TEAM TENT DISCUSSION GROUP

ELE3102: APPLIED ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

SOLUTIONS
Question 1
a) Explain the following terms as applied to operational amplifiers.
i) Unity gain frequency
 This is the frequency in which the signal output of an op-amp has the same amplitude as
the input.
ii) Slew rate
 This is the maximum (fastest) rate of change of the output voltage.
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡)
𝑆𝑅 = [ ]
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥
 Limitation on slew rate capability can give rise to non-linear distortion in the op amp.
 For sinusoidal waveforms not subjected to slew rate limitation, the rate capability at all
points in an op amp must satisfy the condition;
𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡)
[ ] = 𝑆𝑅 ≥ 2𝜋𝑓𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚.
iii) Closed loop band width and gain band width product
 Closed loop bandwidth is the frequency at which the closed loop system gain drops 3 dB
below the peak.
 The band width represents the two points in the frequency domain where the signal is
0.7071 of the maximum signal amplitude.
 Gain bandwidth product is the bandwidth of the op-amp when the open loop voltage gain
is reduced to 1
iv) Op amp
 This is a very high gain differential amplifier with very high input impedance and very low
output impedance
b) Give the characteristics of an ideal op amp and a non-ideal op-amp
For an ideal op amp
 Infinite input impedance.
 Zero output impedance
 Infinite open loop gain.
 Infinite bandwidth
For a non-ideal op-amp
 High input impedance with a finite value
 Low output impedance.
 Large bandwidth with a finite value
 Large open loop gain with a finite value
c) Give the advantages and disadvantages of the following negative and positive feedback.
Negative feedback;
 Advantages;
 Increases the bandwidth of the op-amp
 Reduces distortion
 Increases closed loop gain stability
Disadvantages;
 Reduces the closed loop gain of an amplifier
d) Explain the term negative feedback and show that when negative feedback is applied to
𝐴
an amplifier, the resulting gain is given by 𝐴𝑓 = 1+𝛽𝐴.
 Negative feedback is the one in which the feedback energy (voltage or current) is out of
phase with the input signal and thus opposes it.
Draw a block diagram
𝑉0 = 𝐴(𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑓 )

𝑉0 = 𝐴(𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝛽𝑉0 )
𝑉0 (1 + 𝛽𝐴) = 𝐴𝑓 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑽𝟎 𝑨
𝑨𝒇 = =
𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝟏 + 𝜷𝑨)
e) Using the formula given in d) above, derive the expression for the voltage gain of the non-
inverting op amp.
𝑅1
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝, 𝛽 = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝, 𝐴 = ∞
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓
1 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐴𝑓 = = = (1 + )
𝛽 𝑅1 𝑅1
Question 2
a) The input voltage, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) shown below is applied to an inverting operational amplifier. The
op-amp has a slew rate of 6.3 V/μs. The plot of the input voltage, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) is shown below.

i) Calculate the maximum closed loop gain that the amplifier can have without exceeding
the op-amp slew rate.
Δ𝑉𝑖𝑛 1.05 − −1.05
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡, = = 1.05 𝑉/𝜇𝑠
Δt 2.0 − 0
 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 6.3
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐺 = = = 6 𝑉/𝑉
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 1.05
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝, 𝐺 = −𝟔 𝑽/𝑽
ii) Sketch the output voltage 𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) versus time, t, at maximum closed loop gain.
Note: Since it is an inverting op-amp, the voltage scale will be flipped vertically with respect to the
original graph and magnified by a scale factor of 6.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴𝑡 𝑡 = 0; 𝑉0 (𝑡) = −1.05(−6) = 6.3 𝑉
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 2; 𝑉0 (𝑡) = 1.05(−6) = −6.3

b) What are the two characteristics of a linear system (e.g an amplifier)?

 The output signal is directly proportional to the input.
 It exhibits constant parameters.
i) Consider an inverting op-amp circuit that is connected to a dual power supply of ±6 VDC.
The closed loop voltage gain of the amplifier is -4. Sketch its output voltage versus time
if it is driven with an input sine wave of 10 kHz and peak amplitude of 2 volts?
1
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 × 104 𝑡 , 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 = = 0.1 𝑚𝑠
10𝑘
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = −4(2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 × 104 𝑡) = −8(𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 × 104 𝑡) 𝑉
Since it is an inverting op-amp, the sine curve will be flipped and saturates at ±6 𝑉

N.B: Let the clipping be slightly close to ±6 𝑉 not exactly at that value

ii) Consider a non-inverting op-amp circuit that is connected to a dual power supply of ±5
VDC. The closed loop voltage gain of the amplifier is 4. Sketch its output voltage versus
time if it is driven with an input sine wave of 1 kHz and peak amplitude of 2.5 volts?
 1
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑡) = 2.5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 × 103 𝑡 , 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 = = 1 𝑚𝑠
1𝑘
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = 4(2.5 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 × 103 𝑡) = 10(𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋 × 103 𝑡) 𝑉
The output will saturate at ±5 𝑉

N.B: Let the clipping be slightly close to ±10 𝑉 not exactly at that value
Question 3
a) Find an expression for the output voltage 𝑣0 of the operational amplifier circuit below in
terms of 𝑉𝑎 and 𝑉𝑏

𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑;

(𝑉𝑎 − 0) (0 − 𝑉01 )
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐾𝐶𝐿, =
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅2
𝑉01 = − 𝑉 … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
𝑅1 𝑎
𝑉01 − 0 𝑉𝑏 − 0 0 − 𝑉0
+ = … … … … … … . . (2)
𝑅3 𝑅5 𝑅4
𝑅2 𝑉𝑏 𝑉0
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡. 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (1) 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 (2) ∶ − 𝑉𝑎 + =−
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅5 𝑅4
 𝑹𝟐 𝑽𝒃
𝑽𝟎 = 𝑹 𝟒 { 𝑽𝒂 − }
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟓
Notes: The above expression reveals that one can also design difference amplifier using a
combination an inverting amplifier in the first stage and a summing amplifiers as the second
stage.
b) Consider the real-world op amp shown below. It has an open loop gain 𝐴𝑣 𝑜𝑓 500,000 and
is connected to a dual supply with 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 10 𝑉

i) Plot the output voltage and input voltage curves with respect to time, if the input
voltage, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 3 sin 𝑤𝑡.

N.B: Let the clipping be slightly close to ±10𝑉 not exactly at that value
ii) Plot the output voltage curve with respect to time, if the input voltage, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 =
3 sin 𝑤𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 0 𝑉 𝑏𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 10 𝑉.

N.B: Let the clipping be slightly close to +10 𝑉 not exactly at that value
 iii) Give one application of the circuit above.
 Applied in signal amplification.
 Op amp comparator
 Op amp high pass and low pass active filter
 Op amp multivibrator
iv) Plot the output voltage and input voltage curves with respect to time, if the input
voltage 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is a rectangular wave with a peak voltage of +3 𝑉.

N.B: Let the clipping be slightly close to ±10 𝑉 not exactly at that value.
v) What would happen in the case of iv) above if the slew rate was short.
 The output signal will be linearly distorted and will be in saw-tooth like form.
Question 4
a) Design an amplifier circuit that produces an output voltage 𝑣0 (𝑡), governed by the
𝟏
expression, 𝑽𝟎 (𝒕) = −𝟎. 𝟐𝑽𝟏 (𝒕) + 𝟎. 𝟓𝑽𝟐 (𝒕) − 𝑽𝟑 (𝒕) + 𝑽𝟒 (𝒕) where 𝑉1 (𝑡), 𝑉2 (𝑡), 𝑉3 (𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉4 (𝑡)
𝟒
are input voltages. Show all the components and their values.
N.B: Keep the number of components in your circuit as small as possible. That will reduce
the cost of your amplifier and for that you will be rewarded with more points.
NOTES:
  When designing op amp circuits with an output of the form,
𝑉0 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑉1 (𝑡) + 𝐵𝑉2 (𝑡) + 𝐶𝑉3 (𝑡) + 𝐷𝑉4 (𝑡) + ⋯ 𝑍𝑉𝑛 (𝑡), for a simple design, use two summing
amplifiers.
 If all the coefficients of of the input voltages are negative, you can use one summing
amplifiers
 If some of the voltage coefficients are negative and others are positive, use two summing
amplifiers in cascade and do the following;
 The inputs with positive coefficients are used as the inputs for the first stage op amp
 The inputs with negative coefficients are used as the inputs for the second stage op amp
 By doing so you will generate an expression that exactly is in the form of the given
expression, compare the expressions, choose of the typical values for your design to help
you in getting other values of the components used.

