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Preface
© Publisher
Edition - Fourth
Edition Year - 2025
Writer - SSGC
M.R.P.: 310/- General Knowledge is a collection of information (facts) about many
Printed at - different things, as opposed to detailed knowledge about one
Core Publishing Solution particular subject, while 'General Knowledge Awareness' means
“Being Aware of Changes” due to the updated contexts of
knowledge. Significantly, access to the right sources is very
Contact :
important for general knowledge awareness.
Sam-Samayik
For example, at present, there are 28 States and 8 Union
Ghatna Chakra
Territories in India. After the formation of Telangana state in
188A/128, Allenganj, Churchlane,
2014, the number of States and Union Territories was 29 and 7
Prayagraj (Allahabad)-211002
respectively. But after the implementation of the Jammu and
Ph.: 0532-2465524, 2465525
Kashmir Reorganization Act, 2019, the number of states in
Mob.: 9335140296
India was 28 while the number of union territories increased
e-mail : [email protected]
to 9.
Website : ssgcp.com
e-shop : shop.ssgcp.com Subsequently, under the Dadra and Nagar Haveli and
Daman and Diu Act, 2019 (after the merger of two Union
Copyright 2024, by Sam-Samayik Territories namely Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and
Ghatna Chakra Private Limited. Diu) the number of Union Territories again decreased to 8.
No Part of this publication may be Being aware of this fact, is an example of General
reproduced or distributed in any form Knowledge Awareness.
or by any means, electronic,
Similarly, the date of establishment of Sikkim state has
mechanical, photocopying, recording been shown as 26 April 1975 in many books whereas on
or otherwise or stored in database or official website of Sikkim state it has been mentioned as 16
retrieval system without the prior May 1975.
written permission of publisher.
In this book, GKA (General Knowledge Awareness),
The program listings (if any) may
presented by Sam-Samayik Ghatna Chakra, we have tried to
be entered stored and executed in a
encapsulate, different facts and information based on various
computer system, but they may not official data and sources, which will be helpful to you
be reproduced for publication. avoiding confusions as mentioned in the above examples.
In this compendium, we have tried to sum up several
Associate Writers : information related to Indian Polity and Constitution,
Alok Tripathi World and Indian History, Geography (India and World),
Divyanshu Singh General Science (Physics, Chemistry & Biology), Science &
Technology, Economics and Indian Economy, Environment
Digvijay Pandey & Ecology, Computer, Sports and Miscellaneous.
Asif Iqbal We do not want to limit this work, till the date of publication only.
Anand Gupta Work will continue after the print of this edition.
2
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Index
Indian Polity 5-40 Planning in India Planning Commission Poverty in India
Constitutional Development of India Source of the Constitution Poverty Prevention and Welfare Schemes Indian Agriculture
The Preamble Schedules The Union of India and Its Territories Indian Industries Indian Public Finance UNION BUDGET,
Citizenship Fundamental Rights Directive Principles of State 2024-25 Fiscal Policy Major Taxes In India
Policy Fundamental Duties Parliament Amendment of the Miscellaneous
Constitution Supreme Court High Court Attorney General and General Science 259-371
Advocate General Comptroller and Auditor General State A. Physics Units Dimensions of Physical Quantities
Executive Powers and Functions of the Governor State Motion and Force Work, Power and Energy Gravitation
Legislature National Symbols of India Panchayati Raj Simple Harmonic Motion Floatation Surface Tension
Municipalities Consolidated Fund Contingency Fund Viscosity Pressure Elasticity Wave Motion Sound
Centre-State Relations Inter-State Relations NITI Aayog Heat Light Static Electricity Electric Current
National Development Council Finance Commission Public Magnetism Nuclear Physics.
Service Commissions Election Commission Special Provisions B. Chemistry Particle Nature of Matter Structure of Atom
Important Constitutional Amendments Important Articles of the Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Their Properties.
Indian Constitution. Chemical Bonding Oxidation-Reduction or Redox Reaction
Indian History 41-123 Acid and Base Gaseous State and Nature of Gases
A. Ancient History of India Sources of Ancient Indian History Hydrogen and Its Compounds Hardness of Water
Periods of History Chalcolithic Age Indus (Harappan) Elements of s-Block Boron and Carbon Elements of Groups
Civilization Vedic Civilization Religious Movement in Sixth 15, 16, 17 and 18 Some Important Non-Metals and Their Uses
Century BC The Rise of Magadha Foreign Invasions in India Some Important Metals and Their Uses Methods of Extraction of
The Gupta Empire Vakataka Dynasty Vardhana Dynasty Elements and Processes Polymer Chemistry Important Facts
History of South India Early-Medieval Period The Bordering General Chemistry Hydrocarbons Artificial Substances
States Fuel.
B. Medieval India Invasion of Arabs Sultanate Period (1206 AD C. Biology Taxonomy Cytology Organic Evolution
- 1526 AD) Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD) Tughluq Dynasty Genetics Plant Ecosystem Pollution Classification of
(1320-1412 AD.) Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 AD) Animal Kingdom Human Body Nutrients Other Diseases
Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD) Delhi Sultanate - Governance Other Important Facts.
System Vijayanagara Empire Bahmani Kingdom The Environment 372-377
Independent Provincial States Bhakti Movement The Mughal Environment : An Introduction Ecology and Ecosystem
Empire Mughal Government System Advancement of Marathas Biodiversity Miscellaneous
C. History of Modern India The Decline and Disintegration of the Science and Technology 378-390
Mughal Empire The Arrival of European Trade Companies Science and Technology : An Introduction Biotechnology
Expansion of British Power in Bengal Maratha Empire and Nano Technology Indian Nuclear Research Indian Defence
Anglo-Maratha Clash under Peshwas The Revolt of 1857 Technology Indian Space Program
Religious and Social Reform Movements Indian National Computer 391-398
Freedom Movements Important Organizations and Institutions Computer : An Introduction Main Functions of Computer
Related to Indian National Movements Development of Education Development of Computer in India National Super Computing
during British India History of Indian Newspapers Important Mission Types of Computer Main Parts of Computer :
Facts related to the Indian Freedom Struggle History from 1947 to Computer Programming Language Computer Network
1964 Consolidation of Princely States Other Major Historical Important Internet Glossaries The Words Related to Computer
Facts Sports 399-424
D. World History Renaissance American Revolution or Olympic Games Commonwealth Games Asian Games
Freedom Struggle French Revolution Unification of Italy Cricket Hockey Football Badminton Tennis Chess
Unification of Germany Russian Revolution Industrial Athletics Table Tennis Basketball Polo Golf
Revolution Industrial Revolution World War I Nationalism Baseball Billiards Snooker Wrestling Water Polo
and in Germany, Nazism Rise of Fascism in Italy Japanese Swimming Boxing Shooting Volleyball Kabaddi
Imperialism World War II Turkiye Miscellaneous Facts. Kho Kho Handball Sports Awards
Geography 124-210 Miscellaneous 425-456
A. World Geography Cosmos Solar System Bodies of Solar National and International Days Major Lakes in India
System Other Bodies of Solar System World’s Top Geographical Tourist Places In India UNESCO World Heritage Sites : Indian
Discoveries Internal Structure of the Earth Lithosphere Cultural and Natural Sites Renowned Personalities and Their
Endogenic Process The Earthquake Rocks Continents and Nicknames Major Research Institutes of India Major
Major Peninsulas Atmosphere Temperature Local Winds and Instruments of India and Their Players Major Classical Dances and
their Different Names Hydrosphere. Dance Artists Indian Security System Indian Internal Security
B. Geography of India General Introduction Neighbouring System International Awards and Honours Two Times Nobel
Countries of India The Physical Characteristics of India P r i z e Wi n n e r s N a t i o n a l Aw a r d s a n d H o n o u r s
Drainage System Major Lakes and Waterfalls in India Important Awards: Field and Prize Money Persons Honoured
Climate of India Soil of India Agriculture in India with Bharat Ratna Jnanpith Award Honoured Litterateur Major
Irrigation and Multipurpose Projects in India Mineral Resources Mobile Apps and Portals Major Indian Writers and Their Books
in India Transportation in India Classification of Roads in India Latest Famous Books and Its Authors Major Foreign Authors
Associated Organizations Rail Transport in India Industries of and Their Books International Organizations International
India Major Wildlife Sanctuaries in India Tribes in India India Organizations, Headquarters and Years of Establishment World’s
and Antarctica The Census of India. Major Organizations List of First Women in /of India Renowned
Economics 211-258 Persons in India States Governors, Chief Ministers and Capitals
Economics : An Introduction Market Classification of
Economies Economic Growth and Economic Development
3
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Why?
Generally, while publishing a book of General Knowledge, various publishers are not aware of the concrete facts and
publish the wrong information. See some examples-

Fact Wrong Fact True Fact Fact Wrong Fact True Fact
Highest Lake in India Cholamu Lake Gurudongmar Article 19 of the Indian Article 19 (A-F) Article 19 (A-G)
Lake constitution mentions six Article 19 (A) Article 19 (1) A
Longest National Highway NH-44 NH-27EW freedoms that are available
in India to the citizens of India.
The freedom of the press
Shortest National Highway NH-47A NH-327B is vested in-
in India Asia's largest tin Malaysia China
Formation of Sikkim State 26th of April,
th
16 of May, producing country
1975 1975 Area of United States 470131 km 9833517 km
Formation of the Forward 1st of May, 1939 3rd of May, of America square square
Bloc 1939 Area of China 137060 km 9596960 km
Establishment of Visva 1912 1921 square square
Bharati Origin of Mississippi Red Rock Itasca Lake
Establishment of Belur 1887 1897 River
Math The City of Ottawa Saint Lawrence Ottawa River
Book written by Ptolemy Geography of Geography (Canada) is located on the river
in 2nd Century India banks of the river-
Pushyamitra Sunga Built Bharhut Rebuilt Origin of river Periyar is- Periyar Lake From the
stupa Bharhut stupa forest area of
Sivagiri peak
Lal darwaza masjid was Mahamud Shah V.V. Raje, the The number of N.W. 6 N.W. 16
built by wife of Sultan Lakhipur-Bhanga
Mahamud National Waterway is-
Shah
Dhar Fort Built by Built by Raja
Captain William Hawkins 1609 1608 Muhammad Bhoja I
came to the court of Jahangir in Tughluq
Leader of Bhil rebellion Sevaram Trambyak Ji Golconda Fort Qutb Shahi Clay fort built
1825-31 1813-31 Dynasty in 1143 by the
Leader of Kol Movement Gomdhar Buddhu King of
Konwar Bhagat Warangal, Quli
Qutb Shah
Sarda Act was 1930 1929 built it of stone
implemented
Ellora Caves Built by Built by
Founder of Veda Samaj Keshab ChandraK Sridharlu Buddhist Rashtrakuta
Sen Naidu - rulers
Inspired by
Keshab Gateway of India George Vitthal George
Chandra Sen Clarke Wittet
(architect)
Founder of Women's Lady Shadashiva Annie Besant
Indian Association (WIA) Iyyer Jantar Mantar and Built by Sawai Built by Sawai
Nahargarh Jaisingh Jaisingh II
Downward Filtration Lord Auckland Alexander Tallest Tower in India Qutb Minar Fatehburj
Theory Duff (Delhi) (Punjab)
Chauri Chaura Kand 5 of February, 4th of February,
th
Largest Mosque in india Jama Masjid Taj-ul- Masjid
1922 1922 (Delhi) (Bhopal)

Apart from the above facts, there are many wrong/old facts which are being published continuously. Aspirants memorize
same facts and give wrong answers in exams. In the present book- GKA, we have verified the facts by analyzing them thoroughly.
Along with this, we have included the updated version of the facts in this book. That is why we have named this book GKA instead
of GK. You can visit our website ssgcp.com to be aware of the updated status of facts.
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Indian Polity

Constitutional Development of India Source of the Constitution The Preamble Schedules The Union of India and
Its Territories Citizenship Fundamental Rights Directive Principles of State Policy Fundamental Duties Parliament
Amendment of the Constitution Supreme Court High Court Attorney General and Advocate General Comptroller
and Auditor General State Executive Powers and Functions of the Governor State Legislature National Symbols of
India Panchayati Raj Municipalities Consolidated Fund Contingency Fund Centre-State Relations Inter-State
Relations NITI Aayog National Development Council Finance Commission Public Service Commissions Election
Commission Special Provisions Important Constitutional Amendments Important Articles of the Indian Constitution

Warren Hastings became the first Governor- General

1 Constitutional Development of India of Bengal. His Council consisted of four members - John
Clavering, George Monson, Philip Francis and Richard
A Constitution is a body of rules and laws, based on which a
Barewell.
country is governed. Historically, the development of the Indian
Presidencies of Madras and Bombay were made subordinate
Constitution began with the establishment of the East India
Company's rule in India in the mid-eighteenth century, followed to the Bengal Presidency especially in matters of foreign
by the direct rule of the British govt. till Indian independence policy. After this Act, they could not wage war against the
in 1947. Indian States without Bengal's approval.
Under this Act, the Supreme Court was established at
Regulating Act, 1773
Calcutta as the Apex Court in 1774, with a Chief Justice
Pitt's India Act, 1784 and 3 other Judges. (UPPCS 2010, 2003; RO/ARO, 2016)
British
Charter Act, 1793 Parliamentary Note : First Chief Justice of the Supreme Court was
Charter Act, 1813 Acts for the Elijah Impey and the 3 other judges were Chambers,
administration of the Le Maistre and Hyde.
Charter Act, 1833 East India Company
It was made mandatory for the Company to provide all
Charter Act, 1853 information on India related to revenue, citizens and
military to the British Parliament.
Government of India Act of 1858 Act of Settlement of 1781 :
This Act was passed to remove the defects in the Regulating
Indian Council Act of 1861
Act 1773. By this Act, the Government of Calcutta was
Acts passed during
Indian Council Act of 1892 empowered to make laws for Bengal, Bihar and Odisha.
The servants of the company which earlier came within
Crown Rule Indian Council Act of 1909
the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, were now exempted
Government of India Act of 1919 from the jurisdiction of the SC.
Government of India Act of 1935 Pitt's India Act of 1784 :
The British Crown was the Supreme Controller of the
Indian Independence Act of 1947 Company's affairs and its administration in India.
Regulating Act of 1773 : The Commercial and political functions of the Company
The Regulating Act allowed the British Parliament to were separated. It was called Dual Government (dyarchy).
regulate the affairs of the East India Company rule in India. Dual government (political and commercial) was started
The Governor of Bengal was subsequently designated as the in India which remained in force till 1858.
Governor-General of Bengal with a Council, consisting of It allowed the Court of Directors to manage the commercial
four members, entrusted with carrying out legislative and affairs but created a new body called the Board of Control
executive functions. to manage the political affairs. (UPPCS, 2003)
5
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The territories of the company in India were for the first Charter Act of 1833 (Saint Helena Act) :
time called "The British Possession in India". Governor-General of Bengal became the Governor-
India's First/Last, Governor/Governor-General/Viceroy General of India.
The Act ended the activities of the East India Company as
Robert Clive Governor of Bengal a commercial body and it became administrative body
(1758-60 and 1764-67) properly. Significantly, the company's trade links with
China were also suspended.
Warren Hastings (1772-1774) the last In the Governor-General Council, a law member was added
Governor of Bengal as a fourth member (first law member-Macaulay).
The Governor-general had legislative power over all of
(1774-1785) the first Governor- British India.
General of Bengal Slavery was declared illegal under this Act and abolished
in 1843.
(1828-1834) the last Governor- The legislative powers were centralized by this Act.
Lord William General of Bengal This Act stated that merit, not birth, colour, religion or race,
Bentinck should be the basis for the employment of civil services.
(1834-1835) the first Governor-
General of India (UPPCS, 2012)
According to Section 87 of the Act, no Indian was to be
discriminated against the government jobs on the grounds
(1856-1858) the last Governor-General
of India appointed by the Company of religion, place of birth, descent and colour.
Lord Canning
(1858-1862) the first Viceroy The Charter Act 1833 which was enacted by the British
of India under the British rule Parliament provided for the establishment of a Law
(March, 1947 - August, 1947) Commission for consolidation and codification of Indian
Lord Mountbatten the last Viceroy of India Laws.
(August, 1947 - June, 1948) Charter Act of 1853 :
the first Governor-General of This Act laid the foundation of civil service exams and
Independent India
opened the gates of a fair competition system for civil
servants.
(June, 1948-January, 1950)
C. Rajagopalachari For the first time, the legislative and executive functions
the first and Last Indian to become the
Governor- General of Independent India of the Governor-General's Council were separated.
A Central Legislative Council was created.
Charter Act, 1786 : Government of India Act of 1858 :
This Act gave overriding powers to the Governor-General After the First War of Independence in 1857, the British
over his council in extraordinary situations. government passed the Government of India Act of 1858.
Governor General got the power to work as both, Governor- This Act is also known as the 'Act for the Better
General and Commander in Chief. Government of India'.
Lord Cornwallis became the first effective ruler under the This Act ended the rule of the Company and the British
authority of the Board of control and the Court of Directors. possessions in India were transferred under direct British rule.
Charter Act, 1993 : The Dual Government by Pitt's India Act of 1784 was
This Act extended the company's Charter for another 20 abolished.
years. It changed the designation of Governor-General of India to
Charter Act of 1813 : that of Viceroy, of India, who was the direct representative
This Act ended the Company's monopoly over trade with of the British Crown in India.
India, except in tea and opium and trade with China. The first Viceroy of India was Lord Canning.
(UK PSC, 2016; UP RO/ARO Mains, 2017; UK PSC Pre, 2016; IAS, 2019) The merchant company's residual powers were vested in
The Act also required the company to invest one lakh rupees the 'secretary of state for India; a minister of Great Britain's
annually in the education of Indians. (IAS, 2018; UPPCS RO, 2017) Cabinet, who would preside over the India office in London.
Approval by the British Parliament was made mandatory Indian Councils Act of 1861 :
for laws passed by of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras Beginning of Indian's representation in the Viceroy's
governments. (IAS Pre, 2019) Council legislative.
6
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At this time Montagu was the Secretary of State for India

