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Summary- Book - Summaries of the textbook given by

lecturer. - Research Matters
Introduction To Research (Varsity College)

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Introduction to Research

Introduction to Research:

Module Information:
Learning Unit Chapters in Textbook
1 1, 2, 3
2 4, 5, 6
3 8, 9
4 11, 12, 13
5 15, 16
6 17, 18

Assessments:
Assessment LEARNING UNIT Due Date (insert from PAS)
Assignment 1, 2, 3 (Focus: Ch8, Ch10)
Test (1 hour) 1, 2, 3, 4
Exam (2 hours) ALL

Chapter 1: What is Research?

Purposes of Research:

• Identify problems • Resolving conflicts

• Address uncertainties • Generating awareness and sensitivity
• Identify variable relationships • Challenging and changing stereotypes
• Finding solutions • Adding value/ comfort to people’s lives
• Developing theories • Contributing to the body of knowledge
• Planning for the future • Overcoming obstacles
• Preventing undesired consequences • Generating further research.

Assumption Hierarchy:

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Philosophical Assumptions:

• Epistemology refers to your beliefs about knowledge. For example, do you believe
knowledge is discovered or created? WHAT IS MY VIEW ABOUT KNOWLEDGE?
• Ontology refers to reality; in other words, ‘what is’. WHAT IS THE REALITY?
• Axiology refers to our values, in other words whether we believe inquiry is value free
(objective) or value bound (subjective). WHAT IS THE VALUE OF REALITY?
These three relate to ethical considerations of a study, e.g. would someone be negatively affected?

Definition – What is Research?

• Process of inquiry during which information is collected.

9-Step Research Process:

It is a Cyclical Process. Described as:

1. Identifying and analysing the question/ problem – think of a topic that interests you.
2. Conduct the literature review - relevant literature published in academic journals.
3. Formulate the research question - consider probability of finding answers and proving
or disproving hypotheses. Referred to as feasibility of research project. A hypothesis
is a statement you attempt to accept/ reject at end of research.

4. Decide on a research approach - qualitative or quantitative approach, or both, known

as a mixed-methods approach. The distinction between quantitative/ qualitative refers
to how you collect/ analyse and interpret the information that will serve as evidence.

▪ Quantitative methods present numerical or statistical data, while qualitative

research presents interpretive data. If you want to predict and control future
outcomes; explain significance of quantities/ degrees/ relationships of quantities;
or to generalise from a sample of people to a larger population, you will use
quantitative methods such as surveys or experimental designs, etc.

▪ When objective is to understand, explore or to describe people’s behaviour;

attitudes or trends; or relations between people’s actions, you will use qualitative
methods such as observation, in-depth interviews and textual analysis.

5. Writing your research proposal – you have to provide answers to the following:

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6. Pre-testing data collection methods/ instruments – test on small group of

respondents – called pilot test. Purpose: Eliminate problems with instrument (surveys).
7. Sample and collect data – using a pilot, and then actual data collection.
8. Analyse/ interpret data – forms basis of findings, conclusions/ recommendations.
9. Write the report.

Chapter 2: Research Paradigms and Traditions

What is a Paradigm?

• Cluster of beliefs and dictates for which scientists in a discipline influence what should
be studied, how research should be done, and how results should be interpreted.
• Paradigms are more likely to be referred to as research traditions or worldviews.
• When a paradigm shift occurs, researchers take on new views, method and beliefs, and
start conducting their research differently.

Three Cognitive Interests or Sciences identified by Habermas:

Empirical-analytical Empirical (observation/ experience/ experiments/ technical). Aim:

sciences Find causal relationships (cause and effect) – linked to POSITIVISM.
Historical- Practical. Aim: Gain high understanding – linked to
hermeneutic sciences INTERPRETIVISM.
Critically oriented Related to critical realism. Aim: Empower people through
sciences knowledge – linked to CRITICAL REALISM.

RESEARCH POSITIONS:

Epistemological position • Study of knowledge. Contributes to body of knowledge.

Ontological position • Study of being, existence/ reality. Includes assumptions.
Metatheoretical position • It is theory about theory. Exploring more theory.
Methodological position • Refers to qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods.
Axiological position • Study of values and value judgments.

THREE DOMINANT RESEARCH TRADITIONS/ PARADIGMS AND POSITIONS

Positivism • Reasons for Research:

o Discover causal relationships in order to predict and control
events. Approach of natural sciences.

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• Epistemological position of positivism:

o Valid knowledge is produced by empirical observation.
• Ontological position of positivism:
o Reality is external and objective. Reality is observed/ measured.
• Metatheoretical position of positivism:
o Can predict effects and take action.
• Methodological position of positivism:
o Reliability is critical. Objective, quantitative research is used.
• Axiological position of positivism:
o Objective research, truth and reason are valued.
Interpret- • Reasons for Research:
ivism o Understand/ describe meaningful social action/ experiences.
o Paradigm rests on fact that people are different from objects.
• Epistemological position of interpretivism:
o Common sense is an important source of knowledge.
• Ontological position of interpretivism:
o Reality is fluid and subjective, created by human interaction.
• Metatheoretical position of interpretivism:
o Writing style is informal, subjective and rich in quotes/ narratives.
• Methodological position of interpretivism:
o Subjective, qualitative methods are used.
• Axiological position of interpretivism:
o Uniqueness is valued.
Critical • Reasons for Research:
Realism o Expose myths and empower people to transform society.
o Knowledge of reality is a result of social conditioning.
• Epistemological position of critical realism:
o Knowledge should supply people with tools to change own world.
• Ontological position of critical realism:
o Reality changes over time and is governed by structures.
• Metatheoretical position of critical realism:
o Theory should be a critique that reveals true social conditions.
• Methodological position of critical realism:
o Qualitative and quantitative research is combined.
• Axiological position of critical realism:
o Freedom, equality and emancipation are valued.