Also indicate the biasing on the op amps i.e. +𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 −𝑉𝑐𝑐
Assuming that the op-amp is ideal with infinite input impedance implying zero input current into
the op-amp and infinite open loop gain.
Assuming a virtual short circuit between the input terminals, thus a virtual ground.
𝑉2 𝑉4
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝, 𝑉01 = −𝑅𝑓1 [ + ] … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
𝑅2 𝑅4
The output of the first op amp acts as one of the inputs of the second op-amp.
𝑉1 𝑉3 𝑉01
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝, 𝑉0 (𝑡) = −𝑅𝑓2 [ + + ] … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅5
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1) 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 (2)
𝑉1 𝑉3 −𝑅𝑓1 𝑉2 𝑉4
𝑉0 (𝑡) = −𝑅𝑓2 ( + + [ + ])
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅5 𝑅2 𝑅4
𝑅𝑓2 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑉0 (𝑡) = − 𝑉1 + 1 2 𝑉2 − 2 𝑉3 + 1 2 𝑉4 … … … … … … … … . . (3)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅5 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑅5
1
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (3) 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑉0 (𝑡) = −0.2𝑉1 (𝑡) + 0.5𝑉2 (𝑡) − 𝑉3 (𝑡) + 𝑉 (𝑡)
4 4
𝑅𝑓2 𝑅𝑓1 𝑅𝑓2 𝑅𝑓2 𝑅𝑓1 𝑅𝑓2 1
= 0.2 , = 0.5 , = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅5 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑅5 4
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑓1 = 𝑅𝑓2 = 𝑅5 = 10 𝑘Ω,

𝑹𝟏 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝛀, 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝛀, 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝛀, 𝑹𝟒 = 𝟒𝟎 𝒌𝛀

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠, 𝑅𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑐2 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑. 𝑐 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒

𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠;

1 1 1 −1
𝑅𝑐1 = 𝑅2 || 𝑅4 ||𝑅𝑓1 = [ + + ] = 𝟓. 𝟕 𝒌𝛀
20 40 10
1 1 1 1 −1
𝑅𝑐2 = 𝑅1 ||𝑅3 ||𝑅5 ||𝑅𝑓2 = [ + + + ] = 𝟑. 𝟏 𝒌𝛀
50 10 10 10
b) Design a capacitor coupled inverting amplifier using an op-amp that has an input voltage,
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 500 cos 𝑤𝑡 𝑚𝑉 and voltage gain of 20. The load resistance 𝑅4 be 1 𝑘Ω and the lower
cutoff frequency equal to 60 𝐻𝑧, 𝐼𝐵(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 500 𝑛𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼1 = 200𝐼𝐵(𝑚𝑎𝑥) . Use 𝑅4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 to set the
lower cutoff frequency.

𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑎 𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑;
𝑅2
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝, 𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐺 = − = −20 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅2 = 20𝑅1 … … … (1)
𝑅3
𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 0 500𝑚
= 𝐼1 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡, 𝐼1 = … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
𝑅3 𝑅3
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝐼1 = 200𝐼𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 200(500𝑛) = 0.1 𝑚𝐴 … … … … … … … … (3)
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛𝑠 (2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (3); 𝑅3 = 5 𝑘𝛺
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (1); 𝑅2 = 100 𝑘𝛺
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑑. 𝑐 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒,
5(100)
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 ||𝑅3 = = 4.8 𝑘𝛺 𝑜𝑟 4.7(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
5 + 100
𝑋𝐶1 ≈ 𝑅3 𝑋𝐶2 ≈ 𝑅4
1 1
𝐶2 = = = 2.65 𝜇𝐹
2𝜋𝑓𝐿 𝑅4 2𝜋(60)(1𝑘)
1 1
𝐶1 = = = 5.31 𝜇𝐹
𝑓𝐿 (60)
2𝜋 (10) 𝑅3 2𝜋 (5𝑘)
10
Question 6
a) Why is it important for a voltage amplifier to have high a high input resistance and low
output resistance?
 High input impedance for an amplifier to have good amplification of the input signal
otherwise we would get a low voltage in so low amplification.
 Low output impedance ensures maximum voltage drop across the load.
b) Give one reason why an op amp may still have an output even if the input voltage is zero.
 This is due to the effect of dc imperfections in the op amp like dc offset voltages and
dc bias currents that are always circulating for as long as the op amp is biased hence
there will always be signal at the output even when there is no actual input signal
Compiled by, DAVID
 ELE3102: APPLIED ANALOG ELECTRONICS
DISCUSSION
OP-AMP FREQUENCY RESPONSE AND STABILITY
SOLUTIONS
Brief notes:
Negative feedback:
The gain of an operation with negative feedback is given by the expression;
𝐴𝑣
𝐴𝑓 = … … … … … … . . (1)
1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣
Where 𝐴𝑓 represents the gain of an op amp with feedback which is the same as
the closed loop gain
𝐴𝑣 represents the open loop gain of an op amp
𝛽 represents the feedback factor/fraction whose value depend on the level of
feedback.
Concept of loop gain:
𝛽𝐴𝑉 is called the loop gain of an op amp (do not confuse it with closed loop gain)
From equation (1), since 𝐴𝑣 varies with frequency when dealing with a practical
op amp, at some point the loop gain, 𝐴𝑣 𝛽 = −1.
At that particular point, the denominator in the expression becomes zero and
the overall gain of the amplifier will tend to ∞.
Therefore, when determining the stability of an op, we use this point as our
reference point.
𝐴𝑣 𝛽 = −1.
In terms of magnitude and phase, 𝐴𝑣 𝛽 = 1 < −1800
|𝐴𝑣 𝛽| = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑖𝑠 − 1800 .
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝐵𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠; |𝐴𝑣 𝛽|𝑑𝐵 = 20 log(|𝐴𝑣 𝛽|) = 20 log 1 = 0 𝑑𝐵
Concept of phase margin and gain margin:
Gain margin is the number of dBs that the loop gain must be increased to reach
0 dB at a frequency where the phase shift is −1800 .
This frequency at which the phase shift is −1800 is called the phase crossover
frequency, 𝑓𝑝𝑐

Phase margin is the additional phase lag that is allowable before reaching −1800
at a frequency where the loop gain is 0dB.
This frequency at which the loop gain is 0 dB is called the gain crossover
frequency, 𝑓𝑔𝑐

Procedure for determining gain margin and phase margins from loop
gain/phase frequency response plot.
Gain margin:
 From the frequency response graph, locate the point at which the phase
shift is −1800 from the loop phase axis, locate its corresponding frequency
(phase cross over frequency, 𝑓𝑝𝑐 ) from the radian frequency axis.
 At this value of 𝑓𝑝𝑐 , determine the corresponding loop gain from the loop
gain axis.
 To get the gain margin, 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 0𝑑𝐵 − 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛( 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑝𝑐 )

Phase margin:
 From the frequency response graph, locate the point at which the loop gain
is 0 𝑑𝐵 from the loop gain axis, locate its corresponding frequency (gain
cross over frequency, 𝑓𝑔𝑐 ) from the radian frequency axis.
 At this value of 𝑓𝑔𝑐 , determine the corresponding phase from the loop phase
axis.
 To get the phase margin, 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒(𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑔𝑐 ) − (−1800 )
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒(𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑔𝑐 ) + 1800

Special case:
The special case will be when you are given the open loop gain/phase frequency
response plot.
Note: Initially we were only dealing with a plot of loop gain but now let us see
how to analyze the one of open loop gain.
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 |𝐴𝑣 𝛽|𝑑𝐵 = 20 log|𝐴𝑣 𝛽| = 20 log|𝐴𝑣 | + 20 log|𝛽|
1
20 log|𝐴𝑣 | = |𝐴𝑣 𝛽|𝑑𝐵 − 20 log|𝛽| = |𝐴𝑣 𝛽|𝑑𝐵 + 20 log
|𝛽|
1
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝, = 𝐴𝐶𝐿 (𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛)
|𝛽|
𝑎𝑛𝑑 20 log|𝐴𝑣 | = 𝐴𝑣 (𝑑𝐵)𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒: 𝐴𝑣 (𝑑𝐵) = |𝐴𝑣 𝛽|𝑑𝐵 + 20 log 𝐴𝐶𝐿
𝐴𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 0𝑑𝐵, 𝑠𝑒𝑡 |𝐴𝑣 𝛽|𝑑𝐵 = 0
𝑨𝒗 (𝒅𝑩) = 𝟐𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑨𝑪𝑳
Procedure for determining gain margin and phase margins from open loop
gain/phase frequency response plot.
Gain margin: (similar to that in the first case)
 From the frequency response graph, locate the point at which the phase
shift is −1800 from the phase shift axis, locate its corresponding frequency
(phase cross over frequency, 𝑓𝑝𝑐 ) from the radian frequency axis.
 At this value of 𝑓𝑝𝑐 , determine the corresponding loop gain from the open
loop gain axis.
 To get the gain margin, 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 0𝑑𝐵 − 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛( 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑝𝑐 )

Phase margin:

 From the frequency response graph, locate the point at which the open
loop gain, 𝑨𝒗 (𝒅𝑩) = 𝟐𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑨𝑪𝑳 from the open loop gain axis, locate its
corresponding frequency (gain cross over frequency, 𝑓𝑝𝑐 ) from the radian
frequency axis.
 At this value of 𝑓𝑔𝑐 , determine the corresponding phase from the phase
shift axis.
 To get the phase margin, 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒(𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑔𝑐 ) + 1800

Question 1
The frequency response of a non-inverting amplifier is shown below. The two
curves represent its loop gain and the loop phase shift, versus radian
frequency. The op-amplifier is to be used build a non-inverting amplifier to
generate a closed-loop voltage gain of 10.
a) Use the plot below to find the phase margin and the gain margin of the
non-inverting amplifier. A phase margin of at least 550 is recommended
to keep the amplifier circuit stable.

