrons
Ionic
a bond formed by the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions - the formula
of an ionic compound gives the simplest ratio of atoms/ions in the substance
Ionic bond
the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions
Ionic equation
an equation where all of the charges on the ions are shown
Ionic formulae
give the simplest ratio of each type of ion in the substance and can show the charges on each
ion, if required
Ions
formed when atoms lose or gain electrons to obtain the stable electron arrangement of a noble
gas; in general, metal atoms lose electrons forming positive ions and non-metal atoms gain
electrons forming negative ions
Isotopes
atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers, atoms with the same number
of protons but different numbers of neutrons
ite
compounds contain three elements, one of which is oxygen
Lattice
the structure formed by ionic compounds consisting of oppositely charged ions - each positive
ion surrounded by negative ions and each negative ion surrounded by positive ions
Mass number
the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom
Melting point
the temperature at which a substance changes from a solid into a liquid
GLOSSARY 267
Metal carbonates
compounds which contain a metal, carbon and oxygen. Metal carbonates are ionic substances as
they contain a positively charged metal ion and a negatively charged carbonate ion (CO 32-). They
are a type of base as they neutralise acids forming a salt and water
Metal hydroxides
ionic substances as they contain a positively charged metal ion and a negatively charged
hydroxide ion. Soluble metal oxides dissolve to form metal hydroxides (alkalis) in solution.
They are a type of base as they neutralise acids forming a salt and water
Metal oxides
ionic substances as they contain a positively charged metal ion and a negatively charged oxide
ion. They are a type of base as they neutralise acids forming a salt and water. Soluble metal
oxides dissolve to form metal hydroxides (alkalis) in solution
Mixture
substances which have been put together but are not chemically joined
The mole
chemists use a quantity called the mole to carry out chemical calculations: one mole of a
substance is equal to the gram formula mass of the substance in grams
Molten
when a solid has been heated and has changed from a solid into the liquid state
Monatomic
a substance which exists as single, unbonded atoms. The noble gases are described as
monatomic
Negative ion
a particle that has more electrons than protons. Non-metals gain electrons to form negative
ions
Neutral
the middle number on the scale is seven (7) and solutions with this pH are neither acidic or
alkaline, they are neutral. A neutral solution has equal concentrations of H+(aq) and OH-(aq)
ions
Neutralisation
a neutralisation reaction is one in which a base reacts with an acid to form water and a salt
Neutron
a subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. Neutrons have a relative mass of 1 no
charge
Nucleus
the positively charged central core of an atom, it contains protons and neutrons and all its
mass
Nuclide notation
a representation used to show the atomic number and mass number of a particle
268 GLOSSARY
Ore
a naturally occurring solid material from which a metal or valuable mineral can be extracted
Outer electron diagrams
diagrams can be drawn to show how outer electrons are shared to form the covalent bond(s)
in a molecule
a calculation to determine how much of any particular element is present in a compound
Period
a row of elements in the periodic table
Periodic table
where chemists arrange the elements based on their atomic number and properties
The pH scale
used to measure how acidic or alkaline a solution is. It measures the concentration of hydrogen
ions, H+(aq) present. pH values range from below 0 (highly acidic) to above 14 (highly alkaline)
Positive ion
a particle that has more protons than electrons. Metals lose electrons to form positive ions
Prefix
part of the compound name which tells us the chemical formula eg mono, di, tri etc.
Products
the substances formed in a chemical reaction
Proton
a subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. Protons have a relative mass of 1 and a
charge of 1+
Rate
a measure of the rate of change of a quantity (such as volume or mass) over a period of time
Reactants
the substances that react in a chemical reaction
Relative atomic mass
average atomic mass calculated for an element using the mass and proportion isotopes
present
Salt
a product of a neutralisation reaction. Salts are named from the acid and the base they have
been made from
Shape
the 3D arrangement of simple covalent molecules depends on the number of bonds and the
orientation of these bonds around the central atom; these molecules can be described as
linear, angular, trigonal pyramidal or tetrahedral
GLOSSARY 269
Single covalent bond

two positive nuclei are held together by their common attraction for one shared pair of electrons
Soluble
a substance that will dissolve
Solute
the substance that is dissolved
Solution
a special mixture formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent
Solvent
the liquid that does the dissolving
Spectator ions
ions which appear unchanged on both sides of an equation, they do not take part in a reaction
Standard solution
a solution whose concentration is accurately known
Subscript
a small number that is written at the bottom right hand side of an atomic symbol to indicate
how many of that type of atom are present, e.g. the '3' in AlCl3
Superscript
a small number that is written at the top right hand side of an atomic symbol to indicate charge
on an ion, e.g. the '3+' in Al3+
Titration
exact neutralisation of an acid by an alkali is carried out by a technique called titration
Triple covalent bond

two positive nuclei are held together by their common attraction for three shared pairs of
electrons
Valency
the combining power of an element, the number of bonds the element can make
Variables
the things that we can change during a chemical reaction, such as particle size, temperature
and concentration
Word equation
a chemical reaction expressed in words rather than formulae e.g. methane + oxygen → carbon
dioxide + water
270 HINTS: UNIT 1 TOPIC 4
Hints for activities

Topic 4: Ionic compounds
Formation of ionic bonds: Questions
Hint 1:
Each fluorine atom can accept one electron from the aluminium atom to complete their outer shells.
Aluminium has three outer electrons to transfer so three fluorine atoms are required to accept all of
the outer electrons.
An aluminium ion and three fluorine ions have been formed.
The positively charged aluminium ion and the negatively charged fluoride ions are strongly attracted
to each other by electrostatic attractions.
ANSWERS: UNIT 1 TOPIC 1 271
Answers to questions and activities