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Chapter 3: Theory in Research

Basic Components of Theories: 4 commonly shared elements of theories:

Assumptions • Theoretical statements cannot be confirmed by direct observation.

Concepts • Two dimensions, namely label/ symbol and a definition.
o Labelling a concept gives it a name.
o A definition is the description of the meaning of the concept.
Relationships • Associations between concepts. A hypothesis is an
explanation about relationships between concepts in terms of
dependent and independent variables.
Explanation and • Prediction is a statement that event/ outcome will occur.
Prediction

Functions of Theories
• Organise experiences into smaller • Critical theories are used to ask
categories. questions.
• Select concepts of phenomenon to • Promotes insignificant concepts.
study. • Explains relationships between
• Predict/ control aspects of a concepts.
phenomenon. • Identify variables to test hypothesis.

Evaluating Theories – Criteria used to Assess Usefulness of a Theory

Theoretical scope • How broadly and generally a theory explains a phenomenon.

Appropriateness • Soundness of a theory and its underlying assumptions.
• Internal consistency: Logical use of ideas in developing a theory.
• External consistency: How understandable theory is.
Heuristic value • Researcher finding new ideas based on an existing theory.
Validity • Truth value of the theory.
Parsimony • How simply and concisely a theory explains a complex aspect.
Openness • Degree to which theory open to interpretations/ explanations.

Characteristics of Theories

Direction of • Deductive theorising:

theorising • General assumptions to more specific assumptions.

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• Inverted pyramid structure.

• Concepts → hypothesis → Testing → Theory confirmed.

• Inductive theorising:
• Theoretical concepts are inferred from data collected and analysed.
• Allows building of an existing or new theory. Pyramid structure.
• New theory suggested → Findings → Observe → Specific study.
Levels of • Macrotheory: Broad (global) - done over decades/ centuries.
analysis • Mesotheory: Medium term for smaller categories e.g. gender/ youth.
• Microtheory: Study of individuals/ small groups over period of time.
Paradigm/ • Characteristics used to group theories together. Three traditions:
tradition • Positivist theorising: Objective reality deduced from
certainty/precision.
• Interpretivist theorising: Study behaviour based on meaning.
• Critical theorising: Critical and feminist theory that is
transformational.

Theoretical Framework: It is a specific collection of theories that relate to a phenomenon.

Functions of Theoretical Framework

• Outline theoretical scope of study. • Guides data collection/ analysis.

• Guiding principles for a topic. • Identifies concepts and new issues.
• Points to concepts to focus on. • Points to critical research questions.
• Identifies key variables.

Chapter 4: From Topic to Research Question

Identifying a Research Topic – Sources of Research Topics

Direct experience and • Personal issues e.g. career opportunities, social belonging,
observation etc. Observation done personally.
Social contexts • Society’s social systems (families, organisations, schools,
etc.) create different contexts for study.
Tradition and culture • Questioning and exploring your own beliefs and norms.
Theories and previous • Existing theories/ previous research scrutinised/ debated.
research
The media • Different forms of media, e.g. social media habits,
advertising norms, etc.

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The Research Problem: Heart of research process. Aim: find a solution to the problem.

Research Traditions and the Research Problem

Positivistic • Aim is to predict, control and manipulate phenomena.

tradition • Causal relationships between dependent and independent variables.
Interpretivist • Aim is to gain a deeper, empathetic understanding of aspects of
tradition social life and human behaviour.
Critical realist • Aim is to liberate people by empowering them.
tradition • Questions the status quo, traditions and practices.

Criteria for Formulating the Research Problem

Answerability • Problem must be researchable and answerable.

Feasibility • Study manageable in terms of time, size, methodology, and cost.
Scope • Focus should not be too broad or narrow.
Theoretical value • Should contribute to advancement of knowledge.
Relevance • Should make a noteworthy contribution.

The Problem Statement

• Problem stated in one or more sentences and should represent single goal research.

Identifying and Stating Sub Problems

• These are comprehensive researchable units that add to the main problem.

From Research Problem to Research Questions

• Research questions are means by which we narrow down a broad topic.

Chapter 5: The Aims of Research

Multiple Purposes of Research

Pure (basic) • Adds to the existing body of knowledge.

research • Refinement of research methods, procedures and
techniques.
Applied research • Investigates practical issues in order to find solutions.

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Different Types of Research and their Aims

Exploratory • Study of an unknown area (e.g. social media exploratory research).

research • Aims:
• To obtain new insights.
• Identify key concepts/ identify key stakeholders.
• Prioritise social needs.
Descriptive • Describe characteristics of phenomena and relations between
research variables or relationships.
• Aims:
• Describe a situation/ problem/ phenomenon systematically.
• Provide information about phenomena.
• Draw comparisons.
Correlational • Aims:
research • Establish whether relationship/ interdependence/ association
exists between variables.
• Correlation can be positive or negative. E.g. Positive correlation
exists between performance and good working conditions.
Explanatory • Find explanations for why certain things happen.
research • Aims:
• Clarify how and why there is a relationship.
Predictive • Predict outcomes accurately in certain given conditions.
research • Aims:
• Prevent undesired outcomes.
• Promote desired outcomes.
• Anticipate probable outcomes.
Pragmatic • Aims to find solutions to certain problems by utilising qualitative and
research quantitative research methods (mixed methods).

Empirical (observed/ measured) Research Questions – Types/ Examples

Exploratory • Answers the question What?

questions • E.g. What are the key factors in employee absenteeism?
Descriptive • Answers the question How many?
questions • E.g. How many females were promoted to management positions?
Causal • Answers the question Why or to determine causes.
questions • E.g. What are the main causes of school bullying?

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Evaluative • To indicate outcome/ success.

questions • E.g. Has Facebook improved effectiveness of crisis communication?
Predictive • Addresses the effort of one aspect in relation to another.
questions • E.g. What impact do strikes have on the economy?
Historical • How history influences current situations.
questions • E.g. What caused male dominance in dating?

