Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Introduction to NMR Spectroscopy

• Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is a powerful
analytical technique used to characterize organic
molecules by identifying carbon-hydrogen frameworks
within molecules.
• Two common types of NMR spectroscopy are used to
characterize organic structure: 1H NMR is used to
determine the type and number of H atoms in a
molecule; 13C NMR is used to determine the type of
carbon atoms in the molecule.
• The source of energy in NMR is radio waves which have
long wavelengths, and thus low energy and frequency.
• When low-energy radio waves interact with a molecule,
they can change the nuclear spins of some elements,
including 1H and 13C. 1
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
Introduction to NMR Spectroscopy
• When a charged particle such as a proton spins on its axis, it
creates a magnetic field. Thus, the nucleus can be considered to
be a tiny bar magnet.
• Normally, these tiny bar magnets are randomly oriented in space.
However, in the presence of a magnetic field B0, they are
oriented with or against this applied field. More nuclei are
oriented with the applied field because this arrangement is lower
in energy.
• The energy difference between these two states is very small
(<0.1 cal).
 Nuclear Spin
• A nucleus with an odd atomic number or an
odd mass number has a nuclear spin.
• The spinning charged nucleus generates a
magnetic field.
 External Magnetic Field
When placed in an external field, spinning protons
act like bar magnets.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Introduction to NMR Spectroscopy

• In a magnetic field, there are now two energy states for a
proton: a lower energy state with the nucleus aligned in
the same direction as B0, and a higher energy state in
which the nucleus aligned against B0.
• When an external energy source (hν) that matches the
energy difference (ΔE) between these two states is
applied, energy is absorbed, causing the nucleus to
“spin flip” from one orientation to another.
• The energy difference between these two nuclear spin
states corresponds to the low frequency RF region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
 Two Energy States
The magnetic fields of
the spinning nuclei
will align either with
the external field, or
against the field.
A photon with the right
amount of energy can
be absorbed and cause
the spinning proton to
flip.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
Introduction to NMR Spectroscopy
• Thus, two variables characterize NMR: an applied
magnetic field B0, the strength of which is measured in
tesla (T), and the frequency ν of radiation used for
resonance, measured in hertz (Hz), or megahertz
(MHz)—(1 MHz = 106 Hz).

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 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
Introduction to NMR Spectroscopy
• The frequency needed for resonance and the applied
magnetic field strength are proportionally related:

• NMR spectrometers are referred to as 300 MHz

instruments, 500 MHz instruments, and so forth,
depending on the frequency of the RF radiation used
for resonance.
• These spectrometers use very powerful magnets to
create a small but measurable energy difference
between two possible spin states.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
Introduction to NMR Spectroscopy

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The NMR Spectrometer
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
Introduction to NMR Spectroscopy
• Protons in different environments absorb at slightly
different frequencies, so they are distinguishable by
NMR.
• The frequency at which a particular proton absorbs is
determined by its electronic environment.
• The size of the magnetic field generated by the electrons
around a proton determines where it absorbs.
• Modern NMR spectrometers use a constant magnetic
field strength B0, and then a narrow range of frequencies
is applied to achieve the resonance of all protons.
• Only nuclei that contain odd mass numbers (such as 1H,
13
C, 19F and 31P) or odd atomic numbers (such as 2H and
14
N) give rise to NMR signals.
• If all protons absorbed the same amount of
energy in a given magnetic field, not much
information could be obtained.
• But protons are surrounded by electrons that
shield them from the external field.
• Circulating electrons create an induced
magnetic field that opposes the external
magnetic field.
Magnetic field strength must be increased for
a shielded proton to flip at the same
frequency.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—The Spectrum
• An NMR spectrum is a plot of the intensity of a peak against its
chemical shift, measured in parts per million (ppm).