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡, 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒(𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑔𝑐 ) = −1400 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑝𝑐 ) = −60 𝑑𝐵

𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = −140 + 180 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎

𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 0 − (−60) = 𝟔𝟎 𝒅𝑩
b) Is this non-inverting amplifier stable?
It is unstable since the phase margin is less than the recommended phase
margin of 550 for stability.

Question 2
The frequency response of an operational amplifier is shown below. The two
curves represent its open-loop gain and the open-loop phase shift, versus
radian frequency. The op-amplifier is to be used build a non-inverting amplifier
to generate a closed-loop voltage gain of 10.
(a) Use the plot below to find the phase margin and the gain margin of the
non-inverting amplifier. A phase margin of at least 450 is recommended
to keep the amplifier circuit stable.
This is a special case;
𝐴𝑣 (𝑑𝐵) = 20 log 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = 20lo g(10) = 20 𝑑𝐵,
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑡 20 𝑑𝐵 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡, 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒(𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑔𝑐 ) = −700 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑝𝑐 ) = −60 𝑑𝐵

𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = −70 + 180 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 0 − (−60) = 𝟔𝟎 𝒅𝑩
 (b) Is this non-inverting amplifier stable?
It is stable since the phase margin is greater than the recommended phase
margin of 450 for stability.

𝒇𝒈𝒄

𝒇𝒑𝒄
NB: In the above question, even if the axis was labelled as loop gain but the
question is talking of open loop gain. Do the analysis for open loop gain
Question 3
The frequency response of an operational amplifier is shown below. This non-
inverting amplifier has a closed loop voltage gain of 10.
a) Use the plot below to find the phase margin and the gain margin of the
non-inverting amplifier. A phase margin of at least 450 is recommended to
keep the amplifier circuit stable.

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡, 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒(𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑔𝑐 ) = −1200 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑝𝑐 ) = −75 𝑑𝐵

𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = −120 + 180 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎

𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = 0 − (−75) = 𝟕𝟓 𝒅𝑩
 b) Is this non-inverting amplifier stable? Why?
It is stable since the phase margin is greater than the recommended phase
margin of 450 for stability.

Compiled by David
 TEAM TENT DISCUSSION GROUP
ELE3102: APPLIED ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS
OSCILLATORS SOLUTIONS

RC-OSCILLATORS
Question 1 (Phase shift oscillator)
Consider the oscillator circuit below. The component values are 𝐶 = 0.01 𝜇𝐹, 𝑅 =
8.2 𝑘Ω, 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 . You are given two resistors (360 𝑘Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4.7 𝑘Ω) that can be used
as 𝑅1 . The supply voltage 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 12 𝑉. The output voltage is 𝑉0 (𝑡).

a) Sketch the output voltage, 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡) versus time.

b) Derive an expression for the feedback factor 𝛽(𝜔) where 𝜔 is the radian
frequency.
Using one of the RC stages;
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐾𝐶𝐿 𝑎𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑥;
𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝑉2 1
= 𝑏𝑢𝑡; 𝑋𝑐 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑆 = 𝑗𝜔
𝑅 𝑋𝑐 𝑆𝐶
𝑉2 (𝑠) 1 1 1
= = 𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑅𝐶 =
𝑉1 (𝑠) 𝑅𝑆𝐶 + 1 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶 + 1 𝜔1
𝐷𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝐸 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝;
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝛽(𝑗𝜔) =
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 1
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟; 𝛽(𝑗𝜔) = =
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝜔 3
[1 + 𝑗 (𝜔 )]
1

1
𝛽(𝑗𝜔) =
𝜔 𝜔 2 𝜔 3
1 + 3𝑗 (𝜔 ) − 3 (𝜔 ) − 𝑗 (𝜔 )
1 1 1

1
𝛽(𝑗𝜔) =
𝜔 2 𝜔 𝜔 2
[1 − 3 (𝜔 ) ] + 𝑗 (𝜔 ) [3 − (𝜔 ) ]
1 1 1

But at the oscillating frequency, 𝛽(𝑗𝜔0 )𝑖𝑚 = 0 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙.
𝜔𝑜 2 1
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒; 3 − ( ) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜔1 =
𝜔1 𝑅𝐶

√3
𝜔𝑜 = √3𝜔1 =
𝑅𝐶
√𝟑
𝒇𝒐 =
𝟐𝝅𝑹𝑪
1 1 1
𝛽(𝑗𝜔)𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = = =−
𝜔 2 2 8
[1 − 3 (𝜔0 ) ] √3𝜔
[1 − 3 ( 𝜔 1 ) ]
1
1

𝟏
𝜷(𝝎) = −
𝟖
c) What is the value of the oscillating frequency, 𝑓0 and the closed loop gain
𝐴𝑐𝑙 ?
 √3 √3
𝑓0 = = = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟔𝟐 𝒌𝑯𝒛
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 2𝜋(8.2𝑘)(0.01𝜇)
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐵𝑎𝑟𝑘ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎, 𝐴𝑐𝑙 (𝑓𝑜 )𝛽(𝑓𝑜 ) = 1
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒; 𝑨𝒄𝒍 = 𝟖
d) What are the requirements for sustained oscillations in the circuit?
For sustained oscillations, |𝐴𝑐𝑙 (𝑓𝑜 )𝛽(𝑓𝑜 )| = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑
< 𝐴𝑐𝑙 (𝑓𝑜 )𝛽(𝑓𝑜 ) = ±360𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2 …
e) What is the condition for the oscillator to start up?
The total phase shift should be 3600 𝑜𝑟 00
The |𝐴𝑐𝑙 (𝑓𝑜 )𝛽(𝑓𝑜 )| ≥ 1
f) Which one of the two resistors should be selected as 𝑅1 and why?
The 4.7 𝑘𝛺 resistor should be selected because it results into a higher closed loop
gain of the op-amp if the 𝑅2 is held constant thus better sustained oscillations.
g) Calculate the value of 𝑅2 given your choice of 𝑅1 in part f) above.
𝑅1 = 8(4.7𝑘) = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟔 𝒌𝛀
h) What is the minimum slew rate required for the op-amps above if you limit
peak value 𝑣0 (𝑡) a peak value of 5 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠?
𝑆𝑅 ≥ 2𝜋𝑓0 𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘

𝑆𝑅 = 2𝜋(3362)(5) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑽/𝝁𝒔

Question 2 (Wien bridge oscillator)
Consider the oscillator circuit below that uses a dual power supply at ±5𝑉 and
outputs a voltage 𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) = 2.5 sin 2𝜋𝑓0 𝑡. the circuit parameters are 𝐶1 = 1 𝑛𝐹, 𝐶2 =
2 𝑛𝐹, 𝑅1 = 1.5 𝑘Ω, 𝑅3 = 1.5 𝑘Ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅4 = 3.3 𝑘Ω.
 a) Derive an expression for the oscillating frequency, 𝑓𝑜 and the feedback
factor 𝛽(𝜔) where 𝜔 is the radian frequency?
Redrawing the circuit in a more familiar format;

Assuming that the op-amp is ideal, with infinite input impedance and infinite open
loop gain.
Hence no current flows into the op-amp.
𝑅1 𝑋𝐶1
𝐿𝑒𝑡; 𝑍𝑎 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍𝑏 = 𝑅4 + 𝑋𝐶2
𝑅1 + 𝑋𝐶1

By voltage division at node x, since no current flows into the op-amp, the feedback
factor will be given as;
𝑅1 𝑋𝐶1
𝑉𝑓 𝑍𝑎 𝑅 1 + 𝑋𝐶1
𝛽= = =
𝑉0 𝑍𝑎 + 𝑍𝑏 𝑅1 𝑋𝐶1
𝑅1 + 𝑋𝐶1 + 𝑅4 + 𝑋𝐶2
 𝑅1 𝑋𝐶1 1 1
𝛽= 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑋𝐶1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝐶2 =
(𝑅4 + 𝑋𝐶2 )(𝑅1 + 𝑋𝐶1 ) + 𝑅1 𝑋𝐶1 𝑗𝜔𝐶1 𝑗𝜔𝐶2

1
𝑅1 𝑗𝜔𝐶
1
𝛽(𝑗𝜔) =
1 1 𝑅1
(𝑅4 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ) (𝑅1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶 ) + 𝑗𝜔𝐶
2 1 1