Non-Empirical Research Questions – Types/ Examples

Meta-analytical • Determines current state of or debates a topic. E.g. How is

questions consciousness viewed in research from systems perspective?
Conceptual • Determines meaning of constructs.
questions • E.g. What is metro sexuality?
Theoretical • To identify theories, models, frameworks, etc.
questions • E.g. What is the theoretical standpoint for stakeholder theory?
Philosophical/ • Addresses issues of an ideal state of being.
Normative • E.g. What constitutes an ideal relationship?
questions

Chapter 6: Formulating Hypotheses

What is a hypothesis?

• Tentative statement about a relationship between two variables, a statement you

aim to accept or reject at the end of your study.

Theories • Can be deductive or inductive.

Deductive:
• Researcher attempts to explain a causal relationship.
• Concepts need to be operationalised. Operationalisation is the process
of devising steps or operations for measuring what is to be studied.
• Generalisation follows. Generalisation implies that the sample size must
be large and random enough to represent the population.

Inductive:
• Theory follows data (rather than vice versa, as in case of deductive).
• Research is concerned with context.
• Aim: not to generalise results, hence smaller samples.

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Types of Hypotheses

Null hypotheses • Predicts no relationship exists between variables being tested.

E.g. Reading does not improve spelling.
Alternative • Predicts an outcome.
hypotheses • E.g. Students who read more learn to spell better.

Hypotheses and Variables

• Variable is something that varies/ differs/ changes. E.g. Gender - male or female.

Types of Variables

Independent • It is changed or manipulated by the researcher to test the

variables effect change will have on dependent variable and outcome.
Dependent variable • Variables that are affected by independent variable.
• Will change as a result of independent variable.
Intervening/ • Influence effect of independent variable on dependent.
mediating variables • E.g. Dyslexia influences person’s ability to spell.
Control variables • These variables, such as age, level of intelligence, level of
education, etc. are used to balance certain effects.

Chapter 8: The Literature Review

What is a Literature Review?

• Searching/ evaluating/ summarising literature that relates directly/ indirectly to topic.

Purpose of Literature Review

• What have previous scholars written? • Find relationships between variables.

• Identify models and theories relevant. • Narrow down specific area of study.
• Discover material to enhance research. • Establish theoretical framework for
• Enables research to be refined. study.
• Is research problem too large/ narrow? • Generate new ideas.
• Define key terms and concepts. • Identify information gaps to fill.

Types of Literature Review

Historical • Traces chronological order of literature, from past to present, e.g.
reviews mass communication over time.
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Thematic • Different schools of thought and groups literature into differing

reviews themes/ views, e.g. impact of smoking on developing cancer.
Theoretical • Linking theoretical developments to empirical research e.g. persuasive
reviews communication techniques.
Empirical • Focuses on previous methodologies used and summarises empirical
reviews evidence, e.g. literacy levels in child-headed households.

Literature Review Process

1. Search for • Primary sources: Interviews, eye-witness accounts, observations.

literature • Secondary sources: Journals, books, databases, online sources, etc.
2. Reading Evaluate the material, considering the following criteria:
with • Who? What? Where? When?
purpose
3. Summarise • Identify similarities and differences between sources.
4. Write the • Introduction: Outline what review entails.
review • Body: Conduct critical review of sources (strengths/ weaknesses).
• Conclusion: Summarise main points.

Chapter 9: Conceptualisation

What is a Literature Review?

• Definition: Refinement and specification of abstract concepts to create specific

meanings for purpose of a specific research project.

Concepts and Constructs

Concepts • Can be an object, an event, a relationship or a process.

• Regarded as the building blocks of theory.
Constructs • A theoretical definition of a concept becomes a construct.
• Construct can have denotative and connotative meanings:
o Denotative construct:
o Direct/ literal meaning of word e.g. equality means being equal.
o Connotative construct:
o Ideas or meanings associated with word, in addition to literal
meaning e.g. equality means human rights, power relationships, etc.

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Conceptualisation: There are different views about the sources of concepts.

Five Traditions that view Concepts Differently

Ontological • Concepts aim to explore how people experience realities e.g.

tradition marriage - relational institution, government - regulative institution.
Operationalising • Emphasis is placed on transforming theoretical concepts into
tradition empirical (measurable) concepts.
Sensitising • Sensitising concepts provides clues and suggestions about the
tradition meanings we can explore.
Hermeneutic • Looks for concepts in the everyday language of the people under
tradition investigation and not in the language of the disciple.
Adaptive • Creates bridges between empirical and theoretical data.
alternative
Four Types of Concepts
• Behavioural concepts: Focuses on individuals - how they
describe world from their perspectives.
• Systematic concepts: Structural concepts imply that social
environment we live in provides researchers with systematic
concepts that are closely linked to behavioural concepts.
• Bridging concepts: Builds bridges between behavioural and
systematic concepts.

Chapter 11: Sampling

What is Sampling? The process of selecting whom to choose for your research study.

Population
• Population: total group of people or entities from whom information is required e.g.
all employees of a corporate or organisation.
• The shared characteristic and number of people in a population is referred to as
population parameter e.g. nature of population, size of population.
• Target population: all of the people who meet population parameters.
• Accessible population: the people we can contact.

Sampling
• Sampling refers to list of people we would like to make contact with (will be
analysed). List of people referred to as elements of the sample.

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• Sample is a subset of a population that is considered representative of the population.

• Sample of quantitative research - need list of all of people in particular population.
Called sampling frame. Examples: List of customers, employees of an organisation.
• Two sampling methods are probability and non-probability sampling.
• When choosing a sampling method, remember the key points:
o A sample is a subset of the accessible population.
o The sampling frame is a list of the elements included in the population.
o Final sample must have same characteristics as population to be representative.

