Crossover Distortion in Amplifiers

Crossover Distortion is a common feature of Class-B amplifiers where the non-linearities of the two switching transistors do
not vary linearly with the input signal

Distortion is the inexact reproduction of an input signal at the output of an amplifier. Due to their two-stage design, push-
pull amplifiers suffer from crossover distortion of the output waveform around its zero crossover point. We have seen that
one of the main disadvantages of the Class-A Amplifier configuration is its low full power efficiency rating due to being
biased around its central Q-point.

But we also know that we can improve the amplifier and almost double its efficiency simply by changing the output stage of
the amplifier to a Class B push-pull type configuration. However, this is great from an efficiency point of view, but most
modern Class B amplifiers are transformerless or complementary types with two transistors in their output stage.

This results in one main fundamental problem with push-pull amplifiers in that the two transistors do not combine together
fully at the output both halves of the waveform due to their unique zero cut-off biasing arrangement. As this problem occurs
when the signal changes or “crosses-over” from one transistor to the other at the zero voltage point it produces an amount of
“distortion” to the output wave shape. This results in a condition that is commonly called Crossover Distortion.

Crossover Distortion produces a zero voltage “flat spot” or “deadband” on the output wave shape as it crosses over from
one half of the waveform to the other. The reason for this is that the transition period when the transistors are switching over
from one to the other, does not stop or start exactly at the zero crossover point thus causing a small delay between the first
transistor turning “OFF” and the second transistor turning “ON”. This delay results in both transistors being switched “OFF”
at the same instant in time producing an output wave shape as shown below.

Crossover Distortion Waveform

In order that there should be no distortion of the output waveform we must assume that each transistor starts conducting
when its base to emitter voltage rises just above zero, but we know that this is not true because for silicon bipolar transistors,
the base-emitter voltage must reach at least 0.7v before the transistor starts to conduct due to the forward diode voltage drop
of the base-emitter pn-junction, thereby producing this flat spot. This crossover distortion effect also reduces the overall
peak to peak value of the output waveform causing the maximum power output to be reduced as shown below.

Non-Linear Transfer Characteristics

This effect is less pronounced for large input signals as the input voltage is usually quite large but for smaller input signals it
can be more severe causing audio distortion to the amplifier.

Pre-biasing To Reduce Crossover Distortion

The problem of Crossover Distortion can be reduced considerably by applying a slight forward base bias voltage (same
idea as seen in the Transistor tutorial) to the bases of the two transistors via the center-tap of the input transformer, thus the
transistors are no longer biased at the zero cut-off point but instead are “Pre-biased” at a level determined by this new
biasing voltage.
Push-pull Amplifier with Pre-biasing

This type of resistor pre-biasing causes one transistor to turn “ON” exactly at the same time as the other transistor turns
“OFF” as both transistors are now biased slightly above their original cut-off point. However, to achieve this the bias voltage
must be at least twice that of the normal base to emitter voltage to turn “ON” the transistors. This pre-biasing can also be
implemented in transformerless amplifiers that use complementary transistors by simply replacing the two potential divider
resistors with Biasing Diodes as shown below.

Pre-biasing with Diodes

This pre-biasing voltage either for a transformer or transformerless amplifier circuit, has the effect of moving the amplifiers
Q-point past the original cut-off point thus allowing each transistor to operate within its active region for slightly more than
o o
half or 180 of each half cycle. In other words, 180 + Bias. The amount of diode biasing voltage present at the base
terminal of the transistor can be increased in multiples by adding additional diodes in series. This then produces an amplifier
circuit commonly called a Class AB Amplifier and its biasing arrangement is given below.

Class AB Output Characteristics

Crossover Distortion Summary
Then to summarise, Crossover Distortion occurs in Class B amplifiers because the amplifier is biased at its cut-off point.
This then results in BOTH transistors being switched “OFF” at the same instant in time as the waveform crosses the zero
axis. By applying a small base bias voltage either by using a resistive potential divider circuit or diode biasing this crossover
distortion can be greatly reduced or even eliminated completely by bringing the transistors to the point of being just
switched “ON”.

The application of a biasing voltage produces another type or class of amplifier circuit commonly called a Class AB
Amplifier. Then the difference between a pure Class B amplifier and an improved Class AB amplifier is in the biasing level
applied to the output transistors. One major advantage of using diodes over resistors is that their PN-junctions compensate
for variations in the temperature of the transistors.

Therefore, we can correctly say that the Class AB amplifier is effectively a Class B amplifier with added “Bias” and we can
summarise this as follows:

Class A Amplifiers – No Crossover Distortion as they are biased in the center of the load line.
Class B Amplifiers – Large amounts of Crossover Distortion due to biasing at the cut-off point.
Class AB Amplifiers – Some Crossover Distortion if the biasing level is set too low.

