Chapter 5

Forces and matter

IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL:

• recognise that a force may change the size and shape of a body
• plot and interpret load–extension graphs and describe the associated
experimental procedure
• relate pressure to force and area and recall the associated equation
p = FA
• relate the pressure beneath a liquid surface to depth and to density

F
recall and use the expression k = x
, where k is the spring constant
and F is force per unit extension
recognise the significance of the ‘limit of proportionality’ for an load–
 extension graph
recall and use the equation Δp = ⍴gΔh.

GETTING STARTED

Figure 5.1 shows a pop-up popper toy. Figure 5.1a shows the popper in its
natural state and Figure 5.1b shows it when it is turned inside out. Once
turned inside out, a popper can jump several metres into the air. Using your
knowledge of physics, explain how this can happen.

Figure 5.1a: Rubber pop-up popper in its normal state. b: When it has been
turned inside out, just before springing back to its normal shape.

HOW THE MANTIS SHRIMP PUNCHES ABOVE ITS

WEIGHT

Figure 5.2 shows a mantis shrimp. This marine creature can punch its prey
(usually crabs) with a force of more than 700 N, over a thousand times its
own bodyweight. It has hinged clubs at the front of its body called dactyls.
They can reach speeds of 23 m/s in less than three milliseconds, more than
750 times the acceleration due to gravity. It achieves this by storing elastic
potential energy in a part of its exoskeleton that is shaped like a saddle.
This piece of exoskeleton behaves like a compressed spring or the rubber
popper shown in Figure 5.1. Turning the popper inside out changes its
shape. The shrimp uses its muscles to change the shape of part of its
exoskeleton by transferring chemical potential energy into elastic potential
energy. Humans achieve the same thing with a crossbow. Once enough
energy has been stored, a latch can release it.

Figure 5.2: A mantis shrimp.

Discussion questions
1 What weapons have humans developed that acts in the same way as
the shrimp’s dactyl? Can you think of other applications?
2 Could a 50 g mantis shrimp injure you? A punch from a mantis shrimp
exerts the same force as the weight of a typical adult.
5.1 Forces acting on solids
Forces can change the size and shape of an object. They can stretch, squash,
bend or twist it. Figure 5.3 shows the forces needed for these different ways of
deforming an object. You could imagine holding a cylinder of foam rubber,
which is easy to deform, and changing its shape in each of these ways.

Figure 5.3: Forces can change the size and shape of a solid object. These
diagrams show four different ways of deforming a solid object.

Foam rubber is good for investigating how things deform, because, when the
forces are removed, it springs back to its original shape. Here are two more
examples of materials that deform in this way:
Firstly, when a football is kicked, it is compressed for a short while (see Figure
5.4a). Then it springs back to its original shape as it pushes itself off the foot of
the player who has kicked it. The same is true for a tennis ball when struck by a
racket.
Secondly, bungee jumpers rely on the springiness of the rubber rope, which
breaks their fall when they jump from a height (see Figure 5.4b). If the rope
became permanently stretched, they would stop suddenly at the bottom of their
fall, rather than bouncing up and down and gradually coming to a halt.

Figure 5.4a: This X-ray image shows how a football is compressed when it is
kicked. It returns to its original shape as it leaves the player’s boot. (This is an
example of an elastic deformation.) The boot is also compressed slightly but,
because it is stiffer than the ball, the effect is less noticeable. b: When the
bungee cord reaches its maximum extension, it will return to its original length,
pulling the bungee jumper upwards.

Some materials are less springy. They become permanently deformed when
forces act on them.
• When two cars collide, the metal panels of their bodywork are bent.
• Gold and silver are metals that can be deformed by hammering them (see
Figure 5.5). People have known for thousands of years how to shape rings
 and other ornaments from these precious metals.

