Transcript (The Final Chapter)

THE FINAL CHAPTER OF GREEK MATH AND ELEMENTARY NUMBER
THEORY
NICOMACHUS
• Nicomachus of Gerasa (c. 60 – 120) was an ancient Greek mathematician
known for exploring the mystical properties of numbers. Two of his works
have survived: Introduction to Arithmetic and Introduction to Harmonics.
• His Introduction to Arithmetic is significant for containing the first mention of
perfect numbers and is also referred to as Introductio Arithmetica, meaning
“Introduction to Number Theory.”
Most of Book I of Nicomachus’s Arithmetic is devoted to the classification of
integers and their relations.
He divided the even integers into three classes:
1. the even times even (those that are powers of two);
2. the even times odd (those that are doubles of odd numbers);
3. and the odd times even (all the others)
He discussed the Euclidean algorithm of repeated subtraction for finding the
greatest common measure of two numbers and determining if they are
relatively prime.
The final six chapters of the first book are devoted to an elaborate
classification scheme for naming ratios of unequal numbers:
1. Multiple (when 𝑎=𝑛𝑏)
2. Superparticular (when 𝑎=𝑏+1)
3. Superpartient (when 𝑎=𝑏+𝑘 a=b+k, where 1<𝑘<𝑏1<k<b)

In Book II of Nicomachus, he discussed plane and solid numbers.
Nicomachus not only dealt with triangular and square numbers but also
considered pentagonal, hexagonal, and heptagonal numbers and showed
how to extend this series indefinitely.
Example :
Polygonal Number
In Book II of Nicomachus, he discussed plane and solid numbers.
Nicomachus not only dealt with triangular and square numbers but also
considered pentagonal, hexagonal, and heptagonal numbers and showed
how to extend this series indefinitely.
Three Types of Proportion; (a) Arithmetic, (b) Geometric, (c) Harmonic
 An arithmetic proportion of three terms is a series in which each
consecutive pair of terms differs by the same quantity. For example, 3,
7, 11, are in arithmetic proportion.
 In Geometric proportion, “the only one in the strict sense of the word to
be called a proportion,”4 the greatest term is to the next greatest as
that one is to the next. For example, 3, 9, 27, are in geometric
proportion.
 In Harmonic, the greatest term is to the smallest as the difference
between the greatest and mean terms is to the difference between the
mean and the smallest terms. For example, 3, 4, 6, are in harmonic
proportion because 6 : 3 = (6 – 4) : (4 – 3).

Today, it is more common to use the names “arithmetic,” “geometric,” and
“harmonic” for means rather than for proportions. Thus, 7 is the arithmetic
mean of 3 and 11, 9, is the geometric mean of 3 and 27, and 4 is the
harmonic mean of 3 and 6.
Introduction to Arithmetic
 a basic introduction to elementary ideas about the positive integers
 written at a much lower level
 simple introduction to positive whole numbers
 popular in ancient times and the Middle Ages, showing its impact on
mathematical education.
DIOPHANTUS AND GREEK ALGEBRA
Diophantus : The Father of Algebra
 Known as the Father of Algebra
 Main work: Arithmetica
 150 BC – 350 AD
Major Works
 Two known works: fragment on polygonal numbers and Arithmetica.
 Historical significance of Arithmetica.
Surviving Works
 Only six of the original thirteen books survive.
 Importance of Arabic translations.

Also known as
 Father of Algebra
 Father of Integer
 Father of Polynomials
Contributions
 Introduction of Symbolic Notation
 Diophantine Equations
 Methods for Solving Equations
 Arithmetica
Introduction of symbolic notation – symbolic notation simply means to re-write
something in words by substituting symbols for those words.
DIOPHANTUS
 His work influenced later mathematicians like Fermat and Euler,
leading to the study of Diophantine equations.
 Diophantus’s use of symbols and exploration of equations laid the
foundation for the development of modern algebra.
Structure of the work
 Divided into 13 books
 Books I-VI known in Europe by the late 15th century
 Discovery of Arabic translations (Books IV-VII) in 1968
 Clarification on Greek and Arabic book numbering

He was the one who has introduced symbols for square, square roots, cubes
and cube roots.
Biography of Pappus of Alexandria : The Last of the Great Greek
Geometers
Introduction
 Pappus is a pivotal figure in geometry.
 One of his theorems laid the groundwork for modern projective geometry.
Life and Context
 Limited historical knowledge about his life.
 Lived during the reign of Emperor Theodosius the Elder (379-395 AD).
Major Works
Mathematical Collection (Synagogue)
 Composed of eight books covering various mathematical topics.
 Aimed at reviving classical Greek geometry.
 Serves as a guide to original works rather than a standalone
encyclopaedia.
Contents Overview
 Book I: Arithmetic (lost).
 Book II: Explains large numbers using Apollonius’s method.
 Book III: Discusses mean proportionals and regular polyhedra.

