Psychological Statistics 1

Mindoro State College of

Agriculture and Technology -
Calapan City Campus

PSY EL 121
Psychological Statistics

Psychological Statistics

This is a gender sensitive

instructional material.
 Psychological Statistics 2

Module 1: Psychological Statistics

Unit 3. Central Tendency

The purpose of the descriptive methods is to organize and make meaning to the set
of scores. One way to do this is to find a single value which is the average of the scores
and can be used to represent the whole set of scores. This average is called central
tendency in statistics, where we look for an individual value that is representative of the
population of interest. There is no single way to determine the central tendency as there
are variations in the measurement as well.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the unit, you will be able to:

• Define different concepts related to measures of central tendency
• Compute for the mean, median, and mode
• Select the appropriate measure of central tendency for a certain data set
• Solve for the measures of central tendency for the given set of scores

Pretest

Multiple Choice
Directions: Read the following questions and encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. What type of distribution has two peaks?

a. A negatively skewed distribution
b. None of these
c. A positively skewed distribution
d. A bi-modal distribution
2. Which measure of central tendency is derived from the most common value?
a. Mode
b. Distribution
c. Median
d. Mean
3. Which measure of central tendency is obtained using the middle score when all
scores are organized in numerical order?
a. Sum
b. Median
c. Mean
d. Mode
4. Which measure of central tendency is obtained by calculating the sum of values and
dividing this figure by the number of values there are in the data set?
a. Sum
b. Mean
c. Median
d. Mode
5. Which measure is the most unreliable indicator of central tendency if data are
skewed?
a. Median
b. Mode
c. None of these
d. Mean
 Psychological Statistics 3

Content

Central Tendency

The general purpose of descriptive statistical methods is to organize and summarize

sets of scores. In field of statistics, central tendency is a statistical measure that is used to
determine a single score that defines the center of a distribution (Gravetter & Walnau,
2012). Central tendency aims to find the single score that is most typical or most
representative of the entire group.

Look at the figure above and identify the “center” or the “most representative score” in
the distribution.

1. The first (a) is a symmetrical distribution, with the scores forming a distinct pile centered
around X = 5. In this type of distribution, it is easy to determine and find the “center”
and most people would agree that the value X = 5 is an appropriate measure of central
tendency.

2. The second is negatively skewed distribution (b), with scores piling up at the high end of
the scale around X = 8. What is the “center”? Some might think it is X = 8 because more
individuals had this score than any other single value. However, most of the scores (10
out of 16) have value less than 8, so it seems reasonable that the “center” should be
defined by a value that is less than 8.

3. Now, observe the third distribution (c) which is symmetrical, however there are two
distinct piles of scores. It may appear that the midpoint is X = 5 but none of the scores
are located at X = 5 (or even close).

4. As you can notice, there exist two separate piles of scores with one group center at X =
2 and the other at X = 8. We could infer that this distribution has two centers, but can
one distribution have two centers?
 Psychological Statistics 4

The Mean

The mean commonly known as the arithmetic average, is computed by adding all
the scores in the distribution and dividing by the number of scores. The mean for
population is identified by the Greek letter mu, μ (pronounced “mew”), and the mean for a
sample will be identified by M or (read “x-bar”). Moreover, for manuscripts and published
reports, the letter M is the standard notation for a sample mean. The mean for the
distribution refers to the sum of the scores divided by the number of scores (Gravetter &
Walnau, 2012).

The formula for the population mean is: and the formula for the sample means
is:

For example, for a population of N = 4 scores; 3, 7, 4, 6 The mean is

Alternative Definitions for the Mean

First, think of the mean as the amount each individual would get if the total (ΣX)
were divided equally among all the individuals (N) in the distribution. Suppose a group of n
= 6 boys buys a box of baseball cards at a garage sale and discovers that the box contains
a total of 180 cards. When they divide it equally among themselves then
cards for each boy.
This time if we have a group of n = 4 boys and the amount of money each boy has
is M = ₱5, what is the total amount of money for the whole group? Although this will not
show exactly how much money each boy has, we can determine how much they have
pooled together. For each of n = 4 boys to get ₱5, the total must be 4(₱5) = ₱20. To check
this answer:
The mean’s second alternative definition describes the mean as a balance point for
a distribution. Consider the following population consisting of N = 4 scores (2, 2, 6, 10). For
this population, ΣX = 20 and N = 4, .

Observe the data below.

Score Distance from the Mean

X=2 3 points below the mean
X=2 3 points below the mean
X=6 1 point above the mean
X = 10 5 points above the mean

3 points below + 3 points below = 6 points below

1 point above + 5 points above = 6 points above

Thus, the mean serves as a balance point. Its value will always be located somewhere
between the highest score and the lowest score. It is also important to note that the mean
at a balance point is also useful in determining how a distribution is affected if a new score
is added or if an existing score is removed.

