SDFH 1

√
−2 −1 0 1 2 2
√
Figure 2. To find 2 on the real line you draw a square of sides 1 and drop the diagonal onto the real line.
Almost every equation involving variables x, y, etc. we write down in this course will be true for some
values of x but not for others. In modern abstract mathematics a collection of real numbers (or any other
kind of mathematical objects) is called a set. Below are some examples of sets of real numbers. We will use
the notation from these examples throughout this course.
The collection of all real numbers between two given real numbers form an interval. The following
notation is used
• (a, b) is the set of all real numbers x which satisfy a < x < b.
• [a, b) is the set of all real numbers x which satisfy a ≤ x < b.
• (a, b] is the set of all real numbers x which satisfy a < x ≤ b.
• [a, b] is the set of all real numbers x which satisfy a ≤ x ≤ b.
If the endpoint is not included then it may be ∞ or −∞. E.g. (−∞, 2] is the interval of all real numbers
(both positive and negative) which are ≤ 2.
1.4. Set notation. A common way of describing a set is to say it is the collection of all real numbers
which satisfy a certain condition. One uses this notation

A = x | x satisfies this or that condition
Most of the time we will use upper case letters in a calligraphic font to denote sets. (A,B,C,D, . . . )
For instance, the interval (a, b) can be described as

(a, b) = x | a < x < b
The set
B = x | x2 − 1 > 0

consists of all real numbers x for which x2 − 1 > 0, i.e. it consists of all real numbers x for which either x > 1
or x < −1 holds. This set consists of two parts: the interval (−∞, −1) and the interval (1, ∞).
You can try to draw a set of real numbers by drawing the number line and coloring the points belonging
to that set red, or by marking them in some other way.
Some sets can be very difficult to draw. For instance,

C = x | x is a rational number
can’t be accurately drawn. In this course we will try to avoid such sets.
Sets can also contain just a few numbers, like
D = {1, 2, 3}
which is the set containing the numbers one, two and three. Or the set
E = x | x3 − 4x2 + 1 = 0

which consists of the solutions of the equation x3 − 4x2 + 1 = 0. (There are three of them, but it is not easy
to give a formula for the solutions.)
If A and B are two sets then the union of A and B is the set which contains all numbers that belong
either to A or to B. The following notation is used

A ∪ B = x | x belongs to A or to B or both.
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Similarly, the intersection of two sets A and B is the set of numbers which belong to both sets. This
notation is used:
A ∩ B = x | x belongs to both A and B.
2. Exercises
1. What is the 2007th digit after the period in the expan- 4. Suppose A and B are intervals. Is it always true that
sion of 17 ? A ∩ B is an interval? How about A ∪ B?
2. Which of the following fractions have finite decimal 5. Consider the sets
expansions?
M = x | x > 0 and N = y | y > 0 .
2 3 276937
a= , b= , c= . Are these sets the same?
3 25 15625
6. Group Problem.
3. Draw the following sets of real numbers. Each of these
Write the numbers
sets is the union of one or more intervals. Find those
intervals. Which of thee sets are finite? x = 0.3131313131 . . . , y = 0.273273273273 . . .
A = x | x2 − 3x + 2 ≤ 0
and z = 0.21541541541541541 . . .
B = x | x2 − 3x + 2 ≥ 0 m

as fractions (i.e. write them as n
, specifying m and n.)
C = x | x2 − 3x > 3

(Hint: show that 100x = x + 31. A similar trick
D = x | x2 − 5 > 2x

works for y, but z is a little harder.)
E = t | t2 − 3t + 2 ≤ 0

7. Group Problem.
F = α | α2 − 3α + 2 ≥ 0

Is the number whose decimal expansion after the
G = (0, 1) ∪ (5, 7] √
period consists only of nines, i.e.
H = {1} ∪ {2, 3} ∩ (0, 2 2)
Q = θ | sin θ = 12
x = 0.99999999999999999 . . .

R = ϕ | cos ϕ > 0 an integer?
3. Functions
Wherein we meet the main characters of this semester
3.1. Definition. To specify a function f you must

(1) give a rule which tells you how to compute the value f (x) of the function for a given real number
x, and:
(2) say for which real numbers x the rule may be applied.
The set of numbers for which a function is defined is called its domain. The set of all possible numbers f (x)
as x runs over the domain is called the range of the function. The rule must be unambiguous: the same
xmust always lead to the same f (x).
√
For instance, one can define a function f by putting f (x) = x for all x ≥ 0. Here the rule defining f is
“take the square root of whatever number you’re given”, and the function f will accept all nonnegative real
numbers.
The rule which specifies a function can come in many different forms. Most often it is a formula, as in
the square root example of the previous paragraph. Sometimes you need a few formulas, as in
(
2x for x < 0
g(x) = domain of g = all real numbers.
x2 for x ≥ 0
Functions which are defined by different formulas on different intervals are sometimes called piecewise
defined functions.
3.2. Graphing a function. You get the graph of a function f by drawing all points whose coordi-
nates are (x, y) where x must be in the domain of f and y = f (x).
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Wherein we meet the main characters of this semester

3.1. Definition. To specify a function f you must

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