Note : In 1862 Lord Canning nominated three Indians
and Lord Chelmsford was the Viceroy of India.
(Raja Deo Narain Singh of Benares, Maharaja
"Partially responsible" government and 'Dyarchy' was
Narendra Singh of Patiala and Sir Dinkar Rao
Raghunath of Gwalior) into the Legislative Council. established in provinces. (MPPCS, 2022; IAS, 2013, 2012, 2017)
The Father of 'Dyarchy' in provinces was Lionel Curtis.
It empowered the Viceroy to issue ordinances, without Provincial subjects were divided into two parts : transferred
the concurrence of the Legislative Council, during an and reserved. (IAS, 2022)
emergency.
The transferred subjects were administered by the Governor
The Viceroy also got the right to establish new provinces
with the aid of ministers responsible to the Legislative
and change their boundaries under this Act.
Council. The reserved subjects were administered by
Viceroy was given the power to establish a legislative
the Governor and his Executive Council without being
council in provinces. (CGPSC, 2021)
responsible to the Legislative Council.
Note : Legislative councils were formed in Bengal, A bicameral legislature was introduced for the first time
North-West Frontier Province and Punjab in 1862, 1866 at the central level. (UPPCS, 2008; MPPCS, 2013)
and 1897, respectively. Suffrage rights were given to those paying land tax and
Indian Councils Act of 1892 : income tax. Some women were also given the right to vote.
Indirect elections (described as nomination) were The communal representation was extended to Sikhs,
introduced under this Act. Europeans and Anglo-Indians.
The Act provided Indian members with the right to ask This Act provided for the establishment of the Public
questions related to the finances and budgets (however, this Service Commission. (UP RO/ARO, 2021)

right was barred after the amendment in the Act in 1861) Government of India Act, 1919 provided a separate
and matters of public interest after a notice of 6 days. examination for the Indian Civil Service, which was to be
(UPPCS, 2003) held in India. [UP RO/ARO (Pre.), 2021]

significantly, members were restricted from asking Note : In 1926 Public Service Commission was
supplementary questions. (UPPCS, 2003) established by the recommendation of Lee Commission.
Indian Council Act of 1909 :
It provided to constitute a Statutory Commission which
This Act is also known as Morley– Minto Reforms. Lord
was to submit its report after 10 years of inquiry.
Morley was then Secretary of State for India and Lord
Government of India Act of 1935 :
Minto was the Viceroy of India.
It was a detailed document having 321 Articles and 10
For the first time, an Indian was made a member of the
Schedules but with no Preamble. (UP Lower Pre, 2015)
Viceroy's Executive Council.
It provided for the establishment of an All-India Federation
Note : Satyendra Prasanno Sinha was the first Indian consisting of provinces and Princely States.
member of the Viceroy's Executive Council. He was However, the Federation never came into existence.
included as a law member. Dyarchy was abolished at the provincial level and
Under this Act Indians were provided representation in law introduced at the central level and provincial autonomy
making and administration. was also introduced. [UPPCS, 2013; IAS (Pre.), 2017]
Under this Act the members now could discuss the budget It provided for bicameralism in some provinces. Six out
and move resolutions. They could also discuss matters of of eleven provinces – Bombay, Madras, Bihar, Bengal,
public interest. United Provinces and Assam. They were made bicameral
They could also ask supplementary questions. consisting Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly.
It introduced a system of communal representation for It provided for the establishment of the Federal Court
Muslims by accepting the concept of separate electorate. which was set up in 1937. (UPPCS, 2014)
(MPPCS, 2017, 2019) This Act abolished the Council of India, established by
This Act legalized 'Communalism' and Lord Minto came the Government of India Act of 1858.
to be known as the 'Father of Communal Electorate'. Burma was separated from British India and two new
Government of India Act of 1919 : provinces, Sindh and Odisha were formed under 1935 Act.
This Act is also known as Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms. (UPPCS, 2011)
7
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The Reserve Bank of India was established to control the According to the Cabinet Mission, the strength of the
currency and credit in the country. Constituent Assembly was to be 389.
The British government under the Act of 1935 had granted Out of 296 seats allotted to British India, 292 members
women 41 reserved seats in provincial legislature. were to be drawn from the 11 provinces and 4 from the
[IAS (Pre. 2021] four Chief Commissioners' Provinces.
About 10 per cent of the total population got the voting Generally, one seat was to be allotted for every 10 lakh of
right under this Act. the population. (UPPCS, 2003)
It provided for the establishment of the Federal Public Seats allocated to each British province were to be divided
Service Commission along with Provincial Public Service among three principal communities– Muslims, Sikhs and
Commissions and Joint Public Service Commissions. general population in proportion to their numbers.
Indian Independence Act of 1947 : The Constituent Assembly held its first meeting on 9th
This Act ended the British Rule in India, partitioning the December, 1946 in New Delhi.
colony into two independent Dominion State - India and The Muslim League boycotted the meeting and insisted on
Pakistan. a separate State of Pakistan.
It empowered the Constituent Assemblies of both dominions The first meeting was thus attended by only 207 members
to frame and adopt a new Constitution for their respective who were Congress members.
nations. The province of Hyderabad did not participate in the
Constituent Assembly.
Both Dominions were given the freedom to separate from
The Constituent Assembly was not based on adult suffrage.
the British Commonwealth.
(IAS Pre, 1993)
Indian Independence Act, 1947 announced the end of
The Constituent Assembly was a result of an indirect
British sovereignty over the princely states of India from
election. (IAS Pre, 1993)
15th August, 1947.
The oldest member, Dr. Sachidanand Sinha, was elected
This Act abolished the title of the 'Emperor of India' from
as the temporary Chairman of the Constituent Assembly.
the British crown.
The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held on
Princely states were given the right to join either Pakistan or
9 December, 1946. (UPSC Pre, 2005; UPPCS, 1990)
India, based on two major factors : Geographical contiguity
On 11 December 1946, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected
th
and the people's wishes.
as the Chairman of the Assembly, HC Mukherjee as Vice-
It provided for the governance of each of the dominions
Chairman and BN Rau as a constitutional advisor to the
and provinces by the Government of India Act of 1935, till Assembly.
the new Constitutions were framed. The number of women in the Constituent Assembly was
Making of the Constitution : 15.
The very first demand for the constituent Assembly on
behalf of Indians was made by Swaraj Party in Ranchi in Note : Women members in Constituent Assembly
1934. (IAS, 1996) were Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, Sucheta Kriplani, Malati
M.N. Roy was the first person who demanded a Constituent Choudhary, Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, Rajkumari
Assembly individually. Amrit Kaur, Purnima Banerjee, Renuka Ray, Kamla
In 1934 the Indian National congress formally demanded Chaudhri, Leela Roy, Begam Aizaz Rasul, Ammu
that a constituent Assembly composed of Indians be set up Swaminathan, G. Durgabai, Dakshayani Velayudan and
to frame a constitution for India. (UPPCS GIC, 2017) Annie Mascarene.
Mahatma Gandhi said, "The Constituent Assembly alone On 13th December, 1946 Jawaharlal Nehru moved the
can produce a Constitution indigenous to the country and 'Objectives Resolution', which was unanimously adopted
truly and fully representing the will of the people". by the Constituent Assembly on 22nd January, 1947 and
[MPPCS, (Pre.), 2022] later constituted as the Preamble to the Constitution.
The proposal for framing of the Constitution to India by an (UPPCS, 1998)
elected Constituent Assembly was made by Cripps Mission. Various committees were constituted by the Constituent
(UPPCS Spl. Mains, 2008) Assembly for deliberations over Constitution-making.
The Constituent Assembly was constituted under the In the Interim Government formed in 1946, the Vice
scheme of the Cabinet Mission of 1946. President of the Executive Council was Nehru.
(UK PSC Pre, 2012; UP Lower Sub Pre, 2009) (IAS Pre, 1995)
8
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Principal Committees of the Constituent Assembly Note : The first reading of the Constituent Assembly
and Their Presiding Heads started from 4th November to 9th November, 1948,
Committees Chairman the second reading from 15th November, 1948 to
Union Powers Committee Jawaharlal Nehru 17th October, 1949, and the third reading from 14th
(IAS, 2005) November, 1949 to 26th November, 1949.
Union Constitution Committee Jawaharlal Nehru The Constitution was adopted by the Constituent
[RAS/RTS (Pre.) 2021]
Assembly on 26th November, 1949.
Provincial Constitution Committee Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel A total of 15 Articles (the provisions relating to
Drafting Committee Bhimrao Ambedkar citizenship, elections, provisional parliament, temporary
[RAS/RTS (Pre.) 2021]
and transitional provisions) of the Constitution came into
Advisory Committee on Funda- Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel effect on 26th November, 1949 while the remaining did on
mental Rights and Minorities 26th January, 1950.
(i) Fundamental Rights Sub-Com- J. B. Kriplani
Note : On January 26,1930, the historic “Poorna Swaraj”
mittee
declaration was officially promulgated, beginning the
(ii) Minorities Sub-Committee H.C. Mukherjee final phase of India’s freedom struggle where the goal
Committee on Rules of Procedure Rajendra Prasad would be complete independence from British rule. So,
Committee for the States Jawaharlal Nehru on this date Republic day was announced.
Steering Committee Rajendra Prasad The first Republic Day of India was celebrated on 26th
Ad-hoc National Flag Committee Rajendra Prasad January 1950.
On 29th August, 1947, a drafting committee was constituted Presently Indian Constitution consists of a Preamble, 468
through a resolution. (UPPCS, 2008)
Articles, 12 Schedules and 25 parts. (from the point of view
Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar was elected as the chairman of of enumeration).
this committee. (UPPCS, 1995; UP RO/ARO, 2014)
The Constitution was adopted by the Constituent Assembly
on November 26, 1949, Originally, it had 22 Parts, 8
Note : Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar was elected from the Schedules and 395 Articles.
Bombay Presidency to the Constituent Assembly.
On 26th January 1950, Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected the
The function of the drafting committee was to discuss the first President of Independent India.
draft of the Constitution prepared by constitutional advisor The National Flag was adopted by the Constituent
B.N. Rau. (UP Lower, 1993; UPPCS, 2014) Assembly on 22nd July, 1947 and the National Song and
The Drafting Committee submitted its report to the National Anthem on 24th January, 1950.
Constituent Assembly on 21st February, 1948. India’s membership of the Commonwealth was confirmed
Drafting Committee - Total Members - 7 in May 1949 by the Constituent Assembly.
(UP Lower 2008) Prem Behari Narain Raizada (Saxena) is the man who hand
Chairman - 1. Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar wrote the original Constitution of India.
[UPPCS (Mains), 2008]
Exam Oriented Facts
Members - 2. N. Gopalaswami Iyengar
(UP Lower Sub, 2008) The Swaraj Party in its conference at Ranchi in May,
1934 presented the policy of Constituent Assembly.
3. Alladi Krishnaswami Iyer [IAS (Pre.), 1996]
4. Dr. K.M. Munshi The Idea of the constituent assembly was put forward for
5. Syed Md. Sadullah the first time by M.N. Roy in 1934. (UPPCS GIC, 2017)
6. N. Madhav Rao (He replaced B.L. Mitra, Indian constituent assembly was constituted under the
who resigned for health reasons.) Cabinet Mission 1946. [MPPCS (Pre.) 2023]

7. T.T. Krishnamachari (replaced D.P. Frank Anthony was the first nominated temporary Deputy
Khaitan in 1948) Chairman of the Constituent Assembly.(MPPCS pre 2020)

9
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Nehru has presented an objective resolution in the fifth 7. Dr. Rajendra Prasad Food and Agriculture
meeting of the first session of the Constituent Assembly 8. Dr. C.H. Bhabha Works, Mines and Power
on 13 December, 1946. (MPPCS Pre 2021)
9. Baldev Singh Defence
Sir Benegal Narsing Rau was appointed as the
10. I.I. Chundrigar Commerce
constitutional advisor during the formation of the
Constitution. (UPPCS Pre 2014; UP Lower Sub Pre 1998;
11. Abdur - Rab - Nishtar Communication, Postal and Air
Jharkhand PCS Pre 2003; Uttarakhand UDA/LDA Pre 2007) 12. Ghaznafar Ali Khan Health
Constitution day is celebrated on 26th November. 13. Jagjivan Ram Labour
(62 BPSC 2016)
nd

B.R. Ambedkar was elected to the constituent assembly Note : Liaquat Ali, Jogendra Nath Mandal, I.I.
from the Bombay Presidency. (IAS Pre 1996) Chundarigar, Abdur-Rab-Nashtar and Ghazanfar Ali
Khan were members of the Muslim League.
Important Facts Related to the Constituent Note : The Princely States were made to join the Union
of India under the strong leadership of Sardar Patel. The
Assembly
princely state of Hyderabad was incorporated into India
First Meeting 9th December, 1946
by police action, the princely state of Junagadh through
Temporary Chairman Dr. Sachidanand Sinha plebiscite and the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir
Permanent Chairman Dr. Rajendra Prasad was incorporated into India by signing an Instrument of
Vice-President H.C. Mukherjee accession.