The Weighted Mean

For the combined group, it is usually necessary to combine two sets of scores and
then find the overall mean. Suppose that we begin with two separate samples. The first
 Psychological Statistics 5

has n = 12 scores and M = 6, while the second sample has n = 8 and M = 7. When the two
samples are combined, what is the mean for the total group?

To compute the overall mean, we need two values:

1) The total sum of the scores for the combined group (ΣX), and

2). the overall number of scores, in the combined group (n).

With these two values, we can calculate the mean using the basic equation

The following summarizes the calculation.

First Sample Second Combined Sample

Sample
n = 12 n=8 n = 20 (12+8)
ΣX = 72 ΣX = 56 ΣX = 128 (72 + 56)
M=6 M=7 M = 6.4
Thus, when two samples are combined, the weighted mean is obtained as follows:

Step 1. Determine the overall total of all the three scores in both samples. This sum can be
obtained by adding the sum of the scores for the first sample (ΣX1) and the sum of the
scores for the second sample (ΣX2).
Step 2. Determine the total number of scores from the two samples. The value can be
obtained by adding the number in the first sample (n1) and the number in the second
sample (n2).
Step 3. The sum of all the scores (step 1) should be divided by the total number of scores
(step 2). Expressed as an equation

Computing the Mean from a Frequency

Distribution Table

To find the mean for this distribution you have

to be careful to use both the X values in the first
column and the frequencies in the second column.
This distribution, for example, shows an n = 8 or by
adding the frequencies, n = Σf. To get the sum of the
scores ΣX = 10 + 9 + 9 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 6 = 66. It should be noted that you can also get the
sum of the scores by computing ΣfX and once you found ΣX and n, you can compute the
mean as usual. For these data,

Characteristics of the Mean

The mean has a number of characteristics that result from the fact that that every
score in the distribution contributes to the value of the mean. The following are the four
important characteristics of mean.
1. Changing a score. If the value of any score is changed, it will change the mean.
2. Introducing a new score or removal of a score. Generally, the mean is determined by
two values: ΣX and N (or n). When either of these values is changed, the mean also is
changed.
3. Adding or subtracting a constant from every
score. If a constant value is either added or
subtracted to every score in a distribution,
the same constant will be added or
subtracted to the mean. Observe the
following table and notice how adding 2
points to each individuals’ memory score in
the second column affects the mean.
 Psychological Statistics 6

4. Multiplying or dividing every score by a

constant. If each score in a distribution is
multiplied by (or divided by) a constant value,
the mean will change in the same way.
Multiplying or dividing every score by a
constant value is a usual method for changing
the unit of measurement.

The Median
Another measure of central tendency is the median. The median refers to the score
which divides a distribution in half so that 50% of the individuals in the distribution have
scores at or below the median (Gravetter & Walnau, 2012). When the scores are listed in
order from smallest to largest the median is the midpoint of the list. Remember that
midpoint means that the scores are being divided into two equal-sized groups not the
midpoint between the highest and lowest X – values.
To calculate the median, when n is an odd number, simply list the scores in order
(lowest to highest), and the median is the middle score in the list. For example, in the set of
N = 5 scores, which have been listed in order 3, 5, 8, 10, 11, the middle score is X = 8. On
the other hand, when n is an even number, 3, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, we select the middle pair scores
(4 and 5), add them together and divide by 2: which is 9/2 = 4.5.

The Median, the Mean and the Middle

Note that the mean uses the concept of distance to define “middle”; whereas,
median defines “middle” by the number of scores. See the figure below.
The figure demonstrates a
population of N=6 scores with a
mean of μ= 4. As you see, that the
mean does not necessarily divide the
scores into equal parts.

The Mode
Typically, the word mode means “the customary fashion” or “a popular style”. The
statistical definition is the same in such way that the mode is the most common observation
among a group of scores. The mode refers to the score or category that has the greatest
frequency in the distribution (Gravetter & Walnau, 2012). The mode is one of the useful
measures of central tendency because it can be used to determine the typical or average
value for any scale of measurement. A frequency distribution with two modes is said to be
bimodal, and multimodal if a distribution has more than two modes. Lastly, a distribution
which has several equally high points is said to have no mode.

Selecting a Measure of Central Tendency

Keep in mind that the purpose of central tendency is to find the single value that
best represents the entire distribution. Aside from being a good representative, the mean
also has the added advantage of being closely related to variance and standard deviation,
the most common measures of variability. This relationship makes the mean an important
measure for purposes of inferential statistics.

When to use the Median

Consider the following situation in which the median serves as a valuable alternative
to the mean.

1. Extreme scores or skewed

distributions. When a distribution has
a few extreme scores that are very
different in value from most of the
others, then the mean may not be a
good representative of the majority of
 Psychological Statistics 7

the distribution. The problems come from the fact that one or two extreme values can
have a large influence and cause the mean to be displaced.

2. Undetermined Values. You may encounter a situation in which an individual has an

unknown or undetermined score. It is not
possible to compute the mean for these data
because of the undetermined value. We cannot
compute the ΣX part of the formula for the mean.
However, it is possible to calculate the median.
For the given data, the median is 12.5. You can
observe that three scores are below the median,
and three scores (including the undetermined
Median = 12.5 value) are above the median.