Sampling Methods – TWO main Methods

Probability • Refers to whether or not each unit in the population has an equal
sampling opportunity to be a part of the sample.
• Preferred method and used often in QUANTITATIVE studies.
• Used to draw a sample that:
o Fits with parameters/ shared characteristics of the research.
o Is drawn randomly from population.
o Requires little influence from researcher.
o Leads to generalisable findings.
Non- • Used when nearly impossible to determine who entire population is
probability or when gaining access to entire population is impossible.
sampling • Elements do not have equal opportunity to form part of sample.
• Used in QUALITATIVE research.

• Use non-probability sampling when:

o It is in line with parameters of research.
o Not all individuals in population are easy to access.
o Drawing a representative sample to generalise results to a
broader population is not the goal of the study.

Sampling Methods and Sub Categories

PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS

Simple • Each element has same and equal chance of being part of sample.
random • Similar to drawing names from a hat.
Systematic • Each element needs to be numbered on the sampling frame list.
sampling • Each element of sample randomly chosen using a sample interval.

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Stratified • Split the population into sub-units or strata.

sampling • Strata (singular is stratum) are groups of elements that share the
same characteristics within the same population e.g. men/ women.
Multi-stage • Used when population for study is widespread.
cluster

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS

Used when findings do not need to be generalised, in exploratory or qualitative studies.

Accidental • Elements that happen to be in the right place at the right time.
sampling • Stopping people at a mall is an example.
Convenience • Often used to pre-test questionnaires.
sampling • Comprises people who are known.
Purposive • Purposefully choose elements that we wish to include in sample,
sampling based on set list of characteristics.
Quota • Sample is drawn to match ratio of different characteristics
sampling stipulated in population parameters.
Snowball • Makes use of referrals to increase the sample size.
sampling • Participants provide suggestions of others who also fit parameters.
Volunteer • Sample put together from people who volunteer to participate.
sampling • Not reliable and tends to provide erroneous results.

Important Considerations: Factors to consider during Sampling Process:

Budget • Consider cost vs. value.

Time • Consider time to source the sample, contact them, collect data.
Resources • Access to statistical programmes, pre-established questionnaires.
Purpose • Research may not be generalizable e.g. exploratory research.
Error allowance • If error control no concern, generalisable results not required.

Chapter 12: Quantitative Data Collection

Consider three Time aspects when Designing research

• Placement of study in time – is it current study, a retrospective study or future study?
• Time span – is it longitudinal over years or cross-sectional that takes snapshot?
• Time to do actual research.

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Survey Research
• Surveys refer to a data collection tool that comprises a series of questions designed
to gather information about a large group of people.

Survey Designs

Cross-sectional • Collect data from respondents once, at a point in time.

survey design • There are no repeats.
Before-and-after • Pre-test/ post-test design that measures a situation.
survey design • Used to measure impact of intervention.
Longitudinal • Collects factual information on a continual basis.
survey design • Three major types:
• Trend studies: Look back in time.
• Cohort studies: New sample is drawn every time.
• Panel studies: Same sample from a panel for each repeat.

When you include a survey in your research proposal, ensure you can answer the following:

• Is purpose and reason stated? • Is sample size and method described?

• Is design clearly stated (cross sectional vs. • Is it clear whether survey will consist of
longitudinal)? questions or scales or both?
• Are advantages/ disadvantages stated? • What procedures will be used to pilot?
• Is population described in terms of size • How will scale be tested for reliability?
and demographics?

Different Types of Surveys

Mail surveys • Questionnaires are sent, which individuals fill in their leisure.
Telephone surveys • Respondents are interviewed over the phone.
Personal interviews • Structured, face to face interviews.
• Standardised closed-ended questions are asked.
• Time consuming and expensive, and impractical.
Group administration • Group of people fill questionnaire at same time.
• High response rates.

Surveys using Questionnaires: Keep the following in mind when constructing

questionnaires:

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• Include introduction to explain intent. • Use a logical sequence and group

• Assure respondents of confidentiality or questions.
anonymity. • Do not include too many questions.
• Indicate estimated time to complete. • Ask demographic characteristics at end.
• Provide and simple instructions. • Thank respondents for participating.
• Use clear simple language. • Pre-test questionnaire to see if clear.

Types of Questions

Question Example
• Direct Do you….
• Indirect Do you consider…
• General How do you feel about…
• Specific Do you think men/ women should…
• Closed-ended Are you under 21? Yes or No.
• Open-ended What motivated you to…
• Pared-comparison Which do you prefer? A. Mornings. B. Afternoons.
• Contingency Do you believe men/ women should…If yes, answer the following.
• Ranking Rank the following from least to most applicable A… B… C…
• Inventory questions Which of the following should be included?
A. Rugby B. Football C. Tennis D. Other _____
• Matrix Scaled: Strongly agree; Agree; Disagree; Strongly disagree
• Multiple choice E.g. A ____ B ____ C _____

Problems with Wording of Questions

• Double-barrelled More than one question in a question (confusion).

• Questionable assumptions Makes assumptions about respondents.
• Loaded language Not stated in an unbiased manner.
• Leading questions Lead/ manipulate respondent’s answers.
• Negative items Negative statements (confusion).
• Incomplete questions Incomplete information in question.
• Vague Broad questions.
• Lengthy Obscures/ confused respondents.
• Ambiguous Multiple meanings.
• Acronyms/ abbreviations Difficult to understand/ remember.
• Complex questions Jargon/ language that is difficult.

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Measurement Scales in a Questionnaire

Nominal scales • Numbers used to name variables e.g.(1) Smokers (2) Non-smokers.
• Bear the following criteria in mind:
o Categories must be exhaustive.
o Categories must be mutually exclusive (e.g. cannot be a smoker
and non-smoker at once).
o No mathematical significance assigned to variable numbers.
Ordinal scales • Ranking of objects/ arranging order e.g. brands of chocolate preferred.
Interval scales • Similar to ordinal, but intervals between numerals of equal distance.
• Temperature measurement is a good example.
Ratio scales • Interval scale that includes absolute/ true zero. Zero means that
variable is absent, e.g. people who believe in religion (zero = absent).
Likert scale • Show degree of agreement/ disagreement with statements.
• E.g. Five point Likert scale: Smoking in public should be banned.
1 Strongly agree 2 Agree 3 Undecided 4 Disagree 5 Strongly disagree
Semantic • Five or seven point rating scale.
differential • Uses polar opposite words e.g. Love/ Hate or Amateur/ Professional.
scale

Advantages/ Disadvantages of Surveys

• Data can be collected at any time. • Can be completed anonymously.

