3 Ecosystems

EcosystEms
Ecosystems are complex networks that consist of living

organisms interacting with each other and their physical
environment. They play a vital role in maintaining the balance
of nature and supporting life on Earth. This unit explores the
concept of ecosystems, their structure and function, energy
flow, ecological succession, food chains and webs, and the
various types of ecosystems.
1. Concept of an Ecosystem
An ecosystem is defined as a biological community interacting
with its physical environment, including both biotic (living)
and abiotic (non-living) components. The interactions within
an ecosystem involve various organisms, including plants,
animals, fungi, and microorganisms, as well as factors like soil,
water, air, and climate.
Ecosystems can vary in size, ranging from small ponds to vast
forests or even the entire planet. They are dynamic systems
that undergo changes over time, influenced by natural and
human activities.
2. Structure and Function of an Ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem refers to the organization and
composition of its components, while its function
encompasses the processes that occur within the ecosystem.
a) Components of Ecosystems
1. Biotic Components: These include all living organisms:
o Producers: Organisms that produce their own food
through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis, mainly
plants and some microorganisms.
o Consumers: Organisms that cannot produce their
own food and rely on other organisms for energy.
They are classified as herbivores (plant-eaters),
carnivores (meat-eaters), and omnivores (both plant
and meat-eaters).
o Decomposers: Organisms like bacteria and fungi
that break down dead organic matter, recycling
nutrients back into the ecosystem.
2. Abiotic Components: These include non-living factors
such as sunlight, water, soil, temperature, and
atmospheric gases. These factors influence the types of
organisms that can thrive in a particular ecosystem.
b) Functions of Ecosystems
Ecosystems perform essential functions that sustain life,
including:
• Energy Flow: The transfer of energy from one organism
to another through food chains and webs.
• Nutrient Cycling: The movement and exchange of
organic and inorganic matter back into the production of
living matter.
• Habitat Provision: Ecosystems provide living spaces for
organisms, ensuring biodiversity.
3. Producers, Consumers, and Decomposers

a) Producers
Producers, primarily green plants, are at the base of the food
chain. They convert sunlight into chemical energy through
photosynthesis, forming the foundation of energy flow in
ecosystems. Other producers, like certain bacteria, use
chemosynthesis to create energy from inorganic compounds.
b) Consumers
Consumers depend on producers for energy and are classified
into various levels:
• Primary Consumers: Herbivores that feed directly on
producers.
• Secondary Consumers: Carnivores that eat primary
consumers.
• Tertiary Consumers: Higher-level carnivores that prey on
secondary consumers.
• Quaternary Consumers: Top predators that have no
natural enemies.
c) Decomposers
Decomposers play a critical role in breaking down dead
organic matter, facilitating nutrient recycling. By decomposing
waste and dead organisms, they release nutrients back into
the soil, which supports plant growth.
4. Energy Flow in the Ecosystem

Energy flow in ecosystems follows the principle of the food
chain, where energy is transferred from one trophic level to
another. The pathway of energy flow can be summarized as
follows:
1. Solar Energy: The primary source of energy for most
ecosystems, harnessed by producers.
2. Trophic Levels: The hierarchical levels in an ecosystem,
including:
o Producers (1st trophic level)
o Primary Consumers (2nd trophic level)
o Secondary Consumers (3rd trophic level)
o Tertiary Consumers (4th trophic level)
3. Energy Transfer Efficiency: Only about 10% of energy
is0020transferred from one trophic level to the next,
while the rest is lost as heat, used for metabolic
processes, or remains undigested.
5. Ecological Succession
Ecological succession is the process through which
ecosystems change and develop over time. It can be classified
into two main types:
1. Primary Succession: Occurs in lifeless areas where no soil
exists, such as after a volcanic eruption or glacier retreat.
It starts with pioneer species, like lichens and mosses,
that help create soil.
2. Secondary Succession: Occurs in areas where an
ecosystem has been disturbed but soil and some
organisms still exist, such as after a forest fire. It typically
proceeds faster than primary succession due to the
presence of existing soil and seeds.
Succession leads to the establishment of a stable community,
known as a climax community, characterized by high
biodiversity and complex interactions.
6. Food Chains, Food Webs, and Ecological Pyramids

a) Food Chains
A food chain represents the linear pathway of energy flow
through an ecosystem, showing who eats whom. It typically
consists of producers, consumers, and decomposers arranged
in a sequence.
b) Food Webs
A food web is a more complex representation of feeding
relationships in an ecosystem, illustrating how multiple food
chains are interconnected. It highlights the diverse
interactions among organisms and the dependence on
multiple sources of energy.
c) Ecological Pyramids
Ecological pyramids visually represent the relationships
between different trophic levels in an ecosystem. There are
three main types:
• Pyramid of Numbers: Shows the number of organisms at
each trophic level.
• Pyramid of Biomass: Illustrates the total mass of living
matter at each trophic level.
• Pyramid of Energy: Displays the amount of energy
available at each trophic level, demonstrating the
significant loss of energy as it moves up the chain.
7. Types of Ecosystems
a) Forest Ecosystem
Forest ecosystems are characterized by dense tree coverage
and high biodiversity. They play a crucial role in carbon
sequestration, oxygen production, and habitat provision.
Forests can be classified into:
• Tropical Rainforests: High biodiversity, warm
temperatures, and abundant rainfall.
• Temperate Forests: Deciduous and evergreen trees, with
distinct seasons.
• Boreal Forests (Taiga): Coniferous trees, colder climates,
and shorter growing seasons.
b) Grassland Ecosystem
Grassland ecosystems are dominated by grasses, with few
trees due to limited rainfall. They are essential for agriculture
and grazing. Types include:
• Savannas: Tropical grasslands with scattered trees,
characterized by seasonal rainfall.
• Temperate Grasslands: Rich soil, ideal for farming, with
hot summers and cold winters.
c) Desert Ecosystem
Desert ecosystems are defined by low rainfall, extreme
temperatures, and unique adaptations of organisms. Key
characteristics include:
• Flora and Fauna: Cacti, succulents, and drought-resistant
animals like camels and lizards.
• Water Conservation: Organisms have adapted to
conserve water, such as nocturnal behavior and
specialized physiology.
d) Aquatic Ecosystems
Aquatic ecosystems encompass freshwater and marine
environments, each with unique characteristics:
• Freshwater Ecosystems: Include ponds, lakes, rivers, and
streams, characterized by low salt concentrations. They
support diverse life forms such as fish, amphibians, and
aquatic plants.
• Marine Ecosystems: Cover vast oceanic areas and
include coral reefs, estuaries, and coastal zones. They are
rich in biodiversity and play a crucial role in global
climate regulation.

3 Ecosystems

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3 Ecosystems

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EcosystEms

Ecosystems are complex networks that consist of living

3. Producers, Consumers, and Decomposers

4. Energy Flow in the Ecosystem

6. Food Chains, Food Webs, and Ecological Pyramids

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