3. Open-ended Distribution. It is an open-ended

distribution when there is no upper or lower
limit for one of the categories. The top
category in this distribution demonstrates that
three of the students consumed “5 or more”
pizzas. This is an open-ended category. To
find the mean will be difficult but by listing the
20 scores in order produces X = 1 and X = 2
as the middle two scores and therefore the
median is 1.5.

4. Ordinal scale. Many researchers believe that it is inappropriate to use the mean to
describe central tendency for ordinal data. If the scores are measured on an ordinal
scale, the median is always appropriate and is usually the preferred measure of central
tendency.

When to Use the Mode

Now, consider the following three situations in which the mode is commonly used as
an alternative to the mean or is used in conjunction to the mean to describe central
tendency.

1. Nominal Scales. The most common advantage of the mode is that it can be employed
to measure and describe central tendency for data that are measured on the nominal
scale. Due to the fact that nominal scales do not measure quantity (distance or
direction), it is not possible to calculate a mean or a median for data from a nominal
scale. Thus, the mode is the only option for describing central tendency for nominal
data.

2. Discrete Variables. Discrete variables are variables that exist only in whole, indivisible
categories. The mode determines the most typical case and therefore, produces more
sensible measures of central tendency. The mode, when used, would give us
conclusions such as “the typical or modal, family has 2 children and a house with 5
rooms.” Most often, especially with discrete variables, a number of people prefer the
realistic, whole-number values produced by the mode.

3. Describing shape. The fact that the mode requires little or no calculation makes it a
supplementary measure along with the mean or median as a no-cost extra. The value
of the mode (or modes) in this situation can give us an indication of the shape of the
distribution as well as a measure of central tendency. Note that the mode identifies the
location of the peak (or peaks) in the frequency distribution graph.
 Psychological Statistics 8

Central Tendency and the Shape of the Distribution

After finding the three different measures of central tendency, we will now consider two
types of distributions.

a) Symmetrical Distributions.

For this type of distributions, the right-hand side of the graph is a mirror image of the left-
hand side. When a distribution is perfectly symmetrical, the median and median is at the
center of the distribution. When it has only one mode, it will also be in the center of the
distribution. On the other hand,
a bimodal distribution which is
symmetrical will have the mean
and median together in the
center with the modes on each
side. Lastly, a rectangular
distribution has no mode
because all X values occur in
the same frequency.

b) Skewed Distributions

In this type of distributions, there is a strong tendency for the mean, median and
mode to be located in predictable locations. For a positively skewed distribution, the order
of the three measures of central tendency from smallest to largest (left to right) is mode, the
median, and the mean. On the other hand, in negatively skewed distributions, the scores
are piling up on the right side and tail tapering off to the left. Here, the order of the three
measures of central
tendency from the
smallest value to
largest value (left to
right) is the mean,
the median, and the
mode.
 Psychological Statistics 9

References:

Aron, Arthur and Aron, Elaine N. (2003), Statistics for Psychology, 3rd Ed., Pearson
Education, Inc.
Bluman, Allan G. (2013)., Elementary Statistics, A Brief Version, 6th Ed., McGraw-Hill
Companies
Cohen, Ronald Jay (2010), Exercises in Psychological Testing and Assessment 7th Ed.,
McGraw-Hill Companies
Cohen, Ronald Jay and Swerdiik, Mark E. (2009), Psychological Testing and Assessment:
An Introduction to Test and Measurement, 7th Ed., McGraw-Hill Companies
Gravetter, F.J. and Walnau, L.B. (2012), Statistics for Behavioral Sciences, Pasig City,
Philippines 1605
Introduction adopted https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/measures-central-
tendency-mean-mode-median.php
Pretest adopted from https://www.cabrini.edu/globalassets/pdfs-website/math-resource-
center/math-111-practice-test-chapter-12.pdf
 Psychological Statistics 10

About
The
Author

Bernardo (Madam Bernie) G. Magbanua, is an Assistant

Professor III from the Mindoro State University (formerly
Mindoro State College of Agriculture and Technology - Calapan
City Campus). Graduated from the Philippine Normal University,
Taft Avenue, Manilla in 1992 with a degree in Bachelor of Arts in
Psychology. Master of Arts in Education major in Mathematics
from MinSCAT Main Campus in 2009. She pursued her
Doctorate in Philosophy in Management at the Divine Word
College of Calapan and Doctorate in Philosophy major in
Statistics at the University of the Philippines, Los Baños, Laguna
as a CHED scholar.
For almost 20 years at MinSU, she was assigned several other
positions like Guidance Counselor from 2001 to 2010, and from
2018 until December 2023, with the change in the
administration, she was assigned as the Internal Quality
Assurance Officer of the Calapan City Campus. A full-time
instructor and also an Accreditor of the AACCUP, she has been
to several SUCs for the evaluation of their programs.