Types and Components of Computer Systems

Hardware & Software

Hardware

the electronic, physical components that make up a typical computer system. These may
include input and output devices as well.

Internal Hardware Devices:

Central processing unit

Processor

Motherboard

Internal memory consisting of RAM & ROM

Graphics & Sound Cards

Internal Storage devices like Hard disk drives (HDD) and solid-state drives (SSD)

Network interface card (NIC)

External Hardware Devices:

Monitor

Keyboard

Mouse

Printer

External Storage Devices

Software

The techniques, methods, commands, and instructions tell the device what to do and how to
do it.

They are the programs which control the computer system and process data.

Relates to ideas & instructions for using physical objects.

Two types of software:

Application software:

Provides services that allow the user to do specific tasks.

It can be general-purpose software or custom-made software. (Specialist software)

E.g., Spreadsheets, databases, and word processors.

System Software:

The software is designed to provide a platform all other software can run. For example:

Compilers: The software translates the High-level language into Machine code (Language
Processor).

Linkers: A Software that creates the links between Language processors into workable
solutions (Data definition language).

Device drivers: A software that enables the device to work with another, externally
connected device.

Utilities: A system software that provides the necessary facilities (Antivirus, Scan Disk, Disk
Defragmentation, etc.)

Operating systems: To enable computer systems to function and allow users to

communicate with computer systems, special software, known as operating systems (OS),
have been developed.

Analogue and Digital Data

Computers can only understand data in the form of binary digits (0,1); this is commonly
known as digital data. However, data in the real world is analogue, not limited to two
specific values.

The figures show how data changes in analogue and digital forms; analogue data forms
smooth curves, whereas digital data changes in discrete steps.

So, for a computer to process real-world data, it first needs to convert the received data into
digital form. This is done by hardware known as ADC (analogue to digital converter), and its
output is given back in analogue form using DAC (digital to analogue converter).

The Main Components of Computer Systems

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The component of the computer that understands and executes hardware and software
operations. Nowadays, it’s also known as a microprocessor. It is a single integrated circuit at
the core of most PCs and is also present in many household gadgets and equipment where
some control or monitoring is required.

It consists of a control unit (CU) that manages the input and output devices, an arithmetic
and logic unit (ALU) that performs computations and makes logical judgments, and tiny
memory regions known as registers.
It processes the input and produces the outcome of the processing in the form of output.

Internal Memory

Random access memory (RAM): temporary memory storage, lost after power is shut down,
performs read and write functions, is used to store data that are currently in use, and can be
increased in size to improve operational speed.

Read-only memory (ROM): permanent memory storage, non-volatile, can only be read from,
used to store computer’s configuration data, such as BIOS.

N.B: The BIOS (basic input/output system) stores the date, time and system configuration
on a non-volatile chip called a CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) – this is
usually battery powered.

Differentiating between Internal memories:

RAM is a temporary memory device, whereas ROM is a permanent one.

RAM is volatile, ROM is non-volatile.

RAM can be written to and from, but ROM can only be read from.

RAM is used to store data, files, programs, and parts of OS that are currently in use.
However, ROM is used in storing start-up data,

Input & Output Devices

Input devices are pieces of hardware that allow users to enter data into computers.

An output device displays the computer's output in a human-readable format. For example,
words on a printer or moving graphics on a monitor.

Backing and Secondary Storage

Required to store significant amounts of data permanently.

Most commonly in the form of Hard disk drives and Solid-state drives.

Differentiating between internal memory and backing storage:

RAM contents are lost when power is lost, ROM is read-only, and backing storage is
permanent even without power.

RAM and ROM are much smaller than backing storage.

RAM and ROM are significantly faster in accessing data than backing storage.

Backing storage is much cheaper than internal memory.

Internal memories are fixed, and backing storage can be fixed or portable.

Internal memories can be directly read by the CPU, while backing storage needs to be
moved into the RAM before being read by the CPU.

Operating Systems

Controls operation of input, output & backing storage

Supervises loading, running & storage of application programs.

Deals with errors in application programs.

Maintains security of the whole computer system

Maintains a computer log.

Operating systems offer various types of user interfaces, for example:

Command line interface: user needs to type in commands to communicate with the
computer. The user is in direct communication with the computer. Not restricted to pre-
defined options. Possible to alter computer configuration settings. Needs to learn many
commands for basic operations. All commands need to be typed in, which is time-
consuming. Very error prone, as commands must have correct format, spelling etc.

N.B: Mainly used by programmers who need to have direct communication with the
computer.

Graphical user interface: Uses WIMP (windows icons menu and pointing device). The user
does not need to learn any commands. It is more user-friendly; icons are used to represent
applications. A pointing device is used to click on an icon to launch the application, this is
simpler than typing in commands. This type of interface uses up considerably more
computer memory than a CLI interface. The user is limited to the icons provided on the
screen. Needs a more complex operating system.

N.B: Mainly used by end-users who don’t have great knowledge of how the computer works.

Dialogue-based user interface: use the human voice to give commands to a computer
system. no need for a driver to take their hands off the steering wheel. In a home, it is
especially useful for people...(text shortened for summary)...

Gesture-based user interface: relies on human interaction by the moving of hands, head or
even feet. Replaces mechanical input devices. No physical contact is required. Very natural
interface for a hu...(text shortened for summary)...

Types of Computers

Desktop Computers
Desktop usually refers to a general-purpose computer that is made up of a separate
monitor, keyboard, mouse, and processor unit. It is distinguished from, for example, a
laptop computer by the fact that it is made up of several separate components, which makes
it not very portable.

Uses:

office and business work

educational use

general entertainment

gaming device

Advantages:

They are easier and less costly to upgrade and expand.

Spare parts are standardized, which makes them cheaper.

They tend to have better specifications for a given price.

No critical power consumption because they plug into a wall socket.

Due to fixed positions, they are less likely to be damaged or stolen.

As they usually have wired connections, they have more stable internet access.

Disadvantages:

They are not particularly portable because they are made up of separate components.

More complicated because all the components need to be hooked up by wiring, which also
clutters up the desk space.