Constitutional Advisor Sir B.N. Rau The interim government worked from 26th January, 1950
till the government formed after the first general election
The time was taken in Cons- 2 years, 11 months, 18 days
(1951-52).
titution-making
The exact constitutional Status on 26-1-1950 was 'A
Duration of debate 114 days Sovereign Democratic Republic'.
Total expenditure 63,96,729 Rupees [IAS (Pre.) 2021; UPPCS (Mains), 2009; UP Lower
SDD (Pre.), 2008]
Total readings Three
Constitution adopted on November 26, 1949 2 Source of the Constitution
Constitution came into force on 26 January 1950
th

The Indian Government Act, 1935 has the most significant

Interim government for India was formed based on the influence on the Indian Constitution. Essential features from
Cabinet Mission Plan. the constitutions of various countries were also borrowed and
An interim government was formed on 2nd September incorporated in the constitution of India. Those countries with
1946. On 26th October 1946, the Muslim League also their special constitutional features are as follows-
joined it. Britain : Parliamentary system of governance, single
citizenship and rule of law, etc.
Interim Government
United States of America : Fundamental Rights,
Ministers Ministry Independence of the judiciary, Doctrine of judicial review,
1. Jawaharlal Nehru External Affairs & Common Post of Vice-President, Impeachment of President, Removal
Wealth Relations of Judges of Supreme Court and High Court.
[UP RO/ARO 2014; UPPCS (Pre.), 1998; UPPCS
2. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Information, Broadcasting and
2012, 2008; IAS 1993)
Home
Canada : Appointment of the Governor by the centre,
3. C. Rajagopalachari Education Arts Federal system and residual powers vested with the same.
4. Liaquat Ali Finance (UPPCS, 2006)

5. Jogendra Nath Mandal Law Ireland : Directive Principles of State Policy, Election
System of the President, members nominated by President
6. Asaf Ali Railways to the Parliament. (UPPCS, 1998)

10
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Australia : Freedom of Trade, commerce and Intercourse, Chapter I- Legislative Relations

a joint sitting of two houses of Parliament, cooperative Chapter II - Administrative Relations
federalism, centre - state relations, concurrent list etc. Part 12: Finance, Property, Contracts 264–300 A
[UPPCS, 2016; Jharkhand PCS (Pre.) 2003; and Suits
UPPCS, 2014, 2011, 2012] Chapter I - Finance
Germany: Suspension of fundamental rights during Chapter II - Borrowings
Emergency, etc. Chapter III - Properties, Contracts,
Soviet Union : Fundamental duties of the citizens. Rights, Liabilities, Obligations and Suits
South Africa : Procedure of Amendment in the Indian Chapter IV - Right to Property
Constitution, Election of members of Rajyasabha. Part 13: Trade, commerce and intercourse 301 - 307
Japan : Procedure established by law. within the territory of India
France : Concept of Republic Ideas of liberty, equality and Part 14: Services under the Union and 308-323
fraternity in the Preamble. the States
Chapter I - Services
Parts of the Indian Constitution Chapter II - Public Service Commission
Indian Constitution Part14A:Tribunal 323A-323B
Parts Topics Articles Part 15: Election 324-329A
Part 1: Union and Its Territories (UPPCS, 2022) 1-4 Part 16: Special provisions with respect 330 - 342
Part 2: Citizenship (UP RO/ARO, 2016) 5-11 to certain classes
Part 3: Fundamental Rights 12-35 Part 17: Official Language 343-351
Part 4: Directive Principles of State Policy 36-51 Chapter I- Language of the Union
Part 4A: Fundamental Duties (UP Lower, 2004) 51A Chapter II - Regional Languages
Chapter III - Language of the Supreme
Part 5: Union 52-151
Court, High Courts, etc.
Chapter I - Executive Chapter IV - Special Directives
Chapter II - Parliament
Part 18: Emergency provisions 352–360
Chapter III - Legislative Powers of the
President Part 19: Miscellaneous 361 - 367
Chapter IV - Union Judiciary Part 20: Amendment of the Constitution 368
Chapter V - Comptroller and Auditor
Part 21: Temporary, transitional and 369–392
General of India
special provisions
Part 6 : States 152 - 237
Part 22: Short title, Commencement, 393–395 [UPPCS
Chapter I - General Authoritative Text in Hindi and Repeals (Mains), 2008]
Chapters II - Executive
Chapter III- State Legislature
Chapter IV- Legislative Power of the
3 The Preamble
Governor
A Preamble is an introduction to a Constitution. It is an
Chapter V - High Court in the States
exordium of the Constitution. N.A. Palkhivala has called
Chapter VI- Subordinate Courts
the Preamble as ‘Identity Card of the Constitution’. On
Part 7: (Repeated) The States in 238
Part B: of the first schedule
13th December 1946, the Objective Resolution introduced
by Jawaharlal Nehru became the foundation of the Preamble.
Part 8: Union Territories 239–242
[IAS (Pre.), 2017]
Part 9: Panchayats, [UPPCS (Pre.) 2013] 243–243O
We, the people of India having solemnly resolved
Part 9A: Municipalities 243P-243 ZG to Constitute India into a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular,
Part 9 B: Co-operative Societies 243 ZH - 243
Democratic, Republic and to secure to all its citizens : Justice,
ZT
social, economic and political; Liberty of thought, expression,
Part 10: Scheduled and Tribal Areas 244-244A
belief, faith and worship; Equality of status and opportunity
Part 11: Relations between the Union and 245–263 and to promote among them all; Fraternity assuring the dignity
the States of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation.
11
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In our Constituent Assembly this 26 November, 1949 (Miti

Schedules and Its Subjects
Margashirsha Shukla Saptami Samvat 2006 Vikrami) we do
hereby adopt, enact and give to ourselves this Constitution. Schedules Subject
[IAS (Pre.) 1997] First Schedule State and Union Territory.[IAS (Pre.), 2003]
The Preamble to the Indian Constitution is called its soul. Second Schedule Salary of President and Other Higher
In the Berubari Case (1960), the Supreme Court did not Officials.
consider the Preamble to be a part of the Constitution.
Third Schedule Forms of Oaths or Affirmations.
[UPPCS (Pre.) 2018; UPPCS, 2018; UP RO/ARO
(Pre.) 2023; 42nd BPSC, 1997] Fourth Schedule Allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha.
In Keshavananda Bharti v. State of Kerala (1973), Fifth Schedule Provision regarding administration
the Supreme Court held the Preamble to be part of the and control of Scheduled Areas and
Constitution. Scheduled Tribes.
Basic structure Doctrine was given by the Supreme Court
Sixth Schedule Provision as to the administration of
in this landmark judgement.
tribal areas of the states of Assam,
Through the Berubari Union Case, 1960, the Supreme
Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
Court stated that ‘the Preamble is the key to open the mind
of the makers’ but it can not be considered as part of the Seventh Schedule The division of powers between the
Constitution. (UPPCS, Pre 2017) Center and the State in the Union List,
Golaknath v. State of Punjab (1967)- In this case, the the State List and the Concurrent List.
Supreme Court ruled that the Parliament cannot take away Eighth Schedule Languages
or abridge any of the Fundamental Rights. The Court held Ninth Schedule Law Validation of certain Acts and
that the Fundamental Rights cannot be amended for the Regulations
implementation of the Directive Principles.
Tenth Schedule Provisions as to disqualification on the
In Bommai vs Union Of India (1994), Supreme Court held
ground of defection
that ,the preamble of the Constitution is an integral part
of the Constitution. Eleventh Schedule Provisions relating to Panchayats.
The Preamble speaks of social, economic and political Twelfth Schedule Provisions relating to Municipalities.
justice. (UPPCS RO/ARO Pre, 2021)
KM Munshi described the Preamble of the Indian Note : The Ninth Schedule was added to the Consti-
Constitution as the “political horoscope” of the tution by the First Amendment Act, 1951 the Tenth
Constitution (CGPSC Pre, 2013) Schedule by the 52nd Amendment Act, 1985, the
The Preamble is non-justiciable, that is, its provisions are Eleventh Schedule by the 73rd Amendment Act, 1992
not enforceable in courts of law. (UP Lower Sub, 2004) and the Twelfth Schedule by the 74th Amendment Act,
The Preamble was amended only once in 1976 to 1992.
introduce the words ‘socialist’ and ‘secular’ through Note : The Eighth Schedule of the original Indian
42nd Constitutional Amendment Act. Constitution contained 14 languages. The 21st Consti-
Parliament can amend the Preamble under Article 368, tution Amendment, 1967 added Sindhi, the 71st
although it cannot make unassertive amendments to the Constitutional Amendment, Act 1992 added Konkani,
framework contained in it. Parliament can make such Manipuri and Nepali and the 92nd Constitutional
changes which lead to expansion and strengthening of the Amendment, Act 2003 added Bodo, Dogri, Maithili
basic structure. and Santhali languages. A total of 22 languages are
The expression 'Socialist' was introduced in the Preamble
currently included in the Eighth Schedule.
of the Indian Constitution by 42nd Amendment.
[60-62nd BPSC (Pre.), 2016 Jharkhand PCS (Mains), 2016]
The 7th Schedule of the Indian Constitution has three lists
namely, the Union list, state list, and concurrent list, that
4 show the division of power between the Union and States
Schedules
concerning certain subjects. (UPPCS RO/ARO, 2021)
Initially, the number of Schedules in the Indian Constitution he Union List is a list of 98 (originally 97) subjects
was 8, which has now expanded to 12. numbered items as provided in the Seventh Schedule to
[MPPCS (Pre.) 1990; MPPCS (Pre.) 2010; UPPCS (Pre.) 2022] the Constitution of India. [BPSC (Pre.) 2016]
12
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The Concurrent List or List-III (Seventh Schedule) is a Andhra Pradesh is the first state to be formed on the basis
list of 52 items (though the last subject is numbered 47) of language. (MPPCS, 2016)
given in the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India. The States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) was
[BPSC (Pre.) 2016] constituted by the Central Government of India on 22nd
The Concurrent List includes subjects that are of common December 1953 to recommend the reorganization of state
interest to both the central and state governments. Both the boundaries. (Chhattisgarh PCS, Pre 2021)
Union and state governments have the power to legislate The States Reorganisation Commission submitted its report
on these subjects. in 1955. (Chhattisgarh, PCS Pre 2021)
However, in case of a conflict between a Union law and The State Reorganization Act was passed by the Indian
a State law on a subject in the Concurrent List, the Union Parliament in 1956. Under this Act, 14 States and 6 Union
law prevails. Territories were created. (Chhattisgarh, 2021)
This means that the Union law will take precedence over In November 1954, Pondicherry, Yanam, Chandranagar
the State law. and Karaikal, which were French settlements were, handed
Some of the important subjects are: Education, Forest, Trade over to the Government of India by the French Government.
unions, Marriage, Adoption, Succession. They together formed the Union Territory of Pondicherry.
On December 18, 1961, the govt. of India took military
5 The Union of India and Its Territories action against the Portuguese and merged their colonies
Under Part I of the Indian Constitution, Articles 1 to 4, of Goa, Daman and Diu into the Union of India.
refer to the Union of India and its territories. India has been Zonal Councils were established in the Union of India by
the States Reorganization Act, 1956.
declared a Union of States. Currently, there are 28 States
There are five Zonal Councils in India. The Union
and 8 Union Territories in India. (UPPCS 2013, 2007)
Home Minister is the ex-officio chairperson of the Zonal
Note : Under Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Councils.
Diu Act, 2019, two Union Territories of Dadra and
Zonal Council Headquarters
Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu have been merged,
thus reducing the number of Union Territories to 8. Eastern Zonal Council Kolkata
Significantly, this Act came into force on 26th of January, Western Zonal Council Mumbai
2020. (UPPCS, 2013)
Central Zonal Council Prayagraj (Allahabad)
The name of the Union (India, that is Bharat) and its Northern Zonal Council New Delhi
territory is mentioned under Article 1. (UPPCS, 2008)
Under Article 2, the right to admit or establish new States Southern Zonal Council Chennai
has been conferred on the Parliament. (UPPCS, 2008)
Note : North-Eastern States viz. Assam, Arunachal
Parliament has the power to create new States and change
Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Meghalaya and
the area, extent and name of existing States under Article 3.
Nagaland are not included in Zonal Councils. Their
(UPPCS, 2008)
problems are dealt with by the North East Council
Note : Amendments made by Parliament under the constituted under the North Eastern Council Act, 1971.
provisions relating to Articles 2 and 3 shall not be
considered amendments under Article 368. It can be State Formation Date
amended by the Parliament by a simple majority. Andhra Pradesh 1 October, 1953
The State Reorganization Commission was established Gujarat, Maharashtra 1 May , 1960
in 1953 for the reorganization of the States of the Union Nagaland 1 December, 1963
of India. Its president was Fazal Ali.
Haryana 1 November, 1966
This Commission submitted its report in the year 1955.
Potti Sriramulu, the leader of Telugu speaking people Himachal Pradesh 25 January, 1971
resorted to fast unto death in support of his demand for the Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura 21 January, 1972
formation of states based on language and suffered death Sikkim 16 May , 1975
after 56 days.
Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh 20 February, 1987
Andhra Pradesh was formed on 1st October 1953 based
on language after the death of Sriramulu. Goa 30 May, 1987
13
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that all inconsistent existing laws become void from the

Chhattisgarh 1 November, 2000
commencement of the Constitution. (UPPCS 2009)
Uttarakhand 9 November, 2000
At present, 6 Fundamental Rights have been guaranteed
Jharkhand 15 November, 2000 to the citizens under the Constitution, which are as follows:
Telangana 2 June, 2014 i. Right to Equality (Articles 14-18)
[UPPCS (Pre.) 2009]
ii. Right to Freedom (Articles 19 - 22)
iii. Right Against Exploitation (Articles 23 - 24)
6 Citizenship iv. Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25 - 28)
v. Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29-30) and
Articles 5 to 11 give detailed provisions relating to
vi. Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32)
citizenship. (UPPCS, 2018)
i. Right to Equality (Articles 14 to 18)
The Constitution of India grants its citizens single
Article 14: Equality before Law- The state shall not deny
citizenship. (UPPSC, 2015, 1994)
to any person equality before the law or the equal protection
Parliament has the power under Article 11 to legislate on
granting and abolishing citizenship and all other matters of laws within the territory of India. (UPPCS, 1999)

related to it. (UPPCS, (Pre.) 2013) Note : The idea of ‘Equality before Law’ is of British
Indian citizenship can be obtained by fulfilling conditions origin, while ‘equal protection of law’ is derived from
as per Citizenship Act, 1955 - birth, descent, registration, the US Constitution.
naturalization and area acquisition being the main criteria. Article 15: The State shall not discriminate against any
(UPPCS, 2016)
citizen on the grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex or
In December, 2019 the Citizenship (Amendment) Bill place of birth or any of them. (IAS, 2002; UP RO/ARO, 2014)
received the assent of the President. This Act provides that Article 16: Equality of opportunity in the matter of
any person belonging to Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi public employment- All citizens will be provided
or Christian community from Afghanistan, Bangladesh or equal opportunities in subjects related to employment or
Pakistan who had entered India on or before 31st December,
appointment to a post under the State.
2014 and who has been exempted by the Central Govt. shall
(IAS, 2002; UP RO/ARO, 2014)
not be treated as an illegal migrant.
In March, 2024 the MHA notified the CAA Amendment Exceptions - The special provision for Backward
Act, 2019. Classes, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes is
Indian citizenship cannot be obtained by depositing money mentioned in Article 15 (4) and Article 16 (4).
in Indian Banks. (41st BPSC, 1996) On 28 June 2021, In the case “State of Kerala v. Leesamma
The concept of single citizenship has been adopted in India Joseph”, the Supreme Court of India held that persons with
from the British constitution. (IAS Pre, 2021) disabilities have a right to reservation in promotions under
According to Article 11 of the Indian Constitution, Article 16(4) of the Constitution.
Parliament can make provisions with respect to the Article 16 (4) mentions that Nothing in this article shall
acquisition and termination of citizenship. prevent the State from making any provision for the
(Chhattisgarh PCS Pre, 2013) reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any
backward class of citizens which, in the opinion of the
7 Fundamental Rights State, is not adequately represented in the services under
Magna Carta, the Charter of Rights issued by British king the State.
John in 1215, was the first written document relating to the Article 17: Abolition of Untouchability -
fundamental rights of citizens. The practice of untouchability in any form is a punishable
Part - III of the Constitution provides details of the offence in accordance with the law.
fundamental rights, from Articles 12 to 35. They are also Article 18: Abolition of Titles-
known as the ‘Magna Carta of India’. It prohibits the State from conferring any title except a
[UPPCS (Pre.) 1998; BPSC, 1994, 2000] military or academic distinction. It prohibits a citizen of
Martial law affects the Fundamental Rights. India from accepting any title from a foreign state without
Article 13 is the guardian of Rights mentioned in Part III of the consent of the President of India.
our Constitution. Clause (1) of the said Article emphasises (IAS, 2002; UP RO/ARO, 2014)
14
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ii. Right to Freedom (Article 19 to 22) - (3) Right to Livelihood

Article 19: Protection of certain rights related to freedom (4) Right to Privacy
of speech – Presently, Article 19(1) guarantees 6 rights. (5) Right to Health
Article 19(1) (a) – Right to freedom of speech and (6) Right to free legal aid
expression. (7) Right to Speedy Trial
Article 19(1) (b) – Right to assemble peacefully and without (8) Right to Information
arms. (9) Right against public hanging etc.
Article 19(1) (c) – Right to form associations or unions.
Article 21(A) : Right to Education -
Article 19(1) (d) – Right to move freely throughout the
The State shall provide free and compulsory education to
territory of India.
all children in the age group of six to fourteen years.
Article 19(1) (e) – Right to reside and settle in any part of
(UPPCs, 2006)
the territory of India.
Article 19(1) (g) – Right to practice any profession, or to Note : 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002
carry on any occupation, trade or business. inserted Article 21(A), by which the State shall provide
free and compulsory education to all children in the age
Note : (1) Originally, Article 19 contained seven rights. group of 6 to 14 years. (UPPCS, 2006)
But, the right to acquire, hold and dispose of property
Article 22 : Protection against arrest and detention:
was deleted [Article 19(1) (f) and Article 31] by the
Following are the rights of an arrested or detained person–
44th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1978 and Article
(i) Right to be informed of the grounds of arrest.
300(A) was added to make it only a legal right.
(ii) Right to be produced before a magistrate within 24 hours
(2) Under freedom of speech and expression [Article
(excluding the journey time). (Uttarakhand PCS, 2016)
19(1) (a) the Freedom of Press is considered implied in
it. Under this, Right to Information was also vested by Preventive Detention : In Clauses 3, 4 and 5 of Article
the judiciary. 22, preventive detention has been dealt with. This is to
Article 20: Protection in respect of conviction for offences: prevent a person from committing a crime by arresting
Under these three types of protection are given– him before the act of crime is committed but subject to
(i) A person shall be convicted of any offence for violation of following conditions-
a law in force at that time of the commission of the act. The detention of a person cannot exceed three months
(2) No person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same unless an advisory board reports sufficient cause for
offence more than once. extended detention.
The detainee must be allowed to make a representation
(3) No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be
against the detention order.
a witness against himself. (UPPCS, 2016)
Article 21: Protection of Life and Personal Liberty (iii)Right against Exploitation (Article 23 to 24):
No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty Article 23 – Prohibition of traffic in human beings and
except according to the procedure established by law. forced labour. (IAS, 2017)