1
𝑅1 𝑗𝜔𝐶
1
𝛽(𝑗𝜔) =
1 1 1 𝑅
(𝑅4 𝑅1 + 𝑅4 + 𝑅 − )+ 1
𝑗𝜔𝐶1 𝑗𝜔𝐶2 1 𝜔 2 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑗𝜔𝐶1
1
𝑅1 𝜔𝐶
1
𝛽(𝑗𝜔) =
1 1 1 𝑅
(𝑗𝑅4 𝑅1 + 𝑅4 𝜔𝐶 + 𝜔𝐶 𝑅1 − 𝑗 2 ) + 𝜔𝐶1
1 2 𝜔 𝐶1 𝐶2 1

1
𝑅1 𝜔𝐶
1
𝛽(𝑗𝜔) =
𝑅 1 1 1
([𝜔𝐶1 +𝑅4 𝜔𝐶 + 𝜔𝐶 𝑅1 ] + 𝑗 [𝑅4 𝑅1 − 2 ])
1 1 2 𝜔 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝛽(𝑗𝜔) = 𝛽(𝑗𝜔)𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 + 𝛽(𝑗𝜔)𝑖𝑚
Since at the oscillating frequency, 𝛽(𝜔0 )𝐴𝑐𝑙 (𝜔0 ) = 1 (according to Barkhausen
criterion), hence 𝛽(𝑗𝜔)𝑖𝑚 = 0
1
𝑅4 𝑅1 − =0
𝜔𝑜2 𝐶1 𝐶2
1
𝜔𝑜 =
√𝑅1 𝑅4 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝟏
𝒇𝒐 = 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏.
𝟐𝝅√𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟒 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐

Since 𝛽(𝑗𝜔𝑜 )𝑖𝑚 = 0, it follows that,

1
𝑅1 𝜔𝐶
1
𝛽(𝑗𝜔)𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 = 𝛽(𝜔𝑜 ) =
𝑅 1 1
([𝜔𝐶1 +𝑅4 𝜔𝐶 + 𝜔𝐶 𝑅1 ])
1 1 2

𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝟐
𝜷(𝝎𝒐 ) =
𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑹𝟒 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝟏
b) Find the value of the closed loop gain 𝐴𝑐𝑙
 −1 −1
𝑅1 𝐶2 1.5𝑘 × 2𝑛
𝐴𝑐𝑙 = [ ] =[ ] = 𝟑. 𝟕
𝑅1 𝐶2 + 𝑅4 𝐶2 + 𝑅1 𝐶1 1.5𝑘 × 2𝑛 + 3.3𝑘 × 2𝑛 + 1.5𝑘 × 1𝑛
c) Find the value of 𝑅2
𝑅2
+ 1 = 3.7
𝑅3
𝑅2 = 1.5𝑘(2.7) = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟓 𝒌𝛀
d) What value of 𝑅2 would you pick to enable the oscillator start up?
I would pick any value greater than 4.05 𝑘Ω like 4.7 𝒌𝛀 such that the closed loop
gain of the amplifier is always large enough for sustained oscillations.
e) What is the minimum slew rate of the op-amp?
1 1
𝑓𝑜 = = = 50.583 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2𝜋√𝑅1 𝑅4 𝐶1 𝐶2 2𝜋√3.3𝑘(1.5𝑘)(1𝑛)(2𝑛)
𝑆. 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑓0 𝑉𝑝

𝑆𝑙𝑒𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 2𝜋(50.583𝑘)(2.5) = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝟓 𝑽/𝝁𝒔

LC-OSCILLATORS
Question 3 (Colpitts oscillator)
Consider the oscillator circuit below. The circuit parameters are 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 5𝑉,
𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) = 3𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓𝑜 𝑡), 𝐶𝑛 = 5𝑝𝐹, 𝐶𝑜 = 50𝑝𝐹, 𝐶𝑝 = 0.02𝜇𝐹, 𝐶𝑞 = 100𝑝𝐹,

𝐶𝑟 = 100𝑝𝐹, 𝐿1 = 3𝜇𝐻, 𝑅1 = 1𝑀𝛺.

 a) Derive an expression for the oscillating frequency, fo and the feedback
factor, β(ω) where ω is the radian frequency?

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝐶 𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘, 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝐶 𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑘 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒
𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜,𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑛𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠;
𝑋𝐶2 (𝜔0 ) + 𝑋𝐶𝑟 (𝜔𝑜 ) + 𝑋𝐿1 (𝜔𝑂 ) = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑋𝐶2 (𝜔0 ) = 𝑋𝐶𝑜 (𝜔𝑜 )||𝑋𝐶𝑞 (𝜔𝑜 )

𝑋𝐶2 (𝜔0 ) + 𝑋𝐿1 (𝜔𝑂 ) = −𝑋𝐶𝑟 (𝜔𝑜 ) … … … … … … 1)

1 1
+ + 𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝐿1 = 0
𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝐶2 𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝐶𝑟
1 1 1
[ + ] = −𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝐿1
𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝐶2 𝐶𝑟
𝐶2 +𝐶𝑟 𝐶2 +𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝑜 + 𝐶𝑞 +𝐶𝑟 1
[ ] = 𝜔𝑜2 𝐿1 𝑏𝑢𝑡 = =
𝐶2 𝐶𝑟 𝐶2 𝐶𝑟 (𝐶𝑜 + 𝐶𝑞 )𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝑇
1 1
𝜔𝑜2 𝐿1 = 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝜔 =
𝐶𝑇 √𝐿1 𝐶𝑇
𝟏
𝒇𝒐 =
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝟏 𝑪𝑻

𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅2 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑅2 ≫ 𝑋𝐶 2

𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐶2 = (𝐶0 + 𝐶𝑞 )
 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑜 ) 𝑋𝐶2 (𝜔𝑜 )
𝑏𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝛽(𝜔𝑜 ) = =
𝑉𝑜 (𝜔𝑜 ) 𝑋𝐿1 (𝜔𝑜 ) + 𝑋𝐶2 (𝜔𝑜 )

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛 1, 𝑋𝐶2 (𝜔0 ) + 𝑋𝐿1 (𝜔𝑂 ) = −𝑋𝐶𝑟 (𝜔𝑜 )

1
𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝐶2 𝐶𝑟
𝛽(𝜔𝑜 ) = =−
−1 𝐶2
𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝐶𝑟
𝑪𝒓
𝜷(𝝎𝒐 ) = −
𝑪𝒐 + 𝑪𝒒

b) Find the value of the closed loop gain, 𝐴𝑐𝑙 .

−1
1 100𝑝
𝐴𝑐𝑙 = = − [ ] = −𝟏. 𝟓
𝛽 50𝑝 + 100𝑝
c) What is the minimum slew rate of the op-amplifier, and find the values of
𝑅2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅3 ?
1
𝐺𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑇 = 0.06 𝑛𝐹, 𝑓𝑜 = = 11.863 𝑀𝐻𝑧
2𝜋√3𝜇 × 0.06𝑛

𝑆. 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑓0 𝑉𝑝 = 2𝜋(11.863𝑀)(3) = 𝟐𝟐𝟑. 𝟔𝟏 𝑽/𝝁𝒔

Question 4 (Colpitts oscillator)
Consider the oscillator circuit below, with the following component values
𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 64 𝑝𝐹, 𝐿𝑠 = 529 𝑚𝐻. The output voltage is 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡)

a) Derive an expression for the feedback factor 𝛽(𝜔) where 𝜔 is the radian
frequency.

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝐶 𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘, 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝐶 𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑘 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒
𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜,𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑛𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠;
𝑋𝐶1 (𝜔0 ) + 𝑋𝐶2 (𝜔𝑜 ) + 𝑋𝐿1 (𝜔𝑂 ) = 0
𝑋𝐶1 (𝜔0 ) + 𝑋𝐿𝑠 (𝜔𝑂 ) = −𝑋𝐶2 (𝜔𝑜 ) … … … … … … 1)
1 1
+ + 𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝐿𝑠 = 0
𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝐶1 𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝐶2
1 1 1
[ + ] = −𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝐿𝑠
𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝐶2 𝐶1
𝐶2 +𝐶1 𝐶2 +𝐶1 1
[ ] = 𝜔𝑜2 𝐿𝑠 𝑏𝑢𝑡 =
𝐶2 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶1 𝐶𝑇
1 1
𝜔𝑜2 𝐿𝑠 = 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝜔𝑜 =
𝐶𝑇 √𝐿𝑠 𝐶𝑇
 𝟏
𝒇𝒐 =
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝒔 𝑪𝑻

𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑜 ) 𝑋𝐶1 (𝜔𝑜 )

𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑚𝑝, 𝑏𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝛽(𝜔𝑜 ) = =
𝑉𝑜 (𝜔𝑜 ) 𝑋𝐿𝑠 (𝜔𝑜 ) + 𝑋𝐶1 (𝜔𝑜 )