Because they aren’t portable, files must be copied to another portable storage device to take
work elsewhere.

Mobile Computers

1. Laptop computer:

(Or notebook) refers to a type of computer where the monitor, keyboard, pointing device
and processor are all together in one unit. This makes them extremely portable. lightweight
(to aid portability). Low power consumption (and also long battery life). Low heat output
(cooling is very important).

Uses:
office and business work

educational use

used as a gaming device.

general entertainment

Advantages:

Portability: all components are in a single unit, so they can be taken anywhere.

Because of one single unit, there are no trailing wires and desk clutter.

take up much less room on a desk, so they can be easily used in public spaces.

portability allows them to take full advantage of Wi-Fi features.

Disadvantages:

portability makes it easier for them to be stolen.

limited battery life means the user needs to carry a charger at all times.

keyboards and pointing devices may be awkward to use.

not easy to upgrade, like adding more RAM.

2. Smartphones:

Allow normal phone calls to be made, but also have an operating system (such as iOS,
Android, or Windows), allowing them to run a number of computer applications (known as
apps or applets). Smartphones communicate with the internet either by using Wi-Fi hot
spots or by using 3G/4G/5G mobile phone networks.

Uses:

They allow users to send/receive emails.

They allow users to use a number of apps.

They allow users to use a camera feature (to take photos or videos).

They allow users to use an MP3/4 player (for music and videos).

Advantages:

very small in size and lightweight, makes them portable.

connecting to the internet while on the move.

because they use Wi-Fi and mobile phone networks, they can be used almost anywhere.

they have apps which can tell instant location, which is a feature that isn’t available in either
desktops or laptops.

they have reasonable battery life.

Disadvantages:

small screens and keyboards make pages difficult to read.

more difficult and slower when typing things in.

Web browsing and photography can quickly drain the battery.

Memory size in most phones is not very large when compared to laptops and desktops.

Not all website features are compatible with smartphone operating systems.

Because of their small size, it is much easier to lose a smartphone or for it to be stolen
compared to laptops or desktops.

The data transfer rate using mobile phone networks can be slower than with Wi-Fi.

3. Tablets:

They work similarly to a smartphone. The only main difference is that they are somewhat
bigger in size as compared to a smartphone.

Uses:

They allow users to send/receive emails.

They allow users to use a number of apps.

They allow users to use a camera feature (to take photos or videos).

They allow users to use an MP3/4 player (for music and videos).

Advantages of tablets compared to laptops:

very fast to switch on (no time delay waiting for the operating system to load up).

fully portable – they are so lightweight that they can be carried anywhere.

touch screen technology means they are simple to use and don’t need any other input
devices.

not much heat, they use solid-state technology.

The battery life of a tablet is a lot longer.

when the power button is pressed, it goes into standby but remains connected to the
internet so the user still hears alerts when emails or other ‘events’ are received.

Disadvantages of tablets compared to laptops:

tend to be rather expensive when compared to laptops.

they often have limited memory/storage when compared to a laptop.

typing on a touch screen can be slow and error-prone compared to a standard keyboard.

laptops tend to support more file formats than tablets.

4. Phablets:

Some of the latest smartphones have been designed as a hybrid between a tablet and a
smartphone, referred to as a phablet. They have much larger screens than a smartphone but
are smaller than a tablet.

Uses:

Entertainment (streaming of music, videos, and television programs).

Gaming (including group games).

As a camera or video camera.

Internet use (online sales, social networks, using QR codes, and so on).

Sending/receiving emails.

Global positioning system (use of maps to navigate to a location).

Calendar functions.

Telephone banking (sending and receiving money using banking apps).

Voice over Internet Protocol: telephone network using the internet, which also allows video
calling.

Instant access to social networks (social contact with friends no matter where you are in the
world).

Instant messaging.

Office and business management (allows rapid voice and video communication).

Education use (using interactive software to teach or learn from).

Remotely control devices.

Laptops are the most expandable of these devices, while smartphones are the most
portable. Tablets and phablets fall somewhere in between, offering a balance of portability
and expandability. The choice of device will depend on your specific needs and use case.

Impact of Emerging Technologies

Artificial Intelligence (AI): There are many definitions of artificial intelligence (AI).
Essentially, AI is a machine or application which carries out a task that requires some
degree of intelligence.

The use of language

recognizing a person’s face, the ability to operate machinery, such as a car, aeroplane, train,
and so on,

and analyzing data to predict the outcome of a future event, such as weather forecasting.
Impact:

Whenever AI is mentioned, people usually think of science fiction fantasies and think of
robots. The science fiction writer Isaac Asimov even went as far as producing his three laws
of robotics: » Robots may not injure a human through action or inaction. » Robots must
obey orders given by humans without question. » A robot must protect itself unless it
conflicts with the two laws above. Everyday uses:

An autonomous (driverless) vehicle – we already have driverless trains and autopilots on

aeroplanes, but future developments include driverless cars.

Robotic research is leading to improvements in technology to help amputees and people

with disabilities.

Robots are used to help people carry out dangerous or unpleasant tasks – for example,
bomb disposal.

Negative impacts of AI

Unemployment, robots are capable of doing tedious human tasks with much more efficiency
and excellence than humans.

Dependency on technology could lead to problems in the future.

De-skilling: Tasks that used to be considered a talent are now part of general, tedious
processes that are done on a regular basis by machines.

Extended Reality refers to combined real and virtual environments. The two most common
examples at the moment are:

Augmented reality (AR) is a merger between the virtual and physical (real) world; it lays
objects onto pre-existing objects. e.g., Pokémon GO! Impact: safety and rescue operations’
training, shopping and retail (getting a better look at a car before the purchase), healthcare
(better understanding of a patient’s body)

Virtual reality (VR) enables an entirely new world to be created, unlike AR, which has no
link to the actual surroundings of the user. It requires the user to be specially equipped with
a VR headset, joystick, and headphones.

Impact: Military applications, educational purposes (looking at ancient buildings),

healthcare, media (interactive special effects in a movie), scientific visualization (part of
molecular structures/cells).