(UPPCS, 2003, 2004) Article 24 – Prohibition of employment of children below

Supreme court observed that the right to travel abroad is the age of 14 years in any factory, mine or other hazardous
a fundamental right guaranteed under Article 21 of the activities. (UPPSC 2017, 2005, 2000)

Constitution. (UPPCS 2003, 2004) (iv) Right to Freedom of Religion (Article 25 to 28)
Article 21 of the Constitution of India which guarantees the Article 25 – Freedom of conscience and free profession,
right to life further encompasses right to marry partner practice and propagation of religion. (UP UDA/LDA, 2001)
of choice. (UPPCS 2003, 2004) Article 26 – Freedom to manage religious affairs.
(UP Lower, 2009)
Note : The Supreme Court has reaffirmed its judgement Article 27 – Freedom from taxation for promotion of any
in the Menaka Gandhi vs. Union of India, case that the particular religion.
following rights are part of Article 21 : Article 28 – Freedom as to attendance at religious
(1) Right to live with human dignity instruction or religious worship in certain educational
(2) Right to descent environment institutions.
15
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In the Keshavanand Bharti case (1973), the Supreme

Note : Wearing a kirpan and travelling with it, will be
Court decided that the Parliament could also amend
considered to be part of the Sikh religion.
the fundamental rights except the basic structure of the
(v) Cultural and Educational Rights (Article 29 to 30) : Constitution.
Article 29: Protection of language, script and culture of Fundamental rights are justiceable rights to be through Cout
minorities. (UP RO/ARO,2 016) of Law.
Article 30: Right of minorities to establish and administer Exam Oriented Facts
educational institutions.
The resolution on Fundamental Rights was adopted in
(vi) Right to Constitutional Remedies :
the Karachi session of Congress in 1931.
(IAS, 2002; UPPCS, 2004)
(Jharkhand PCS Pre, 2023)
To enforce fundamental rights, the Supreme Court has been
empowered to issue 5 types of writs (directions or orders) The Fundamental Rights are guaranteed by the Cons-
titution of India against state. (UPPCS Pre, 1998)
under Article 32 of the Constitution. These are-
(a) Habeas Corpus (b) Mandamus (c) Prohibition Under the Article 15(5) of the Constitution, reservations
(d) Certiorari (e) Quo-Warranto (UP Lower, Sub. 2015) in admission of educational institutions, including private
(a) Habeas Corpus : and unaided to OBCs/SC/ST is made.
(Uttarakhand PCS, 2012)
This order is issued by the court on the request of the
detainee to the officer imprisoning him to produce the Under Articles 16(1) and 16(2) the equal opportunity
detained person within 24 hours (excluding travel time) at for all citizens in matters relating to employment or
the respective court and to furnish reasons for his detention. appointment to any office under the state has been
(b) Mandamus : (UPPCS, 2015) ensured. (UPPCS Mains, 2009)

It is a command issued by the court to a public official Under the 77th Constitution Amendment Act 1995, the
asking him to perform his official duties that he has failed reservation in promotion for the SC and ST was ensured
or refused to perform. (CGPSC, 2016) by inserting clause 4A in Article 16.
(c) Prohibition : (Jharkhand PCS Pre, 2023)

It is issued by a higher court to a lower court or tribunal to Under the Article 21 of the Constitution, Doctrine of Due
prevent the latter from exceeding its jurisdiction or usurping Process of law is included. (UPPCS Mains, 2014)
a jurisdiction that it does not possess. (CGPSC, 2016)
In the case of Menaka Gandhi Vs UOI, 1978 the SC held
(d) Certiorari : that the right to travel abroad is a Fundamental Right and
The writ of certiorari is issued by the Supreme Court, the is secured by Article 21. (UPPCS Pre, 1997)
High Court to some inferior court or tribunal to transfer
the matter to it or some other superior authority for proper 8 Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP)
consideration. (CGPSC, 2016)
(e) Quo-Warranto : The Directive Principles of State Policy are enshrined in
When a person or a public institution conducts an act Part-IV of the Constitution (from Article 36 to 51). These were
without any legal right the Court may ask by order the borrowed from the Irish Constitution. Their implementation
former on which he is acting. (CG PSC, 2016)
depends on the will of the State. They can neither be enforced
by the courts nor enjoy statutory power. (UPPSC, 2010)
Article 32 (Right to Constitutional Remedies) was called
Article 38 – State to secure a social order for promoting
'Soul of the Constitution' by Dr. Bhimrao Ramji
welfare of the people.
Ambedkar. (UPPCS, 2004)
Article 39 – Certain principles of policy to be followed by
Article 359 sanctions the President of India to suspend all
the state and Article 39A - Equal justice and free legal aid.
the fundamental rights during an emergency except Article Article 40 – For the organization of village panchayats.
20 and Article 21. (UPPCS 2015, UP Lower, 2002) (BPSC, 2001)
According to Article 64, the Vice President of India is the Article 41 – Right to work, education and public assistance
ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. The House also in certain cases. [UP Lower (Sub.) 2013]
elects a Deputy Chairman from among its members. Article 42 – Provision for just and human conditions of
(BPSC 2001, 2017) work and maternity relief.
16
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Article 43 – To secure a living wage etc. for workers. C. to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity
(UP UDA/LDA, 2010)
of India;
Article 43(A) – Participation of workers in the management
D. to defend the country and render national service when
of industries. (UPPCS, 2019)
called upon to do so;
Article 44 –To secure all citizens a uniform civil code
E. to promote harmony and the spirit of common
throughout the country. (UPPCS, 2010)
brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending
Article 45 –To provide early childhood care and education
religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities;
for all children until they complete the age of 14 years.
to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of
(UP Lower, 2008)
women;
Article 46 –To promote the educational and economic
interests of SCs, STs and other weaker sections of the F. to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite
society and to protect them from social injustice and culture;
exploitation. (IAS, 2012) G.. to protect and improve the natural environment
Article 47 –To raise the level of nutrition and the standard of including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have
living, to improve public health, to prohibit the consumption compassion for living creatures;
of intoxicating drinks and drugs which are injurious to H. to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit
health. (IAS, 2012) of inquiry and reform;
Article 48 –To organise agriculture and animal husbandry I. to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
on modern and scientific lines. (IAS, 2012)
J. to strive for excellence in all spheres of individual and
Article 48(A) –To protect and improve the environment
collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to
and to safeguard forests and wildlife. (UPPCS, 2019)
higher levels of endeavour and achievement;
Article 49 –It provides for the preservation of monuments,
K. who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities
places and objects of national importance.
for education to his child or, as the case may be, ward
Article 50 –It provides for the separation of executive and
between the age of six and fourteen years.
judiciary. (UPSC, 2020)
Article 51 –It makes provisions for international peace and
Note : Originally there were 10 fundamental duties
security enhancement. (UPSC, 2002) in the Constitution, but the 11th fundamental duty was
inserted by the 86th Amendment, 2002.
9 Fundamental Duties
Exam Oriented Facts
The provision of fundamental duties is mentioned in Article
Fundamental Duties are not enforceable by law.
51A of Part-IVA of the Constitution. (MPPCS, 2017)
(UPPCS Pre, 2003)
Fundamental duties were incorporated into the Constitution
by the 42nd Constitution Amendment, 1976. (IAS, 2017) To vote in General Election is not the fundamental duty.
The fundamental duties were incorporated on the (UPPCS Pre, 2021)

recommendations of the Swaran Singh Committee. The 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976 included
(UPPCS, 2012) the fundamental duties of citizens in the Indian
These were inspired by the Constitution of the Soviet Constitution. (Chhattisgarh PCS, 2008)
Union.

List of Fundamental Duties 10 Union Executive

Article 51A, Fundamental Duties - It shall be the duty The President is the head of the Union executive. The
of every citizen of India- Union executive consists of the President, Vice President,
A. to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and Prime Minister and the Cabinet. The President is the nominal
institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem; head of the executive due to the adoption of the parliamentary
(UPPCS, 2021) governance system in India, while the real power is vested in
Prime Minister and his Council of ministers. Articles 52 to
B. to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired 78 describe the Union executive under Part V of the Indian
our national struggle for freedom; Constitution.
17
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Government of India A candidate must have at least 50 proposers and 50

seconders for nomination for the presidential election.
Disputes related to the election of the President are settled
Executive by the Supreme Court.
Legislature Judiciary
Term of Office :
President Vice-President Council of The term of office of the President under Article 56 is 5
Minister (with years. However, even after the end of the term, he remains
PM as head))
in office until his successor assumes charge. (UPPCS, 2016)
Supreme Court
According to Article 57, the President is eligible for re-
Rajya Sabha Lok Sabha
(250 seats) (550 seats)
High Court election. The President may resign from his post by writing
a letter addressed to the Vice-President.
Subordinate Court
Oath :
A. President : As per Article 60, the President is administered the oath
There shall be a President of India (Article 52). (BPSC, 2016) of office and secrecy by the Chief Justice of the Supreme
The President is the first citizen of the country. Court or in his absence by the senior-most Judge of the
According to the Article 53 (1), the executive power of the apex court.
Union rests with the President and he uses it by himself or Salary :
through his subordinate officers. (BPSC, 2016) The President’s monthly salary is 5 lakh rupees. His salary
Qualifications : is income tax free.
Article 58 describes the qualifications for occupying the Impeachment :
office of the President of India - (UP Lower, 1990) Article 61 describes the process of impeachment of the
1. He must be a citizen of India; President.
2. He must have completed the age of 35 years; Under Article 61(1) impeachment of the President can be
3. He must be qualified for election as a member of the House imposed only on allegations of violation of the Constitution.
of the people; (UPPCS, 2015)
4. He does not hold an office of profit at the time of election. An impeachment motion can be brought against the
President by any House of Parliament, which must be
Note : The post of President or Vice-President or signed by one-fourth of the members of that House. For
Governor of a State or is a minister either for the Union
this, written notice must be given to the President 14 days
or for any state is not considered to be an office of profit.
in advance.
According to the Article 59 of the Constitution, the Impeachment is a quasi-judicial process of Parliament.
President shall not be a member of either House of It is necessary to fill the consequent presidential vacancy
Parliament or of a House of the Legislature of any state. within 6 months.
Election :
According to Article 54, the President is elected by the Note : If the President is not present or unable to
members of an electoral college. (UP VDA/LDA, 2001) function in his office due to illness or other reasons,
The electoral college consists of elected members of the Lok the Vice-President shall serve as the acting-President
Sabha, the Rajya Sabha and the elected members of the until the incumbent returns to the office. If the post of
legislative assemblies of the States. (UP UDA/LDA, 2001) Vice-President is lying vacant, then the Chief Justice
The elected members of the Delhi and Puducherry of India (the senior-most judge of the Supreme Court if
legislative assemblies have also been included in the CJ's post is also vacant) will discharge the responsibility
electoral college by the 70th Constitutional Amendment as the acting-President.
Act, 1992. (UP UDA/LDA, 2001)
The elected members of the legislative assembly of the S.l
President Tenure
Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir are also included No.
in the electoral college for President's election, while the 1. Rajendra Prasad 26 January, 1950 to 13 May,
elected members of its legislative assembly as the state of 1962
Jammu and Kashmir were included in the electoral college. 2. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan 13 May, 1962 to 13 May, 1967
According to Article 55, the President is elected 3. Zakir Hussain 13 May, 1967 to 3 May , 1969
by proportional representation, by means of single 4. V.V. Giri 24 August, 1969 to 24 August,
transferable vote and secret ballot. (IAS, 2018) 1974
18
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5. Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed 24 August, 1974 to 11 February,

members of language commission, members of minority
1977 commission, Governors, Chairperson and members of
Union Public Service Commission, etc.
6. Neelam Sanjiva Reddy 25 July, 1977 to 25 July, 1982
Article 222 of the Indian constitution provides the provision
7. Giani Zail Singh 25 July, 1982 to July 25, 1987 for Judges to be transferred from one highcourt to another.
8. R. Venkataraman 25 July, 1987 to July 25, 1992 Legislative Powers - The President has the following
9. Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma 25 July, 1992 to 25 July, 1997 legislative powers:
The right to summon, prorogue and dissolve the Lok Sabha
10. K.R. Narayanan 25 July, 1997 to 25 July, 2002
and to address the first session of Parliament every year
11. Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam 25 July, 2002 to 25 July, 2007
and after every new election, right to call a joint sitting
12. Pratibha Devi Singh Patil 25 July, 2007 to July 25, 2012 of both Houses (Article 108).
13. Pranab Mukherjee 25 July, 2012 to 25 July, 2017 Bill passed by the Parliament becomes a law after the assent
14. Ram Nath Kovind 25 July, 2017 to July, 2022 of the President.
15. Droupadi Murmu July 2022 to till now Note : When a Bill is passed by the Parliament it is sent
to the President for his assent, he may choose one of the
Note : V.V. Giri from 3rd May, 1969 to 20th July, 1969, following courses –
Justice Muhammad Hidayatullah from 20 July, 1969 (i) He may approve the Bill.
to 24th August, 1969 and B.D. Jatti from 11th February (ii) He may not give assent to the Bill and keeps it with
1977 to 25th July 1977 were the acting- President. himself. This is called the President’s Pocket Veto.
Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the first President to be elected (iii) He may return the Bill to the Parliament for
to the office for the second consecutive time. reconsideration (if not a Money Bill).
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan was the Vice-President twice and If the Parliament sends the Bill again to the President with
President once. or without any changes as required, the President is bound
The counting of second preference vote's was done during to give his assent.
V.V. Giri’s election. During a National Emergency in India, the life of Loksabha
Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy was defeated in the election may be extended beyond its normal term of 5 years by a
during the first time while he was elected unopposed law of Parliament for one year at a time, for any length
President during the second time. of time. Notably this extension cannot continue beyond
India’s first woman President was Pratibha Devi Singh a period of 6 months after the emergency has ceased to
Patil. operate.
Rights and Powers of the President : President Giani Zail Singh used the pocket veto in 1986
Executive Powers - The following are the executive powers concerning the Indian Postal (Amendment) Bill.
of the President : (CGPSC, 2015)
All executive powers of the govt. are exercised in the name Bills related to the creation of new states, change of state
of the President. borders, money bills, etc. are introduced in the House only
Article 77 of the Indian Constitution provides this. with the prior permission of the President.
He can seek information on administration of the affairs The President nominates 12 members to the Rajya
of the Union and proposals for legislation from the Prime Sabha [Act.80(1)(a)]. They shall consist of persons with
Minister. Under Article 78, the Prime Minister has to special knowledge and practical experience in the fields
inform the President. of arts, science, literature and social service [Article 80
The President can declare any area as Scheduled Area. (3)].
(Under article 244(1) after consultation with the Governor Ordinance Power
of that state). The President has the right to issue an Ordinance under
The President appoints various officials, including the Article 123. (UP Lower, 2013)
Prime Minister of India, other members of the Council of The President has the power to issue an Ordinance only
Ministers on the advice of the Prime Minister, judges of the when either of the two Houses has been prorogued or
Supreme Court and High Courts, ambassadors and other otherwise not in session and hence, it is not possible for
diplomats, Comptroller and Auditor General, Attorney parliament to enact legislation. (UPPCS, 2016)
General, Lieutenant Governors of Union Territories, It has the effect of a law formulated by the Parliament.
19
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It is effective only for 6 weeks after the commencement of The Indian President is eligible for re-election for any
the Parliament session. number of times. (67th BPSC, 2021)
This ordinance is required to be approved by the Parliament
If there is any doubt or dispute regarding the election of
within 6 weeks of the beginning of the session of
the President, it can be referred to the Supreme Court of
Parliament. (Jharkhand PCS, 2013)
India (Art 71) whose decision shall be final.
An Ordinance can be withdrawn at any time by the
(38th BPSC Pre, 1992)
President.
The Procedure for Impeachment of the President of India
Pardoning Power - Under Article 72, the President
is Quasi - Judicial Procedure. (RAS/RTS Pre, 2016)
exercises the judicial powers to pardon, reduce the
The joint sitting of the House of people and the council
punishment, remission of the punishment and remit the
of state is summoned by President. (UPPCS Pre, 2012;
punishment. The same petition cannot be filed again if the
UPPCS Mains, 2015; UPPCS Pre Re-exam, 2015)
President rejects it. (UPPCS, 2010)
Military Powers: The President is the Supreme To promulgate ordinance is the legislative power of the
Commander of the three Armed Forces (Army, Air Force President, according to the Constitution.
and Navy). (Chhattisgarh PCS Pre, 2018)