Topic 1: Rates of reaction
Prior knowledge: Questions (page 3)
Q1:
• Concentration
• Particle size/surface area
• Temperature
Q2: All of the variables listed can be monitored to follow the course of a reaction!
Q3: b) The upper line
Concentration: Questions (page 7)
Q4: 3
Q5: 6
Q6: a) increases.
Particle size: Questions (page 8)
Q7: a) Small
Q8: 6
Q9: 8
Q10: b) decreases.
Temperature: Questions (page 9)
Q11: 4
Q12: 8
Q13: a) increases.
Measuring change of volume of a gas in a reaction: Question (page 11)
Q14: d) All of the above.
Measuring mass loss in a reaction: Question (page 12)
Q15: A stopper would prevent everything from leaving the flask, including the gas produced. This
means that the mass would stay constant and we would not have results we could plot as a graph.
272 ANSWERS: UNIT 1 TOPIC 1
Displacement of air: Questions (page 14)
Q16: a) Carry out the reaction in a fume cupboard as chlorine is a toxic gas.
Q17: There is no scale on the test tubes so we would not get results that could be plotted on a
graph.
Understanding graphs: Question (page 15)
Q18: c) 7 minutes
Change in mass: Questions (page 19)
Q19:
From 3 - 6 minutes:
Change in quantity
Change in time
(0 · 09 − 0 · 075)
(6 − 3)
Average reaction rate = 0 · 005 g min−1
From 6 - 9 minutes:
Change in quantity
Change in time
(0 · 1 − 0 · 09)
(9 − 6)
Average reaction rate = 0 · 003 g min−1
Q20: b) It decreases.
Summary: Activity (page 20)
Q21:
Key word Definition
Rate a measure of the change of a quantity over a period of time.
Catalyst a substance which speeds up chemical reactions.
End point on a line graph, this is the point when the line becomes horizontal .
Variable something that we can change during a chemical reaction.
Rates of reaction topic test (page 21)
Q22: c)2080 cm3s−1

Q23: c) between 20 s and 60 s.
Q24: 86 - 88 seconds
Q25: d) Gas syringe
Q26: b) The concentration of reactants is decreasing.
Q27: a) Catalyst
Q28: b) 2·1 cm3 s-1
Q29: c) Increasing the particle size.
Q30: 15 cm3
Q31: b) 0·5 g magnesium reacted.
Topic 2: Atomic structure

Q1: b) period.
Q2: a) Metals
Q3: c) a substance which contains only one kind of atom.
The periodic table: Questions (page 30)
Q4: 13
Q5: N
Q6: 18
Q7: Si
Groups in the periodic table: Questions (page 31)
Q8: 1
Q9: 3
Q10: 0
Q11: 1
Q12: 7
Q13: 0
Names of groups: Questions (page 33)
Q14: c) Halogens
Q15: b) Transition metals
Metals and non-metals: Questions (page 34)
Q16: a) Metal
Q17: b) Non-metal
Q18: b) Non-metal
Q19: a) Metal
Q20: b) Non-metal
Q21: a) Metal
Atoms: Question (page 37)
Q22:

Proton Nucleus 1 1+
Neutron Nucleus 1 0
Electron Orbiting nucleus 0 1-
Answers from page 38.
Q23: They are the same.
Electron arrangement: Questions (page 39)
Q24: 2,8,5
Q25: 2,8,8,1
Q26: 2,8
Valency: Questions (page 40)
Q27: 4
Q28: 1
Q29: 2
Q30: 0
Q31: 2
Q32: 3
Atomic number: Question (page 41)
Q33:
Element Atomic number Number of protons

Sulfur 16 16
Magnesium 12 12
Neon 10 10
Nickel 28 28
Mass number: Question (page 42)
Q34:
Mass Atomic Number of Number of Number of

Element
number number protons neutrons electrons
Iodine 127 53 53 74 53
Oxygen 16 8 8 8 8
Magnesium 24 12 12 12 12
Lithium 7 3 3 4 3
Hydrogen 1 1 1 0 1
Nuclide notation: Questions (page 43)
Q35: 2
Q36: 2
Q37: 2
Ions: Questions (page 43)
Q38:
Ion Electrons Protons Neutrons

Mg2+ 10 12 12
N3- 10 7 7
+
Li 2 3 4
Nuclide Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of

notation number number protons electrons neutrons
19F−
9
9 19 9 10 10
27Al3+ 13 27 13 10 14
13
39K+ 19 39 19 18 20
19
Isotopes: Question (page 45)
Q39:
81Br 79Br
35 35
Mass number = 81 Mass number = 79

Atomic number = 35 Atomic number = 35
Number of neutrons = (81 − 35) Number of neutrons = (79 − 35)
= 46 = 44
Relative atomic mass: Questions (page 46)
Q40: Either of:

• they have different mass numbers;
• they have different numbers of neutrons.
Q41: The relative atomic mass is much closer to 7 than 6 so there must be much more of the 37Li
isotope than the 36Li isotope.
Q42:
Key word Definition