• Versatile in any setting. • Data can be standardised.
• Relatively inexpensive. • Disadvantage: Artificial and superficial.
• Less time consuming.

Quasi-Experimental and True Experimental Designs

• Experimental designs are often used to test causal or correlational hypotheses.

• Two types of experimental designs exist:

Quasi- • Participants not randomly assigned to groups.

experimental • Referred to as correlational research designs.
design • Three popular designs are:
• Propensity score matching: Matches two groups for characteristics
that are the same e.g. income groups.

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• Regression discontinuity: Compares instances above or below a

certain threshold e.g. graduates with high marks vs. low marks.
• Difference in difference: Size of difference between groups
compared.
True • Variables are carefully isolated from others, so that you can be sure
experimental that it is indeed independent variable you are testing that is causing
designs the effect, and nothing else.
• These designs have very high validity.

Factors that have an Influence on Internal Validity

History • Events that occur between pre-test and post test period.
Maturation • Changes that take place in individuals over time.
Testing • Pre-test can impact the post test.
Instrumentation • Measurement instrument is not effective.
Statistical regression • When you choose a group on extreme results, regression
(reversion) to mean (average) is common.
Select bias • Control group and experimental groups are not compatible.
Selection maturation • Control group and experimental groups are not compatible
interaction because of maturation.
Experimental mortality • Respondents lost between pre-test and post-test periods.

Advantages/ Disadvantages of Experimental Designs

• Advantages:
o Experimenter can attempt to eliminate or control all unwanted variables.
o Research reliability is increased.
• Disadvantages:
o Not always possible to eliminate extraneous variables.
o Unethical to assign people to groups on a random basis.

Content Analysis

• Data collection technique and a data analysis technique – is a quantitative technique.

• Used to investigate symbolic phenomena and content such as words that appear in
newspapers, comments on a blog, political speeches, etc.

• Two levels of meaning, namely:

o Denotative: Literal meaning.
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o Connotative: Opinion-related based on feeling.

• Advantages:
o Researcher has no control over situation.
o Information is normally not invalid.

• Quantification of Data for Content Analysis: Instead of pure statistics, textual analysis
is used to analyse the connotative meaning of communication.

Research Design for Content Analysis

• Categories are groups into which we allocate our units of analysis.

• Select the number of categories based on context and necessities of research.

• Criteria for Evaluating Categories:

o Exhaustive: All data should fit into a category.
o Mutually exclusive: Each unit of analysis should fit into one category.
o Equivalent: Each category must carry equal weight.

Steps in Content Analysis

1. Read text and make notes in margin. 5. Can categories be linked/ grouped?
2. What are the themes that emerge? 6. Repeat the above steps if necessary.
3. Categorise each item (operational 7. Collect all categories.
definition). 8. Has relevant data been captured?
4. Code data and categorise. 9. Apply statistical test to analyse data.

Chapter 13: Qualitative Data Collection

• Qualitative data - qualities of subjective experiences/ meanings of phenomena.

• Goal of Qualitative Research: Whole-world experience and depth of human
experience including personal and subjective matter.

Qualitative Data Collection Categories

Field research • Used for observations of phenomena in natural environment.

• Assumes behaviour is expression of deeper feelings/ beliefs.

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Non-reactive or • Researcher not directly involved with participants - no effect on

unobtrusive findings. Researcher studies social behaviour without affecting it.
research

FIELD RESEARCH APPROACHES

Ethnography • Ethnographic research involves the description of a particular

culture that a researcher is interested in exploring.

Types of Ethnography:

• Anthropological ethnography:
o Researchers spend lengthy periods (years) immersed in unknown
cultures to obtain view of customs, rituals, etc.

• Audience ethnography:
o Researchers want to explore how audiences make sense of/
derive pleasure from interaction with TV/ radio programmes.

• Street ethnography:
o Researchers focus on particular setting with people who spend
time on streets of large cities.

• Autoethnography:
o Study about cultural connection between individual researcher
and others in a specific social context.

• Virtual ethnography:
o Conducted when researcher uses ethnographic techniques to gain
an understanding of people’s behaviour in cyberspace e.g. game
players’ reactions, etc.

• Institutional ethnography:
o Used to understand how the workplace is shaping the subjective
experiences of people.

Grounded • Alternative to positivism.

theory • Theory is grounded in data the researcher is collecting.
• Used where there is a need to create new thoughts around a topic.
• Used to study human behaviour by way of comparative analysis.

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Case study • A case study is a thick and detailed description of a social

approach phenomenon that exists within a real world context.
• Allows deep exploration within a natural context.

Case Study Methods used:

• Illustrative or typical case study:
o Descriptive account of characteristics of case to clarify idea.
• Exploratory case study:
o Rigorous description of case within broader context to
understand nature of case.
• Explanatory case study:
o Explains particular circumstances of specific phenomenon.

Range of Field Research

• Varies according to degree of which researcher’s observation and participation are

concealed or hidden from participants.
• Range of participation can be classified into three broad categories:
o Onlooker (observer)
o Partial participation
o Full participation

Benefits of Full Participation:

• Active involvement allows researcher to experience reality of the group experiences.
• Actual happenings are understood within context.
• Taboo/ forbidden behaviours that group tries to conceal can be observed/ reported.
• Discrepancies between what is said and done can be noted.
• Findings are reflected more accurately because of first-hand information.