He appoints the chiefs of the Army, Air Force and Navy. A pocket veto is a way to restrict passage of a Bill by not
Diplomatic Powers: International treaties and agreements providing permission to the Bill. The President of India
are made in the name of the President. The President give the final approval to a Bill or act after Parliament
approves the appointments of foreign ambassadors passed the Bill.
appointed in India. B. Vice-President
Emergency Powers : The office of Vice-President is the second highest office
President has extraordinary power during an emergency. in the country. On the lines of the Vice-President of the
Part-XVIII of the Constitution lays down provisions United States, the Indian Constitution has made provisions
related to an emergency from Articles 352 to 360. related to the election of Vice-President.
The President has the right to declare three types of According to Article 63, there will be a Vice- President of
emergencies in three following conditions- India.
(1) In the event of war or external aggression or armed According to Article 64, the Vice President of India is the
rebellion (Article 352) ex-officio chairman of Rajya Sabha. (BPSC, 2001, 2017)
(2) In case of failure of constitutional machinery in the According to Article 65 of the Constitution of India, Vice
States (Article 356) President can act as President or discharge his functions.
(3) In the event of a financial emergency (Article 360) Vice President can act as President or discharge his functions
Power of Consultation in the event of the occurrence of any vacancy in the office of
The President can consult the Supreme Court on any the President by reason of this death, resignation or removal,
matter of public importance but is not bound to accept or otherwise. (Chhattisgarh PCS Pre 2021)
advice under Article 143. (UPPCS, 2012) Election
Exam Oriented Facts According to Article 66, the Vice-President is elected by
an electoral college consisting of elected and nominated
According to Article 53 of the Constitution the, Executive
power of the Union shall be vested in President. members of both the Houses of Parliament. (UPPCS, 2012)
(UPPCS Mains 2012)
Qualifications
A person should be a citizen of India and has attained the
The Chief Minister of a State in India is not eligible
to vote in the Presidential election if he is yet to prove age of 35 years. He should be qualified to be a member
his majority on the floor of the lower house of the state of Rajya Sabha and should not hold any office of profit.
legislature. (IAS Pre, 1993) For the nomination of the Vice-President’s election,
a candidate must have at least 20 Proposers and 20
A member of Parliament or a state legislature can be
elected as President but he will have to relinquish his Seconders.
seat within 6 months of his election Note : For this purpose, no person shall be deemed to
(UPPCS Spl Mains, 2008) hold any office of profit merely because he/she is the
The Constitution of India is silent about the educational President or the Vice-President or the Governor of a
Qualification of the President. (UPPCS Pre, 1992) State or a Minister of the Union or a Minister of a State.
20
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Term of Office Serially, first term 2007-12 and second term 2012-17
According to Article 67, the term of office of the Vice-
13. Venkaiah Naidu 11 August, 2017 to 10 August, 2022
President is 5 years. (UPPCS, 2013)
14. Jagdeep Dhankhar August 2022 to till now
Even before that he may tender his resignation to the
President any time. He can serve as the acting-President for a maximum period
The Vice-President can be removed from office by passing of 6 months. The election of a new President is necessary
a resolution with a majority of all the them members of the during this period.
Rajya Sabha. It requires the consent of the Lok Sabha. He cannot act as the Chairman of Rajya Sabha when he is
(UPPCS, 2013) acting President.
But no such resolution may be moved unless at least 14 Exam Oriented Facts
days advance notice has been given. (UPPCS, 2013) The Vice President is elected by the members of an
Oath electoral college comprising all members of both the
According to Article 69, the oath of office of the Vice Houses of Parliament. (UPPCS Mains 2012)
President is administered by the President or by a person
Article 66(1) of the Constitution provides mechanism for
appointed by the President.
the election of Vice President. (MPPCS Pre, 1996)
Salary
Article 66(3) of the Constitution describes that a person is
The Vice-President is entitled to the salary and allowance of
eligible for election as Vice President if he/she is citizen
the Chairman of Rajya Sabha. The salary of the Chairman
of India, completed the age of 35 years and is qualified
of Rajya Sabha is Rs 4 lakh per month.
for election as a member of the Council of State.
Note - The period during which the Vice-President serves as the
(UP UDA/LDA 2000)
President, he shall not be entitled to the salary or allowances
given to the Chairman of Rajya Sabha. During that time Article 67 provides a mechanism for the removal of Vice
he receives the salary of the President. President (UPPCS Mains 2005)

Powers and Functions VP of India can be removed from his office by a resolution
The Vice-President is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya of Council of States. (UPPCS Mains, 2013)
Sabha. (Articles 64 and 89).
The Vice-President is not a member of the Rajya Sabha. Note : The final settlement of disputes related to the
Therefore, he does not have the right to vote on any election of President and Vice-President is done by the
subject but in the case of equal votes, he has a casting vote. Supreme Court. Their election cannot be challenged in
When the office of the President is vacant due to his case the electorate is incomplete.
resignation, expulsion, death and other reasons, the C. Prime Minister and Council of Ministers
Vice-President acts as the acting-President. The parliamentary governance system has been adopted
Vice-Presidents of India Term under the Constitution of India. According to this system,
the President is the head of the executive while the real
1. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan 1952 to 1962
executive powers are vested in the Prime Minister and
Serially, first term 1952-57 and second term 1957-62 the Cabinet.
2. Zakir Hussain 1962 to 1967 According to Article 74, the President shall have a Council
3. V.V. Giri 1967 to 1969
of Ministers for assistance and advice headed by the Prime
Minister. The President shall act in accordance with such
4. Gopal Swaroop Pathak 1969 to 1974
advice while exercising his functions. (UPPCS, 2011, 2013)
5. B.D. Jatti 1974 to 1979 The President appoints the leader of the majority party in
6. Justice Hidayatullah 1979 to 1984 the Lok Sabha as the Prime Minister.
According to Article 75 (1), the Prime Minister is
7. R. Venkataraman 1984 to 1987
appointed by the President and on the advice of the Prime
8. Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma 1987 to 1992
Minister he/she appoints other ministers. All ministers,
9. K.R. Narayanan 1992 to 1997 including Prime Minister, are administered the oath of
10. Krishnakant 1997 to 2002 office and secrecy by the President.
If a motion of no confidence is passed against the council
11. Bhairon Singh Shekhawat 2002 to 2007
of ministers in the Lok Sabha, the entire Council has to
12. Hamid Ansari 2007 to 2017 resign.
21
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According to Article, 75 (3) the Council of Ministers is Under Article 78, the Prime Minister informs the President
collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha, the House of of the decisions of the Government.
the People. (UPPCS 2012) The Prime Minister is the ex-officio Chairman of NITI
Aayog and Chirman of National Development Council,
Note : The 91st Constitution Amendment Act, 2003
National Integration Council and Inter-State Council.
provides that the total number of ministers in the
The Prime Minister can advise the President to sack the
Council of Ministers (including the Prime Minister)
ministers and dissolve the Council of Ministers by resigning
cannot exceed 15 per cent of the total members of the
himself.
Lok Sabha.
The word ‘Cabinet’ is mentioned only once in the
Prime Minister (serially) Tenure Indian Constitution in Article 352(3) which states that
1. Jawaharlal Nehru 15 August 1947 to 27 May 1964 “the President shall not issue a proclamation unless the
Union Cabinet communicates him in writing that such a
2. Gulzarilal Nanda 27 May, 1964 to 9 June, 1964
(Acting)
proclamation may be issued”. (BPSC, 1996)
Artcle 75 (5) describes that, a Minister who for any period
3. Lal Bahadur Shastri 9 June, 1964 to 11 January, 1966
of six consecutive months is not a member of either House
4. Gulzarilal Nanda 11 January, 1966 to 24 January, 1966
of Parliament shall at the expiration of that period cease to
(Acting)
be a Minister. (UPPCS, 2011)
5. Indira Gandhi 24 January, 1966 to 24 March, 1977 Article 78 lays down a few duties and responsibilities for
6. Morarji Desai 24 March, 1977 to 28 July, 1979 the Prime Minister as stated: To inform the President of
7. Charan Singh 28 July, 1979 to 14 January, 1980 all significant decisions made by the Council of Ministers
8. Indira Gandhi 14 January, 1980 to 31 October, regarding the management of Union affairs and other
1984 legislative proposals.
Other Important Facts
9. Rajiv Gandhi 31 October, 1984 to 2 December,
Jawaharlal Nehru was the Prime Minister for the longest
1989
time (16 years, 286 days).
10. Vishwanath Pratap Singh 2 December, 1989 to 10 November,
Morarji Desai became the first non-Congress Prime
1990
Minister and he was the first Prime Minister to resign.
11. Chandrashekhar Singh 10 November, 1990 to 21 June, 1991 Chaudhary Charan Singh was the Prime Minister who
12. P.V. Narasimha Rao 21 June, 1991 to 16 May, 1996 did not face the Lok Sabha even once while Vishwanath
13. Atal Bihari Vajpayee 16 May, 1996 to 1 June, 1996 Pratap Singh was the first Prime Minister who failed to
14. H.D. Deve Gowda 1 June, 1996 to 21 April, 1997 get the confidence vote.
Indira Gandhi became the first woman Prime Minister
15. Indra Kumar Gujral 21 April, 1997 to 19 March, 1998
of the country.
16. Atal Bihari Vajpayee 19 March, 1998 to 22 May, 2004
Three Prime Ministers (Jawaharlal Nehru, Lal Bahadur
(twice)
Shastri and Indira Gandhi) died during their tenure.
17. Manmohan Singh 22 May, 2004 to 26 May, 2014
Morarji Desai (81) became the oldest and Rajiv Gandhi
18. Narendra Modi 26 May, 2014 to till now (40) became the youngest Prime Minister.
It is mandatory for all members of the Council of Ministers P.V. Narasimha Rao was the Prime Minister who was
to be members of any House of Parliament. According to not a member of either House when he assumed office.
Article 75 (5), if he/she is not a member of Parliament at Atal Bihari Vajpayee was the Prime Minister for the
the time of becoming a minister then it is mandatory to shortest term in a single term for just 13 days.
become a member of Parliament within 6 months otherwise H.D. Deve Gowda was a member of the Legislative
he will have to resign. Assembly while assuming the post of Prime Minister.
There are three kinds of ministers - Cabinet Ministers, So far, there have seen six Prime Ministers, who were
Ministers of State and Deputy Ministers. also Chief Ministers before becoming Prime Ministers.
The Cabinet consists of the Prime Minister and cabinet They were - Morarji Desai, Charan Singh, V.P. Singh, P.V.
ministers while the council of ministers consist of all the Narasimha Rao, H.D. Deve Gowda and Narendra Modi.
ministers. Jagjivan Ram served for the longest time as a minister.
22
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Tamil Nadu 18 Tripura 1

11 Parliament Uttar Pradesh 31 Uttarakhand 3
Parliament is the legislative body of the union government. West Bengal 16 Telangana 7
Parliament has special importance in the Indian political Three Union Territories- Delhi, Puducherry and Jammu
system due to the adoption of the parliamentary governance and Kashmir are represented in Rajyasabha. (MPPCS, 2010)
system (Westminster Model). The minimum age for membership to Rajya Sabha is 30
Under Part V, Chapter II of the Constitution, the years. (UPPCS, 2014)
Constitution, structure, procedure and powers of Rajya Sabha is a Permanent House, which is never
Parliament are described in Articles from 79 to 122. dissolved. (UPPCS, 2014)
According to Article 79, the Parliament of India consists The term of the members of Rajya Sabha is 6 years. One-
of the President, Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha.
third of its members retire every two years. [Article 83
(UPPCS, 2014; UP Lower, 2013)
(1)]. (UPPCS, 1992, 2014)
Parliament consists of two Houses, the Upper House is
According to Article 89 (1), the Vice-President of India is
called Rajya Sabha and the Lower House is called Lok
the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. (UPPCS, 1992)
Sabha.
Members of Rajya Sabha elect one of their members as
The President is not a member of any House of Parliament.
Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha [Article 89(2)].
But he/she is an integral part of Parliament.
The Vice President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of
No Bill passed by Parliament becomes law unless the
Rajya Sabha. He is not the members of Rajyasabha. The
President approves it.
House also elects a Deputy Chairman from among its
Note : Parliament = Loksabha + Rajyasabha + President members. (UPPCS 1992)
A. Rajya Sabha Government Business/
Lunch Legislative Affairs
The structure of Rajya Sabha is mentioned in Article 80.
Loksabha Lok Sabha till 6 P.M.
(BPSC, 2011) Zero
The maximum strength of the Rajya Sabha is 250. 11 A.M. 12 P.M.
Hour 2 P.M. 4 P.M.
6 P.M.
(MPPCS, 2010) 1 P.M. 3 P.M.
Zero 5 P.M.
Question
Of these 238 members are elected indirectly by the States Hour
Hour
Lunch Rajya Sabha till 5 p.m.

and Union Territories while 12 members are nominated Rajyasabha Legislation / Bill Passing

by the President [Article 80 (1)]. (BPSC, 2011)

Currently, the Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha is
Number of Rajya Sabha Members Harivansh Narayan Singh.
Number Article 90 mentions the conditions of the vacancy,
States/ Union Number of States/Union
of resignation and removal of the Deputy Chairman from the
Territories Members Territories
Members
post.
Andhra Pradesh 11 Arunachal Pradesh 1 (a) If he ceases to be a member of the Rajya Sabha, he shall
Assam 7 Bihar 16 vacate the post.
Chhattisgarh 5 Goa 1 (b) The Deputy Chairman may resign at any time by writing
Gujarat 11 Haryana 5 a letter addressed to the Chairman.
Himachal Pradesh 3 Jammu & Kashmir 4 (c) By passing a resolution to this effect by a majority of all
Jharkhand 6 Karnataka 12 the members, before permitting for the removal of the post
of Deputy Chairman by the Rajya Sabha.
Kerala 9 Madhya Pradesh 11
(d) According to Article 92, when a resolution to remove the
Maharashtra 19
Chairman or Deputy Chairman is under consideration, he
Manipur 1 Meghalaya 1
shall not preside.
Mizoram 1 Nagaland 1 Special Powers of the Rajya Sabha
National Capital 3 Odisha 10 The Rajya Sabha may make laws on any subject of the
Region, Delhi
State List declared to be of national importance by at least
Puducherry 1 Punjab 7 two-thirds majority of the members present and voting
Rajasthan 10 Sikkim 1 in the Rajya Sabha (Article 249). (UPPCS, 2013)

23
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The law remains in effect for only one year, but each time it
Number of Members of Lok Sabha
can be extended for one year if the Rajya Sabha desires so.
States / Union Territories Number of Members
Rajya Sabha can declare a resolution for the creation of
Andhra Pradesh 25 Arunachal Pradesh 2
All India Service under Article 312 supported by not less
than two-thirds of the members present and voting. Only Assam 14 Bihar 40

the Rajya Sabha has the right to create All India Service. Chhattisgarh 11 Gujarat 26
(UPPCS, 2018) Goa 2 Himachal Pradesh 4
The Money Bill passed by Lok Sabha reaches Rajya Sabha Haryana 10 Jharkhand 14
for approval. If the Bill is not returned within 14 days, it Jammu & Kashmir 5 Kerala 20
is deemed to have been passed. The Rajya Sabha cannot Karnataka 28 Meghalaya 2
seek amendment in it. Maharashtra 48 Manipur 2
The Rajya Sabha was constituted on 3rd April 1952 and
Madhya Pradesh 29 Mizoram 1
its first meeting was held on 13th May 1952.
Nagaland 1 Odisha 21
The President convenes a session of the Rajya Sabha at
Punjab 13 Rajasthan 25
least twice a year.
The difference between sessions should not exceed more Sikkim 1 Telangana 17

than 6 months. Tamil Nadu 39 Tripura 2

B. Lok Sabha Uttar Pradesh 80 Uttarakhand 5
The composition of Lok Sabha is mentioned in Article 81. West Bengal 42 Andaman and Nicobar 1
Lok Sabha is the Lower House of the Parliament. Its Islands
maximum strength is 530 + 20. Delhi (National Territory) 7 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 2
and Daman and Diu
Note : The 104th Constitutional Amendment Act Chandigarh 1 Lakshadweep 1
extends the reservation of seats for members from
Puducherry 1 Ladakh 1
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok
Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies for a period of Members of Lok Sabha are directly elected by secret ballot
10 years. The amendment does not, however extend the on the basis of adult suffrage (18 years).
period of reservation of the 2 Lok Sabha seats reserved It is necessary for a member of the Lok Sabha to be 25 years
for members of the Anglo-Indian community and thus of age, a citizen of India, not to be insane or insolvent and
the practice of nominating 2 members of the Anglo- not to hold any office of profit. (BPSC, 2001, 2017)