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 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—The Spectrum
• NMR absorptions generally appear as sharp peaks.
• Increasing chemical shift is plotted from right to left.
• Most protons absorb between 0-10 ppm.
• The terms “upfield” and “downfield” describe the
relative location of peaks. Upfield means to the right.
Downfield means to the left.
• NMR absorptions are measured relative to the position
of a reference peak at 0 ppm on the δ scale due to
tetramethylsilane (TMS). TMS is a volatile inert
compound that gives a single peak upfield from typical
NMR absorptions.
 Chemical Shift
• Measured in parts per million.
• Ratio of shift downfield from TMS (Hz) to
total spectrometer frequency (Hz).
• Same value for 60, 100, or 300 MHz
machine.
• Called the delta scale.
Delta Scale

Chapter 13 17
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—The Spectrum
• The chemical shift of the x axis gives the position of an NMR
signal, measured in ppm, according to the following equation:

• By reporting the NMR absorption as a fraction of the NMR

operating frequency, we get units, ppm, that are independent
of the spectrometer.
• Four different features of a 1H NMR spectrum provide
information about a compound’s structure:
a. Number of signals )type of H)
b. Position of signals
c. Intensity of signals.
d. Spin-spin splitting of signals.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Number of Signals
• The number of NMR signals equals the number of different types
of protons in a compound.
• Protons in different environments give different NMR signals.
• Equivalent protons give the same NMR signal.

• To determine equivalent protons in cycloalkanes and alkenes,

always draw all bonds to hydrogen.

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 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

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H NMR—Number of Signals
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

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H NMR—Number of Signals
• In comparing two H atoms on a ring or double bond, two
protons are equivalent only if they are cis (or trans) to
the same groups.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

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H NMR—Number of Signals

• Proton equivalency in cycloalkanes can be determined

similarly.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

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H NMR—Enantiotopic and Diastereotopic Protons.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

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H NMR—Enantiotopic and Diastereotopic Protons.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Position of Signals
• In the vicinity of the nucleus, the magnetic field generated by the
circulating electron decreases the external magnetic field that
the proton “feels”.
• Since the electron experiences a lower magnetic field strength, it
needs a lower frequency to achieve resonance. Lower frequency
is to the right in an NMR spectrum, toward a lower chemical shift,
so shielding shifts the absorption upfield.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

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H NMR—Position of Signals
• The less shielded the nucleus becomes, the more of the
applied magnetic field (B0) it feels.
• This deshielded nucleus experiences a higher magnetic
field strength, to it needs a higher frequency to achieve
resonance.
• Higher frequency is to the left in an NMR spectrum,
toward higher chemical shift—so deshielding shifts an
absorption downfield.
• Protons near electronegative atoms are deshielded, so
they absorb downfield.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

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H NMR—Position of Signals

How chemical shift is affected

by electron density around
a nucleus???
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

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H NMR—Position of Signals
Shielding and deshielding
effects
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

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H NMR—Position of Signals
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Chemical Shift Values
• Protons in a given environment absorb in a predictable region in
an NMR spectrum.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

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H NMR—Chemical Shift Values
• The chemical shift of a C—H bond increases with
increasing alkyl substitution.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Chemical Shift Values
• In a magnetic field, the six π electrons in benzene circulate
around the ring creating a ring current.
• The magnetic field induced by these moving electrons reinforces
the applied magnetic field in the vicinity of the protons.
• The protons thus feel a stronger magnetic field and a higher
frequency is needed for resonance. Thus they are deshielded
and absorb downfield.

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 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Chemical Shift Values
• In a magnetic field, the loosely held π electrons of the
double bond create a magnetic field that reinforces the
applied field in the vicinity of the protons.
• The protons now feel a stronger magnetic field, and
require a higher frequency for resonance. Thus the
protons are deshielded and the absorption is downfield.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Chemical Shift Values
• In a magnetic field, the π electrons of a carbon-carbon triple
bond are induced to circulate, but in this case the induced
magnetic field opposes the applied magnetic field (B0).
• Thus, the proton feels a weaker magnetic field, so a lower
frequency is needed for resonance. The nucleus is shielded and
the absorption is upfield.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

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H NMR—Chemical Shift Values
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Chemical Shift Values)

Regions in the1H NMR

spectrum

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 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Intensity of Signals
• The area under an NMR signal is proportional to the
number of absorbing protons.
• An NMR spectrometer automatically integrates the area
under the peaks, and prints out a stepped curve
(integral) on the spectrum.
• The height of each step is proportional to the area under
the peak, which in turn is proportional to the number of
absorbing protons.
• Modern NMR spectrometers automatically calculate and
plot the value of each integral in arbitrary units.
• The ratio of integrals to one another gives the ratio of
absorbing protons in a spectrum. Note that this gives a
ratio, and not the absolute number, of absorbing
protons.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Intensity of Signals
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 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Spin-Spin Splitting
• Consider the spectrum below:

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 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Spin-Spin Splitting
• Spin-spin splitting occurs only between nonequivalent
protons on the same carbon or adjacent carbons.
Let us consider how the doublet due to the CH2 group on
BrCH2CHBr2 occurs:
• When placed in an applied electric field, (B0), the adjacent
proton (CHBr2) can be aligned with (↑) or against (↓) B0.
• Thus, the absorbing CH2 protons feel two slightly
different magnetic fields—one slightly larger than B0, and
one slightly smaller than B0.
• Since the absorbing protons feel two different magnetic
fields, they absorb at two different frequencies in the
NMR spectrum, thus splitting a single absorption into a
doublet.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Spin-Spin Splitting
The frequency difference, measured in Hz between two peaks of
the doublet is called the coupling constant, J.

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Doublet: 1 Adjacent Proton

Chapter 13
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Spin-Spin Splitting
Let us now consider how a triplet arises:

• When placed in an applied magnetic field (B0), the

adjacent protons Ha and Hb can each be aligned with (↑)
or against (↓) B0.
• Thus, the absorbing proton feels three slightly different
magnetic fields—one slightly larger than B0, one slightly
smaller than B0, and one the same strength as B0.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Spin-Spin Splitting
• Because the absorbing proton feels three different
magnetic fields, it absorbs at three different frequencies in
the NMR spectrum, thus splitting a single absorption into a
triplet.
• Because there are two different ways to align one proton
with B0, and one proton against B0—that is, ↑a↓b and
↓a↑b—the middle peak of the triplet is twice as intense as
the two outer peaks, making the ratio of the areas under
the three peaks 1:2:1.
• Two adjacent protons split an NMR signal into a triplet.
• When two protons split each other, they are said to be
coupled.
• The spacing between peaks in a split NMR signal,
measured by the J value, is equal for coupled protons.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Spin-Spin Splitting
Triplet: 2 Adjacent Protons

Chapter 13
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Spin-Spin Splitting
Three general rules describe the splitting patterns
commonly seen in the 1H NMR spectra of organic
compounds.

1. Equivalent protons do not split each other’s signals.

2. A set of n nonequivalent protons splits the signal of a
nearby proton into n + 1 peaks.
3. Splitting is observed for nonequivalent protons on the
same carbon or adjacent carbons.
If Ha and Hb are not equivalent, splitting is observed when:
 The N + 1 Rule
If a signal is split by N equivalent
protons,
it is split into N + 1 peaks.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Spin-Spin Splitting
Splitting is not generally observed between protons
separated by more than three σ bonds.

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51
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Spin-Spin Splitting
Whenever two (or three) different sets of adjacent protons are
equivalent to each other, use the n + 1 rule to determine the
splitting pattern.

The 1H NMR spectrum of

2-bromopropane, [(CH3)2CHBr]

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 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Spin-Spin Splitting
Now consider the spectrum of 1-bromopropane. Since Ha and Hc are
not equivalent to each other, we cannot merely add them together
and use the n + 1 rule.

The 1H NMR spectrum

of 1-bromopropane,
CH3CH2CH2Br
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Spin-Spin Splitting
When two sets of adjacent protons are different from each other
(n protons on one adjacent carbon and m protons on the other),
the number of peaks in an NMR signal = (n + 1)(m + 1).