Input & Output Devices

Input Devices and Their Uses

An input device is any hardware device that allows a user to enter data or instructions into
a computer directly.

An input device can send data to another device, but it cannot receive data from another
device.

Input devices are necessary for a computer to receive commands from its users and data to
process; they are under the user's control or can be direct data entry.

Input devices can be complicated because they must ensure the user can interact with the
computer correctly.

1. Keyboards:

Uses:

Input of data into applications software

Typing in commands to the computer

Advantages:

Fast entry of new text into a document.

Well-known method.

Easy to use for most people.

Easier to do verification checks as data is entered (can immediately compare the source
document with typed data on the screen).

Disadvantages:

It can be difficult to use if the user has limited arm/wrist use.

Slow method when compared to direct data entry.

It is a fairly large device that uses up valuable desk space.

2. Numeric keypads:

Uses:

Automatic teller machines (ATMs), where the customer can key in their PIN, amount of
money, etc.

Mobile phones allow phone numbers, etc., to be keyed in.

Point of sale terminals (POS) in case the barcode reader fails to read the barcode – the
number has to be keyed in manually by the operator.

Chip and PIN devices when paying by credit/debit cards.

Fast entry of numeric data into a spreadsheet.

Advantages:

Faster than standard keyboards when entering numeric data.

Because many are small devices, they are very easy to carry around.

Disadvantages:

Sometimes, they have small keys, which can make input more difficult.

Sometimes, the order of the numbers on the keypad is not intuitive.

3. Mouse:

Uses:

Opening, closing and minimizing software

Grouping, moving and deleting files.

Image editing, for example, controls the size and position of a drawing pasted into a
document.

Controlling the position of a pointer on the screen to allow selection.

Advantages:

It is a faster method for choosing an option than a keyboard.

It's a very quick way of navigating through applications and the internet.
Does not need a large desk area when compared to a keyboard.

Disadvantages:

It can be more difficult for people with restricted hand/wrist movement than using a
keyboard for data entry.

Easy to damage, the older type of mouse quickly becomes clogged up with dirt.

Difficult to use if no flat surface is readily available.

4. Touchpad:

Uses:

Opening, closing and minimizing software

Grouping, moving and deleting files.

Image editing, for example, controls the size and position of a drawing pasted into a
document.

Controlling the position of a pointer on the screen to allow selection.

Advantages:

Faster than a keyboard for choosing options.

Used to navigate applications and the internet.

Because the touchpad is integrated into the laptop computer, there is no need for a separate
mouse; this aids the portability and is a big advantage if no flat surfaces are available.

Disadvantages:

People with limited hand/wrist movement find the device difficult to use.

It can be more difficult to control the pointer when compared to a normal mouse.

Drag and drop operations are more complicated using a touchpad.

5. Tracker ball:

Uses:

A good alternative to a mouse for people with conditions such as RSI.

Used in an industrial control room environment.

Used in some luxury cars to select functions such as radio.

Advantages:

Does not need the same fine control as a mouse.

It is easier to use than a mouse if the operator has problems with their wrist.

More accurately position the pointer on the screen.

They are more robust than a mouse.

Needs less desk space than a mouse or keyboard.

Disadvantages:

It is not supplied with the computer as a standard; therefore, it is more costly.

Users may need training because it is not standard equipment.

6. Remote Control:

Uses:

Televisions, satellite systems, DVD/Blu-ray players and Hi-Fi systems, to alter controls such
as volume, on/off, etc.

Used to control multimedia systems.

Used in industrial applications to remotely control processes.

Advantages:

It can be operated from any reasonable distance.

In some conditions, e.g., in chemically hazardous environments, we can control and

measure from safe distances.

Disadvantages:

Difficult to use for people with limited hand/wrist movements.

Physical obstacles can easily block the signal.

7. Joysticks:

Uses:

Used in video games.

Used in simulators to mimic the actual controls.

Advantages:
It is easier than keyboards for screen navigation.

In some applications, the control is more realistic than using a mouse.

Disadvantages:

The on-screen pointer is more difficult to use.

8. Driving wheel:

Uses:

Used in video games, especially car racing games.

Used in simulators to mimic actual vehicle controls.

Advantages:

It's a more realistic experience than both mouse and joystick.

Easier than a keyboard or joystick to control steering movements.

Disadvantages:

It is a rather expensive input device as compared to a mouse or joystick.

Steering movements tend to be over-sensitive, which gives an unrealistic feel.

Unless it is an expensive simulator, feedback to the steering wheel is non-existent.

9. Touch screen (as an input device):

Uses:

Automatic teller machines (ATMs) to choose from on-screen options.

Point of sale terminals such as in restaurants.

Interactive whiteboards in education.

Computer-based training (CBT) where answers are selected during on-screen testing.

Advantages:

Faster entry of options than using a keyboard or mouse.

Very easy method for choosing options.

User-friendly method – no training necessary in its use.

Option to expand the size of the display if necessary.

Disadvantages:

A limited number of input options are available.

This can lead to problems if an operator uses the system frequently (straining of arm
muscles, RSI, etc., are all possible).

The screen can get very dirty with constant touching.

10. Scanners:

Uses:

Scanning documents and converting them into different formats

Scanning in old documents to protect them in case the original is lost/damaged.

Scanning in photographs for storage

Scanning in barcodes at POS terminals.

Advantages:

Images can be stored for editing at a later date.

When used with OCR, they are much faster and more accurate than typing the documents in.

It is possible to recover damaged documents by scanning and producing an acceptable copy.

Disadvantages:

Limited quality, depending on how good the scanner’s resolution is.

Fairly slow input method, especially if color mode is selected.

11. Digital Cameras:

Uses:

Taking photographs is still better than using smartphones and tablets.

Data-capture device, e.g., as a reversing aid in cars.

Dentistry, to help capture pictures for better diagnosis.

The creation of virtual reality tours around houses, buildings, etc.

Advantages:

Easier to produce better-quality photographs than with a traditional camera.