Indian community by the President of India on the Types of Bills

recommendations of the Prime Minister of India was
effectively abolished.
According to Article 81 (1) (Subject to the provisions of Ordinary Money Financial Special
Bill Bill Bill Bill
Article 331), (a) to represent not more than 530 members
elected by direct election from territorial constituencies
in Lok Sabha, and (b) to represent the Union Territories,
Financial Bill-I Financial Bill-II
the Lok Sabha shall consist of not more than 20 elected
members in such manner as provided by law by the Constitutional Amendment Bill
Parliament. (IAS, 2003; CGPSC, 2008)

Note : As per the provision of 84th Constitutional Approval by

State compulsory Federal Non-Federal
Amendment, 2001, no change will be made in the seats
of Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha till 2026.
Lok Sabha is a temporary house, which can be dissolved
Currently, the number of Lok Sabha members is 543. Out any time by the President on the advice of the Prime
of this, 524 are from States and 19 from Union Territories. Minister.
In Lok Sabha, 84 seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes The term of the Lok Sabha is 5 years.
and 47 seats for Scheduled Tribes. (Article 330). During the time of emergency, Parliament may by law
(MPPCS, 2018) extend the term of the Lok Sabha, which cannot exceed
24
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one year at a time and not exceed in any case beyond a Sl.
period of six months after the proclamation of Emergency Speaker Tenure
No.
has ceased to operate.
1. G.V. Mavalankar 15 May, 1952 to 27 February, 1956
The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the
2. M. Ananthasayanam 08 March 1956 - 10 May 1957; 11 May
Lok Sabha.
Quorum in Lok Sabha is 1/10 (55 members) of the total Ayyengar 1957 - 16 April 1962
number of members. 3. Hukum Singh 17 April, 1962 to 16 March, 1967
C. Speaker and Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha 4. N. Sanjeev Reddy 17 March 1967 to 19 July, 1969 - 26
As per Article 93, Lok Sabha elects a Speaker and a March 1977 to 13 July, 1977
Deputy Speaker from among its members. (IAS, 2009) 5. G.S. Dhillon 08 August 1969 to 17 March 1971, 22
The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha are March 1971 to 1 December 1975
sworn in as members of the Lok Sabha and not as the 6. Bali Ram Bhagat 15 January 1976 to 25 March 1977
Speaker and Deputy Speaker. (CGPSC, 2017)
7. K.S. Hegde July 21, 1977 to January 21, 1980
Article 94(1)(b) provides for the resignation of the Speaker
or Deputy Speaker by writing under their hand. This means 8. Balaram Jakhar 22 January 1980 - 15 January, 1985; 16
that the resignation must be in writing and addressed to the January 1985 - 18 December, 1989
Deputy Speaker or, in the absence of the Deputy Speaker, 9. Rabi Rai 19 December 1989 to 9 July, 1991
to the President of India. (MPPCS 2005) 10. Shivraj V. Patil 10 July 1991 to 22 May, 1996
The Speaker may submit his resignation to the Deputy 11. P.A. Sangma 23 May 1996 to 23 March, 1998
Speaker and the Deputy Speaker to the Speaker. 12. G.M.C. Balayogi 24 March 1998 to 19 October, 1999 22
They can be removed from the post by a resolution passed
October 1999 to 3 March 2002
by a majority of all the members of the Lok Sabha but it is
13. Manohar Joshi 10 May 2002 to 2 June 2004
necessary to give notice to this effect 14 days in advance.
(MPPCS, 1994) 14. Somnath Chatterjee 04 June 2004 to 31 May 2009
Article 96 in Constitution of India provides that at any 15 Meira Kumar June 04, 2009 to June 4, 2014
sitting of the House of the People, while any resolution 16. Sumitra Mahajan June 06, 2014 to June 17, 2019
for the removal of the Speaker from his office is under 17. Om Birla June 19, 2019 to till now
consideration, the Speaker, or while any resolution for the
removal of the Deputy Speaker from his office is under First Lok Sabha Speaker was G.V. Mavalankar and the
consideration, the Deputy Speaker, shall not, though he is deputy speaker was M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar.
present, preside, and the provisions of clause (2) of article (MPPCS, 2012; IAS, 2007)

95 shall apply in relation to every such sitting as they apply The first woman speaker was Meira Kumar.
in relation to a sitting from which the Speaker, or, as the In the new Lok Sabha, the Speaker of the House is
case may be, the Deputy Speaker, is absent. (UPPCS 2008) decided by a simple majority. Until her selection, the
The Speaker shall have the right to speak in, and otherwise pro-tem Speaker is chosen to administer some important
to take part in the proceedings of, the House of the People duties. ‘Pro-tem’ essentially means ‘for the time being’ or
while any resolution for his removal from office is under ‘temporarily’. (UPPCS 2010)
consideration in the House and shall, notwithstanding anything Note : Lok Sabha constituency with the largest number
in article 100, be entitled to vote only in the first instance on
of voters is Malkajgiri (Telangana) and the one with
such resolution or on any other matter during such proceedings
the lowest number of voters is Lakshadweep.
but not in the case of an equality of votes. (UPPCS, 2008)
Note : In terms of area, the largest Lok Sabha consti-
Other Facts
tuency is Ladakh and the smallest is Chandni Chowk,
A joint session of both the Houses is called under Article
108. Delhi.
The Speaker of the Lok Sabha presides over the joint D. Financial Committees of Parliament
session of both the Houses. [Article 118 (4)] Public Accounts Committee
Whether a Bill is a Money Bill or not is decided by the It consists of 22 members, out of which 15 members are
Speaker of Lok Sabha. drawn from Lok Sabha and 7 members from Rajya Sabha.
The term of the first Lok Sabha was from 17th April 1952 (MPPCS, 1993)
to 4th April 1957, while the first session of the Lok Sabha The Chairman of this committee is appointed by the
started on 13 May 1952. Speaker of the Lok Sabha. (MPPCS, 1993)

25
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The term of each of its members is one year. urgent public importance. The time for the discussion is
(RAS/RTS, 2018) allocated by the Business Advisory Committee.
It is also known as the ‘twin sister’ of the Estimates Quorum - Quorum is required in House meetings. It is
Committee. one-tenth (1/10) of the total number of members. In its
Committee on Estimates absence, the meeting is adjourned.
It consists of 30 members who are exclusively from the Lok Exam Oriented Facts
Sabha. Each member's tenure is one year. (UPPCS, 2018)
The state wise seat allocation in Loksabha is based on
Its Chairman is appointed by the Speaker of the Lok
population. (CGPSC Pre, 2005)
Sabha. (RAS/RTS, 2008)
The strength of the Loksabha was increased from 525 to
This committee reports on what economies, improvements
545 through 31st Constitutional Amendment Act.
in organization, efficiency or administrative reform,
(UPPCS Mains, 2004)
consistent with policy underlying the estimates may be
effected, etc. The maximum representation from the Union Territories
Committee on Public Undertakings to the Loksabha is 20. (UPPCS Pre, 2008)

It consists of 22 members, out of which 15 members are The arrangement for nominating representatives of the
from Lok Sabha and 7 are from Rajya Sabha. Anglo - Indian community in the Loksabha have not been
(RAS/RTS, 2018) extended beyond the stipulated date (25 January, 2020) by
The Chairman of the Committee is appointed by the Speaker the Constitution (one Hundred and Fourth Amendment)
of the Lok Sabha. Act, 2019. (44th BPSC Pre, 2000)

No minister can be a member of this committee. The maximum expenditure limit for the Parliamentary
Important Terms Elections of a constituency is upto Rs. 95 Lakh.
Zero Hour - The time between 12 O’clock and 1 O’clock In India Loksabha speaker is chosen. (IAS Pre, 2009)
after Question Hour in Lok Sabha & between 11 - 12 The speaker doesn't take the oath of the office.
°clock in Rajya Sabha is called Zero Hour. (UPPCS, 2015) (CGPSC Pre, 2017)
During this time, crucial matters are raised by the The Representation of states in council of states is based
members. on Ratio of their population. (38th BPSC Pre, 1992)
Starred Questions and Unstarred Questions Rajya Sabha is a permanent House and is not subject to
Questions that the member is required to answer dissolution as per Article 83(1) of the Constitution.
immediately are called Starred Questions. They are (MPPCS Pre, 1994)
answered orally.
A money Bill cannot be introduced in Rajya Sabha.
Questions that are answered in writing are called Unstarred
(UPPCS Pre, 2021)
Questions.
A seat of a M.P. can be declared Vacant if he/she absent
Appropriation Bill
from the house for a continuous period of two months.
Only through this Bill, funds can be withdrawn from the
(62nd BPSC Pre, 2016)
Consolidated Fund of India.
This includes the demand for a grant for weighted Under the Article 122 the courts have been prohibited
expenditure on accumulated funds. from inquiring the proceedings of the Parliament.
(UP UDA/LDA Spl. Mains, 2010)
Finance Bill
Article 117 mentions Finance Bills. The provision of a joint sitting of both the House of
Bills which are related to revenue or expenditure are called Parliament is mentioned in the Consitution under the
Finance Bills. Article 108. (UP RO/ARO Mains, 2021)

Money Bills The committee on Estimates consists 30 members, which

Bills related to the subjects mentioned from sub-division is the largest committee.(IAS Pre, 2014; UPPCS Mains, 2017)
(a) to subdivision (g) of Article 110 (1) of the Constitution
are called Money Bills. 12 Amendment of the Constitution
These are introduced in the Lok Sabha only.
Vote on Account - Under Article 116(1)(a) of the Under Article 368 of the Indian Constitution, two procedures
Constitution, Vote on Account is passed to the government for an amendment to the Constitution are mentioned.
for advance. A. Special Majority Bill passed by a special majority of each
Short duration discussion (Rule 193 of Lok Sabha), - Under House of Parliament by a majority of total members and a
this provision, an MP can raise a discussion on a matter of two-thirds majority of the members present and voting.
26
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B. Amendment by a special majority of Parliament and After retirement, the judges of the Supreme Court cannot
approval by State Legislatures - Special majority of both plead before any court or any officer in India.
Houses of Parliament and amendment with the approval Appointment
of half of the state legislatures. For example, in matters The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is appointed by
related to the election of the President, expansion of the President. (BPSC, 2017)
executive power of the Union, Union Judiciary and High In the case of other judges, the President appoints them
Court, amendments are made following this procedure. after consulting the Chief Justice. (UK UDA/LDA, 2006, 2007)
Note : By Ordinary Majority - Bill passed by Parliament Qualifications
by a simple majority. Such as - the creation of new (i) He should be a citizen of India.
(ii) He has been a judge of a High Court or such two or more
states, state territory, border and name changes, etc.
Courts for at least five years or an Advocate for 10 years
But it will not be considered as an amendment of the
in any High Court or two or more such Courts.
Constitution.
(iii) Or is, in the opinion of the President a distinguished Jurist.
Oath
13 Supreme Court The President administers the oath of office and secrecy
Chapter IV of Part V of the Constitution of India mentions to judges of the Supreme Court.
the constitution, independence, jurisdiction, powers of the Salary and Allowances
Supreme Court enshrined in Articles from 124 to 147. A Salaries, allowances, etc. are decided by the Parliament
integrated justice system has been established in India, from time to time.
with the Supreme Court at the top and several High Courts Currently, the salary of the Chief Justice is Rs 2.8 lakh per
under it. The subordinate courts also exist under High month and the salary of other Judges is Rs 2.5 lakh per
Courts. (42nd BPSC, 1997) month. Apart from this, they are also provided with other
Formation allowances.
Article 124 provides for the establishment and constitution Removal of Judges
of the Supreme Court. (IAS, 2014; BPSC, 2000) Judges of the Supreme Court may be removed by
Supreme Court consisted of a Chief Justice and 30 Judges. the President on charges of proven misbehaviour or
The number of judges including Chief Justice has been incapacity. A resolution to this effect is passed by a
increased from 31 to 34 by the Supreme Court (Number of majority of the total members of each Houses of Parliament
Judges) Amendment Act, 2019. Currently number of judges and by at least two-thirds majority of the members present
on chair is 34. (IAS Pre, 2014; BPSC, 2000; UPPCS, 2015) and voting and sent to the President for his approval in the
Hierarchy of Courts in India same session.
A judge may resign from his post by sending his resignation
Supreme Court Apex court to the President. (UPPCS, 2014, 2023; BPSC, 2018)

High Court State level Note : The term impeachment is not mentioned in the
Constitution to remove the Judges of the Supreme Court
Metro politan Court District- Session Court
Labour
Court
Family
Court - District level and High Courts.
Civil Crimal Powers and Jurisdiction of Supreme Court
District Sessions
Civil Criminal Court Court Original Jurisdiction in the following cases
City Civil Sessions (i) Disputes arising between the Government of India and
Court Court
one or more States, or
Special Authority
(ii) In disputes between the Government of India and
anyone State or several States and one or more other States.
CAT Income Motor Accident Co-operatives Rent National Green (iii) Disputes between two or more States where the
Tax Claims Control Tribunal
question of statutory rights is involved.
Term of Office (IAS, 1996, 2012, 2014; MPPCS Pre, 2021)
There is no minimum age criterion to become eligible for a Appellate Jurisdiction
judge of the Supreme Court. However, 65 years, has been The Supreme Court is the highest Appellate Court in the
fixed as the age for retirement. (UPPCS, 1998) country. It hears against decisions of lower courts.
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This jurisdiction can be divided into four sections, namely- As per Article 214, there will be a High Court for each
Constitutional, Civil, Criminal and Appeal by special State.
permission. (MPPCS 2016; IAS, 2015, 2010, 2015) As per Article 231, Parliament can by law establish a single
Advisory Jurisdiction High Court for two or more States and Union Territories.
Under Article 143, the President has the right to consult the
Supreme Court on matters of public importance. However, High Courts
this advice is not binding on the President. (UPPCS, 2017) Year of
Principal
Power of Judicial Review Name Establish- Jurisdiction seat
Bench
Under Article 137, the Supreme Court is empowered to ment
reconsider its own decisions. (CGPSC, 2015; UPPCS, 2009) 1. Allahabad 1866 Uttar Pradesh Prayagraj
Court of Records (Bench -
The Supreme Court has been considered as the Court of Lucknow)
Records under Article 129. Its verdicts will be accepted as 2. Andhra 1 January, Andhra Pradesh Amravati
all-time records and evidence. (UPPCS, 2008, 2009; IAS, 2022) Pradesh 2019
Writ Jurisdiction 3. Bombay 1862 Maharashtra, Bombay (Bench
The Supreme Court of India is the guardian of the Goa, Dadra and -Nagpur,
Fundamental Rights of Citizens. Nagar Haveli and Panaji and
Under Article 32, the Supreme Court can issue 5 types of Daman and Diu Aurangabad)
writs; eg. Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Quo- 4. Calcutta 1862 West Bengal, Kolkata (Bench
warranto and Certiorari. Andman and - Port Blair)
(UPPCS, 2006; IAS, 1993; UPPCS, 2008, 2017) Nicobar
Note - In the context of jurisdiction, the Supreme Court
5. Chhattisgarh 2000 Chhattisgarh Bilaspur
can issue writ only concerting the implementation of
6. Delhi 1966 Delhi Delhi
fundamental rights, while the High Court can issue not
only the order for fundamental rights but may also release 7. Guwahati 1948 Assam, Mizoram Guwahati
it for other purposes. Nagaland, (Bench -
Thus the power of the High Court in this area is more Arunachal Kohima, Aizwal,
extensive than that of the Supreme Court. Pradesh Itanagar)
8. Gujarat 1960 Gujarat Ahmedabad
Exam Oriented Facts
9. Himachal 1971 Himachal Shimla
Supreme Court of India was inaugurated on 28 January, Pradesh Pradesh
1950. (MPPCS Pre, 2013)
10. Jammu and 1928 Jammu-Kashmir Srinagar and
To become a Judge of Supreme Court, a person must be Kashmir* and Ladakh Jammu
an advocate in High Court for at least 10 years. 11. Jharkhand 2000 Jharkhand Ranchi
(MPPCS Pre, 2002)
12. Karnataka 1884 Karnataka Bangalore
A Judge of the Supreme Court may resign his office by (Dharwad
writing a letter to the President. (UPPCS Pre, 2014) Gulbarga)
Salaries of the Judges of the Supreme Court are 13. Kerala 1956 Kerala and Ernakulam
determined by the Parliament. (UPPCS Mains 2008) Lakshadweep
Acting Chief Justice of India is appointed by the 14. Madhya 1956 Madhya Pradesh Jabalpur (Bench-
President. (UPPCS Pre, 2000) Pradesh Gwalior and
Indore)
14 High Court 15. Madras 1862 Tamil Nadu and Chennai (Bench-
Puducherry Madurai)
It has been provided by the Constitution of India that there
16. Odisha 1948 Odisha Cuttack
will be a High Court for every State. The Parliament was
17. Patna 1916 Bihar Patna
empowered by the Seventh Constitution Amendment
18. Punjab and 1966 Punjab Chandigarh
Act, 1956, that it could establish a Joint High Court for
Haryana Haryana,
two or more States and a Union Territory.
Chandigarh
The matters relating to the constitution, jurisdiction and
powers of the High Courts have been dealt with in articles 19. Rajasthan 1949 Rajasthan Jodhpur Bench-
214 to 231 of Part VI of the Constitution. Jaipur)