Group a column of elements in the periodic table.
Period a row of elements in the periodic table.
the combining power of an element, the number of bonds the element can
Valency
make.
the positively charged central core of an atom, it contains protons and
Nucleus
neutrons and all its mass.
a subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom which has a mass of
Proton
1 amu and a charge of 1+.
a subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom which has a mass of
Neutron
1 amu and no charge.
a subatomic particle found orbiting the nucleus of an atom which has a
Electron
negligible mass and a charge of 1-.
Element a substance which contains only one type of atom.
where chemists arrange the elements based on their atomic number and
Periodic table
properties.
Atomic number the number of protons in an atom;
Mass number the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom;
a representation used to show the atomic number and mass number of a
Nuclide notation
particle;
atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers, atoms
Isotopes
with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons;
Relative atomic average atomic mass calculated for an element using the mass and
mass proportion isotopes present.
Atomic structure topic test (page 50)
Q43:

Proton Nucleus 1 1+
Neutron Nucleus 1 0
Electron Orbiting nucleus 0 1-
Q44: b) 2
Q45:
Particle Number
Proton 79
Neutron 118
Electron 79
Q46: c) There is more of the 35Cl isotope present than the 37Cl isotope.
17 17
Q47: c) the mass number minus the number of protons.
Q48: a) atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Q49: d) Alkali metals
Q50: a) atomic number 26, mass number 56.
Q51: b) A and C
Q52: d) Na+
Topic 3: Covalent bonding

Q1: b) Transition metals
Q2: c) protons and electrons.
Q3: b) 2,8,8,1
Covalent bonding in hydrogen: Activity (page 58)
Q4: 1
Q5: 1
Q6: 2
Q7: 2
Covalent bonding in fluorine: Activity (page 59)
Q8: 7
Q9: 1
Q10: 2
Q11: 8
Covalent bonding in oxygen: Activity (page 60)
Q12: 6
Q13: 2
Q14: 4
Q15: 8
Covalent bonding in nitrogen: Activity (page 61)
Q16: 5
Q17: 3
Q18: 6
Q19: 8
Covalent bonding in chlorine: Activity (page 62)
Q20: 7
Q21: 1
Q22: 2
Q23: 8
Covalent bonding in elements: Summary questions (page 64)
Q24: b) Covalent
Q25: b) Two positive nuclei which are held together by their common attraction for a shared pair of
electrons.
Q26: b) 2
Q27: b) Two shared pairs of electrons.
Q28: d) Mercury
Q29: a) To achieve a full outer electron arrangement.
Q30: b) The right hand side of the stepped line.
Covalent bonding in hydrogen chloride: Activity (page 67)
Q31: 1
Q32: 1
Q33: 7
Q34: 1
Q35: 2
Q36: 2
Q37: 8
Covalent bonding in carbon dioxide: Activity (page 68)
Q38: 4
Q39: 4
Q40: 6
Q41: 2
Q42: 4
Q43: 8
Q44: 8
Covalent bonding in water: Activity (page 69)
Q45: 6
Q46: 2
Q47: 1
Q48: 1
Q49: 2
Q50: 8
Q51: 2
Covalent bonding in ammonia: Activity (page 71)
Q52: 5
Q53: 3
Q54: 1
Q55: 1
Q56: 2
Q57: 8
Q58: 2
Covalent bonding in methane: Activity (page 72)
Q59: 4
Q60: 4
Q61: 1
Q62: 1
Q63: 2
Q64: 8
Q65: 2
Covalent bonding in compounds: Summary questions (page 75)
Q66: a) Linear
Q67: d) Tetrahedral
Q68: c) Trigonal pyramidal
Q69: b) Angular
Covalent bonding in compounds: Activity (page 75)
Q70:
Linear Angular Trigonal pyramidal Tetrahedral
Covalent molecular substances: Questions (page 76)
Q71: Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine.
Q72: a) Linear
Q73: 4
Q74: 8
Physical states: Activity (page 81)
Q75:
Covalent
Molecular Melting point / Boiling point / State at room
molecular ◦C ◦C
formula temperature
structure
Ammonia NH3 -78 -33 Gas
Phosphorus P4 44 280 Solid
Water H2O 0 100 Liquid
Bromine Br2 -7 59 Liquid
Carbon dioxide CO2 -57 -78 Gas
Nitrogen N2 -210 -196 Gas
Covalent molecular summary: Questions (page 82)
Q76: d) All of the above.
Q77: a) Attractions between molecules.
Q78: a) Low melting and boiling points.
Q79: d) Discrete
Diamond: Questions (page 84)
Q80: 4
Q81: Single covalent
Graphite: Questions (page 85)
Q82: 3
Silicon dioxide: Questions (page 86)
Q84: 4
Q85: 2
Covalent networks summary: Questions (page 87)
Q87: a) Solid
Q88: c) Graphite
Q89: a) High melting and boiling points.
Q90:
Key word Definition

a substance which exists as single, unbonded atoms. The noble gases
Monatomic
are described this way.
forms between non-metals when two positive nuclei are held together by
Covalent bond
their common attraction for a shared pair of electrons.
Outer electron can be drawn to show how outer electrons are shared to form the covalent
diagram bond(s) in a molecule.
Diatomic molecules made up of two atoms.
Diatomic elements H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
Single covalent two positive nuclei are held together by their common attraction for a one
bond shared pair of electrons.
Double covalent two positive nuclei are held together by their common attraction for two
bond shared pairs of electrons.
two positive nuclei are held together by their common attraction for three
Triple covalent bond
shared pairs of electrons.
Shape the 3D arrangement of simple covalent molecules depends on the number

of bonds and the orientation of these bonds around the central atom.
small covalent molecules with low melting and boiling points as only weak
Discrete forces of attraction between the molecules are broken when a substance
changes state.
strong covalent bonds within one giant structure which has a very high
Covalent network
melting and boiling point.
Covalent bonding topic test (page 91)
Q91:
Covalent substance Melting point / ◦C Boiling point / ◦C State Structure