 Book IV: Explores properties of curves and types of geometry problems.
 Book V: Compares area and volume; includes Archimedes’ semiregular
solids.
 Books VI & VII: Reviews works of other authors; introduces the Pappus
problem.
 Book VIII: Discusses mechanics and its practical applications.
Contributions
 Pappus’s Hexagon Theorem
 Pappus’s Centroid Theorem
SUMMARY
 Nicomachus of Gerasa explored number theory and classifications,
discussing polygonal numbers and proportions (arithmetic, geometric,
harmonic).
 Diophantus revolutionized algebra with symbolic notation and problem-
solving techniques, known for his Arithmetica
 Pappus of Alexandria focused on geometry, known for his work on
analysis (solving by working backward) and synthesis (verifying
solutions). His contributions ; Pappus’s Hexagon Theorem and
Pappus’s Centroid Theorem

References
Bashmakova, I. G., & Smirnova, G. S. The Beginnings and Evolution of
Algebra. Mathematical Association of America, 2000.
Fowler, David H. The Mathematics of Plato’s Academy: A New
Reconstruction. Oxford University Press, 1999.
Heath, T. L. A History of Greek Mathematics. Volume I. Dover Publications,
1981
Jones, A., Pappus of Alexandria: Book 7 of the Collection. Springer, 1986.
Netz, R. The Works of Archimedes: Translation and Commentary.
Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Sesiano, J. Diophantus and Diophantine Equations. Springer-Verlag,
1982.

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THE FINAL CHAPTER OF GREEK MATH AND ELEMENTARY NUMBER

• Nicomachus of Gerasa (c. 60 – 120) was an ancient Greek mathematician

have survived: Introduction to Arithmetic and Introduction to Harmonics.

• His Introduction to Arithmetic is significant for containing the first mention of

perfect numbers and is also referred to as Introductio Arithmetica, meaning

“Introduction to Number Theory.”

Most of Book I of Nicomachus’s Arithmetic is devoted to the classification of

integers and their relations.

He divided the even integers into three classes:

1. the even times even (those that are powers of two);

3. and the odd times even (all the others)

He discussed the Euclidean algorithm of repeated subtraction for finding the

greatest common measure of two numbers and determining if they are

classification scheme for naming ratios of unequal numbers:

1. Multiple (when 𝑎=𝑛𝑏)

2. Superparticular (when 𝑎=𝑏+1)

3. Superpartient (when 𝑎=𝑏+𝑘 a=b+k, where 1<𝑘<𝑏1<k<b)

considered pentagonal, hexagonal, and heptagonal numbers and showed

how to extend this series indefinitely.

In Book II of Nicomachus, he discussed plane and solid numbers.

considered pentagonal, hexagonal, and heptagonal numbers and showed

how to extend this series indefinitely.

Three Types of Proportion; (a) Arithmetic, (b) Geometric, (c) Harmonic

 An arithmetic proportion of three terms is a series in which each

consecutive pair of terms differs by the same quantity. For example, 3,

7, 11, are in arithmetic proportion.

be called a proportion,”4 the greatest term is to the next greatest as

that one is to the next. For example, 3, 9, 27, are in geometric

 In Harmonic, the greatest term is to the smallest as the difference

mean and the smallest terms. For example, 3, 4, 6, are in harmonic

proportion because 6 : 3 = (6 – 4) : (4 – 3).

harmonic mean of 3 and 6.

 a basic introduction to elementary ideas about the positive integers

 written at a much lower level

 simple introduction to positive whole numbers

DIOPHANTUS AND GREEK ALGEBRA

Diophantus : The Father of Algebra

 Known as the Father of Algebra

 Main work: Arithmetica

 Two known works: fragment on polygonal numbers and Arithmetica.

 Historical significance of Arithmetica.

 Only six of the original thirteen books survive.

 Importance of Arabic translations.

 Introduction of Symbolic Notation

 Methods for Solving Equations

Introduction of symbolic notation – symbolic notation simply means to re-write

something in words by substituting symbols for those words.

 His work influenced later mathematicians like Fermat and Euler,

leading to the study of Diophantine equations.

 Diophantus’s use of symbols and exploration of equations laid the

foundation for the development of modern algebra.

Structure of the work

 Divided into 13 books

 Books I-VI known in Europe by the late 15th century

 Discovery of Arabic translations (Books IV-VII) in 1968

 Clarification on Greek and Arabic book numbering

and cube roots.

Biography of Pappus of Alexandria : The Last of the Great Greek

 Pappus is a pivotal figure in geometry.