A splitting diagram for the Hb

protons in 1-bromopropane
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Spin-Spin Splitting
• Protons on carbon-carbon double bonds often give
characteristic splitting patterns.
• A disubstituted double bond can have two geminal protons, two
cis protons, or two trans protons.
• When these protons are different, each proton splits the NMR
signal of the other so that each proton appears as a doublet.
• The magnitude of the coupling constant J for these doublets
depends on the arrangement of hydrogen atoms.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Spin-Spin Splitting
1
H NMR spectra for the
alkenyl protons of (E)- and
(Z)-3-chloropropenoic acid
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Spin-Spin Splitting

The 1H NMR spectrum of vinyl

acetate (CH2=CHOCOCH3)

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 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Spin-Spin Splitting
Splitting diagrams for the alkenyl protons in vinyl acetate are
shown below. Note that each pattern is different in appearance
because the magnitude of the coupling constants forming them
is different.
Splitting diagram for
the alkenyl protons
in vinyl acetate
(CH2=CHOCHOCH3)

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 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—OH Protons
• Under usual conditions, an OH proton does not split the NMR
signal of adjacent protons.
• The signal due to an OH proton is not split by adjacent protons.
The 1H spectrum of
ethanol (CH3CH2OH)

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 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—OH Protons
• Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) has three different types of protons, so
there are three signals in its NMR spectrum.
• The Ha signal is split by the two Hb protons into three peaks (a
triplet).
• The Hb signal is split only by the three Ha protons into four
peaks, a quartet. The adjacent OH proton does not split the
signal due to Hb.
• Hc is a singlet because OH protons are not split by adjacent
protons.
• Protons on electronegative atoms rapidly exchange between
molecules in the presence of trace amounts of acid or base.
Thus, the CH2 group of ethanol never “feels” the presence of the
OH proton, because the OH proton is rapidly moving from one
molecule to another.
• This phenomenon usually occurs with NH and OH protons.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Cyclohexane Conformers
• Recall that cyclohexane conformers interconvert by ring flipping.
• Because the ring flipping is very rapid at room temperature, an
NMR spectrum records an average of all conformers that
interconvert.
• Thus, even though each cyclohexane carbon has two different
types of hydrogens—one axial and one equatorial—the two chair
forms of cyclohexane rapidly interconvert them, and an NMR
spectrum shows a single signal for the average environment that
it “sees”.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Protons on Benzene Rings
• Benzene has six equivalent deshielded protons and exhibits a
single peak in its 1H NMR spectrum at 7.27 ppm.
• Monosubstituted benzenes contain five deshielded protons that
are no longer equivalent, and the appearance of these signals is
highly variable, depending on the identity of Z.

The 6.5–8 ppm

region of the 1H NMR spectrum of
three benzene derivatives
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Structure Determination

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 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

1
H NMR—Structure Determination
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Structure Determination
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
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H NMR—Structure Determination
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
13
C NMR
13
C Spectra are easier to analyze than 1H spectra because the signals
are not split. Each type of carbon atom appears as a single peak.

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 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
13
C NMR
• The lack of splitting in a 13C spectrum is a consequence of the low
natural abundance of 13C.
• Recall that splitting occurs when two NMR active nuclei—like two
protons—are close to each other. Because of the low natural
abundance of 13C nuclei (1.1%), the chance of two 13C nuclei being
bonded to each other is very small (0.01%), and so no
carbon-carbon splitting is observed.
• A 13C NMR signal can also be split by nearby protons. This 1H-13C
splitting is usually eliminated from the spectrum by using an
instrumental technique that decouples the proton-carbon
interactions, so that every peak in a 13C NMR spectrum appears as
a singlet.
• The two features of a 13C NMR spectrum that provide the most
structural information are the number of signals observed and the
chemical shifts of those signals.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
13
C NMR—Number of Signals
• The number of signals in a 13C spectrum gives the number of
different types of carbon atoms in a molecule.
• Because 13C NMR signals are not split, the number of signals
equals the number of lines in the 13C spectrum.
• In contrast to the 1H NMR situation, peak intensity is not
proportional to the number of absorbing carbons, so 13C NMR
signals are not integrated.
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
13
C NMR—Position of Signals
• In contrast to the small range of chemical shifts in 1H NMR (1-10
ppm usually), 13C NMR absorptions occur over a much broader
range (0-220 ppm).
• The chemical shifts of carbon atoms in 13C NMR depend on the
same effects as the chemical shifts of protons in 1H NMR.

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 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

13
C NMR—Number of Signals

Representative 13C NMR

spectra
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

13
C NMR—Number of Signals
Hydrogen and Carbon Chemical
Shifts

Chapter 13 73
=>
 13
Combined C
1
and H Spectra