Oxygen -219 -183 Gas Molecular
Silicon dioxide 1713 2950 Solid Network
Water 0 100 Liquid Molecular
Ammonia -78 -33 Gas Molecular
Bromine -7 59 Liquid Molecular
Decomposes at -
Diamond Solid Network
3550
Q92:
Q93: Tetrahedral
Q94: d) Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine
Q95: c) Silicon
Q96: a) pairs of electrons are shared equally between atoms.
Q97: d) Hydrogen chloride
Q98: c) weak forces of attraction between molecules.
Q99: c)
Q100: d) Graphite
Topic 4: Ionic compounds

Q1: b) To achieve a full outer shell of electrons.

Q2: c) protons and electrons.
Q3: c) 2,8,8,2
Ions: Questions (page 98)
Q4: c) They have complete outer electron shells.
Positive ions: Questions (page 99)
Q5: Aluminium is in group 3 of the periodic table and so will lose three outer electrons to form an
ion with a three positive charge (3+).
Aluminium atom Aluminium ion

Electron arrangement = 2, 8, 3 Electron arrangement = 2, 8
Total charge = 0 (Neutral) Total charge = 3+
An ion electron equation can be written to show formation of this ion: Al → Al 3+ + 3e-
Transition metal ions: Questions (page 101)
Q6:
Name of transition metal Charge of transition metal

Name of compound
present ion
Copper (II) chloride Copper 2+
Silver (I) oxide Silver +
Iron (III) sulfate Iron 3+
288 ANSWERS: UNIT 1 TOPIC
288
Negative ions: Questions (page 103)
Q7: Nitrogen is in group 5 of the periodic table and so will gain three outer electrons to form a
nitride ion with a three negative charge (3-).
Nitrogen atom Nitrogen ion

Electron arrangement = 2, 5 Electron arrangement = 2, 8
An ion electron equation can be written to show formation of this ion: N + 3e - → N3-
Q8:
Name of element Electron arrangement Ion formed

Sulfur 2,8,6 2-
Lithium 2,1 +
Calcium 2,8,8,2 2+
Phosphorus 2,8,5 3-
Fluorine 2,7 -
Potassium 2,8,8,1 +
Formation of ionic bonds: Activity (page 105)
Q9: 1
Q10: 7
Q11: 8
Q12: b) Both ions have a stable noble gas electron configuration.
Formation of ionic bonds: Questions (page 108)
Q13: Aluminium has three electrons in its outer shell.

It will lose three electrons to form an aluminium ion with a three positive charge.

Fluorine has seven electrons in its outer shell and must gain one more electron to obtain a full,
stable arrangement. This forms a chloride ion with a one negative charge.
Melting and boiling points: Questions (page 111)
Q14:
State at
Name of Name of Name of Melting point Boiling point room
compound positive ion negative ion / ◦C / ◦C temperature
Barium
Barium Chloride 961 1560 Solid
chloride
Calcium oxide Calcium Oxide 2614 2850 Solid
Lithium
Lithium Bromide 550 1265 Solid
bromide
Magnesium
Magnesium Chloride 714 1412 Solid
chloride
Potassium
Potassium Iodide 681 1323 Solid
iodide
Sodium
Sodium Chloride 801 1465 Solid
chloride
Solubility in water: Questions (page 113)
Q15: c) Ammonium nitrate

Q16: d) Zinc oxide
290
Conduction of electricity: Questions (page 116)
Q17: b) When molten or in solution.
Q18: b) The ions are free to move.
Q19: a) Positive electrode
Q20:
Key word Definition

Ion a particle with an imbalance of positive protons and negative electrons.
a particle that has more protons than electrons. Metals lose electrons to
Positive ion
form these.
Negative ion a particle that has more electrons than protons. Non-metals gain electrons
to form these.
Full outer electron
when an atom has obtained the electron arrangement of a noble gas.
shell
a small number that is written at the top right hand side of an atomic
Superscript
symbol to indicate charge on an ion, e.g. the '3+' in Al3+.
a small number that is written at the bottom right hand side of an atomic
Subscript symbol to indicate how many of that type of atom are present, e.g. the '3' in
AlCl3.
Ion-electron
shows the formation of ions through loss or gain of electrons.
equation
Ionic bond the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions.
Electrostatic the attraction between positive and negative charges.
the structure formed by ionic compounds consisting of oppositely charged
Lattice ions. Each positive ion surrounded by negative ions and each negative ion
surrounded by positive ions.
Melting point the temperature at which a substance changes from a solid into a liquid.
Boiling point the temperature at which a substance changes from a liquid into a gas.
when a solid has been heated and has changed from a solid into the liquid
Molten
state.
Group ions contain more than one type of atom.
Soluble a substance that will dissolve.
Aqueous solution the result of a solid being dissolved in water.
Ionic compounds topic test (page 120)
Q21:
a) Particle D
b) Particle A
Q22: Line C
Q23: a) the ions are not free to move.
Q24: c) sodium.
Q25: a) Lead and fluorine.
Q26: d) Na+
Q27: c) 3+
Q28: d) loses three electrons.
Q29: b)
Q30: c) Lithium iodide
292
Topic 5: Chemical formulae

Q1: b) To achieve a full outer shell of electrons.