As well as the three amplifier classes above, there are a number of high efficiency Amplifier Classes relating to switching
amplifier designs that use different switching techniques to reduce power loss and increase efficiency. Some of these
amplifier designs use RLC resonators or multiple power-supply voltages to help reduce power loss and distortion.

Read more Tutorials inAmplifiers

• 1. Introduction to the Amplifier

• 2. Common Emitter Amplifier
• 3. Common Source JFET Amplifier
 • 4. Amplifier Distortion
• 5. Class A Amplifier
• 6. Class B Amplifier
• 7. Crossover Distortion in Amplifiers
• 8. Amplifiers Summary
• 9. Emitter Resistance
• 10. Amplifier Classes
• 11. Transistor Biasing
• 12. Input Impedance of an Amplifier
• 13. Frequency Response
• 14. MOSFET Amplifier
• 15. Class AB Amplifier
• 16. Common Collector Amplifier
• 17. Common Base Amplifier
• 18. Phase Splitter

20 Comments
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• Stephen kamwi

Interesting content

Posted on October 03rd 2021 | 10:56 am

Reply
• ‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﺭ ﺣﺎﻣﺪ ﺍﺣﻤﺪ‬

‫ﻛﻴﻒ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻮﻳﺶ ﻣﻦ ﻓﺼﻞ ﺏ‬

Posted on July 11th 2021 | 9:03 pm

Reply
• Emmanuel Lawal

I like the explanation but I can’t reference this page because you don’t have any of the required information either at
the bottom or at the top of the page.

Posted on December 18th 2020 | 9:02 am

 Reply
◦ Wayne Storr

You have the option to reference the page as:

1. Electronics Tutorials – Crossover Distortion in Amplifiers
2. https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws
3. https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/amplifier/amp_7.html

Posted on December 18th 2020 | 9:21 am

Reply
• Shimajery

This is interesting

Posted on July 30th 2020 | 4:49 pm

Reply
• mythiliks

Nice lines to understand very easy

Posted on June 11th 2020 | 5:59 pm

Reply
• Pascal dr

Nice..m now getting into sense why diodes in series

Posted on October 28th 2019 | 7:02 pm

Reply
• M.Ini

Hi, super clear, thank you. (In this page, the link to the next page is currently skipping chapter 8 “Amplifiers
Summary” and pointing directly to chapter 9 “Emitter Resistance”.)

Posted on October 06th 2019 | 3:23 am

Reply
• Prem Sai

I like ur explanation

Posted on December 24th 2018 | 2:43 am

Reply
• Lakshmi Srivastava

Very nice lines to understand

Posted on December 11th 2018 | 8:18 am

Reply
• muhammad bello

I am gland to be with you because of the contribution you are given to me in my academic learning

Posted on May 03rd 2018 | 4:06 pm

Reply
• ismael

pleas explain what;THD,SPL,CMRR;INPUT IMPEDANCE+OUTPUT IMPEDANCE THANK YOU

Posted on September 27th 2017 | 5:13 am

 Reply
• saroj kumar

I intrested and thankful fromyour electronic tutorials.

lpesase provide more desinvned amplifier circuit description.

Posted on June 29th 2017 | 7:23 am

Reply
• Ev Collier

Dear Mr. or Ms.,

I am doing an article for the Marine Electronics Journal, a publication of the National Marine Electronics Association
and would like your permission to use the diagram of the push-pull amplifier as an illustration of a class AB push-pull
amplifier. Can you advise as to how I should proceed?

Many thanks for you consideration,

Ev Collier

Posted on June 05th 2017 | 2:39 pm

Reply
• William

Hi there, I am a university student and I am currently writing a paper on amplifier circuits. I would like to reference
some of the information contained within this article in my paper, please could the author let me know his/her name?

Many thanks, William

Posted on November 22nd 2015 | 1:27 pm

Reply
◦ Wayne Storr

Its at the bottom of every tutorial page.

Posted on November 22nd 2015 | 2:39 pm

Reply
• AHSAN

WHY we can not see any distortion for square wave input ?

Posted on December 06th 2014 | 7:44 pm

Reply
◦ Daniel

Very insightful question , “AHSAN” . The output bjt transistors start to conduct (being current gradient driven
in a voltage loop / emitter follower) after a voltage threshold (0.5-0.9 V) . If the slope of the signal is very sharp
it will pass from that non conducting state to on state in a very short time . Such short that it will mean nothing
on the display if it is changing with 50V/us .
If we have a very slow ramping signal we could see clearly that thing on the scope (if we cancel the DC voltage
made on purpose inside on the amp , to cover that range).

Posted on January 26th 2015 | 1:11 pm

Reply
• abss

Very informative article it was bt it will better if u also mention calculations like efficiency n all..
 Posted on April 14th 2014 | 7:23 pm
Reply
◦ Wayne Storr

Thanks for the suggestion �

Posted on April 14th 2014 | 8:47 pm

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