Uploading photographs to a computer is faster than scanning hard copies.

Memory cards can store many thousands of photographs.

There is no need to develop film and printouts; it saves money and is more environmentally
friendly.

Unwanted images can quickly be deleted from a memory card.

Disadvantages:

Need to be computer literate to know proper use.

Loss of artistry due to clever software doing all the work.

Images need to be compressed to reduce the amount of memory used.

12. Microphones:

Uses:

To input speech to be used in various applications.

Input in voice recognition software for authentication.

As a sensor to pick up sound in an intruder alarm system.

Used in audio conferencing or VoIP applications.

Advantages:

It is faster to read text than it is to type it in.

It is possible to manipulate sound in real time rather than working on a completed

recording.

It improves security if used as an authentication system.

Disadvantages:

Sound files use up a lot of computer memory.

Reading data is more error-prone than typing in.

13. Sensors:

Uses:

Temperature sensors are used in automatic washing machines, central heating systems,
ovens, and glasshouses.

Pressure sensors are used in intruder alarm systems and washing machines.
Light sensors are used in automatic glasshouses, doors, and street lighting control.

Sound/acoustic sensors are used in intruder alarm systems, monitoring liquid and powder
flow in pipes.

Humidity/moisture sensors are used in automatic glasshouses, environmental monitoring,

and in factories where moisture levels are crucial.

pH sensors are used in automatic glasshouses, chemical processes and environmental

monitoring.

Advantages:

Readings are more accurate as compared to human operators.

Readers are continuous, with no breaks in the monitoring.

Because it is a continuous process, any action or warnings needed will be initiated

immediately.

Automatic systems don’t need human intervention.

Disadvantages:

Faulty sensors can give spurious results.

Most sensors are analogue; therefore, they require conversion using Analogue to Digital
Convertors.

14. Light pens:

Uses:

Selecting objects on CRT screens

Drawing on screens

Advantages:

Greater accuracy than touch screens

Small makes them portable and capable of being used in small spaces.

Easy-to-use technology.

Disadvantages:

Lagging problems while drawing on the screen.

It only works with CRT monitors.

Rather dated technology.

Direct Data Entry & Associated Devices

1. Magnetic Stripe Readers:

Uses:

On credit/debit card for use at ATMs

Security device to allow entry to buildings, hotels, etc.

Advantages:

Faster than keying in data manually.

Error-free, no human intervention needed.

Secure information isn’t in human-readable form.

Robust, there are no moving parts.

Disadvantages:

If the card is damaged, the data is lost.

Doesn’t work at a distance.

As the information isn’t human-readable, this can be a disadvantage in some cases.

2. Chip and PIN reader:

Uses:

Where payments are made using cards

Advantages:

It is more secure than contactless cards as the PIN acts as a second security layer.

More robust system than Magnetic Stripe Cards

Disadvantages:

Be very careful so the PIN isn’t seen by anyone while being typed in.

3. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) reader:

Uses:

Livestock tracking
Retail, instead of barcodes, as they don’t need to be scanned in.

Admission passes.

Library books, to acknowledge the books which have been borrowed.

Advantages:

No line-of-sight contact is needed.

Very robust and reliable technology.

Very fast read rate.

Bidirectional data transfer.

Bulk detection is possible.

Disadvantages:

Tag collision

As they use radio waves, they are easy to jam/interrupt.

Easy to hack into the signal.

RFID is more expensive than a comparable barcode system.

4. Optical Mark Reader/Recognition (OMR):

Uses:

Used in MCQs checking.

Used in reading voting papers.

Advantages:

Very fast way of inputting survey results.

It is more accurate because there is no human intervention.

More accurate than OCR methods.

Disadvantages:

Designing the forms can be complicated to ensure the marks are correctly positioned.

If there are problems, they need to be manually checked, which can be time-consuming.

5. Optical Character Recognition/Reader:

Uses:

Processing passports and identity cards.

Converting hard copy documents into electronic form.

Used in automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) systems.

Digitizing historic hard copies for archiving.

Advantages:

It is a much faster data entry system than manual typing.

No human intervention, its error free.

Disadvantages:

System has difficulty in reading different handwritings.

Still not a very accurate technique.

6. Barcode readers:

Uses:

Used in supermarkets for stock control.

In libraries, to keep track of books.

As a safety function to ensure checking of electrical equipment on a daily basis.

Advantages:

Much faster than manually keying in data.

Allow automatic stock control.

They are a tried and trusted technology.

Disadvantages:

Relatively expensive system to administer.

Not fool-proof, barcodes can be swapped between items.

Can be more easily damaged than RFID tags or magnetic stripes.

7. Quick response (QR) code scanner:

Uses:
used in advertising to contain information about the advertising company.

Wi-Fi authentication

Used in restaurants, you can see the menu by scanning.

Advantages:

hold much more information than normal barcode.

fewer errors than with barcodes.

QR codes are easier to read because the cameras can even read them on a smartphone.

It is possible to encrypt QR codes.

Disadvantages:

More than one QR format is available.

QR codes can be used to transmit malicious data.

Output Devices and Their Uses

1. Cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors:

Uses:

Their large screens allow complex diagrams to be created in Computer-aided design.

Used with light pens to allow designs to be created.

Advantages:

Can be seen at a wider range of angles, unlike LCDs.

Allow the use of light pens.

Disadvantages:

They are very heavy and bulky.

They run very hot and can cause fires if left unattended.

They use a lot more power than LCDs.

Their flickering can lead to headaches.

Image burn-in is a common issue.

2. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) screens:

Uses:

Main output device for modern computers.

Mobile phones, laptops, video games use LCD screens.

Advantages:

Very efficient, low power consumption.

Lightweight devices.

Screens can made in various sizes.

No flickering images.

Very sharp image resolution.

Disadvantages:

Colour and contrast from different angles are inconsistent.

Motion blur is a common issue.

Lower contrast than CRT monitors.

3. Touch screen (as an output devices):

Uses:

ATMs

POS terminals

Information kiosks.

Advantages:

Don’t need additional input devices.