Q2: b) 2
Q3: d) N3-
'ide' compounds: Questions (page 127)
Q4:
Element 1 Element 2 Name of compound

Iron Sulfur Iron sulfide
Magnesium Nitrogen Magnesium nitride
Tin Oxygen Tin oxide
Aluminum Bromine Aluminium bromide
Nickel Fluorine Nickel fluoride
Lithium Chlorine Lithium chloride
Q5:
• Lead iodide - lead and iodine
• Carbon tetrafluoride - carbon and fluorine
• Silicon hydride - silicon and hydrogen
• Copper chloride - copper and chlorine
• Manganese dioxide - manganese and oxygen
• Magnesium phosphide - magnesium and phosphorus
• Calcium nitride - calcium and nitrogen
• Nickel sulfate - nickel and sulfur
• Iron bromide - iron and bromine
Q6: Copper, hydrogen and oxygen
'ate' and 'ite' compounds: Questions (page 128)
Q7:
• Iron sulfite - iron and sulfur and oxygen
• Lead phosphate - lead and phosphorus and oxygen
• Magnesium nitrate - magnesium and nitrogen and oxygen
• Potassium permanganate - potassium and manganese and oxygen
• Copper chromate - copper and chromium and oxygen
Valency: Questions (page 129)
Q8: 2
Q9: 0
Q10: 4
Q11: 3
Q12: 2
Q13: 4
Working out formulae: Questions (page 134)
Q14: NaBr
Q15: PF3
Q16: NH3
Q17: MgCl2
Formulae from prefixes: Questions (page 136)
Q18: NH3
Q19: CI4
Q20: H2O
Q21: SO3
Q22:
Group Ion Name Group Ion Formula Valency

Ammonium NH4+ 1
Carbonate CO32- 2
Sulfate SO42- 2
Phosphate PO43- 3
Ethanoate CH3COO- 1
Hydrogen carbonate HCO3 -
1
Formulae involving group ions: Questions (page 140)
Q23: CuSO4
Q24: NaOH
Q25: Ba(HSO4)2
Q26: Be(MnO4)2
Writing ionic formulae: Questions (page 144)
Q27: Ni2+SO42-
Q28: K+MnO4-
Q29: Ba2+HCO32-
Q30: (NH4+)3PO43-
Q31:
Key word Definition

the combining power of an element; the number of bonds the element
Valency
can make.
a formula giving the number of atoms present in a covalent molecular
Chemical formula
substance.
part of the compound name which tells us the chemical formula eg
Prefix
mono, di, tri etc.
a small compound formed between non metals which have strong
Covalent molecular covalent bonds within the molecules and only weak attractions
between the molecules.
one giant structure containing strong covalent bonds which are not
Covalent network
easily broken.
a bond formed by the electrostatic attraction between positive and
Ionic
negative ions.
these are formed when atoms lose or gain electrons to obtain the
Ions
stable electron arrangement of a noble gas.
a substance made up of two or more elements chemically joined
Compound
together.
Group ions ions which contain more than one type of atom.
these give the simplest ratio of each type of ion in the substance and
Ionic formulae
can show the charges on each ion, if required.
Q32: 'ide' compounds contain two elements. The exception to this rule are hydroxides which
contain three elements.
Q33: 'ate' compounds contain three elements, one of which is oxygen.
Q34: 'ite' compounds contain three elements, one of which is oxygen.
Chemical formulae topic test (page 147)
Q35: b) Hydrogen and sulfur
Q36: c) Copper chloride
Q37:
Element Valency
Carbon 4
Hydrogen 1
Hydroxide 1
Nitrogen 3
Sulfate 2
Aluminium 3
Q38: a) Silver(I) oxide
Q39: b) KMnO4
Q40: c) Fe3+(OH-)3
Q41: a) 2+
Q42: d) (NH4)2CO3
Q43: d) N2O
Q44: a) The simplest ratio (1:1) of magnesium and oxide ions.
Topic 6: Calculations involving the mole and balanced equations

Q1: CCl4
Q2: 2
Q3: AlH3
Q4: Mg(NO3)2
Q5: (Ca2+)(Br-)2
Balanced equations: Questions (page 156)
Q6: Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Q7: 2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3
Q8: C2H4 + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 2H2O
Q9: 2Al + 3Cl2 → 2AlCl3
Q10: 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-
Q11: H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Q12: Ba(OH)2 + 2NH4Cl → 2NH3 + BaCl2 + 2H2O
Q13: 2AgNO3 (aq) + Cu (s) → 2Ag (s) + Cu(NO3)2 (aq)
Q14: CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Gram formula mass: Questions (page 159)
Q15: 18 g
Q16: 16 g
Q17: 42 g
Q18: 100 g
Q19: 187.5 g
Q20: 28 g
Q21: 95.5 g
Q22: 32 g
Q23: 96 g
Q24: 64 g
The mole: Questions (page 163)
Q25: 13.6 g
Q26: 3 mol
Q27: 0.125 mol
Q28: 3.1 mol
The mole and balanced equations: Questions (page 165)
Q29: 8 g
Q30: 28 g
Q31: 9 g
Calculations involving solutions: Questions (page 169)
Q32: a) 100 cm3 of 0·4 mol l-1 solution
Q33: 0.017 mol
Q34: 0.3 mol l-1
Q35:
• Dilute - a small amount of solute dissolved in a large volume of solvent.
• Concentrated - a large amount of solute dissolved in a small volume of solvent.
• Solvent - the liquid that does the dissolving.
• Solute - the substance that is dissolved.
• Reactants - the substances that react in a chemical reaction.
• Mixture - substances which have been put together but are not chemically joined.
• Solution - a special mixture formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent.
• Products - the substances formed in a chemical reaction.
• Chemical reaction - a process in which reactants are converted into products and a new
substance is formed.
• Balanced equation - the number of atoms for each element reaction is the same for both the
reactants and the products.
• Gram formula mass - the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms present in the
formula.
• The mole - a quantity used to carry out chemical calculations.
• Soluble - a substance which can dissolve in a solvent.
• Insoluble - a substance which does not dissolve in a solvent.