Figure 5.5: A Tibetan silversmith making a wrist band. Silver is a relatively soft
metal at room temperature, so it can be hammered into shape without the need
for heating.
5.2 Stretching springs
To investigate how objects deform, it is simplest to start with a spring. Springs
are designed to stretch a long way when a small force is applied, so it is easy to
measure how their length changes.
Figure 5.6 shows how to carry out an investigation on stretching a spring. The
spring is hung from a rigid clamp, so that its top end is fixed. Weights are hung
on the end of the spring – these are referred to as the load. As the load is
increased, the spring stretches and its length increases.

Figure 5.6: Investigating the stretching of a spring

Figure 5.7 shows the pattern observed as the load is increased in regular steps.
The length of the spring increases (also in regular steps). At this stage the spring
will return to its original length if the load is removed. However, if the load is
increased too far, the spring becomes permanently stretched and will not return
to its original length. It has been inelastically deformed.

Figure 5.7: Stretching a spring. At first, the spring deforms elastically. It will
return to its original length when the load is removed. Eventually, however, the
load is so great that the spring is damaged.

Extension of a spring
As the force stretching the spring increases, the spring gets longer. It is
important to consider the increase in length of the spring. This quantity is known
as the extension.
length of stretched spring = original length + extension
This means that, if you double the load that is stretching a spring, the spring will
not become twice as long. It is the extension that is doubled.
Table 5.1 shows how to use a table with three columns to record the results of an
experiment to stretch a spring. The third column is used to record the value of
the extension, which is calculated by subtracting the original length from the
value in the second column.
To see how the extension depends on the load, we draw a load–extension graph
(Figure 5.8). You can see that the graph is in two parts.
• At first, the graph slopes up steadily. This shows that the extension
increases in equal steps as the load increases.
• Then the graph curves. This happens when the load is so great that the
spring has become permanently damaged. It will not return to its original
length.
You can see the same features in Table 5.1. Look at the third column. At first,
the numbers go up in equal steps. The last two steps are bigger.
Load / N Length / cm Extension / cm
0.0 24.0 0.0
1.0 24.6 0.6
2.0 25.2 1.2
3.0 25.8 1.8
4.0 26.4 2.4
5.0 27.0 3.0
6.0 27.6 3.6
7.0 28.6 4.6
8.0 29.5 5.6
Table 5.1: Results from an experiment to find out how a spring stretches as the
load on it is increased.

Figure 5.8: A load–extension graph for a spring, based on the data in Table 5.1.
Questions
1 A piece of elastic cord is 75 cm long. When it is stretched, its length
increases to 97 cm. What is its extension?
2 Table 5.2 shows the results of an experiment to stretch an elastic cord.
Copy and complete the table, and draw a graph to represent this data (with
load on the vertical axis).
Load / N Length / cm Extension / cm
0 75 0
2 81
4 87
6 93
8 99
10 105
12 118
14 135
16 156
Table 5.2
5.3 The limit of proportionality and the spring
constant
The mathematical pattern of the stretching spring was first described by the
British scientist Robert Hooke. He realised that, when the load on the spring was
doubled, the extension also doubled. Three times the load gave three times the
extension, and so on. This is shown in the graph in Figure 5.9. The graph shows
how the extension depends on the load. At first, the graph is a straight line,
leading up from the origin. This shows that the extension is proportional to the
load.
At a certain point, the graph curves and the line slopes up less steeply. This point
is called the limit of proportionality. If the spring is stretched beyond this
point, it will be permanently damaged. If the load is removed, the spring will not
return all the way to its original, undeformed length.

Figure 5.9a: A load–extension graph for a spring. Beyond the limit of

proportionality, the graph is no longer a straight line, and the spring is
permanently deformed. b: This graph shows what happens when the load is
removed. The extension does not return to zero, showing that the spring is now
longer than at the start of the experiment.

EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS 5.1

Investigating springs
Learning how different materials behave when a force is applied to them is
very important if they are used to make something. The hull of the RMS
Titanic was composed of mild steel plates held together by 3 million rivets.
When the ship struck an iceberg in 1912 the force broke some of these
rivets and this contributed to the ship sinking.
You will investigate how the extension of the spring changes as the load is
increased and whether the extension on the spring is proportional to the
load.