Types of Researcher Involvement – Conducting field research

Onlooker • No actual contact with participants.

• Social process is observed.
• Observation is concealed/ hidden.
Limitations:
• Unable to build meaningful relationships.
• Cannot ask questions.
• Ethical issues of deceit.
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Partial • Researcher Participation known. You are involved, but not immersed.
participation Limitations:
• Detachment/ degree of distance.
• Depth of understanding is limited.
Full • Fully integrated within community being studied.
participation • Participation could be overt (known) or covert (concealed).
• Become an active member.
Limitations:
• May lose objectivity due to involvement.

Steps for Conducting Field Research

1. Get to know people being studied – establish rapport.

2. Immerse yourself – ‘When in Rome, do as the Romans do’.
3. Make detailed notes – record and reflect.
4. Consolidate data – search for common trends/ categorise information for themes.

Focus Groups

• Focus group: Group interview used to determine attitudes, behaviour, preferences/

dislikes of participants interviewed simultaneously by facilitator. Determines
experiences relating to products, adverts, etc. Small focus group: 6-12 people.

Advantages of Focus Groups

• Debates provide deeper understanding. • Ask participants detailed questions.

• Participants learn from each other. • Participants build on contributions.
• Useful data collection method. • Clarify contradictions.
• Collect evidence about feelings shared. • To test understanding and insight after
• Cost effective (many people at once). completion of research.
• Explore different experiences. • Helps direct construction of questions.
• Useful if unfamiliar with field of study. • Can be used to supplement pre-testing.
• Gives insight into participants’ views.

Planning a Focus Group

• Determine time and funding availability.

• Decide how many focus group meetings to conduct (3-4 sessions).
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• Determine composition of group.

• Determine level of involvement of facilitator.
• Formulate predetermined, open ended questions to guide discussion.
• Consider political and ethical issues.

Key Considerations during Conducting Focus Groups

Researcher • Respect all participants.

involvement • Do not employ unethical techniques.
Build rapport • Members should feel comfortable.
Bias of researcher • Maintain impartial/ neutral throughout.

In-depth Interviews: Qualitative method of questions with aim of learning about attitudes.

Three types of Interviews:

• Informal conversational interviews:
o Do not ask predetermined questions. Open and adaptable interviews.
• General interview approach:
o Conversational approach with predetermined questions.
• Standardised open-ended interviews:
o Ask same set of open ended questions to all participants.

Non-reactive or Unobtrusive Research: Researcher not directly involved.

• Major methods used:

Qualitative • Systematic analysis of social artefacts to provide an in-depth

content understanding e.g. media texts.
analysis • Used to develop theories or test existing theories.
Historical • Based on analysis and description of events that occurred in the past.
research • Use this method when you want to:
o Identify patterns in the past.
o Identity the relationship between past, present and future.
Four Main Types of Historical Evidence to consult:
• Primary sources – original artefacts survived e.g. original written text.
• Secondary sources – accounts created after event occurred.
• Records – material such as diaries, memos, reports, etc.
• Oral history – interviewing people who have direct/ indirect knowledge.
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Chapter 15: Quantitative Data Analysis

• Statistical analysis allows you to produce proof that can be used to convince others
and enable them to adopt new techniques.

Why do we need Statistics?

Objective • Devoid of bias.

Defensible • Results show a statistically significant different between the status quo
and proposed alternative.

Statistics encompasses:

• Gathering data (formulate questions, encode data and record data).

• Analysing data (find patterns and relationships).
• Interpreting data (attribute patterns to external parameters).
• Formatting and presenting data (summaries and graphs).
• Projections (forecasts, predictions and modelling).

Hypotheses

• Hypotheses are statements or proposed explanations made on basis of limited

evidence for further investigation.

Null Hypothesis
• Statement supporting the status quo. Denoted by HO. EXAMPLES:
o HO: Red plaster on bones has no influence on healing time compared to white plaster.

The Alternative Hypothesis

• Statement supporting a change in the status quo. It is the game changer.
• Indicated by the symbol Ha or if we have more than one, H1, H2, etc. EXAMPLES:
o Ha: The use of red plaster improves the healing time for broken bones.

Data Sets

• Refers to a collection of data. Separate units that make up an entire set.

• Accuracy = free from error.

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• Precision = consistent error in measurement that causes measured values to be

skewed e.g. height of people.

Units

• Units of measurement are associated with all numerical measurements.

Describing Data

• Descriptive statistics summarises data and allows questions to be answered:

o What is the range of data (maximum/ minimum values e.g. fastest/ slowest times)?
o What is the centre point of data set (mean = average, median = middle value in a
list, mode = values that occur most frequently)?

Example:
Sample A B C D E F
Value 40 46 44 38 42 42

Range of data:
Minimum = 38; Maximum = 46; RANGE = 46 – 38 = 8

Central points:

• Mean = (40 + 46 + 44 + 38 + 42 + 42)/ 6 = 252/6 = 42

• Median = (38, 40, 42, 42, 44, 46) rearranged, mid-point is 42 and 42, average is 42,
hence median is 42.
• Mode = 42 (most frequently occurring).

Distribution
• Shows number of times a particular data value occurs.

Value 38 40 42 44 46
Count 1 1 2 1 1

Spread of Data

• Standard deviation reflects spread of data.

• Standard deviation represents average distance that the data values vary from mean.

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• Tells you how far removed a value is from average or mean.

• If average IQ is between 85 and 110, someone with an IQ of 60 will have a standard
deviation further from the mean.

Correlation Coefficient

• Always between -1 and +1.

• Closer the number to these figures, stronger the correlation between two variables.
• Negative number = negative correlation (if you increase independent variable,
dependent variable decreases).
• Positive number = positive correlation (if you increase independent variable,
dependent variable increases).

Probability

• Probability is the likelihood of a particular event occurring.

• Stated in the range from 0 to 1.
• The higher the value, higher the probability.
• When flipping a coin, the probability of a head is 0.5 and tail 0.5.
• The normal distribution has a shape known as the bell curve.