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛 1,
1
𝑗𝜔 𝐶 𝐶2
𝛽(𝜔𝑜 ) = 𝑜 1 = −
−1 𝐶1
𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝐶2
𝑪𝟐
𝜷(𝝎𝒐 ) = −
𝑪𝟏
b) What is the value of the oscillating frequency, 𝑓0 and the closed loop gain
𝐴𝑐𝑙
𝐺𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑇 = 32 𝑝𝐹
1
𝑓𝑜 = = 𝟑𝟖. 𝟔𝟖 𝑯𝒛
2𝜋√529𝑚 × 32𝑝
𝐶1
𝐴𝑐𝑙 = − = −𝟏
𝐶2
Question 5 (Hartley oscillator)
Consider the oscillator circuit below. The circuit parameters are 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = 5 𝑉, 𝐶𝑛 =
5 𝑝𝐹, 𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) = 3 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 , 𝐶𝑜 = 100 𝑝𝐹, 𝐶𝑝 = 0.02 𝜇𝐹, 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐿1 = 90 𝜇𝐻. The
inductor tap is 30% of the total number of turns, 𝑅1 = 10 𝑘Ω. Assume mutual
inductance is zero.

a) Derive an expression for the oscillating frequency, 𝑓𝑜 and the feedback

factor 𝛽(𝜔) where 𝜔 is the radian frequency.
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝐶 𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘, 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝐶 𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑘 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒
𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜,𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑛𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠;
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒; 𝐿𝑇 = 𝐿′1 + 𝐿′′1 + 2𝑀 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑀 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒,
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑀 = 0, 𝐿𝑇 = 𝐿′1 + 𝐿′′1
′ (𝜔 ) ′′
𝑋𝐶0 (𝜔0 ) + 𝑋𝐿1 𝑂 + 𝑋𝐿1 (𝜔𝑂 ) = 0

′ (𝜔 ) ′′
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑋𝐿1 (𝜔0 ) = 𝑋𝐿1 𝑜 + 𝑋𝐿1 (𝜔𝑜 ) 𝑎𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑐ℎ.

𝑋𝐶0 (𝜔0 ) = −𝑋𝐿1 (𝜔𝑂 ) … … … … … … 1)

1
= −𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝐿1
𝑗𝜔𝑜 𝐶0
1 1
𝜔𝑜2 𝐿1 = 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝜔0 =
𝐶0 √𝐿1 𝐶0
𝟏
𝒇𝒐 =
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝟏 𝑪𝟎

𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑅2 ≫ 𝑋𝐿′1

𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑜 ) 𝑋𝐿′1 (𝜔𝑜 )

𝐵𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝛽(𝜔𝑜 ) = =
𝑉𝑜 (𝜔𝑜 ) 𝑋𝐿′1 (𝜔𝑜 ) + 𝑋𝐶0 (𝜔𝑜 )

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛 1, 𝑋𝐶0 (𝜔0 ) + 𝑋𝐿′1 (𝜔𝑂 ) = −𝑋𝐿′′1 (𝜔𝑜 )

𝑋𝐿′1 (𝜔𝑜 )
𝛽(𝜔𝑜 ) =
−𝑋𝐿′′1 (𝜔𝑜 )

𝑗𝜔𝐿′1
𝛽(𝜔𝑜 ) =
𝑗𝜔𝐿′′1
𝑳′𝟏
𝜷(𝝎𝒐 ) = −
𝑳′′
𝟏
 b) Find the value of 𝑓𝑜 and the closed loop gain 𝐴𝑐𝑙
1 1
𝑓𝑜 = = = 1.6776 𝑀𝐻𝑧
2𝜋√𝐿1 𝐶0 2𝜋√90𝜇 × 100𝑝

𝐿′′1 90𝜇(70%) 7
𝐴𝑐𝑙 = − ′ = − = − = −𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝐿1 90𝜇(30%) 3
c) What is the minimum slew rate of the amplifier?
𝑆. 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑓0 𝑉𝑝 = 2𝜋(1.6776𝑀)(3) = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟔𝟐 𝑽/𝝁𝒔

d) Find the values of 𝑅2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅3

𝑅1 7 3
= 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅2 = (10𝑘) = 𝟒. 𝟑 𝒌𝛀
𝑅2 3 7
(4.3𝑘 × 10𝑘)
𝑅3 = = 𝟑 𝒌𝛀
4.3𝑘 + 10𝑘
Question 6
a) Give the functions of a piezoelectric crystal in LC oscillators.
 It is a frequency selective element.
 Improves quality factor and frequency stability in parallel resonant
circuits of oscillators.
b) What is the Barkhausen criterion and why is it important?
 It states that for a circuit with open loop gain A and feedback factor β to
oscillate, the total loop gain Aβ must be unity and the total phase shift
must be ±360𝑛 where n is an integer including zero at the frequency of
oscillation
 It is used to determine whether the linear electronic circuit will oscillate
or not.
c) Give one reason why inductors are not used to build audio frequency
range oscillators.
 At low frequencies, in audio range, inductors are large, heavy and
expensive to design
d) .Give one advantage of using positive feedback in an application.
 Positive feedback is applied in oscillators since loop gain gradually builds
up oscillations.
e) Give reasons why it is impossible to build an ideal (brick wall) analog
filter in practice.
 Because filters have exactly flat bands, zero gain and zero width
transitional bands hence very hard to design such filters using existing
technologies.
f) What is the function of LC oscillator in a clapp oscillator circuit?
 It provides necessary feedback for oscillations to occur.
 It is responsible for determining the frequency of oscillations in the clapp
oscillator.

ALL COMPILED BY DAVID

TEAM TENT DISCUSSION GROUP
APPLIED ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS
ACTIVE FILTERS SOLUTIONS
Question 1
Consider the operational amplifier based active filters shown in Fig. 1.1 and Fig. 1.2 below. They
utilize dual power supplies with voltages of ±𝑉𝑐𝑐 .
a) Determine the system transfer function 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑉0 (𝑠)/𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑠)
b) Let 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 and then find |𝐻(𝑗0)| and |𝐻(∞)|.
c) Hence the deduce the type of filters
d) What is the order of these filters? Why?

Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2

For Fig. 1.1:

Assuming that the op amp is ideal with infinite input impedance (no current enters into the
op amp) and infinite open loop gain.
Assuming a virtual short circuit; 𝑽− = 𝑽+ = 𝟎
Applying KCL at node X:
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉0 𝑅2
=− 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑍2 =
𝑅1 𝑍2 1 + 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅2
𝑉𝑜 𝑍2
=−
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅1
𝑽𝒐 (𝑺) 𝑹𝟐 𝟏
𝑯(𝑺) = =− ( ) 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝑺) 𝑹𝟏 𝟏 + 𝑺𝑪𝟐 𝑹𝟐

𝑅2 1
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = − ( )
𝑅1 1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶2 𝑅2
𝑅2 1
|𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| = ( )
𝑅1 √1 + (𝜔𝐶2 𝑅2 )2
𝑹𝟐
|𝑯(𝒋𝟎)| =
𝑹𝟏
|𝑯(𝒋∞)| = 𝟎
It is a low pass filter
It a first order filter since the highest power of 𝑺 in the denominator of the transfer
function is 1.

For Fig. 1.2:

Assuming that the op amp is ideal with infinite input impedance (no current enters into the
op amp) and infinite open loop gain.
Assuming a virtual short circuit; 𝑽− = 𝑽+ = 𝟎
Applying KCL at node Y:
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉0 1 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅1
=− 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑍1 =
𝑍1 𝑅2 𝑆𝐶1
𝑉𝑜 𝑅2
=−
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑍1
𝑽𝒐 (𝑺) 𝑹𝟐 𝑺𝑪𝟏
𝑯(𝑺) = =− 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑽𝒊𝒏 (𝑺) 1 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅1

𝑗𝜔𝑅2 𝐶1
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑏𝑦 𝜔
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶1 𝑅1
𝑗𝑅2 𝐶1
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) =
1
𝜔 + 𝑗𝐶1 𝑅1
𝑅2 𝐶1
|𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| =
2
√( 1 ) + (𝐶1 𝑅1 )2
𝜔
|𝑯(𝒋𝟎)| = 𝟎
𝑹𝟐
|𝑯(𝒋∞)| =
𝑹𝟏
It is a high pass filter
It a first order filter since the highest power of 𝑺 in the denominator in the transfer
function is 1.
Question 2
Consider the operational amplifier based active filter below. It uses a dual power supply with
voltages of ±𝑉𝑐𝑐 .
a) Determine the system transfer function 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑉0 (𝑠)/𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑠). Give the answer in the form of
𝐴(1+𝑎𝑠+𝑏𝑠 2 +𝑐𝑠 3 )
𝐻 (𝑠 ) = .Where A, a, b, c, d, e and f are real constants.
1+𝑑𝑠+𝑒𝑠 2 +𝑓𝑠 3
b) Let 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 and then find |𝐻(𝑗0)| and |𝐻(∞)|.
c) Is this a low pass, high pass, band pass or band reject filter?
d) What is the order of this filter? Why?