You will need:

• eye protection
• clamp stand, boss and clamp
• spring
• hanger with slotted masses
• G-clamp
• ruler
• plumb line (a piece of thread with a lump of metal on the end).

Safety: You need to wear eye protection because there is a danger that the
spring will fly into someone’s eye if it breaks under tension. Place a mat on
the floor beneath the masses so that, if the spring snaps, the masses will not
damage the floor. Avoid standing on the mat because the masses may land
on your feet if the spring snaps.
Getting started
1 Explain the purpose of:
a the G-clamp
b the plumb line.
2 Each slotted weight is 100 g. Calculate what load this represents.
3 Identify the independent (input) and dependent (output) variables
Method
1 Set up the experiment as shown in Figure 5.10.

Figure 5.10: Apparatus for investigation.

2 Arrange the ruler with zero at the top. This means that, as the steel
spring stretches, the readings on the ruler increase.
3 Use the headings below to draw a results table. Remember to add
more rows.
Does the spring return to
Load on Ruler reading Spring extension
original length when
hanger / N / cm / cm
unloaded? Y /N
4 Attach your hanger to the bottom of the spring so that the spring hangs
vertically.
5 Record the load as zero and record the reading on the ruler where it
lines up with the bottom of the hanger.
6 Add a slotted 100 g mass (equal to a load of 1.0 N) and record the new
ruler reading where it lines up with the bottom of the hanger.
7 Remove the mass and record whether the steel spring returns to its
original length.
8 Repeat steps 6 and 7, adding another 100 g mass each time until you
have filled the table or the spring breaks.
9 Remember, the extension is the difference between the length of the
spring with the load attached and the original length when just the
hanger was attached. To calculate the spring extension, subtract your
ruler reading for a load of 0 N from all of your ruler readings. This
means that the spring extension should be zero (0 cm) when the load is
zero (0 N).
10 Plot a graph of load against extension (that is, extension on the
horizontal axis). Include a title, axis labels and a line of best fit.
Questions
1 Did your graph pass through the origin? If not, did you remember to
correct for the original length of the spring?
2 How can you identify where on the graph the force on the steel spring
is proportional to the load? What is the name of the point where this
no longer happens to the spring and can you locate it on your graph?
3 What are the values for the load and extension corresponding to the
limit of proportionality for your spring?
4 Did the spring continue returning to its original length beyond the
limit of proportionality?

ACTIVITY 5.1
Elastic glass
Glass is brittle. It shatters once it reaches its limit of proportionality.
So, why can glass fibres (used in optic fibres and loft insulation) bend so
easily without shattering? In this activity you will explain why you can
bend glass fibres into a circle but a glass block will shatter if you try to
bend it.
First, think about how you would approach this problem without the
guidance that follows; make some notes of your ideas.
When you bend an object (such as a pencil eraser), one surface stretches
and the opposite surface compresses (gets shorter). Take your textbook and
measure the width of the bottom edge. It should be about 21 cm. Now bend
it into the shape of an arch with the spine on the left-hand side as shown in
Figure 5.11.

Figure 5.11: A textbook bent out of shape.