28
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20. Sikkim 1975 Sikkim Gangtok Under Article 226, the High Court has the right to issue a
writ to protect the fundamental rights of citizens.(IAS,1997)
21. 2000 Uttarakhand Nainital
High Court maintains superintendence Act 227, over its
Uttarakhand
subordinate courts (Article - 227).
22. Meghalaya March, Meghalaya Shillong The High Court enjoys extensive jurisdictional power which
2013
includes judicial as well as administrative jurisdiction.
23. Manipur March, Manipur Imphal
Exam Oriented Facts
2013
The number of Judges in a High Court may be decided
24. Tripura March, Tripura Agartala by the President of India. (69th BPSC Pre, 2023)
2013
According to the Article 222 of the Indian Constitution,
25. Telangana 1 January, Telangana Hyderabad the President can (in consultation with the Chief Justices
2019 (UPPCS, 2016)
transfer a Judge of a Judge of a High Court from one
The Chief Justice and other Judges of each High Court Court to another. (MPPCS Pre, 2022)
are appointed by the President. The pension of a retired High Court Judge is charged to
(BPSC, 2023; IAS, 2002, 2001, 2008) the consolidated fund of India. (UPPCS Mains, 2013)
The Chief Justice of the High Court is appointed by the The number of High Court of Judicature in India is 25.
President after consulting the Chief Justice of India and (UPPCS Lower, 2008)
the Governor of the State concerned. (MPPCS, 2022)
The Chief Justice of the High Court concerned is also 15 Attorney General and Advocate General
consulted regarding the appointment of other Judges.
Article 76 of the Constitution deals with the office of
Different High Courts have a different number of Judges.
Attorney General of India. (49th BPSC, 2000; UPPCS, 2008)
The President determines their number from time to time
He is the highest law officer of the Government of India and
as per the requirement of the work.
his duties include advising the government on law-related
The High Court Judges are administered the oath by the
matters and performing such other functions of the legal
Governor of the State concerned.
nature as the President from time to time may send to him.
Age limit for the retirement of High Court Judges is 62 years.
Under Article 76(1) a person, possessing the qualifications
Even before that, he can address the President by writing
necessary for appointment of a Supreme Court judge, is
under his hand and giving his resignation. (MPPCS, 2023)
eligible for appointment as Attorney-General of India by the
High Court Judges can also be removed by the same process
President. (GPSC, 2013; UPUDA/LDA, 2010; UPPCS, 2006, 1995)
as Judges of the Supreme Court.
The Attorney General holds office during the pleasure of the
According to Article 215, each High Court is a Court of President and receives such remuneration as the President
Record. may prescribe. He is neither a full-time legal advisor to the
The Chief Justice of the High Court gets a monthly salary government nor a government servant. (UPPCS, 2010)
of Rs 2.5 lakh and other Judges Rs 2.25 lakh. Attorney General is vested with the right of audience in all
Delhi and Jammu & Kashmir have their own High Court courts in India [Article 76(3)]. There is a Solicitor General
in the Union Territories. and Additional Solicitor General to assist the Attorney
India currently has a total of 25 High Courts. General. (CGPSC, 2023; UPPCS, 2023; UP RO/ARO, 2023;
High Courts were first established in the then Calcutta, UPPCS, 2021, CUPSC, 2003; BPSC, 2016)
Bombay and Madras in 1862. The Attorney General of India is not a member of
Powers of High Court Parliament, but he can speak in either House or take part
Election disputes of members of Parliament and State in the proceedings of any committee but does not have the
legislature under original jurisdiction, enforcement of right to vote (Article-88). (UPPCS, 2020)
basic rights of citizens, matters transferred from subordinate He enjoys all the privileges and immunities that are
courts concerning the interpretation of Constitution, case available to a member of Parliament under Article 105.
of jurisdiction, Will, Marriage, Divorce, Company Law, The post of Advocate-General of a State is provided under
Contempt of Court, etc. (UPPCS, 2007) Article 165. (BPSC, 2001; UP Lower, 2015; UPPCS, 2014; RAS, 2003)
The High Court is an appellate court under the appellate He is the Supreme Law Officer (Advocate General) of the
jurisdiction. Here, an appeal can be made against the orders State.
of the subordinate courts. Civil and criminal cases can also The person having the qualification of High Court Judge
be filed here. can be appointed as the Advocate-General of a State.
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The Advocate General holds office during the pleasure The CAG Attends the meeting of Public Account
of the Governor of his state. (RAS/RTS, 2003) Committee. (UPPCS, 2011)
The Advocate General is empowered to hear in any court Consolidated Fund of India
of the concerned State. (IAS Pre, 2009) Under Article 266, a provision has been made for the
Though not a member of either house of the state legislature, Consolidated fund and public accounts of India and the
the Advocate-General has the privilege to attend and States.
address proceedings in the legislature but has no right to Money is spent after withdrawing from the Consolidated
vote. Fund of India only after the Appropriation Bill is passed
Advocate General may attend and address the proceedings by Parliament.
but cannot vote. (UP Lower, 2015) Items of expenditure on the Consolidated Fund of India are
The Advocate General performs all the legal functions as follows-
assigned by the Governor. (UP Lower, 2015)
(i) President’s salary, allowance and other expenditure on his
establishment.
Monthly Salary of Important Officials (ii) Salaries and allowances of the Speaker and Deputy Speaker
1. President Rs. 5,00,000 of the Lok Sabha and the Chairman and Deputy Chairman
of the Rajya Sabha.
2. Vice-President Rs. 4,00,000
(iii) Salary, allowance and pension of Judges of Supreme Court
3. Governor Rs. 3,50,000 and pension of High Court judges.
4. Chief Justice of Supreme Court Rs. 2,80,000 (iv) Comptroller and Auditor General of India's, salary,
5. Other Judges of Supreme Court Rs. 2,50,000 allowance and pension. (MPPCS Pre, 2012)
Contingency Fund
6. Chief Justice of High Court Rs 2,50,000
Article 267 of the Constitution empowers Parliament and
7. Other Judges of High Court Rs 2,25,000 the State Legislature to create a Contingency Fund of
8. Comptroller and Auditor General Rs 2,50,000 India or a State.
9. Chief Election Commissioner Rs 2,50,000 This fund is constituted by the Contingency Fund of India
Act, 1950.
16 Comptroller and Auditor General
17 State Executive
An important post in the Government of India is that of
Under Part VI of the Indian Constitution, Articles 153
Comptroller and Auditor General who does high quality
to 167 refer to the State Executive. The State executive
auditing and accounting (both Union and sub-national).
consists of Governor, Chief Minister, Council of
As per Article 148, there will be a Comptroller and Auditor
Ministers, Advocate General.
General of India, to be appointed by the President.
Governor is the Constitutional Head of state.
(UP UDA/LDA, 2001, UP Lower, 2015; UPPCS Pre, 2012)
(BPSC, 2011, 2001)
He is the protector of public money. He is an impartial
A. Governor
head of Govt. of India’s audit and accounting systems. The Governor of the State is the head of the Executive
He retires after being in office for six years or on attaining the powers. The Governor himself or through his subordinate
age of sixty-five years, whichever is earlier. (UPPCS, 1993) officers exercises the executive powers of the State.
He is debarred from seeking re-employment under any post According to Article 153, each State has a Governor as
of the Government of India after retirement. its constitutional head.
Although he is appointed by the President, he can be Under article 153, a person can be appointed as constitutional
removed from office following the procedure adopted in head of more than one state simultaneously. (UPPCS, 2016)
the case of removal of Supreme Court judge on similar
charges of proved misbehaviour and incapacity. Note : This provision was inserted by the Seventh
(UPPCS RI, 2014; RAS, 2018, 2021)
Constitutional Amendment Act, 1956.
He reports on account of the central government to the Qualifications
President which is then laid on the floor of the Parliament. A. He should be a citizen of India and have completed 35
(MPPCS Pre, 2021; IAS Pre, 2001) years of age. (UP Lower, 1996; Jharkhand PCS, 2016)
He also reports on the accounts of the State Government Conditions
to the Governor who then send it to be laid on the floor of Certain conditions have been attached relating to
the legislature. appointment to the post of Governor under Article 158 -
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(i) The Governor should not be a member of either House of The Governor appoints Advocate-General of the State.
Parliament or a legislature of any State. (UK PSC Pre, 2012)
(ii) He should not hold any office of profit. The Governor acts as the representative of the President
(iii) His emoluments and allowances during the tenure cannot at the time of the President's Rule.
be reduced, etc. He may get information from the Chief Minister from time
Appointment and Term of Office to time regarding the administration of the State.
As per Article 155, the Governor of a State shall be The Governor nominates 1/6 of the total members of
appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and the State’s Upper House i.e. Legislative Council, who
seal. (UPPCS, 2012; BPSC, 2018; UPPCS, 2015) have achieved excellence in various fields like education,
The Governor is appointed by the President for a term of literature, arts, science, social service, cooperatives.
five years. (UPPCS, 2010; UPPCS GIC, 2010) (CGPSC, 2011; UPPCS, 2017)
The Governor holds office during the pleasure of the Legislative Powers
President (Article 156 (1). The Governor may summon, address, dissolve and prorogue
(IAS, 1995; UPPCS, 1992; MPPCS, 2006; UPPCS, 2004) the session of the State Legislature.
He may resign from his post by address to the President. The Bill passed by the State Legislature becomes an Act
The Governor is administered the oath of office by the only after the assent of the Governor.
Chief Justice of the State concerned or in his absence by If immediate action is required on any subject, and the State
the senior-most Judge of the High Court located in the state. Legislature is not in session at that time, in such a situation
Salary the Governor can issue an ordinance as per Article 213.
(UPPCS, 2017, 2008; UP RO/ARO, 2016)
The Governor receives a salary of Rs. 3 lakhs 50 thousand
An ordinance issued by him ceases to operate on the expiry
rupees monthly. On assuming the charge of two or more
of six weeks from the reassembly of the state legislature.
States, he may also be given an additional salary as determined
The Governor can send a Bill back to the State Legislature
by the order of the President. (Jharkhand PCS, 2003)
for reconsideration if it is not a Money Bill. But the
No arrest or criminal action order can be issued by the court
Governor is bound to give his assent if it is sent back to
against the Governor during his tenure.
him by the State Legislature.
In the Union Territory of Delhi, Puducherry, Andaman
(UP Lower Pre, 2004; CGPSC Pre, 2015; RAS, 2018)
and Nicobar Island, Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh
According to Article 200, the Governor gives assent
there is a provision for the post of Lieutenant Governor
or withholds assent on a Bill or may reserve it for the
in place of Governor. (UPPCS, 1995; CGPSC, 2019)
consideration of the President.
There is a provision for the post of Administrator in place of
Judicial Powers
the Governor in the Union Territory of Chandigarh, Dadra As per Article 161, the Governor shall have the power
and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu and Lakshadweep. to pardon, reprieve, respite besides remissions of the
Note : The Governor of Punjab is also the Adminis- punishment of a person convicted of an offence against any
trator of Chandigarh. law on subjects on which the executive power of the State
is extended, or shall have the power to suspend, remit or
Powers and Functions of the Governor commute the sentence.
Executive Powers Supreme court in August 2021 observed that the Governor
The Governor appoints the Chief Minister and other of a State can pardon prisoners, including death row ones,
ministers on the advice of the Chief Minister. even before they have served a minimum 14 years of prison
The Governor appoints the Chairman and members of sentence.
the State Public Service Commission. The President also consults the Governor in appointing the
Note : The Governor appoints the Chairman and Chief Justice and other Judges of the High Court of the State.
members of the State Public Service Commission but Note : The Governor does not have the power of pardon
cannot remove them. They can be removed only by the in respect of the order passed by the Army Court.
President on the advice of the Supreme Court. Financial Powers
The Governor appoints Vice-Chancellors of State No Money Bill is introduced in the Legislative Assembly
Universities. without the prior consent of the Governor.
The Governor advises the President regarding the appointment The Governor submits the annual financial statement of the
of Judges to the High Court of the State. (UPPCS, 2017) State to the legislature every financial year [Article 202].
31
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Governor can take money in advance from the Contingency The total number of members of the Legislative Council
Fund of the State for any unexpected expenditure. should not exceed more than 1/3 of the total number
He constitutes the State Finance Commission every 5 of members of the Legislative Assembly of the State
years. concerned and not less than 40.
Emergency Powers The minimum age limit to become a member of the
If the President receives a report from the state's Governor Legislative Council is 30 years.
that the state's situation is such that the state government The Legislative Council is a Permanent House, it is never
cannot carry on the governance according to the provisions dissolved.
of the Constitution, President's Rule can be imposed. Each member of the Legislative Council has a term of 6 years,
[Article 356] but every 2 years one-third of the members retire after
B. Chief Minister completing their term and new members are elected in their
The Chief Minister is the head of the Council of Ministers place. (CGPSC, 2014, 2015; UPPCS, 2007, 2018; UK PSC, 2021)
who is appointed by the Governor. Members of the Legislative Council are elected indirectly.
Other ministers are appointed by the Governor on the advice Out of total members of the Legislative Council, 1/3
of the Chief Minister. members are elected by the electoral college of the local
Oath of office and secrecy to the Chief Minister and other bodies, 1/3 members are elected by the members of the
ministers is administered by the Governor. Legislative Assembly, 1/12 members by teachers of
As per Article 164 (2), the Council of Ministers is secondary or higher schools working for at least 3 years,
collectively responsible to the Legislature of the State. 1/12 members are elected by graduates holding a bachelor’s
Whenever a motion of no confidence is passed the entire degree for 3 years and the remaining 1/6 members are
Council of Ministers has to resign. nominated by the Governor who achieved excellence in the
The Chief Minister presides over the meetings of the field of literature, art, science, cooperative movement
Council of Ministers. and social service. (UPPCS, 2017, 2015, 2014)
According to Article 167, Chief Minister provides Members of the Legislative Council elect one Chairman
information to the governor about administration and and one Deputy Chairman of the house.
legislative work. The Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Legislative
Chief Minister is a link for exchange of information Council can resign from their posts by addressing each
between the Council of Ministers and the Governor. other.
The Chairman and Deputy Chairman can be removed from
18 State Legislature their posts through a resolution passed by the members of
the Legislative Council. But written notice to this effect
State Legislature consists of the Governor and the House will have to be given by the House 14 days in advance.
of the State Legislature (Legislative Assembly) or two B. Legislative Assembly
Houses (Legislative Assembly and Legislative Council). The Legislative Assembly is also called the Lower house.
Currently, six (effective 31 October 2019) States have The structure of Legislative Assemblies is mentioned under
Legislative Councils namely in Andhra Pradesh (58), Article 170.
Uttar Pradesh (100), Karnataka (75), Telangana (40), The term of the members of the Legislative Assembly is
Bihar (75) and Maharashtra (78). five years.
(BPSC, 1996, 2000; MPPCS, 2014; IAS, 1998; In special case, the Governor can dissolve the Legislative
UPPCS, 2013, 2008, 2006; UP Lower, 2013, 2008; BPSC, 1995) Assembly even before five years.
A. Legislative Council The minimum age limit for election as a member of
According to Article 169, Parliament may constitute and Legislative Assembly is 25 years. (MPPCS, 1997)
dissolve the Legislative Council. If the resolution in this Members of the Legislative Assembly are directly elected
regard is passed by the Legislative Assembly of the respective by adult suffrage.
State by a majority of the total membership of the assembly Each state legislative assembly may have a maximum 500
and at least two-thirds majority of the members present and a minimum 60 members.
and voting. (Jharkhand PCS, 2013; UP Lower Pre, 2008;
BPSC, 1995; UPPCS Pre, 2011, 2013, 2015, RAS, 2021) Note : As an exception, Goa and Mizoram have just
The Legislative Council is the Upper House of the State 40 legislative assembly seats while Sikkim has 32
Legislature. members.
32
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The Speaker of the Legislative Assembly does not normally