Assuming that the op amp is ideal with infinite input impedance (no current enters into the
op amp) and infinite open loop gain.
Assuming a virtual short circuit; 𝑽− = 𝑽+ = 𝟎
Applying KCL at node X:
𝑉1 𝑉0 𝑅𝑓
=− 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑍2 =
𝑅2 𝑍2 1 + 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜 𝑍2
=−
𝑉1 𝑅2
𝑅𝑓 1
𝑉𝑜 = − ( ) 𝑉 … … … … … (1)
𝑅2 1 + 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 1

Applying KCL at node Y:

𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉1 𝑉1
= 𝑆𝐶1 𝑉1 +
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉1 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 )
= + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑉1 + =
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅2
𝑉1 = … … … (2)
(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑉1 𝑅1 𝑅2 )
Substitute equation (2) into (1):
𝑅𝑓 1 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅2
𝑉𝑜 = − ( )( )
𝑅2 1 + 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 )

𝑉𝑜 (𝑆) 𝑅𝑓 1
= −( )( )
𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑆) 1 + 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 )

𝑉𝑜 (𝑆) 𝑅𝑓
= −( )
𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑆) (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 + 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝑅2 + 𝑆 2 𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 )

𝑹𝒇 𝟏
𝑯(𝑺) = − ( )
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 (𝑪𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑪𝟐 𝑹𝒇 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝑹𝒇 𝑹𝟐 ) 𝑪𝟐 𝑹𝒇 𝑪𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝟐
[𝟏 + 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑺 + 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑺 ]

𝑅𝑓 1
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = − ( )
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 (𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 + 𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝑅2 ) 𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 2
[1 + 𝑗 𝜔 −
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝜔 ]

𝑅𝑓 1
|𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| = ( )
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2 2
𝐶𝑅 𝐶𝑅 𝑅 (𝐶 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 + 𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝑅2 )
√(1 − 2 𝑓 1 1 2 𝜔 2 ) + [ 1 1 2 𝜔]
[ 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ]
𝑹𝒇
|𝑯(𝒋𝟎)| =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
|𝑯(𝒋∞)| = 𝟎
It is a low pass filter.
It a second order filter since the highest power of 𝑺 in the denominator of the transfer
function is 2.
Question 3
Consider the op-amp based filter. It uses a dual supply with a voltage of ±5 𝑉. Let 𝑅1 = 20 𝑘Ω,
𝑅2 = 10 𝑘Ω, 𝑅𝑓 = 20 𝑘Ω, 𝐶1 = 20 𝑛𝐹, 𝐶2 = 10 𝑛𝐹, 𝐶3 = 10 𝑛𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶4 = 10 𝑛𝐹 .

a) Determine the system transfer function 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑉0 (𝑠)/𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑠). Give the answer in the form of
𝐴(1+𝑎𝑠+𝑏𝑠2 +𝑐𝑠3 )
𝐻 (𝑠) = .Where A, a, b, c, d, e and f are real constants.
1+𝑑𝑠+𝑒𝑠2 +𝑓𝑠3
b) Let 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 and then find |𝐻(𝑗0)|, |𝐻(𝑗2000𝜋)| and |𝐻(∞)|.
c) Is this a low pass, high pass, band pass or band reject filter?
d) What is the order of this filter? Why?
Assuming that the op amp is ideal with infinite input impedance (no current enters into the
op amp) and infinite open loop gain.
Assuming a virtual short circuit; 𝑽− = 𝑽+ = 𝟎
Applying KCL at node X:
𝑉1 𝑉0 𝑅𝑓
=− 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑍2 =
1/𝑆𝐶1 𝑍2 1 + 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜
= −𝑍2 𝑆𝐶1
𝑉1
𝑅𝑓 𝑆𝐶1
𝑉𝑜 = − ( ) 𝑉 … … … … … (1)
1 + 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 1

Applying KCL at node Y:

𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉1 𝑉1
= 𝑆𝐶1 𝑉1 +
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉1 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 )
= + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑉1 + =
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅2
𝑉1 = … … … (2)
(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 )
Substitute equation (2) into (1):
𝑅𝑓 𝑆𝐶1 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅2
𝑉𝑜 = − ( )( )
1 + 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 )
𝑉𝑜 (𝑆) 𝑅𝑓 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅2
= −( )( )
𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑆) 1 + 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 )

𝑉𝑜 (𝑆) 𝑅𝑓 𝑅2 𝑆𝐶1
= −( )
𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑆) (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 + 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝑅2 + 𝑆 2 𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 )

𝑹𝒇 𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝑺
𝑯(𝑺) = − ( ) (𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 (𝑪𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑪𝟐 𝑹𝒇 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝑹𝒇 𝑹𝟐 ) 𝑪𝟐 𝑹𝒇 𝑪𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 + 𝑺 +
[ 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑺 ]

𝑅𝑓 𝑅2 𝐶1 1
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = − ( )
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑗 (𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 + 𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝑅2 ) 𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2
− + + 𝑗 𝜔]
[ 𝜔 𝑅 +𝑅1 2 𝑅 +𝑅
1 2

𝑅𝑓 𝑅2 𝐶1 1
|𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| = ( )
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2 2
𝐶𝑅 𝐶𝑅 𝑅 (𝐶 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 + 𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝑅2 )
√( 2 𝑓 1 1 2 𝜔 − 1 ) + [ 1 1 2 ]
[ 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝜔 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ]
|𝑯(𝒋𝟎)| = 𝟎
𝑅𝑓 𝑅2 𝐶1 (20𝑘)(10𝑘)(20𝑛) 1
= =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 20𝑘 + 10𝑘 7500
𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 (10𝑛)(20𝑘)(20𝑛)(20𝑘)(10𝑘) 1
= = × 10−5
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 20𝑘 + 10𝑘 375

(𝐶1 𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 + 𝐶2 𝑅𝑓 𝑅2 ) [20𝑛(20𝑘)(10𝑘) + 10𝑛(20𝑘)(20𝑘) + 10𝑛(20𝑘)(10𝑘)] 1

= =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 30𝑘 3000

1 1
|𝐻(𝑗2000𝜋)| = ( )
7500 2 2
√( 1 × 10−5 (2000𝜋) − 1 ) + [ 1 ]
[ 375 2000𝜋 3000 ]
|𝑯(𝒋𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝝅)| = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟓
|𝑯(𝒋∞)| = 𝟎
It is a band pass filter.
It a second order filter since the highest power of 𝑺 in the denominator of the transfer
function is 2.
Question 4
Consider the operational amplifier based active filter below. It uses a dual power supply with
voltages of ±𝑉𝑐𝑐 .

a) Determine the system transfer function 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑉0 (𝑠)/𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑠). Give the answer in the form of
𝐴(1+𝑎𝑠+𝑏𝑠 2 +𝑐𝑠 3 )
𝐻 (𝑠 ) = .Where A, a, b, c, d, e and f are real constants.
1+𝑑𝑠+𝑒𝑠 2 +𝑓𝑠 3
b) Let 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 and then find |𝐻(𝑗0)| and |𝐻(∞)|.
c) Is this a low pass, high pass, band pass or all pass filter?
d) What is the order of this filter? Why?

Assuming that the op amps are ideal with infinite input impedance (no current enters into
the op amps) and infinite open loop gain.
Assuming a virtual short circuit for each of them; 𝑽− = 𝑽+ = 𝟎
Applying KCL at node X:
(𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉1 )
= (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )𝑆𝐶2 + 𝑉1 𝑆𝐶1
𝑅1
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉1 (1 + 𝑅1 𝑆𝐶2 + 𝑅1 𝑆𝐶1 ) − 𝑉2 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅1 … … … … . . (1)
Applying KCL at node Y:
𝑉2
𝑉1 𝑆𝐶1 = −
𝑅2
𝑉2 = −𝑉1 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅2 … … … . (2)
Substitute (2) into (1):
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉1 (1 + 𝑅1 𝑆𝐶2 + 𝑅1 𝑆𝐶1 ) + 𝑉1 𝑆 2 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉1 = … … … … … . . (3)
(1 + 𝑅1 𝑆𝐶2 + 𝑅1 𝑆𝐶1 ) + 𝑆 2 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝑅2
Substitute (3) into (2):
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉2 = −𝑆𝐶1 𝑅2 [ ] … … … . (4)
(1 + 𝑅1 𝑆𝐶2 + 𝑅1 𝑆𝐶1 ) + 𝑆 2 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝑅2
Applying KCL at node Z:
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉2 𝑉0
+ =−
𝑅4 𝑅3 𝑅5

Substitute (4) into (5):

𝑉𝑖𝑛 1 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜 = −𝑅5 [ + {−𝑆𝐶1 𝑅2 [ ]}]
𝑅4 𝑅3 (1 + 𝑅1 𝑆𝐶2 + 𝑅1 𝑆𝐶1 ) + 𝑆 2 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝑅2

𝑅3 (1 + 𝑅1 𝑆𝐶2 + 𝑅1 𝑆𝐶1 + 𝑆 2 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝑅2 ) − 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅2 𝑅4

𝐻(𝑆) = −𝑅5 [ ]
𝑅4 𝑅3 (1 + 𝑅1 𝑆𝐶2 + 𝑅1 𝑆𝐶1 + 𝑆 2 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝑅2 )

𝑪𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟒 𝟐
𝑹𝟓 𝟏 + (𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝟏 − 𝑹𝟑 ) 𝑺 + (𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 )𝑺
𝑯(𝑺) = − [ ]
𝑹𝟒 𝟏 + (𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝟏 )𝑺 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑺𝟐

𝑹𝟓
|𝑯(𝒋𝟎)| =
𝑹𝟒
𝑹𝟓
|𝑯(𝒋∞)| =
𝑹𝟒
It is an all pass filter.
It a second order filter since the highest power of 𝑺 in the denominator of the transfer
function is 2.
Question 5
Consider the operational amplifier based active filter. The passive component values are 𝑅1 =
10𝑘Ω = 𝑅2 = 1𝑘Ω, 𝐶1 = 0.33𝜇𝐹, 𝐶2 = 0.1 𝜇𝐹 = 270 𝑝𝐹.
a) Determine the system transfer function 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑉0 (𝑠)/𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑠).
b) Let 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 and then find|𝐻(𝑗0)|, |𝐻(𝑗3140)| and |𝐻(∞)|.
c) Is this a low pass, high pass, band pass or band stop filter?
d) What is the order of this filter? Why?
Assuming that the op amp is ideal with infinite input impedance (no current enters into the
op amp) and infinite open loop gain.
Assuming a virtual short circuit; 𝑽− = 𝑽+
Since the inverting terminal is shorted to the output terminal, 𝑉 − = 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉 +
Applying KCL at node X:
(𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑜 )
= (𝑉𝑂 − 𝑉1 )𝑆𝐶1 … … … … … . . (1)
𝑅1
Applying KCL at node Y:
𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑜
(𝑉𝑂 − 𝑉1 )𝑆𝐶1 = 𝑉1 𝑆𝐶2 +
𝑅2
𝑉1 𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑂 𝑆𝐶1 − 𝑉1 𝑆𝐶1 = 𝑉1 𝑆𝐶2 + −
𝑅2 𝑅2
𝑉𝑜 𝑉1
𝑉𝑂 𝑆𝐶1 + = 𝑉1 𝑆𝐶2 + + 𝑉1 𝑆𝐶1
𝑅2 𝑅2
𝑉𝑂 (𝑅2 𝑆𝐶1 + 1) 𝑉1 (1 + 𝑆𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅2 )
=
𝑅2 𝑅2
(𝑅2 𝑆𝐶1 + 1)
𝑉1 = 𝑉 … … … … … (2)
(1 + 𝑆𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅2 ) 𝑜
Substitute (2) in (1):
(𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑜 ) (𝑅2 𝑆𝐶1 + 1)
= (𝑉𝑂 − 𝑉 ) 𝑆𝐶1
𝑅1 (1 + 𝑆𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅2 ) 𝑜

𝑉𝑖𝑛 1 (𝑅2 𝑆𝐶1 + 1)𝑆𝐶1

= { + (𝑆𝐶1 − )} 𝑉𝑜
𝑅1 𝑅1 (1 + 𝑆𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅2 )

[(1 + 𝑆𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅2 ) + 𝑅1 𝑆𝐶1 (1 + 𝑆𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅2 ) − (𝑅2 𝑆𝐶1 + 1)𝑆𝐶1 𝑅1 ]

𝑉𝑖𝑛 = ( ) 𝑉𝑜
(1 + 𝑆𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅2 )

𝑉𝑜 (𝑆) (1 + 𝑆𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅2 )

=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑆) 1 + 𝑆𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 𝑆𝐶1 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑆 2 + 𝐶12 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑆 2 − (𝐶12 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑆 2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅1 )
𝑉𝑜 (𝑆) (1 + 𝑆𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅2 )
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑆) 1 + 𝑆𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝑆𝐶1 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑆 2
𝟏 + (𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑹𝟐 )𝑺
𝑯(𝑺) = 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝟏 + (𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟏 𝑹𝟐 )𝑺 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑺𝟐
1 + 𝑗(𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝐶1 𝑅2 )𝜔
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) =
1 + 𝑗(𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝐶1 𝑅2 )𝜔 − 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝜔 2
1
1 + [(𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝐶1 𝑅2 )𝜔]2 2
|𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| = [ ]
(1 − 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝜔 2 )2 + [(𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝐶1 𝑅2 )𝜔]2

|𝑯(𝒋𝟎)| = 𝟏 𝐷𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡|𝐻(𝑗3140)| 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

 1 𝑗(𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝐶1 𝑅2 )
2 +
𝜔 𝜔
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) =
1 𝑗(𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝐶1 𝑅2 )
+ − 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝜔2 𝜔
1
2 2 2
1 (𝑅 𝐶 + 𝐶 𝑅 )
( ) +[ 2 2𝜔 1 2 ]
𝜔2
|𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| =
1 2
(𝑅2 𝐶2 + 𝐶1 𝑅2 ) 2
{(𝜔 2 − 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2 ) + [ 𝜔 ] }

|𝑯(𝒋∞)| = 𝟎
It is a low pass filter.
It a second order filter since the highest power of 𝑺 in the denominator of the transfer
function is 2.
Question 6
Consider the op amp based active filter below. The component values are 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 0.1𝜇𝐹
𝑅1 = 1.62 𝑘Ω, 𝑅2 = 6.49 𝑘Ω, 𝑅3 = 3.0 𝑘Ω, 𝑅4 = 1.21 𝑘Ω

a) Determine the system transfer function 𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑉0 (𝑠)/𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑠).

b) Let 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔 and then find |𝐻(𝑗0)|, and |𝐻(∞)|.
c) Is this a low pass, high pass, band pass or band stop filter?
d) What is the order of this filter? Why?
Assuming that the op amp is ideal with infinite input impedance (no current enters into the
op amp) and infinite open loop gain.
Assuming a virtual short circuit; 𝑽− = 𝑽+
Applying KCL at node X:
(𝑉𝑥 − 𝑉𝑜 )
(𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑥 )𝑆𝐶1 = + (𝑉𝑥 − 𝑉 + )𝑆𝐶2
𝑅3
𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐶1 − 𝑉𝑥 𝑆𝐶1 = − + 𝑉𝑥 𝑆𝐶2 − 𝑉 + 𝑆𝐶2
𝑅3 𝑅3
𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐶1 = + 𝑉𝑥 𝑆𝐶1 + 𝑉𝑥 𝑆𝐶2 − 𝑉 + 𝑆𝐶2 −
𝑅3 𝑅3
1 𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐶1 = ( + 𝑆𝐶1 + 𝑆𝐶2 ) 𝑉𝑥 − 𝑉 + 𝑆𝐶2 − … … … . . (1)
𝑅3 𝑅3
By voltage division at node Y:
𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2
𝑉+ = 𝑉
1 + 𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 𝑥
1 + 𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 +
𝑉𝑥 = ( ) 𝑉 … … … . . (2)
𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2
By voltage division at node Z:
𝑅1
𝑉− = 𝑉 … … … … … … (3)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑜
Substitute (3) into (2) since 𝑉 − = 𝑉 + :
1 + 𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅1
𝑉𝑥 = ( )( 𝑉 ) … … … . . (4)
𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑜
Substitute (4) into (3) since 𝑉 − = 𝑉 + into (1)
1 1 + 𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐶1 = ( + 𝑆𝐶1 + 𝑆𝐶2 ) ( )( 𝑉𝑜 ) − ( 𝑉𝑜 ) 𝑆𝐶2 −
𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅3
(1 + 𝑅3 𝑆𝐶1 + 𝑅3 𝑆𝐶2 ) 1 + 𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅1 𝑅1 1
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐶1 = [ ( )( )−( ) 𝑆𝐶2 − ] 𝑉𝑜
𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅3
(1 + 𝑅3 𝑆𝐶1 + 𝑅3 𝑆𝐶2 )(1 + 𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 )𝑅1 − (𝑅1 𝑆𝐶2 )(𝑅3 𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 ) − (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )(𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 )
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐶1 = [ ] 𝑉𝑜
𝑅3 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )(𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 )

𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶1 𝑆 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑆 2 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶2 𝑆 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝐶22 𝑆 2 − 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝐶22 𝑆 2 − 𝑅1 𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 − 𝑅2 𝑅4 𝐶2 𝑆

𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐶1 = [ ] 𝑉𝑜
𝑅3 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )(𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 )

𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶1 𝑆 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑆 2 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶2 𝑆 − 𝑅1 𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 − 𝑅2 𝑅4 𝐶2 𝑆
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐶1 = [ ] 𝑉𝑜
𝑅3 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )(𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 )
𝑉𝑜 (𝑆) 𝑅3 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )(𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 )(𝑆𝐶1 )
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑆) 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶1 𝑆 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑆 2 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶2 𝑆 − 𝑅1 𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 − 𝑅2 𝑅4 𝐶2 𝑆
𝑉𝑜 (𝑆) 𝑅3 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )(𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 )(𝑆𝐶1 )
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑆) 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶1 𝑆 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶2 𝑆 − 𝑅1 𝑅4 𝑆𝐶2 − 𝑅2 𝑅4 𝐶2 𝑆 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑆 2
𝑺𝟐
𝑯(𝑺) = 𝑹𝟑 (𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 )(𝑹𝟒 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟏 ) [ ]
(𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟒 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟒 𝑪𝟐 )𝑺 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟒 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑺𝟐
1
𝐻(𝑗𝜔) = 𝑅3 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )(𝑅4 𝐶2 𝐶1 ) [ ]
−𝑗(𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶1 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶2 − 𝑅1 𝑅4 𝐶2 − 𝑅2 𝑅4 𝐶2 )/𝜔 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝐶1 𝐶2
1
1 2
|𝐻(𝑗𝜔)| = 𝑅3 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )(𝑅4 𝐶2 𝐶1 ) [ ]
[(𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶1 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶2 − 𝑅1 𝑅4 𝐶2 − 𝑅2 𝑅4 𝐶2 )/𝜔]2 + [𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝐶1 𝐶2 ]2
|𝑯(𝒋𝟎)| = 𝟎
(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) (1.62 + 6.49)
|𝑯(𝒋∞)| = = =𝟓
𝑅1 1.62
It is a high pass filter.
It a second order filter since the highest power of 𝑺 in the denominator of the transfer
function is 2.
N.B: Retry the above questions on your own as there might be errors.
ELE3102: APPLIED ANALOG ELECTRONICS

POWER AMPLIFIERS

QUESTIONS

Question 1

a) A class B amplifier operates from a power supply of 30V and provides an output signal of
20Vpeak to a 16Ω load.
i) DC power drawn from the supply.