You will see the book spine on the left-hand side is at right angles to both
the front and back covers. The pages slide past each other so that the length
of all the pages and the book covers have not changed. A solid block of
paper (such as a stack of paper in its wrapper) is difficult to bend but, if you
could bend it, the top surface would stretch and the bottom surface would
compress and the right-hand edge would be at right-angles to the top and
bottom surface as shown by the dotted red line to the right of the book. The
little triangle of paper to the right of the dotted line would not be present. In
this example, it would result in an approximate difference of about 2 cm in
length between the top and bottom surfaces. Half of this difference would
be because the top surface stretched and the other half would be because
the bottom surface compressed.
1 Either take measurements from Figure 5.11 or try the experiment
yourself (in pairs). One person can hold and bend the book while the
other person uses a set square to find where the dashed red line should
be (no need to mark the book though). Use a ruler to measure the
length indicated by the red double-headed arrow.
2 The extension (or compression) is half the length of the double-headed
arrow.
Engineers calculate strain, which is the extension divided by the original
length. For the book in the picture this will be roughly 1 cm divided by 21
cm (~0.05 or 5%). Engineers have also worked out that different materials
have different breaking strains. A glass fibre has a breaking strain of about
2%.
The breaking strain of ordinary glass is much lower than this, probably
because it has microscopic (tiny) imperfections where stress tends to
concentrate.
3 Would glass as thick as your book shatter if bent through the angle
shown in Figure 5.11?
4 Calculate the extension (or compression) for an individual page. You
learned how to work out the thickness of a single page in Chapter 1.
How does extension vary with the thickness of the object that is being
bent out of shape?
5 Would glass as thick as a page in your book shatter if bent through the
angle shown in Figure 5.11?
Other things to think about
1 What is the relationship between the length of the double-headed
arrow and the thickness of the book?
2 What is the relationship between the length of the double-headed
arrow and how much the book is bent?
The behaviour of the spring is represented by the graph in Figure 5.10a and can
be described as:
The extension of a spring is proportional to the load applied to it, provided the
limit of proportionality is not exceeded.
This is also known as Hooke's law. We can write the behaviour of a spring as an
equation:
F = kx
In this equation, F is the load (force) stretching the spring, k is the spring
constant of the spring, and x is the extension of the spring. The spring constant
is defined as the force per unit of extension, which is obvious when Hooke’s law
is expressed in terms of k:
F
k= x

KEY EQUATION
force
spring constant = unit extension
F
k = x

The spring constant is a measure of the ‘stiffness’ of the spring: the stiffer the
spring, the bigger the load required to change its length and the steeper the
gradient when load is plotted against extension (i.e. with extension on the
horizontal axis).

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.1

A spring has a spring constant k = 20 N/cm. What load is needed to produce

an extension of 2.5 cm?
Step 1: Write down what you know and what you want to find out.
spring constant k = 20 N/cm,
extension = 2.5 cm
load F = ?
Step 2: Write down the equation linking these quantities, substitute values
and calculate the result.
 F = kx
F = 20 N/cm × 2.5 cm = 50 N
Answer
A load of 50 N will stretch the spring by 2.5 cm.

How rubber behaves

A rubber band can be stretched in a similar way to a spring. As with a spring, the
bigger the load, the bigger the extension. However, if the weights are added with
great care, and then removed one by one without releasing the tension in the
rubber, the following can be observed.
• The graph obtained is not a straight line. Rather, it has a slightly S-shaped
curve. This shows that the extension is not exactly proportional to the load.
• Eventually, increasing the load no longer produces any extension. The
rubber feels very stiff. When the load is removed, the graph does not come
back exactly to zero.

Hooke and springs

Why was Robert Hooke so interested in springs? Hooke was a scientist, but he
was also a great inventor. He was interested in springs for two reasons.
• Springs are useful for making weighing machines, and Hooke wanted to
make a weighing machine that was both very sensitive (to weigh very light
objects) and very accurate (to measure very precise quantities).
• He also realised that a spiral spring could be used to control a clock or even
a wristwatch.
Figure 5.12 shows a set of diagrams drawn by Hooke, including a long spring
and a spiral spring, complete with pans for carrying weights. You can also see
some of his graphs.
Figure 5.12: Robert Hooke’s diagrams of springs.

For scientists, it is important to publish results so that other scientists can make
use of them. Hooke was very secretive about some of his findings, because he
did not want other people to use them in their own inventions. For this reason, he
published some of his findings in code. For example, instead of writing his law
of springs as given above, he wrote: ceiiinosssttuv. Later, when he felt that it
was safe to publish his ideas, he revealed that this was an anagram of a sentence
in Latin. Decoded, it said: Ut tensio, sic vis. In English, this is: ‘As the extension
increases, so does the force.’ In other words, the extension is proportional to the
force producing it. You can see Hooke’s straight-line graph in Figure 5.12.