They are very interactive, and many functions, such as swiping, can be done.

They add a high-tech feel to devices and interfaces.

Disadvantages:

They tend to get dirty with frequent use.

Frequent use results in straining of arm muscles, RSI, etc.

If large amounts of data are input/output, they aren’t very accurate, and the interface isn’t
very fast.
4. Multimedia projectors:

Uses:

Training presentations to allow the whole audience to see images.

Advertising presentations.

Home cinema systems.

Advantages:

More people can watch as they don’t have to crowd around a laptop.

Avoids the need for several networked computers.

Disadvantages:

Images can be fuzzy.

Expensive to buy.

Set-up can be complicated.

5. Laser printers:

Uses:

In uses where low noise is required.

If fast, high quality, high-volume printing is required.

Advantages:

Printing is fast.

They can handle very large print jobs.

Quality is consistently high.

Toner cartridges last for a long time.

Disadvantages:

They are only considerably fast if several copies are being made.

Color laser printers are expensive to run.

They produce ozone and volatile organic compounds because of their printing method and
toner.

6. Inkjet printers:
Uses:

Where low-output volumes are required.

Where high-quality printing is required for single pages.

Advantages:

High-quality output

Cheaper than laser printers.

Very lightweight

Don’t produce ozone and volatile organic compounds.

Disadvantages:

Slow output if many copies are needed.

Can’t do large print jobs.

Printing can smudge if user isn’t careful.

Can be expensive if used a lot.

7. Dot matrix printers:

Uses:

Used in environments where noise isn’t a major issue.

Carbon copies or multi-part outputs can be produced.

Widely used in till receipts.

Advantages:

Can be used in varying environments unlike laser/inkjet printers.

Carbon copies or multi-part outputs can be produced.

Very cheap to run and maintain.

Good for continuous printing.

Disadvantages:

Very noisy

Initial cost is more than an inkjet printer.

Very slow, poor-quality printing.

8. (Graph) Plotters:

Uses:

Producing architectural drawings

Producing engineering drawings

Drawing animation characters.

Advantages:

Very high-quality output.

can produce large, monochrome and color drawings very accurately.

Can print on a variety on materials.

Disadvantages:

Very slow printing.

Expensive equipment to purchase initially.

Have a very large physical footprint compared to a printer.

9. 3D printers:

Uses:

Custom-made prosthetic limbs.

In aerospace, if parts of the aircraft are made using 3d printers they can be very lightweight.

Making spare parts for items that aren’t now manufactured, e.g., parts of a vintage car.

Advantages:

Manufacturing objects has become much easier.

Even though the initial cost is high, it is still cheaper than the more conventional way.

Parts for machinery that aren’t available can be made.

Disadvantages:

Potential to make counterfeit items.

Could lead to manufacture of dangerous items by almost anyone.

Job loss potential.

10. Speaker:

Uses:

Used in all phones and most computers.

Helps visually impaired people.

Plays downloaded sound files.

Advantages:

Amplified sounds can be much louder than the original sound.

Amplified sounds can be enough to be heard by a huge crowd.

Very simple technology.

They are especially useful for blind people, for instance, reading e-books.

Disadvantages:

Speaker output can disturb irrelevant people in the same area, e.g., an office.

Sound quality is high only expensive speakers.

They take up a lot of desk space.

11. Actuators:

Uses:

Used to turn on motors, buzzers, and switches.

Allow a computer to control physical devices,

Advantages:

Allow remote operation of many devices.

Relatively inexpensive devices.

Disadvantages:

They are an additional device in the system that could go wrong.

As analogue devices, signals need to be converted using a DAC.

Storage Devices and Media

Backing-Up Data

Backing up refers to copying files or data into a different medium in case of damage or loss
of original copy.

Why do we back up data?

To safeguard against loss of data.

To safeguard against damages caused by hackers.

In case files need to be sent elsewhere, to protect the original format of files.

Magnetic Backing Storage Media

Holds data magnetically.

The surface area of the media is magnetised so that it can hold bits of data.

The device that reads media can also read the bits held on the surface area

Magnetic tape drives

Uses:

used in applications where batch processing is used.

used as a backup media where vast amounts of data need to be stored.

used in long-term archiving of data, they have huge data storage capacities and are known
to be very stable.

Advantages:

They are generally less expensive than hard disk drives.

It is a very robust technology.

They have a huge data storage capacity.

The data transfer rate is fast.

Disadvantages:

Prolonged data access times (uses serial access).

When updating, another tape is needed to store the final updated version.

They are affected by magnetic fields, a strong field can corrupt data stored on the tape.

Fixed Hard Disks/Drives

Uses:

To store the OS, systems software and working data/files.

Storing applications files.

Used in real-time systems and in online systems.

Used in file servers for computer networks.

Advantages:

They have a very fast data transfer rate and fast access times to data.

They have a very large memory capacity.

Disadvantages:

It can be fairly easily damaged.

They have many moving parts which affect overall reliability.

Their read/write operation can be quite noisy when compared to solid-state drives.

Portable Hard Disk Drives

Uses:

Can be used as a backup system to prevent data loss.

It can be used to transfer data/files/software between computers.

Advantages:

Data access time and data transfer rate are very fast.

It has a very large memory capacity.

It can be used as a method of transferring information between computers.

Disadvantages:

They can be easily damaged if user accidentally drops it or doesn’t correctly shut down the
drive after use.

The data transfer rate is not as fast as for fixed hard disk drives.

Optical Media and Optical Storage Devices

Holds data by burning ‘dots’ onto the surface with a high-powered laser.
The data that reads the media can read the data by shining a lower-powered laser over the
dots.

CD-R/DVD-R ~ Write Once Only

Uses:

Home recordings of music and (CD-R) and films (DVD-R).

Used to store data to be kept for later use to be transferred to another computer.

Advantages:

Cheaper medium than RW disks.

Once burned (and finalised), they behave like a ROM.

Disadvantages:

It can only be recorded once; if an error occurs, then the disk has to be thrown away.

Not all CD/DVD players can read CD-R/DVD-R.