• Standard solution - a solution whose concentration is accurately known.
• Concentration - a measure of moles per litre of solution.
Q36: a) formulae equation
Calculations involving the mole and balanced equations topic test (page 175)
Q37: Li2CO3(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → 2 LiCl(aq) + CO 2 (g)+ H2O(l)

Q38: Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
Q39: 2Al(s) + 3Br2(l) → 2AlBr3(s)
Q40:
Ag2: 2 × 108 = 216
O: 1 × 16 = 16
232 g
Q41:
K: 1 × 39 = 39
Mn: 1 × 55 = 55
O4: 4 × 16 = 64
158 g
Q42: d) SO2
Q43:
m = 0·86 g
gfm = 39 (from data book)
m
n=
gfm
0 · 86
=
39
= 0 · 022 mol
Q44:
From the equation, 1 mole of C9H20 gives 9 moles of CO2. (1 mark)
Calculate the number of moles of C9H20 in the reaction. (1 mark)
m
n=
gfm
32
=
128
= 0 · 25 mol
Now calculate the mass of CO2. (1 mark)
m = n × gfm
= 9 × 0 · 25 × 44
= 99 g
Q45:
From the equation, 1 mole of CaCO3 gives 1 mole of CO2. (1 mark)
Calculate the number of moles of CaCO3 in the reaction. (1 mark)
m
n=
gfm
1
=
100
= 0 · 01 mol
Now calculate the mass of CO2. (1 mark)
m = n × gfm
= 0 · 01 × 44
= 0 · 44 g
Q46:
a) Number of moles of silver chloride:

m = 1 · 435 g
gfm = 143 · 5 g (1 mark)
m
n=
gfm
1
=
100
= 0 · 01 mol (1 mark)
b) Concentration of chloride ions:
The mole ratio is 1:1.
n = 0 · 01 mol
V = 20 cm3
= 0 · 02 l (1 mark)
n
c=
V
0 · 01
=
0 · 02
-1
= 0 · 5 mol l (1 mark)
Topic 7: Percentage composition

Q1: 154 g
Q2: 32
Q3: 0.37 mol
Q4: 16.4 g
Q5: d) CaBr2
Q6:
Key word Definition

Percentage a calculation to determine how much of any particular element is
composition present in a compound.
the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms present in the
Gram formula mass
formula.
a naturally occurring solid material from which a metal or valuable
Ore
mineral can be extracted.
Percentage composition topic test (page 184)
Q7: Calculate the GFM of andalusite.
The mass of silicon in the compound is.
Use the equation to calculate percentage composition.
m (Si) = 28g
GF M (Al2SiO5) = 162g
m
% by mass = × 100
GF M
28
% by mass = × 100
162
% by mass = 17 · 3 %
Therefore, the percentage by mass of silicon in andalusite is 17·3%. (1 mark)
Q8: Calculate the GFM of hematite.
The mass of iron in the compound is.
Use the equation to calculate percentage composition.
m (Fe2) = 112g
GF M (Fe2O3) = 160g
m
% by mass = × 100
GF M
112
% by mass = × 100
160
% by mass = 70 %
Therefore, the percentage by mass of iron in hematite is 70·0%. (1 mark)
302
Topic 8: Acids and bases: pH

Q1: c) the ions are not free to move.
Q2: c) Aluminium nitrate
Q3: b) 0·2
The pH scale: Questions (page 191)
Q4:
Substance pH value Type of solution

Lemon juice 2 acidic
Oven cleaner 13 alkaline
Alcohol 7 neutral
Pure water 7 neutral
Vinegar 3 acidic
Baking soda 9 alkaline
Hand soap 10 alkaline
Tomatoes 4 acidic
Bananas 5 acidic
Dilution of an acid and an alkali (page 195)
Q5: 7
Q6: 7
Q7: 7
Q8: 7
Conductivity of liquids (page 199)
Q9: e) All of these.
Q10: hexane
Q11: covalent
Q12: tap
Q13: c) Pure water must contain a very small number of ions.
Water equilibrium (page 201)
Q14: 1
Q15: b) No
Q16: Equilibrium
Solubility of bases - exercise (page 205)
Q17:
Compound Formula Solubility