Questions
3 A spring requires a load of 7.5 N to increase its length by 5.0 cm. What
load will give it an extension of 12 cm?
4 A spring has an unstretched length of 13.0 cm. Its spring constant, k is 7.0
N/cm. What load is needed to stretch the spring to a length of 18.0 cm?
5 The results of an experiment to stretch a spring are shown in Table 5.3. Use
the results to plot a load–extension graph. On your graph, mark the limit of
proportionality and state the value of the load at that point.

Load / N Length / m
0.0 1.396
2.6 1.422
5.3 1.448
7.9 1.475
10.6 1.501
13.2 1.536
15.9 1.579

Table 5.3

REFLECTION
Think back to Activity 5.1. This was an example of a thought experiment.
Great scientists like Albert Einstein have used this approach to make huge
progress in science.
Did you need the guidance? If so, was it helpful? If so, was it helpful?
When bending an object, you compress it on the side that gets shorter and
stretch (or extend) it on the other side.
Could you imagine what was happening? When you roll one sheet of paper
into a cylinder, the inside circumference and outside circumference are
nearly the same length: there has been very little stretching (extension) or
compression. This is the same as the glass fibre. Can you see that, by
making the paper very much thicker, the difference in length between the
inner and outer circumferences would get bigger and so would the
extension and compression? Glass is quite brittle so stretching it too much
will make it shatter.
Can you think of ways of developing this thinking skill and practising it in
the next two activities in this chapter and beyond?
5.4 Pressure
If you dive into a swimming pool, you will experience the pressure of the water
on you. It provides the upthrust, which pushes you back to the surface. The
deeper you go, the greater the pressure acting on you. Submarines and marine
exploring vehicles (Figure 5.13) must be designed to withstand very great
pressures. They have curved surfaces, which are much stronger under pressure,
and they are made of thick metal.

Figure 5.13: This underwater exploring vehicle is used to carry tourists to

depths of 600 metres, where the pressure is 61 times that at the surface. The
design makes use of the fact that spherical and cylindrical surfaces stand up well
to pressure. The viewing window is made of acrylic plastic and is 9.5 cm thick.

This pressure comes about because any object under water is being pressed
down on by the weight of water above it. The deeper you go, the greater the
amount of water pressing down on you (see Figure 5.14a). In a similar way, the
atmosphere exerts pressure on us, although we are not normally conscious of
this. The Earth’s gravity pulls it downwards, so that the atmosphere presses
downwards on our heads. Mountaineers climbing to the top of Mount Everest
rise through two-thirds of the atmosphere, so the pressure is only about one-third
of the pressure down at sea level. There is much less air above them, pressing
down.
The pressure caused by water is much greater than that caused by air because
water is much denser than air. Figure 5.14b shows how a dam is designed to
withstand the pressure of the water behind it. Because the pressure is greatest at
the greatest depth, the dam must be made thickest at its base.
In a fluid such as water or air, pressure does not simply act downwards – it acts
equally in all directions. This is because the molecules of the fluid move around
in all directions, causing pressure on every surface they collide with.

Figure 5.14a: Pressure is caused by the weight of water (or other fluid) above an
object. b: This dam is thickest near its base, because that is where the pressure is
greatest.

ACTIVITY 5.2
Drinking through straws and breathing through snorkels
1 When you drink through a straw, are you pulling the liquid up the
straw or is atmospheric pressure pushing the liquid up the straw? Try
to explain what is going on.
2 Try this with family or friends. Drink through two straws, with the end
of one straw below the surface of the liquid and the end of the other
straw above the liquid surface. Explain why you or your friends fail to
draw up any liquid through either straw.
3 We can modify (bend) a straw and use it to breathe under water.
Figure 5.15a shows someone using a snorkel. Normally, snorkelers
hold their breath and dive to explore deeper under water. But could
someone just breathe from a longer snorkel? Is there a practical limit
to the length that a snorkel can be or the depth you can breathe from
one? If so, try to explain why.
4 An elephant can swim under water and use its trunk as a snorkel
(Figure 5.15b). Use the Internet to research how an elephant can
breathe when deeper in the water than we can and present your work
on an A4 or A3 poster.