CD-RW/DVD-RW ~ Read and Write

Uses:

Used to record television programs which can be recorded over, time and time again.

Used in CCTV systems.

It can be used as a backup device for files and data.

Advantages:

It can be written over many times.

You can use different file formats each time it is used.

It is not as wasteful as the R format because the files/data can be added later.

Disadvantages:

It can be relatively expensive media.

Possible to accidentally overwrite data.

CD-ROM/DVD-ROM ~ Read Only

Uses:
These are read-only memory (ROM), which means they can’t be written over and can only
be read. Permanent storage method.

CD-ROM is used to store music files and to store software, computer games and reference
software.

DVD-ROM has much larger storage and is used to store films.

Used in applications where there is a real need to prevent deletion or overwriting of

important data.

Advantages:

They are less expensive than hard disk drive systems.

They are very portable as they are small and light.

Data stored on them is read-only, so it cannot be accidentally overwritten.

Disadvantages:

Hold far less data than hard disk drives or memory sticks.

Very slow data transfer rate and data access times, as compared to hard disk drives.

You cannot add your files to the disks because they are both read-only.

Blu-Ray Discs

The main differences between DVD and Blu-ray are:

Blu-ray uses a blue laser rather than a red laser. (The wavelength of blue light is 405nm,
much smaller than the 650nm red laser) This makes pits and lands much smaller, so they
store five times more data than DVDs.

Blu-ray disks automatically come with a secure encryption system, which helps to prevent
piracy and copyright infringement.

The data transfer rate for a DVD is 10 Mbps, and for a Blu-ray disc, it is 36 Mbps.

Uses:

Home video consoles.

Storing and playing back movies.

Computers can use this technology for data storage or backing hard drives.

Camcorders can use this media to store movies.

Advantages:
Very large storage capacity.

Very fast data transfer rate.

The data access speed is also greater than with other optical media.

Blu-ray discs automatically come with a secure encryption system.

Disadvantages:

Relatively expensive discs.

Encryption problems when used to store videos.

The introduction of HD (high definition) DVD players has reduced the advantages of using
Blu-ray technology.

Solid State Backing Storage

Holds data on devices that don’t have any moving parts.

Solid-state drives (SSD)

Uses:

Storage device to store files, applications, OSs, and so on.

Advantages:

They are more reliable as they have no moving parts.

They are considerably lighter and suitable for laptops.

They do not have to ‘get up to speed’ before they work correctly.

They have lower power consumption.

They run much cooler than HDDs.

Because they have no moving parts, they are very thin.

SSD data access time is only 0.1 milliseconds compared to 10 milliseconds for HDD.

Data transfer speed for SSDs is also much faster than for HDDs.

Disadvantages:

SSD endurance - SSDs are conservatively rated at only 20GB write operations per day over
three years.

More expensive than magnetic hard disks.

Smaller storage capacity than magnetic hard disks.

Pen drives (Memory sticks)

Uses:

Transporting files between computers or using them as a backing store.

Used as a security device to prevent software piracy (known as a dongle).

Advantages:

Very compact and portable media.

Very robust.

Does not need additional software to work on most computers.

They are not affected by magnetic fields.

Disadvantages:

Cannot protect the data/files by making it ‘read-only’.

Easy to lose (due to the small physical size).

The user needs to be very careful when removing a memory stick from a computer -
incorrect removal will corrupt the data on the memory stick and make it useless.

Flash Memory cards

Different types of memory cards:

» SD cards (secure digital card)

» XD cards (extreme digital card)

» CFast card (compact, fast card).

Uses:

Storing photos on digital cameras.

Used as mobile phone memory cards.

Used in MP3 players to store music files.

Used as a backing store in hand-held computer devices.

Advantages:

Very compact.
Because they have no moving parts, they are very durable.

They can hold large amounts of data.

Compact cameras and smartphones can read and write memory cards, allowing users to
transport extensive collections of photographs, songs, etc.

Disadvantages:

Expensive per gigabyte of memory when compared to HDDs.

Have a lower storage capacity than hard disks.

Have a finite life regarding the number of times they can be read from or written to.

Memory cards, specifically the micro SD card, are the smallest sized devices available,
making them more likely to be lost, stolen or damaged. The storage should be sized cause
the amount of storage does not prevent the drive from being stolen

Users must often purchase a card reader or USB converter to view the data.

Networks & the Effects of Using Them

Networks

Routers

A device that enables data to be sent between different types of networks. It can be
connected through cables or wirelessly to connect a LAN to the internet.

It can be used for:

connecting networks and devices to the internet,

storing computer addresses,

routing data packets.

When a data packet is received, the router checks if the packet is intended for it or another
network. The data packet is routed to the local switch/hub if it's meant for its network. If
not, the data packet is sent to the relevant router, which sends it to the relevant device.

They consult routing cables to know where to send the data.

Common Network Devices

Network Interface Cards (NIC): These are needed to allow a device to connect to a network.
Turns binary data into an electrical signal that allows network access. Usually integrated
into the motherboard.
Each NIC is given a unique hardwired media access control (MAC) address.

Media access control (MAC) address: a number that uniquely identifies a device when
connected to a network.

The first six hex digits identify the manufacturer’s code, and the next 6 identify the device’s
serial number.

Hubs: they are hardware devices that can have several other devices connected to them.
They are used to connect devices together to form a local area network (LAN). It takes a
data packet received by one of its ports and sends it to all relevant or irrelevant devices that
are connected to it.

It is not very secure to broadcast data to all devices.

Unnecessary network traffic.

Switches: intelligent hubs. Used to connect devices to form a LAN. Unlike hubs, the switches
store the MAC addresses of all devices on a lookup table. So, it only sends data to the
relevant device.

In summary:

Both are used to connect devices in LAN.

Both use data packets.

Hubs send data to every device on the network.

Switches send data to a relevant device only.

Switches have better security.

Switches use lookup tables to determine the destination for a data packet.

Switches use MAC addresses for relevant device locations.

Bridges: Devices that connect one LAN to another LAN that use the same protocol. Unlike
routers, they can’t communicate with external networks, such as the Internet.