Drawing Conclusions from Data

• Inferential statistics is when we draw conclusions from data.

Hypothesis Testing
• Null hypothesis presumed to be true and ‘burden of proof’ lies in attempting to
disprove null hypothesis.

Steps in Hypothesis Testing

1. State hypotheses • Null (HO) and Alternate (Ha = H1, H2, etc.).
2. Set decision criteria • Start by setting out that we want to be 95% confident, as an
example, in the decision we make.
• If results fall within 5% region of standard normal curve,
reject null hypotheses and accept alternative. This is called
the rejection region.
3. Compute test • Calculate the Z value (test statistic).
statistics • Value informs of relationship between population/ sample.
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4. Record decision • Consider Z value and z-score and accept/ reject hypothesis.

Presenting Data
• Presented using visual tools such as graphs and tables, etc.

Chapter 16: Qualitative Data Analysis

Nature of Qualitative Data Analysis and Interpretation

Distinct characteristics of qualitative research include the following:

Textual • Includes oral, written and graphic languages collected through
interviews and observation.
Iterative • The analysis and interpreting of data is a continuous cycle
where patterns emerge with increasing cycles.
Hermeneutic • Includes a detailed analysis to discover meaning.
• Interpretation of textual data.
Subjective • There is no right or wrong answer for human behaviour.
• Qualitative analyst assumes there is no absolute factual truth.
Constructed • Both the researcher and research instrument interpret phenomena
and symbolic subjectively and express it symbolically.
• Symbolic interactionists view subjective experience as symbolic
and constructed through social interactions.
• Symbolic interactionism emphasises the social dimensions of
symbols and views meaning as a product of social life using
symbols such as language.
• Deconstruction is the process through which the researcher takes
text apart to understand how meaning is constructed.

Qualitative Data Analysis Methods

• Common denominators of qualitative analysis are:

o Reduction o Interpretation
o Organisation o Substantiation.

• Content analysis (textual analysis) is used both for collection and analysis of data.
o Method used is transcribing data from raw information, copying and converting it
into a written or visual format to that it can be analysed systematically.

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Data Analysis Methods

1. • Content or textual analysis is used to explore and identify overt and

Qualitative covert themes and patterns embedded in a particular text.
content
analysis • Can be conducted inductively or deductively:
o Inductively: Reasoning from specific to general. Raw data
(specific) without using a conceptual framework. Develop a
general theory from specific theory.
o Deductively: Use a conceptual framework derived from
general applicable theories to identify specific themes.

• Group data into categories (this is called coding). Coding can be

applied to focus group notes, observations, interviews, etc.
• Fracturing data is breaking the text down into codes and concepts,
and rearranging and ordering them into meaningful categories.

EIGHTS STEPS IN QUALITATIVE CONTENT ANALYSIS PROCESS:

• Prepare data:
a. Organise, convert/ transcribe raw data from interviews.
b. Memoing entails making reflective notes about what glean
from the data while reading and coding.

• Define coding unit to analyse:

• A coding unit is similar to a concept.
• Will you use words, phases, symbols, sentences/paragraphs?
• Examine data and decide how to break it up.

• Develop categories and coding schemes or conceptual framework:

• Develop your framework or schemes from raw data
(inductively) or based on previous theories (deductively).
• Label and name categories.
• Codes, themes/ categories should have these characteristics:
a) Should be exhaustive: Enough categories to accommodate all.
b) Should be mutually exclusive: Each theme and category
should be distinct, with no overlap.
c) Should be specific: Relevance should be obvious.

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• Test coding scheme on sample text:

• Test clarity of category definitions on sample data.

• Code text: Forms of coding include:

i. Line by line coding:
Form of microanalysis marking certain words and phrases.
Can be used inductively and deductively.

ii. Open or substantive coding:

Similar to line by line, but entire text read first to get overall
impression.

iii. Axial coding: Follows open coding where researcher

compares categories of concepts and identifies
relationships for categories.

iv. Selective coding: Select core/ essential codes that

correspond with behaviour observed. Core concepts then used
as guiding principle in selecting related concepts.

v. Thematic coding: Known as conceptual or concept coding.

Used in thematic text analysis. Process of data reduction by
means of identifying themes.

• Assess coding consistency:

• Recheck consistency with which coding was conducted.

• Draw conclusions from coded data:

• Involves interpretations of themes or categories identified.
• Done through theoretical constructs (general) and own sense of
meanings (specific).

• Interpretation involves three types:

i. Explain relationships found.
ii. Extraneous information must be considered.
iii. Avoid false interpretations.

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• Consider the following regarding data interpretation:

i. Learnt through practice.
ii. Research relevance lies in proper interpretation.
iii. Link your results with other studies.
iv. Formulate new ideas.

• Report method and findings:

• Use software e.g. CAT (Coding Analysis Tool) or ATLAS.

2. • Linguistic approach to text where researcher tries to determine how

Discourse speakers or authors choose words to construct an event.
analysis • Used to make sense of the way media conveys meaning to reality.
• E.g. Lines are numbered, italics are used, etc.

3. • It is the study of talk-in-interaction. Looks for patterns in

Conversation languages. Makes use of audio and video recordings.
analysis
4. • Uses a set of communicative modes such as proxemics (space
Multimodal and distance), posture, head movement, gaze and spoken
conversational language to understand meaning.
analysis • Takes body language as part of a conversation into account.

• Researchers use the following three aspects for analysis:

• Proxemics: Distance between people in a conventional stance.
Includes intimacy of space and attitude.
• Posture: Position and general body demeanour.
• Gaze: Involves direction and intensity of looking at people.

5. • Concerned with anything that can be considered a sign.