Figure 5.15a: A snorkeler. b: Elephants can use their trunks as snorkels to

help them breathe and can swim deeper than humans.
5.5 Calculating pressure
A large force pressing on a small area gives a high pressure. We can think of
pressure as the force per unit area acting on a surface, and we can write an
equation for pressure, as shown:
force F
pressure = area p = A

KEY EQUATION
force
pressure = area
F
p = A

Now let us consider the unit of pressure. If force, F, is measured in newtons (N)
and area, A, is in square metres (m2), then pressure, p, is in newtons per square
metre (N/m2). In the SI system of units, this is given the name pascal (Pa). It is
equivalent to one newton per square metre (1 N/m2).

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.2

Stiletto heels have a very small surface area. (‘Stiletto’ is an Italian word
meaning a small and murderous dagger.) Such narrow heels can damage
floors, and dance halls often have notices requiring shoes with such heels to
be removed.
Calculate the pressure exerted by a dancer weighing 600 N standing on a
single heel of area 1 cm2. The surface of the dance floor is broken by
pressures over 5 million pascals (5.0 MPa). Will it be damaged by the dancer?
Step 1: To calculate the pressure, we need to know the force, and the area on
which the force acts, in m2.
force F = 600 N
area A = 1 cm2 = 0.0001 m2 = 10−4 m2
Step 2: Now we can calculate the pressure p.
 F
p = A
600 N
=
0.0001 m2
= 6 000 000 Pa
= 6.0 MPa
Answer
The pressure is 6.0 × 106 Pa, or 6.0 MPa. This is more than the minimum
pressure needed to break the surface of the floor, so it will be damaged.

Questions
6 Write down an equation that defines pressure.
7 What is the SI unit of pressure?
8 Which exerts a greater pressure, a force of 200 N acting on 1.0 m2, or the
same force acting on 2.0 m2?
9 What pressure is exerted by a force of 50 000 N acting on 2.5 m2?
10 A swimming pool has a level, horizontal, bottom. Its dimensions are 25.0
m by 5.0 m. The pressure of the water on the bottom is 15 000 Pa. What
total force does the water exert on the bottom of the pool? What is the
weight of water?
11 An elephant has a mass of 5000 kg. The area of an elephant’s foot is 0.13
m3.
A woman has a mass of 60 kg. The area of her stiletto heel is 25 mm2.
a State the equation linking weight, mass and g. Use the equation to
calculate the weights of the elephant and the woman.
b State the equation that links (solid) pressure, force and area.
c Calculate the pressures exerted by the elephant and woman. (Hint:
Remember that weight is a force and that you need to convert the area
of the stiletto heel into m2.)
d Use the pressure values you calculated to suggest why the women
might cause more damage to a floor than an elephant.
Pressure, depth and density
We have seen that the deeper one dives into water, the greater the pressure.
Pressure p is proportional to depth h (we use the letter h, for height). Twice the
depth means twice the pressure. Pressure also depends on the density ρ of the
material (where ρ is the Greek letter rho). If you dive into mercury, which is
more than ten times as dense as water, the pressure will be more than ten times
as great.
We can write an equation for the change in pressure at a depth h in a fluid of
density ρ:
change in pressure = density × acceleration due to gravity × depth
Δp = ρgΔh

KEY EQUATION
change in pressure = density × acceleration due to gravity × depth
Δp = ρgΔh

ACTIVITY 5.3

Atmospheric stopper
Fill a container, such as a bottle or beaker, with water to the brim (top).
Place a piece of stiff card on top of the bottle or beaker so that it more than
covers the opening (in other words, it is wider than the opening). You could
use a table tennis ball instead of card, if the bottle has a very narrow neck.
Ensure that you do the next step over a sink. While holding the card firmly
to the top of the container, turn the container upside down and slowly
remove your hand from the card. The water should stay in the container.
Explain why this happens. Think about what forces are acting on the card.
What is the tallest column of water you could use before the ‘trick’ no
longer works?
 REFLECTION
The activities in this chapter asked you to imagine what is happening. It can
be helpful for scientists to visualise (imagine something in their mind). Can
you think of ways that you can develop your scientific imagination?