Comparison:

Bridges connect LANs together; routers connect various types of networks together.

Bridges scan MAC addresses while routers scan the IP addresses.

Both send out data in the form of data packets.

Bridges connect networks with the same protocol; routers can connect networks with
different protocols.
The router uses routing tables to direct data packets, but bridges don’t.

Bridges have only two ports; routers have multiple ports.

Wi-Fi & Bluetooth

Both are used for wireless communication between devices. They both use electromagnetic
radiation as the carrier of data transmission.

Bluetooth uses:

When transferring data between 2 or more devices that are very close together.

When the speed of data transmission isn’t crucial.

For low-bandwidth applications.

Wi-Fi uses:

Full-scale networks.

When the data transfer rate is crucial.

For uses where a higher range and better security are required.

Differences and similarities:

Bluetooth uses a transmission frequency of 2.4 GHz, whereas Wi-Fi uses a 2.4 – 5.0 GHz
range.

Wi-Fi has a much faster data transfer rate.

Wi-Fi has a higher geographical range in which it is effective.

Bluetooth only allows up to 7 devices to be connected simultaneously, whereas the number

of devices connected to a Wi-Fi network depends on the router/routers used.

Bluetooth uses key-matching encryption. However, Wi-Fi uses WPA (Wi-Fi protected
access) and WEP (wireless equivalent privacy).

Cloud Computing

This method is where data is stored on remote servers accessed online.

The three types of cloud storage are:

Public Cloud - The customer and the cloud storage provider are different companies.

Private Cloud - The customer and the cloud storage provider are a single organization.
Hybrid Cloud - Combines public and private cloud options and allows sensitive data to
remain private while providing public cloud services for less sensitive information.

Cloud data is duplicated and stored on other servers to ensure availability during system
failures, upgrades, and maintenance.

Advantages:

Services can be scaled up or down according to changing requirements.

Cloud storage eliminates the need for a business to purchase expensive equipment for
infrastructure and maintenance.

Readily available globally, allowing both remote working and data sharing.

Providers offer high levels of ensuring that services are always available.

It can offer an almost unlimited amount of storage.

A backup of the data from the cloud will allow full data recovery in case of incidents.

Files can be synced across multiple devices.

There is no need to carry storage devices around.

Disadvantages:

A stable internet connection is always required.

Data storage in clouds may be vulnerable to security breaches.

The user depends on the storage provider for reliability and availability of services.

The services may become expensive as the amount of storage or bandwidth required
increases.

Common Network Environments

1. Internet:

The Internet is a very large global network that consists of many

other interconnected networks

The World Wide Web is a vast collection of web pages that can be accessed using a web
browser.

The World Wide Web allows you to access information by using the internet

Characteristics:
It is an open network, meaning everyone can access the same resources and information as
everybody else.

People from all over the world can communicate with each other in real-time.

Available to anyone who has a suitable device and access to any one of the interconnected
networks.

Uses:

Education and training

Social Networking

Online shopping

Entertainment

2. Intranet:

Usually private and are used to send information securely and safely.

Access to an organization’s Intranet is restricted and only accessible to authorized users

such as employees.

Intranets have many advantages over the internet, such as:

better bandwidth than the internet,

data is kept within the organization,

less chance of hacking and attacks,

administrators can manage access to external sites and links.

Characteristics:

A private network that is accessible to employees within a company or organization.

Usually behind a firewall to ensure security.

Allows for document sharing and the use of collaboration tools between users.

It can be customized to meet the specific requirements of the business.

Users will require a username and password to access the Intranet.

3. Extranet:

Private Intranet that also allows access by selected parties that reside outside of the
organization. These parties, for example, maybe customers, key stakeholders or clients.
Users will have an authorization level once they have successfully logged in, which will
determine which resources they may access.

Similarities between the Internet, Intranet and extranet are as follows:

They are all web-based technologies

They allow users to access information remotely

They all use client-server architecture

They all use security measures such as authentication and encryption

They all promote and facilitate information and resource sharing

Differences between the internet, intranet and extranet are as follows:

The internet is a global network, whereas an intranet/extranet is a private network

contained within an organization

The use of the internet covers a wide range of purposes, whereas an intranet/extranet is
designed for specific users and purposes.

Much information is publicly available, whereas an intranet/extranet is not.

The Internet is not owned solely by one person or organization, whereas the organization
usually owns intranets/extranets.

Network Types

Local Area Network (LAN): networks usually contained within a single building or small
geographical location. It is made up of hubs and/or switches, which will connect several
devices together. One hub or switch commonly connects to a router, allowing LAN
connectivity to other outside networks such as the Internet.

Advantages:

Allows centralized management of updates, backups and software installations.

Can secure its devices with the use of firewalls, antivirus software and other security
features to prevent unauthorized access.

A LAN allows users on the network to share resources such as printers and other
peripherals.

Disadvantages:

The network may not function correctly in case of hardware failure.

They are more prone to attacks than standalone computers.

Data and peripheral accessing can be slow, based on network traffic.

LAN networks require maintenance to ensure the software is up-to-date.

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN): Local Area Networks allow devices to connect
wirelessly rather than using physical cables. Wireless Access Points (WAPs) are connected
to an existing wired network, which provides wireless connectivity. Support a vast range of
devices, such as smartphones and laptops, are very popular in public areas such as shopping
malls.

Advantages:

Allows users to connect anywhere in the range of a Wireless Access Point (WAP).

They can be used in various indoor and outdoor environments, making them highly flexible.

As the requirements change, additional WAPs can be added relatively easily.

Printer access can be given to wireless devices.

Disadvantages:

The strength of their signals can be affected by obstacles such as walls.

Speeds can be affected by high-traffic areas.

It can sustain interference from other devices which can affect performance and
connectivity.

Can be vulnerable to security threats due to signal interception.

Wide Area Networks (WAN): is formed by several LANs connected through a router. It is
expensive. However, it comes with a more enhanced security. Additional hardware is
needed for a WAN: Routers, modems, and proxy servers.