Semiotics • It is the sciences of signs and codes and the meanings they convey.
• The process of creating meaning is referred to as signification.
• A sign is made up of the following three elements:
• Signifier: Physical aspect of sign e.g. symbol/word or photo.
• Referent: Thing, idea or abstract concept that the signifier
represents e.g. heart sign symbolises love.
• Signified: Meaning a person attaches to the signifier.
6. • Involves an attempt to determine and deconstruct the ways in
which signs and codes operate within particular texts.

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Semiotic • Symbols are viewed as representational signs which convey

textual abstract, arbitrary and ambiguous meanings.
analysis

Data Analysis

• Strive for balance between description and interpretation.

• Organise information in terms of the themes and categories you used in your analysis.

Chapter 17: Validity and Reliability

• Validity and reliability are similar to how humans develop feelings of trust in people.
• Characteristics that make us trust the truthfulness of research should be considered.
• Qualitative researchers use concept trustworthiness to measure reliability/ validity.

Validity and Reliability in Quantitative Studies

Reliability in Quantitative Research

• Reliability is linked to findings of research. It is about credibility (consistency).

• Reliability means that different research participants tested by the same research
instrument at different times should respond identically to the instrument.
• Generalisation: reliability can be seen as extent to which results can be generalised.

Different Types of Reliability

Inter-rater or • Measure of agreement.

inter-coder • Different participants, same method or tool.
Test-retest • Measure of stability.
• Same participants, different method or tool at different times.
Parallel • Measure of equivalence.
forms • Different participants, different method or tool at same time.
Split halves • Measure of equivalence.
• Method or tool split into two halves, scores then correlated.
Internal • Measures same thing (construct).
consistency • Correlates performance across participants.

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Validity in Quantitative Research

• Validity is about determining whether research measured what it was supposed to.
• It is the extent to which instrument actually reflected reality of constructs.

Different types of Validity

Content validity; • Is the test representative?

sampling validity • Does measurement represent specific content?
Face validity • Does the test look like what it is supposed to?
• Is it well designed?
Construct validity • Does test correspond to other variables?
• Does it measure what it is meant to?
Criterion-related validity; • Does the test accurately predict future behaviour?
Instrumental validity • How accurate is procedure if compared to another?

Internal Validity
• Refers to whether research method or design will answer your research question.
• There must be no errors in the design of your research and method.
External Validity
• Focuses on ability to generalise findings from specific sample to a larger population.
• Refers to your ability to state with confidence that, if the same research method and
design was applied to rest of population, you would find the same results.

Pilot Studies
• Quantitative research projects use a pilot study to increase the validity and reliability.
• Sometimes called feasibility studies. Mini versions of research projects.
• Used to pre-test the measurement instrument.
• Can act as prewarning as possible errors with measurement instrument will emerge.

Trustworthiness in Qualitative Studies

Credibility • Accuracy with which researcher interpreted data from participants.

• Increased when long periods of time spent with participants.
• Increased by making use of triangulation (more than one
research method, such as interviews, focus groups, etc.) used.
Transferability • Ability of findings to be applied to similar situation.
• Would allow for generalisation.

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Dependability • Refers to quality of process of integration that takes place

between data collection method, analysis and theory from data.
Confirmability • Refers to how well data collected supports the findings and
interpretations of researcher.

Comparison Table: Qualitative versus Quantitative Research

Qualitative terminology Quantitative terminology
• Credibility • Internal validity
• Transferability • External validity
• Dependability • Reliability
• Confirmability • Objectivity

Chapter 18: Ethics in Research

Typical Stakeholders in Research, and their interest in your ethics:

Participants • They want to trust you. Do not want to be misled/ exploited.

Broader public • Wants to believe in value/ credibility of your results for society.
Local/ international • Want to rely on you as a credible source.
research communities • Do not want to be discredited by association.
Academic institution • Maintain reputation (do not want student behaving unethically).
Finding bodies • E.g. Employees or research funds. Their reputation is at stake.
Community • Directly benefits from research and has a vested interest.
Policy makers • Use your results to create and improve policy.
Mass media • Want to convey newsworthy aspects to target markets.
You (researcher) • Personal and professional reputation at stake.

Ethical Issues: PARTICIPANTS

Informed • Participants should know that they are taking part in the study.
consent • They should be formally informed and should give consent.
• They should understand what will be required of them.
• Children can only participate with their legal guardians’ consent.
Collecting data • Prioritise their physical and psychological comfort:
from o Inform them that identities/ personal information protected.
participants o Avoid embarrassing questions.

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Dealing with • It is unethical, when doing research for your company, to reveal to
sensitive management anyone who expressed negative views.
information • Protect information at all costs.
Providing • Incentives such as money, food, holidays, etc. may distort results.
incentives • You can use incentives as a token of appreciation however.
Avoiding harm • Do not get participants to recall emotionally painful memories.
• Do not ask embarrassing questions in a focus group setting.
Confidentiality • Anonymity: Not recording names at any stage of research process.
vs. anonymity • Confidentiality: Knowing names, but not divulging it.
Deception • Common ways of deceiving participants are:
o Telling them research is about one thing, and doing another.
• When you have no choice but to ‘deceive’ participants, bear in mind:
o Inform participants of why and how they have been deceived.

Ethical Issues: THE RESEARCHER

Falsifying • Refers to deliberately fabricating or changing data.

information • Reasons why information is falsified:
o Save reputation or gain status.
o Keep funding secure.
o Please employers or keep jobs.
o Avoid difficult/ time consuming data collection/ analysis.
o Get a desired outcome.
o Retain a client.
Distorting • You are guilty of distorting results when you deliberately:
results • Emphasise certain aspects over other aspects.
• Quote numbers out of context which may distort interpretation.
Bias • Bias is the desire to achieve a particular result.
• May influence how researcher collects/ analyses data/ reports results.
Misusing • Data collected may not be used for other purposes.
information • Unethical to sell participants’ details or demographics to marketers.
Using • Harmful to participants e.g. making children view pornography to
inappropriate document their responses.
methods • Highly unsuited to the researcher’s stated purpose or results.

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