WORKED EXAMPLE 5.3

Calculate the pressure on the bottom of a swimming pool that is 2.5 metres
deep. How does the pressure compare with atmospheric pressure, 105 Pa (100
000 Pa)? The density of water = 1000 kg/m3.
Step 1: Write down what you know, and what you want to know.
Δh = 2.5 m
ρ = 1000 kg/m3
g = 10 N/kg
Δp = ?
Step 2: Write down the equation for pressure, substitute values and
calculate the answer.
Δp = ⍴gΔh = 1000 kg/m3 × 10 N/kg × 2.5.
= 2.5 × 104 Pa
Answer
This is one-quarter of atmospheric pressure. We live at the bottom of the
atmosphere. There is about 10 km of air above us, pressing downwards on us
– that is the origin of atmospheric pressure.

Questions
12 The density of water is 1000 kg/m3. Calculate the pressure due to the water
on a diver when he is 25 metres under the surface.
13 Figure 5.16 shows a tank that is filled with oil. The density of the oil is 920
kg/m3.
Figure 5.16: A tank filled with oil.

a Calculate the volume of the tank.

b Calculate the weight of the oil in the tank.
c The pressure on the bottom of the tank is caused by the weight of the
oil. Calculate the pressure using:
F
p = A
d Now calculate the pressure using:
Δp = ⍴gΔh
Do you find the same answer as in part c?
14 Atmospheric pressure is 100 000 Pa. The roof of a building has an area of
50 m2.
a What force does the atmosphere exert down on the roof?
b Explain why the roof does not collapse.
c What would happen to the roof if it were possible to remove all of the
air from inside the building? Explain your answer.
15 Calculate the depth of the pool in question 10. Assume the density of water
= 1000 kg/m3 and g = 10 N/kg.

PROJECT
Under pressure
Develop a resource about pressure for a future IGCSE class.
How to present your work
Choose the medium you think is most suitable for your work (such as a
PowerPoint presentation or podcast).
As far as possible, produce your own informative drawings, photographs or
video clips (which should last for less than one minute).
List all the sources of your information (websites, books, television
documentaries, and so on) with enough details for other people to find the
sources.
What you need to include
1 Introduce each of the two equations you have met in this chapter at the
appropriate point in your resource and, for each equation, include an
example question with its solution.
2 Describe a situation in which pressure is deliberately increased (by
increasing the force or reducing the area).
3 Describe a situation in which pressure is deliberately reduced (by
increasing the area).
4 Choose one of the following:
• Explain why the collapsing can experiment works using the first
pressure equation you met in this chapter. Unless this has been
demonstrated in class, you might need to search for it on the
Internet.
• Explain why pressure increases with increasing depth in a fluid
and therefore why a dam must be made thicker (or wider) in
cross-section with increasing depth.
• Explain how a hydraulic braking system in a car works. It is
important to emphasise that pressure in a fluid does not simply
push down from above. It pushes from all directions.
SUMMARY

Forces can change the size and shape of an object.

An object (for example, a spring) will stretch when a load is attached to it.
To calculate the extension of a spring for a given load, its original length
must be subtracted from its new length.
Stretching a spring beyond its limit of proportionality permanently
deforms it and it will not return to its original size and shape.
The extension on a spring is proportional to the load applied to the spring
until the spring reaches the limit of proportionality.
On a load–extension graph, the extension on a spring is proportional to the
load applied to the spring where the line is straight.
The graph starts to curve at the limit of proportionality; beyond this point,
the extension on a spring is not proportional to the load applied to the
spring.
F
The spring constant is defined as the force per unit extension, k = x
.
The bigger the spring constant, the more difficult it is to stretch the spring.
We say that the object is stiffer.
Rubber returns to its original size and shape unless the load is increased
after it has stopped stretching.
Pressure is the force (for example, weight) per unit area (perpendicular to
the surface).
Pressure in a fluid (liquid or gas) is caused by the weight of fluid above it.
Because the pressure is greatest at the greatest depth, a dam is thickest at
its base.
For pressure in a fluid, it is more usual to use the equation change in
pressure = density × gravitational field strength × depth, Δp = ⍴gΔh.
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS

1 Look at the graph. Which material is the stiffest? [1]

2 This spring obeys Hooke’s law and stretches from 8 cm to 18 cm when

a force of 20 N is applied.