Ammonium hydroxide (NH4+)(OH-) Soluble
Calcium carbonate (Ca2+)(CO32-) Insoluble
Copper (II) oxide (Cu2+)(O2-) Insoluble
Sodium hydroxide (Na+)(OH-) Soluble
Potassium carbonate (K+)2(CO32-) Soluble
Calcium oxide (Ca2+)(O2-) Soluble
Q18: c) Aluminium oxide
Non-metal oxides - exercise (page 208)
Q19: Water
304
Q20:
Metal or non-metal
Oxide name Oxide formula Effect on pH of water
oxide
Magnesium oxide MgO Metal oxide Alkaline
Nickel (II) oxide NiO Metal oxide No effect
Calcium oxide CaO Metal oxide Alkaline
Sulfur dioxide SO2 Non-metal oxide Acidic
Silicon dioxide SiO2 Non-metal oxide No effect
Carbon dioxide CO2 Non-metal oxide Acidic
Q21:
Key word Definition

A substance behaves as an acid if it produces H+(aq) ions in solution
Acidic and has a pH of less than 7. The lower the pH, the more acidic the
solution.
Bases may be soluble or insoluble in water and can be further divided
Bases
into three groups; Metal oxides, Metal hydroxides and Metal
carbonates.
The pH scale is used to measure how acidic or alkaline a solution is. It
The pH Scale measures the 'concentration of hydrogen ions, H+(aq) present.pH
values range from below 0 (highly acidic) to above 14 (highly alkaline).
A substance behaves as an alkali if it produces OH-(aq) ions in
Alkaline solution and has a pH of greater than 7. The higher the pH, the more
alkaline the solution.
The middle number on the scale is seven (7) and solutions with this pH
Neutral are neither acidic or alkaline, they are neutral. A neutral solution has
equal concentrations of H+(aq) and OH-(aq) ions.
Solution A special mixture formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent.
Dilute A small amount of solute dissolved in a large volume of solvent.
Concentrated A large amount of solute dissolved in a small volume of solvent.
Solvent The liquid that does the dissolving.
Key word Definition

Solute The substance that is dissolved.
Substances which have been put together but are not chemically
Mixture
joined.
Soluble A substance which can dissolve in a solvent.
Insoluble A substance which does not dissolve in a solvent.
Concentration A measure of moles per litre of solution (mol l-1).
Aqueous solutions A solution in which a solid has been dissolved in water.
Electrolytes are solutions which can can conduct because the charged
Electrolytes
particles (ions) are free to move and can carry an electric current.
The concentration of H+(aq) ions and OH-(aq) ions remains constant
Equilibrium even although the formation and combination of ions continues.
Represented by the symbol (reversible arrow).
An exothermic reaction where a substance reacts with oxygen to
Combustion
produce energy. Often referred to as burning.
Acids and bases: pH topic test (page 212)
Q22: c) more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions.
Q23: a) Calcium oxide
Q24: a) a higher concentration of hydrogen ions.
Q25: a) The concentrations of H+(aq) and OH-(aq) ions are equal.
Q26: a) Sodium carbonate
Q27: c) carbon.
Q28: d) The pH decreases towards 7
Q29: pH of solution goes down / decreases / goes below 7 / goes to a value less than 7 from 7 (1
mark)
because
the H+ ion / hydrogen ion concentration increases /goes up or / more H+ than OH- / H+ > OH (1
mark)
Q30: b) Copper oxide
Q31: b) Sodium chloride
306
Topic 9: Neutralisation reactions

Q1: d) below 0 to above 14.
Q2: d) The concentration of H+ (aq) ions is less than the concentration of OH- (aq) ions
Q3: a) Sodium carbonate
Q4: c) Zinc oxide
Q5: Sulfuric acid + Copper(II) oxide → Copper(II) sulfate + Water
Q6: Cu2+O2- (s) + 2 H+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) + H2O (l)
Q7: Sulfate ion (SO42- (aq))
Q8: Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) + H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) → Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)
Q9: Sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-)
Q10: It is an indicator and shows the end point.
Q11: 15·0 cm3

Working: (14·9+15·1)
2
= 15 · 0
Hint: Remember that only concordant values should be used to calculate a titre volume.
Q12: To prevent the gas escaping before it has been tested.
Q13: No more bubbles of gas are produced.
Q14: Nitric Acid + Calcium carbonate → Calcium nitrate + Water + Carbon Dioxide
Q15: Ca2+CO32- (s) + H+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) → Ca2+ (aq) + 2NO3- (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
Q16: Nitrate ion (NO3- (aq))
Q17: Lithium phosphate
Q18: Ammonium chloride
Q19: Calcium sulfate
Q20: Nitric acid
Q21: Calcium ethanoate
Q22: Mg2+O2- (s) + 2H+ (aq) + 2NO3- (aq) → Mg2+ (aq) + 2NO3- (aq) + H2O (l)
Ions in solution (aq) are separated and free to move so in the ionic equation they are separated
using a '+' sign.
When ions are separated the number of moles used to balance the equation must be placed in front
of both ions in the formula.
Q24: K+ (aq) + OH- (aq) + H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) → K+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)
Q25: Potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl-)
Q26: Nitric Acid + Lithium Carbonate → Lithium nitrate + Water + Carbon dioxide
Q27: (Li+)2CO32- (s) + 2H+ (aq) + 2NO3- (aq) → 2Li+ (aq) + NO3- (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2(g)
Q29:
Key word Definition