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑉𝑝 = 20 𝑉

𝐷𝐶 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠, 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = ±30𝑉

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑. 𝑅𝐿 = 16Ω
2𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝐼𝑝 2𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑝
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒. 𝑃𝑠 (𝑑𝑐) = = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼𝑝 =
𝜋 𝜋𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
30 × 20
𝑃𝑠 (𝑑𝑐) = 2 ( ) = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟖𝟕𝟑 𝑾
𝜋 × 16
ii) Output power delivered to the load.

𝑉𝑝2 202
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝐿 (𝑎𝑐) = = = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝑾
2𝑅𝐿 2 × 16

iii) Circuit efficiency.

𝑃𝐿 12.5
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂 = × 100 = × 100 = 52.36%
𝑃𝑆 23.873

b) Verify that maximum collector dissipation for both transistors is given by the expression:
P2D(max) = 0.4Pout(max)

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠, 𝑃2𝐷 = 𝑃𝑠 (𝑑𝑐) − 𝑃𝐿 (𝑎𝑐)

2𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑝2 𝑑𝑃2𝐷
𝑃𝐷(2𝑄) = − 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, =0
𝜋𝑅𝐿 2𝑅𝐿 𝑑𝑉𝑃
𝑑𝑃2𝐷 2𝑉𝑐𝑐 2𝑉𝑃
= − =0
𝑑𝑉𝑃 𝜋𝑅𝐿 2𝑅𝐿
2𝑉𝑐𝑐
𝑉𝑃 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 max 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝜋
2𝑉𝑐𝑐 2𝑉𝑐𝑐 1 2𝑉𝑐𝑐 2 2𝑉𝑐𝑐2
𝑃2𝐷 (𝑚𝑎𝑥) = ( )− ( ) = 2
𝜋𝑅𝐿 𝜋 2𝑅𝐿 𝜋 𝜋 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑐𝑐2
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑦)
2𝑅𝐿

NB: Do not confuse this condition with that for max. Power dissipation
Rearranging and substituting for 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑚𝑎𝑥)

4 𝑉𝑐𝑐2 4
𝑃2𝐷 (𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 2
[ ] = 2 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑚𝑎𝑥)
𝜋 2𝑅𝐿 𝜋

𝑷𝟐𝑫 (𝒎𝒂𝒙) = 𝟎. 𝟒𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 (𝒎𝒂𝒙)

c) Estimate the power dissipation rating of each transistor.

𝑉𝑐𝑐2 302
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑚𝑎𝑥) = = = 28.125 𝑊
2𝑅𝐿 2 × 16
𝑃𝐷 (𝑚𝑎𝑥) 4 (28.125)
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 2 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟎 𝑾
2 𝜋 2
Question 2

Consider a class B amplifier that uses a complementary emitter follower as its output stage. A load
resistance of 8Ω is directly-coupled to the output stage of the amplifier. The supply voltage is ±16V
and the peak load voltage is 8V.

a) How much power delivered to the load?

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑉𝑝 = 8 𝑉

𝐷𝐶 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠, 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = ±16𝑉

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑. 𝑅𝐿 = 8 Ω
𝑉𝑝2 82
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝐿 (𝑎𝑐) = = =𝟒𝑾
2𝑅𝐿 2 × 8

b) How much power is drawn from the power supply?

2𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝐼𝑝 2𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑝
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒. 𝑃𝑠 (𝑑𝑐) = = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼𝑝 =
𝜋 𝜋𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
16 × 8
𝑃𝑠 (𝑑𝑐) = 2 ( ) = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟔 𝑾
𝜋×8
c) What is the power efficiency of the amplifier?
𝑃𝐿 4
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂 = × 100 = × 100 = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟐𝟕%
𝑃𝑆 10.186

d) Specify the type of transistors you need. (i.e. maximum collector current rating, maximum
power dissipation rating, and maximum collector-emitter breakdown voltage rating).
𝑉𝑐𝑐 16
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝐼𝑐 (𝑚𝑎𝑥) = = = 𝟐𝑨
𝑅𝐿 8
𝑉𝑐𝑐2 162
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔(@𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟), 𝑃𝐷 (𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 2 = 2 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟒𝟐 𝑾
𝜋 𝑅𝐿 𝜋 (8)
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑉𝐶𝐸 (𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝟏𝟔𝑽
 a) Give 1 advantage and 1 disadvantage of using Class AB instead of Class B

Advantage:

 There is no crossover distortion of the output signal for class AB amplifier

Disadvantage:

 Class AB amplifier has a relatively lower efficiency compared to class B.

Question 3

Consider a class B amplifier that uses a complementary emitter follower as its output stage. A load
resistance of 8Ω is directly-coupled to the output stage of the amplifier. The supply voltage is ±40V
and the average ac power supplied to the load is 64W.

a) How much peak voltage is delivered to the load?

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑃𝐿 (𝑎𝑐) = 64 𝑊

𝐷𝐶 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠, 𝑉𝑐𝑐 = ±40𝑉
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑. 𝑅𝐿 = 8 Ω

𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑉𝑃 = √2𝑃𝐿 𝑅𝐿 = √2 × 64(8) = 𝟑𝟐𝑽

b) How much power is drawn from the power supply?

2𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝐼𝑝 2𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑝
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒. 𝑃𝑠 (𝑑𝑐) = = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼𝑝 =
𝜋 𝜋𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
40 × 32
𝑃𝑠 (𝑑𝑐) = 2 ( ) = 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟖𝟔 𝑾
𝜋×8
c) What is the power efficiency of the amplifier?
𝑃𝐿 64
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂 = × 100 = × 100 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟖𝟑%
𝑃𝑆 101.86

d) Specify the type of transistors you need. (i.e. maximum collector current rating, maximum
power dissipation rating, and maximum collector-emitter breakdown voltage rating).
𝑉𝑐𝑐 40
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝐼𝑐 (𝑚𝑎𝑥) = = =𝟓𝑨
𝑅𝐿 8
𝑉𝑐𝑐2 402
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔(@𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟), 𝑃𝐷 (𝑚𝑎𝑥) = = = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟒 𝑾
𝜋 2 𝑅𝐿 𝜋 2 (8)
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑉𝐶𝐸 (𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝟒𝟎 𝑽
Question 4

Consider the power amplifier circuit below which is directly coupled to the resistive load RLoad of
500Ω. The transistors form the output stage of the amplifier R4 = R5 = 3.3kΩ, R6 = R7 = 50Ω, R3 =
12kΩ, the supply voltage, Vcc = 15V, VEE = -15V and the diode forward voltages are 0.7V.

a) What class of amplifier is the BJT output stage and why?

 It is class AB
 Because of the presence of diodes that are used to bias the bases of the transistors.
b) Give two reasons for using the diodes in the amplifier?
 Diodes D1 and D2 together with the two resistors R4 and R5 provide bias for the
complementary emitter-follower BJT output stage above cutoff.
c) Give the advantages and disadvantages of using this amplifier topology.
 Advantages: There is no crossover distortion
 Disadvantages: Complex to design
d) Which amplifier class would you use to amplify the weak signals picked up by the antenna of a
cheap FM radio receiver and why?
 Class A amplifier
 Because; it is cheap to build and there is no signal distortion of the output signal.
e) Give one function of resistor R3?
 R3 provides 100% dc negative feedback to keep the output at the same level as the op-amp
non-inverting input, which is grounded via R1.
 Overall ac negative feedback via R2 and R3 controls the amplifier ac voltage gain.
f) If the dc voltage across the load is 10V, what is the op-amp’s output voltage?
𝑶𝒑 𝒂𝒎𝒑 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = +𝟏𝟏 𝑽

g) If the dc voltage across the load is -10V, what is the op-amp’s output voltage?

𝑶𝒑 𝒂𝒎𝒑 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = −𝟏𝟏 𝑽