What is its total length, in cm, when a force of 30 N is applied?

A 23
B 26
C 27
D 28
[1]
3 Heavy furniture sometimes marks the floor on which it stands.
Four tables of the same weight each have four legs. The figure
shows part of a leg from each table. Which table is least likely
to mark the floor? [1]

4 Which diagram shows the pressure acting on the submarine

that is not moving?
[1]

5 a What causes the pressure of air at the Earth’s surface? [1]

b State the equation linking pressure difference, height,
density and g. [1]
c At the Earth’s surface, atmospheric pressure is 105 Pa and
the density of air is 1.3 kg/m3. Use this information to
calculate the height (or depth) of the atmosphere. [1]
d Suggest one reason why you may have underestimated the
height of the atmosphere. [1]
[Total: 4]
6 Rainwater that lands on the roof of a building can be collected
(harvested) by directing the rain from the gutters into water butts
(sometimes called rain barrels or rainwater tanks).
The diagram shows two containers that store rainwater. The containers
have taps. A pipe joins the taps. The taps are closed. Both containers
have a base of area 0.07 m2.
The density of water is 1000 kg/m3.

a Explain why the pressure at the bottom of each water butt

is different. [1]
b Calculate the volume of the water in water butt A. [1]
c i State the equation linking density, mass and volume. [1]
ii Calculate the mass of water in water butt A. [1]
d i State the equation linking weight, mass and g. [1]
ii Calculate the weight of water in water butt A. [1]
e i State the equation that links (solid) pressure, force
and area. [1]
 ii Using this equation, calculate the pressure at the base
of water butt A. [1]
f i State the equation linking (hydrostatic) pressure
difference, height, density and g. [1]
ii Using this equation, calculate the pressure at the base
of water butt A and compare it to the answer you
found in e ii. [1]
g i The taps between the water butts are now opened. On
a copy of the diagram, show the final depth of water
in water butt A and water butt B. [1]
ii Explain in terms of pressure and forces why the
water starts to flow and then stops. [3]
[Total: 14]

7 Car braking systems multiply forces. In the diagram below, there are
three pistons: one effort piston and two load pistons.

a The effort piston has an area of 2.0 cm2. The driver exerts
a force of 50 N on the effort piston. What is the pressure
of the brake fluid? [2]
b This pressure is the same everywhere in the brake fluid,
including at the load pistons. The load pistons have a total
area of 40 cm2. Calculate the force at the brake disc. [2]
[Total: 4]
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studying this chapter, think about how confident you are with the
different topics. This will help you to see any gaps in your knowledge and
help you to learn more effectively.
Needs Confident
See Almost
I can more to move
Topic... there
work on
Recall that forces can change the size
5.1
and shape of an object.
Plot and interpret load–extension
graphs and describe the associated 5.2
experimental procedure.
Recall how to calculate the extension
5.2
of a spring for a given load.
Recall what happens to a spring if it is
stretched beyond its limit of 5.2
proportionality
Recall the equation for determining
5.3
the spring constant.
Identify the limit of proportionality on
a load–extension graph and where on
5.3
the graph the extension is proportional
to the load.
Understand the significance of the
spring constant and recognise how an
object with a different spring constant 5.3
would appear on a load–extension
graph.
Recall the equation that relates
5.5
pressure, force and area.
Recall what causes the pressure to
increase with increasing depth into 5.5
water.
Recall and use the equation for
5.5
pressure in a fluid.