Salt a product of a neutralisation reaction.
a substance that produces OH-(aq) ions in solution and has a pH of
Alkalis
greater than 7.
Metal carbonates compounds which contain a metal, carbon and oxygen.
Metal hydroxides
hydroxide ion.
contain a positively charged metal ion and a negatively charged oxide
Metal oxides
ion.
Ions particles with an imbalance of positive protons and negative electrons.
a compound held together by the electrostatic attraction between
Ionic positive and negative ions.
Standard solution a solution whose concentration is accurately known.
Ionic equation an equation where all of the charges on the ions are shown.
ions which appear unchanged on both sides of an equation, they do
Spectator ions
not take part in a reaction.
Bases substances which neutralise acids forming a salt and water.
Evaporation a practical technique for separating a solvent from a solution.
a practical technique used to separate an insoluble solid from a solid /
Filtration
liquid mixture.
Neutralisation a reaction in which a base reacts with an acid to form water and a salt.
Titration the exact neutralisation of an acid by an alkali.
Concordant titre volumes which are within ±0·2 cm3 of each other.
Indicator used to show the exact point where neutralisation occurs.
Neutralisation reactions topic test (page 250)
Q30: a) K+(aq) and NO3- (aq)
Q31: b) Sodium chloride
Q32: a) LiNO3
Q33: 3H3PO4 (aq) + NH4OH (aq) → 3(NH4)3PO4 (aq) + H2O (l )
Q34: b) K+ and NO3-
Q35: d) 2H+ (aq) + CO32- (s) → H2O (l ) + CO2 (g)
Q36: d) Titration
Q37: d) Pipette
Q38: Neutralisation
Q39: Evaporation
Q40: 16 (1 mark)
Q41: HCl: n = cV = 0·1 × 0·016 = 0·0016 (1 mark)

Apply mole ratio: Na2CO3 n = 0·0016
2
= 0 · 0008 (1 mark)
· (1 mark)
0·0008
Na2CO3 c = Vn = = 0 08
0·01
Q42: d) Sodium oxide
Topic 10: End of section test

Chemical changes and structure section test (page 256)
Q1: b) Magnesium ribbon and 2 mol l -1 acid
Q2: b) Krypton
Q3: d) numbers of protons.
Q4: d) electrons equals the number of protons.
Q5: c)
Q6: a) Silver (I) oxide
Q7:
Solute: Ethanoic acid

Solvent: Water
Solution: Vinegar
Q8: b) 250 cm3 of a 4 mol l -1 solution
Q9: b) 50 cm3
Q10: b) Copper oxide
Q11: a) The concentrations of H+(aq) and OH-(aq) ions are equal
Q12: c)
Q13: a) Na+ and Cl-
Change in volume
Average rate =
Change in time
29 − 0
=
Q14: 20 − 0
29
=
20
= 1 · 45 cm3 s−1
Q15: Tetrahedral
Q16: Neutralisation
Q17: Covalent molecular
Q18:
From the equation, 1 mole of magnesium gives 1 mole of hydrogen. (1 mark)
Calculate the number of moles of magnesium in the reaction. (1 mark)
m
n=
gfm
4·9
=
24 · 5
= 0 · 2 mol
Now calculate the mass of hydrogen. (1 mark)
m = n × gfm
=2×0·2
=0·4 g
Q19:
Li2CO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → 2LiCl (aq) + CO2 (g)+ H2O (l)
Q20: Lithium chloride
Q21: 7
Q22:
Mass of H = 2 g
GFM of H 2 O= 18g
m
% by mass = × 100
gfm
2
= × 100
18
= 11 · 1%
Therefore, the percentage by mass of hydrogen in water is 11·1%.
Q23: Covalent molecular
Q24: Fe2O3
Q25: Fe2+ (aq) → Fe3+ (aq) + e-

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JMBSCHOLAR n5 - Che - 1chemicalChangesAndStructure

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SCHOLAR Study Guide

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Summary ....................................................................................................................... 117

5 Chemical formulae 123

6 Calculations involving the mole and balanced equations 149

7 Percentage composition 177

8 Acids and bases: pH 185

9 Neutralisation reactions 215

10 End of section test 255

Hints for activities 270

Answers to questions and activities 271

factors which affect rates of reaction include:

surface area/particle size;

rate (qualitative only);

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

Prior knowledge: Questions Go online

• Particle size/surface area • Time the experiment runs for

Which experiment had the faster rate of reaction?

a) The lower line

b) The upper line

• the factors which can affect the rate of reaction;

Collision theory: Activity Go online

Not all collisions are successful.

Factors affecting rate of reaction

Concentration: Activity Go online

Concentration: Questions Go online

Q6: When the concentration of a reactant is increased, the rate of reaction:

Rates of reaction can be increased by increasing the concentration of a reactant.

Particle size: Activity Go online

Particle size: Questions Go online

Temperature: Activity Go online

Temperature: Questions Go online

Q13: When the temperature of a reactant is increased, the rate of reaction:

Rates of reaction can be increased by increasing the temperature of the reaction.

Progress of chemical reactions

• mass of the reactants or products;

Measuring change of volume of a gas in a reaction

Collecting a gas by displacement of water: Activity Go online

Collecting gas by displacement of water

Collecting a gas by gas syringe

Collecting a gas by gas syringe: Activity Go online

Collecting gas by gas syringe

Measuring change of volume of a gas in a reaction: Question Go online

the displacement of water?

Measuring mass loss in a reaction

Measuring mass loss in a reaction: Activity Go online

Measuring mass loss in a reaction

Measuring mass loss in a reaction: Question Go online

Collecting gas by upward displacement of air

Collecting gas by downward displacement of air

Q18: What is the end point in the reaction?

quantity of reactant used;

effect of changing conditions.

Calculating average rate

The following results were obtained.

Time / minutes Volume gas procued / cm3

The following results were obtained.

Time / minutes Mass loss / g