Advantages:

Provide the ability to connect geographically dispersed locations, such as offices in different
cities or countries.

Offer the flexibility to scale up or down based on the organisation's needs.

Administrators can monitor and manage the network infrastructure from a single location.

Disadvantages:

Setting up and maintaining a WAN can be expensive, especially compared to LANs.

Cover larger distances and rely on public networks or leased lines, which can introduce
latency and affect performance.
WANs are subject to the reliability and availability of external service providers.

Network Issues and Communication

Connection to a network exposes a user to:

Hacking: Unauthorized access given to the computer. This can lead to identity theft or the
misuse of personal information.

Phishing: Phishing involves getting sensitive information, such as usernames, passwords,

and credit card details, for malicious reasons by mimicking a reliable webpage on the
network

Pharming: This is malicious code installed on a user’s computer or a web server; the code
will redirect the user to a fake website without their knowledge (the user doesn’t have to
take any action, unlike phishing).

Viruses: Program code that replicates (copies itself) to delete or corrupt files and cause the
computer to malfunction

Passwords

It is a common form of security often accompanied by a username or email address.

There are many ways to enhance the security of your password, such as the following:

Ensure that the password is changed regularly in case it has been obtained illegally or
accidentally

Ensure that the password uses a combination of uppercase, lowercase, numbers and special
characters to make the password more difficult to guess.

iloveict is a weak password

1lov3ICT# is a strong password

Anti-spyware software can be run regularly to ensure that your information, including your
password, is not passed to an unauthorized third-party user.

Other Authentication Methods

Zero login: A security concept that eliminates traditional login methods, such as usernames
and passwords, using biometrics or other authentication factors for seamless and
password-less access.

Biometric Recognition: These authentication methods use unique physical or behavioural

characteristics, such as fingerprints, iris scans, or voice recognition, to verify a person's
identity.
Magnetic Stripes: These are authentication features on cards storing data magnetically.
They enable secure identification and authorization by containing encoded information that
magnetic stripe readers can read.

Smart Cards: Smart cards are portable devices with integrated circuits to store and process
data. They are used for authentication, identification, and secure transactions in various
applications such as banking, telecommunications, and access control.

Physical Tokens: It is a type of authentication that takes the shape of a solid object. The user
demonstrates ownership of the token through interaction with a login system. Physical
tokens have embedded clocks that create one-time passwords (OTPs) when a PIN and other
authentication information are entered.

Electronic Tokens are applications that users install on their hardware, such as
smartphones. Say a person wants to access a website on a tablet computer. To access this
website, users must first authenticate themselves using electronic tokens. The user has
already set up the electronic token app with their smartphone. The user launches the app
on their smartphone when the website asks them to verify their identity. The program
creates an OTP that is only good for a short period of time.

Anti-malware Software

Anti-malware software is designed to protect devices against viruses and malicious

software. It has 3 primary purposes: detect, prevent and remove malicious software. It is
installed onto a computer system and will operate in the background.

Standard features of Anti-Malware software include the following:

Comparing the scanned files against an extensive database of known threats

Real-time scanning

Regular updates to gather an up-to-date list of known threats

Quarantine of infected files

Quarantining files allows threats to be automatically deleted.

Allows the user to determine if the file is a legitimate threat and not a false positive.

Heuristic Checking: Instead of relying solely on a database of known viruses, this method
looks for behavioural patterns and other features in a file to identify possible risks.

Electronic Conferencing

Video Conferencing: It is a form of audio and video communication. It serves as a stand-in

for face-to-face meetings between several persons who may reside abroad or in another
region of the country. It utilizes a network in some way and is done in real-time.
The basic hardware includes:

webcams,

large monitors/television screens,

microphones,

speakers.

The software used are:

Webcam and microphone software drivers

CODEC (coder and de-coder)

Echo cancellation software

Advantages:

It is much easier to access important documents or bring in ‘experts’ at key parts of the
conference.

It is possible to hold conferences at short notice.

Reduced travelling costs.

There is no need to pay for hotel accommodation or venue hire.

Reduces the cost of taking people away from work for two or three days to travel.

Using video conferencing is better than having delegates travel to potentially unsafe places
worldwide.

Disadvantages:

Potential time lag in responses/delays when talking.

Images can jerk.

It is very expensive to set up in the first place.

Problems if the delegates live in different countries with large time zone differences.

Requires IT knowledge to some extent.

It's not the best for people who consider travelling a job perk.

Completely reliant on stable internet connections.

Audio Conferencing: Meetings held using audio (sound) technology are called audio
conferencing. The normal telephone network can be used for audio conferencing, frequently
called a phone conference.

The hardware required is:

a computer (with built-in microphones and speakers)

external microphone and/or speakers

an internet phone

a standard phone.

Advantages:

Allows participants to join meetings from any location.

Eliminates the need for travel expenses, such as transportation, accommodation, and meals.

Saves time by eliminating travel time and allowing meetings to be scheduled and conducted
quickly.

Disadvantages:

Lacks the visual aspect of face-to-face meetings, which can hinder communication.

It can limit interaction and engagement compared to in-person or video conferencing.

Heavily relies on technology, and technical issues such as poor audio quality, background
noise, or connectivity problems are common.

Web Conferencing:

Web conferencing, often known as webinars or webcasts, makes use of the Internet to
enable conference calls. This system makes use of numerous computers that are
interconnected over the internet. It operates in real-time, just like video conferencing, and
enables the following meeting types:

» business meetings to discuss new ideas

» presentations

» online education or training.

Advantages:

Allows participants to see each other through video, providing a more immersive and
engaging experience than audio conferencing.
Often offer screen sharing capabilities, enabling participants to share presentations,
documents, or other visual content in real-time.

Often provide features like chat, polling, hand raising, and Q&A sessions, fostering
interactivity and engagement among participants.

Disadvantages:

Heavily relies on internet connectivity and technical infrastructure.

They can be susceptible to distractions and multitasking.

It often has various features and settings that participants need to familiarize themselves
with, especially if they are new to the platform.