Number of Members of Legislative Assmebly
vote on any subject in the House but in the case of tie, he
in States/UTs
is allowed to cast his vote.
State/UTs LA UR SC ST The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker of the Legislative
Andhra Pradesh 175 139 29 7 Assembly may address each other and resign from their
Telangana 119 88 19 12 posts by writing under his hand.
Arunachal Pradesh 60 1 – 59 The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker can be removed by
the members of the Legislative Assembly with an effective
Assam 126 102 8 16
majority but they must be informed of it 14 days in
Bihar 243 203 38 2
advance.
Chhattisgarh 90 51 10 29 A quorum for the meeting of the Legislative Assembly is
Goa 40 39 1 – 1/10 of the total members of the house.
Gujarat 182 142 13 27 Functions and Powers of the Legislature
Haryana 90 73 17 – The legislature has the right to make laws on the subjects
mentioned in the State List.
Himachal Pradesh 68 48 17 3
The Legislature also has the right to make laws on subjects
Jharkhand 81 44 9 28 in the Concurrent List. But when the law made by it
Karnataka 224 173 36 15 contradicts the law made by the Parliament, the central law
Kerala 140 124 14 2 prevails over the State law.
Madhya Pradesh 230 148 35 47 At the beginning of every financial year, the annual accounts
Maharashtra 288 234 29 25
of the State are laid on the table of the House by the Finance
Minister of the State concerned.
Manipur 60 40 1 19
Money Bill is first introduced in the Legislative Assembly
Meghalaya 60 5 – 55 itself.
Mizoram 40 1 – 39 The Money Bill is sent to the Legislative Council only after
Nagaland 60 1 – 59 it has been passed by the Legislative Assembly.
Odisha 147 90 24 33 If the Money Bill is not returned by the Legislative Council
within 14 days, then that is deemed to have been passed by
Punjab 117 83 34 –
both the Houses and is sent to the Governor for his assent.
Rajasthan 200 141 34 25 Only the elected members of the Legislative Assembly vote
Sikkim** 32** 18 2 12 in the election of the President.
Tamil Nadu 234 188 44 2 1/3 of the members of the Legislative Council are elected
Tripura 60 30 10 20 by the members of the Legislative Assembly.
Uttar Pradesh 403 317 84 2
19 National Symbols of India
Uttarakhand 70 55 13 2
West Bengal 294 210 68 16 National Emblem
Total 3933 2787 590 556 The top portion of Emperor Ashoka’s Lion Pillar at
Union Territories 90 74 7 9
Sarnath was adopted as a national emblem of India on 26th
Jammu & Kashmir January, 1950 by the government. (RAS, 1996; MPPCS, 199)
Delhi 70 58 12 –
‘Satyameva Jayate’ written in Devanagari script at its
bottom, it is quoted from Mundakopanishad.
Puducherry *** 30 25 5 –
National Anthem
Total 4123 2945 613 565 ‘Jana Gana Mana’ was adopted as the National Anthem of
** 1 seat is reserved for Sangha (Buddhist monks). India on 24th January, 1950 by the Constituent Assembly.
*** Three seats are nominated by centre. Its author is Rabindranath Tagore. (UK PSC, 2021)
(UPUDA/LDA, 2006; BPSC, 2019, 2022; UPPCS, 2022)
It has a set singing time of 52 seconds though it can be
Members of the Legislative Assembly elect one Speaker briefly sung within 20 seconds.
and one Deputy Speaker. It was first sung at the Calcutta Session of the Indian
Whether a Bill is a Money Bill or not is decided by the National Congress on 27th December 1911, presided over
Speaker of the Legislative Assembly. by Bishan Narayan Dar.
33
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National Song States with a population not exceeding 20 lakhs may not
‘Vande Mataram’ was adopted as the national song on constitute Panchayat at the intermediate level (at secondary
24th January, 1950. level).
It is quoted from Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s novel
‘Ananda math’. Committees Related to the Panchayati Raj
It was first sung at the 1896 session of the Indian National 1. Balwantrai Mehta Committee 1957
Congress presided over by Rahamatullah Sayani. 2. Ashok Mehta Committee 1977
National Flag
The national flag was adopted on 22nd July, 1947. 3. GVK Rao Committee 1985
In the tricolour flag, the saffron colour is a symbol of 4. L.M. Singhvi Committee 1986
courage and valour, while the white colour symbolises 5. PK Thungon Committee 1988
peace and truth and the green colour is a sign of
prosperity. There is one-third reservation for women at every level.
In the middle of the white band is a circle with 24 blue The tenure of the Panchayats is fixed for 5 years. It is
sticks is taken from the Sarnath pillar of Emperor mandatory to conduct the elections within 6 months if the
Ashoka. Panchayats is dissolved before time.
The ratio of the width and length of the flag is 2:3. Panchayats have been empowered to make laws on a total
National Calendar of 29 subjects mentioned in the Eleventh Schedule.
Gregorian Calendar which is called the English calendar Panchayats have not been formed in the states of
and Hindu calendar was adopted on 22nd March 1957. Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland. Under 6th Schedule
Hindu calendar's month is Chaitra which starts on 22nd Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram have district
March and 21st March in the Leap Year. Councils.
* Tiger (Panthera tigris) has been declared India’s national
animal. 21 Municipalities
* Peacock (Pavo Cristatus) is the national bird of India.
* Ganges river is named the national river. Part IX-A of Articles 243P to 243ZG and 12 th
* Ganges Dolphin (Susu) has been recognized as a national Schedule have been added to the Constitution by the 74th
aquatic animal. Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992.
* Elephant has been accorded National Heritage Animal It contains provisions for municipalities.
status. Municipalities are of three types - Nagar Panchayat,
Nagar Palika Parishad and Municipal Corporation
20 Panchayati Raj One-third of seats are reserved for women in municipalities.
Panchayati Raj is the third and the lowest tier of the Indian Municipalities have a term of 5 years.
political system for local self-governance. The provision of The Municipal Corporation was first established in Madras
Gram Panchayats as a rural body for local governance is in 1688.
mentioned under Directive Principles of State Policy covered
by Article 40. (UPPCS, 2015, 2020; BPSC, 1999; CGPSC, 2022) 22 Consolidated Fund
The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 provides
Consolidated Fund is covered by Article 266 of the
constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj system under
Article 243 (from A to O) and Eleventh Schedule under Constitution.
Part-IX of the Indian Constitution. (BPSC, 2020, 2000) Money from the fund cannot be withdrawn without the
Panchayati Raj was inaugurated by the then Prime Minister prior approval of Parliament.
Jawaharlal Nehru in Nagaur district of Rajasthan on
2nd October, 1959. 23 Contingency Fund
Andhra Pradesh was the second state where the Panchayati
As per Article 267 of the Constitution of India, a
Raj system of local governance was started on 11th October
1959. Contingency Fund has been arranged.
The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act provides for the Withdrawal from this fund can be made for meeting
formation of a three-tier structure (Gram Panchayat at unforeseen expenditure pending authorization of such
the village level, Panchayat Samiti at the block level and expenditure by parliament by law but not without the prior
Zila Parishad at the district level) of the Panchayati Raj. approval of the President.
34
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Under Article 250, during an emergency, Parliament has

24 Centre-State Relations the right to make laws on the subjects of the State List.
Under the Constitution of India, the powers are divided
25 Inter-State Relations
between the Center and the States in the legislative,
administrative and financial areas. Under Article 253, Parliament is empowered to make law
(UK PSC, 2002; UPPCS, 2004; UP RO/ARO, 2014) for the entire territory of India or any part thereof to give
Center-State relations can be understood from three effect to the international agreement.
perspectives. (UPPCS, 2009; Jharkhand, 2021) Under Article 262, provisions have been made for
1. Legislative Relations - Articles 245 and 255 under Part settlement of disputes related to the sharing of inter-state
XI of the Indian Constitution deal with legislative relations rivers between two or more states.
of Centre and States. (UP UDA/LDA, 2001) Under Article 263 the President can constitute the Inter-
2. Administrative Relations - Articles 256 to 263 refer to state Council.
Centre-State administrative relations only under Part XI (UP Lower, 2009, CGPSC, 2019; UPPCS, 2000, 2017, 2000, 2021)
of the Indian Constitution. Its main function is to coordinate between the centre and
3. Financial Relations - Under Part XII of the Indian the states and among the States. (Raj. PCS, 2023)
Constitution, Articles 268 to 293 deal with Centre - State It was established in 1990.
financial relations. (UPPCS, 2014; Jharkhand, 2016) The Prime Minister and the 6 cabinet - level ministers
In the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution, three lists nominated by him, the Chief Ministers of all states and
related to the division of powers between the Centre and administrators of Union Territories not having a legislative
the States 1. Union List 2. State List, and 3. Concurrent Assembly are its members.
list. The meeting of this council of is held at least thrice a
(UPPCS, 1993; UP Lower, 2008; UPPCS, 2004; UP RO/ARO, 2014) year. The meeting is chaired by the Prime Minister and
Union List- It includes subjects on which Parliament in his absence a cabinet-level minister nominated by him
has the authority to make laws. There are 97 subjects (At presides over.
Present 98) in this list. Defence, post, communication,
banking, foreign trade, foreign affairs, rail, air and water 26 NITI Aayog
transport, citizenship form subject of this list.
NITI- National Institution for Transforming India was
(UP UDA/LDA, 2001)
established on 1st January, 2015 under a Cabinet resolution.
State List - This includes subjects on which the State
NITI Aayog replaced Planning Commission.
Legislatures have the authority to make laws. This list
The Planning Commission was established on March 15,
consists of 66 subjects (At Present 59). Agriculture,
1950, by a resolution passed by the Union Cabinet, with
prisons, land revenue, public order, police, health, local
Jawaharlal Nehru as the first Chairman.
government are subjects in this list.
NITI Aayog is headed by the Prime Minister. It acts as a
Concurrent List - Both Central and State laws can be
government think tank.
enacted on the subjects covered by this list. If there is
The First Vice Chairman of NITI Aayog was Arvind
a clash in both laws, the law made by the Centre will
Panagaria.
prevail. It consists of 47 subjects (At Present 52), including
Currently, the Vice-Chairman of NITI Aayog is Suman
population control, family planning, education, social and
Bery.
economic schemes.
The Commission advises the central and state governments
In addition, the Residual List includes subjects that are not
on national and international issues.
included in the Union list, state list and Concurrent list. The
Central Government enacts laws on these subjects.
27 National Development Council
Power of Parliament on the subjects of the State List
- Under Article 249, if the Rajya Sabha declares by a two- It was constituted on 6th August, 1952 by a government
thirds majority of its members present and voting, a subject resolution.
in a State list as being important for national interest, then The National Development Council acts as a bridge between
Parliament can legislate on it, but this law remains effective the Centre and the States.
for only one year but can be re-enacted several times after It is headed by the Prime Minister. Chief Ministers of all
one year. the States of the Indian Union are its members.
35
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The term of the Chairman and members of the Union Public

28 Finance Commission Service Commission is 6 years or up to the age of 65 years,
whichever is earlier.
Under Article 280 of the Constitution of India, the President
The Chairman and members of the Public Service
constitutes the Finance Commission every five years.
Commission can be removed by the President on grounds
Its function is to make recommendation to the President
of misbehaviour. The Supreme Court prepares an inquiry
for distribution of the revenue receipts between the Centre
report and recommends removal.
and the States.
The Chairman and members of the State Public Service
Its chairperson and four members are appointed by the
Commissions are appointed by respective Governors.
President. (MPPCS, 2005, 2021)
The first Finance Commission was constituted in 1951 with The term of the members of the State Public Service
Mr. KC Neogy as its chairman. Commission is for 6 years and the retirement age is 62
The chairman of the Fourteenth Finance Commission was years, whichever is earlier.
Y.V. Reddy. The Chairman and the members of the State Public Service
N.K. Singh was the chairman of the Fifteenth Finance Commission can be removed by the President of India
Commission. following the same procedure as in the case of removal of
Notably Arvind Panagaria is the Chaiman of 16th Finance the chairman and members of the Union Public Service
Commission Commission.
Finance Commission and its Tenure Under Article 315 (2), a Joint Public Service (JSPSC)
Commission can be arranged for two or more States.
Finance Year of Chairman
Duration (MPPCS, 2020; UPPCS, 2020; RAS, 2016)
Commission Establishment Operational
It is important to mention here that JSPSC is a statutory
First 1951 K. C. Neogy 1952–57
body. It is not a constitutional body.
Second 1956 K. Santhanam 1957–62 The President and members of the Joint Public Service
Third 1960 A. K. Chanda 1962–66 Commission are appointed by the President. (RAS, 2016)
Fourth 1964 P. V. Rajamannar 1966–69
Fifth 1968 Mahaveer Tyagi 1969–74 30 Election Commission
Sixth 1972 K. Brahmananda 1974–79
Under Part-XV of the Constitution (Articles 324 to 329),
Reddy
there are provisions for the Election Commission which
Seventh 1977 J. M. Shelat 1979–84
consists of a Chief Election Commissioner and two other
Eighth 1982 Y. B. Chavan 1984–89 election commissioners (now three), appointed by the
Ninth 1987 N. K. P. Salve 1989–95 President. (MPPCS, 2014; UPPCS, 2010, 2016, 2016)
Tenth 1992 K. C. Pant 1995–2000 The Chief Election Commissioner can be removed from
Eleventh 1998 A. M. Khusro 2000–05 his post in the same manner as the judge of the Supreme
Twelfth 2002 C. Rangarajan 2005–10 Court.
Other Election Commissioners can be removed by the
Thirteenth 2007 Dr. Vijay L. Kelkar 2010–15
President on the recommendation of the Chief Election
Fourteenth 2013 Dr. Y. V Reddy 2020–21,
Commissioner. (UPPCS, 2002, 1991, 2014)
2021–26
According to Article 324, the Election Commission is
Fifteenth 2017 N. K. Singh 2020–25
responsible for election to both Houses of Parliament, State
Sixteenth 2023 2026–31 Legislatures, besides election to the post of President and
Vice-President. (BPSC, 2020, UK PSC, 2010)
29 Public Service Commissions Note : State Election Commissions are responsible for
Under Article 315 of the Constitution of India, a Public election to rural Panchayats and urban local bodies.
Service Commission has been envisioned for the Union and Salary and allowances given to the Chief Election
each of the States. (MPPCS, 2022; UK PSC, 2016; UPPCS, 2014) Commissioner and other election commissioners are
The chairperson and members of the Union Public Service charged on the Consolidated Fund of India.
Commission are appointed by the President. (BPSC, 2018) The term of the Chief Election Commissioner and other
The President has the power to determine the number of election commissioners is for 6 years and they retire at the
members of the Union Public Service Commission. age of 65 years, whichever is earlier.
36
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The Election Commission is a Constitutional Body. Assam, Manipur, Andhra Pradesh, Sikkim, Mizoram,
Preparation of voter lists, granting recognition to political Arunachal Pradesh, Goa, etc.) under Article 371.
parties, allotment of election symbols, holding elections
Articles related to Special Provisions
etc. are the main functions of the Election Commission.
The Election Article Description
Commission of India was established on 25th January, 1950. 370 Provisions with respect to Jammu and Kashmir *
Provision of adult suffrage has been made under Article 326.
371 Special provisions with respect to the States of
Note : The 61 Constitutional Amendment Act, 1988
st
Maharashtra and Gujarat
reduced the minimum voting age from 21 years to 18
371A Special provisions with respect to the State of Nagaland
years.
371B Special provisions with respect to the State of Assam
The number of currently recognized national political
parties is 6. 371C Special provisions with respect to the State of Manipur
371D Special provisions with respect to the State of Andhra
National Party
Pradesh or Telangana
Election Symbols
371 E Establishment of a Central University in Andhra Pradesh
1. Indian National Congress (INC) Hand Claw
2. Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) Lotus Flower 371 F Special provisions with respect to the State of Sikkim
3. Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) 371 G Special provisions with respect to the State of Mizoram
4. Communist Party of India (Marxist) Sickle, Hammer and Star 371 H Special provisions with respect to the State of Arunachal
[CPI (M)]
Pradesh
5. National People's Party (NPP) Book
371 I Special provisions in relation to the State of Goa
6. Aam Aadmi Party Broom
371 J Special provisions in relation to the State of Karnataka
Note : (i) Sukumar Sen was the first Chief Election * Major amendments are not enforced from October 31, 2019
Commissioner of India while currently, the Chief
Election Commissioner is Rajiv Kumar.
(ii) India's only woman Chief Election Commissioner
32 Important Constitutional Amendments
was V.S. Ramadevi, whose tenure was from 26th
1st Amendment Act, 1951 - The Ninth Schedule added to
November to 11th December 1990.
the Constitution. The subjects mentioned in this schedule
were excluded from the Supreme Court's power of judicial
31 Special Provisions review.
Provision for temporary, transitional and special 7th Amendment Act, 1956 - States were reorganized by it
provisions has been made under Part-XXI of the on the basis of language and the three categories of states
Constitution. (Part A Put B and Part C States) were abolished and divided
into 14 States and 6 Union Territories.
Note : In exercise of the power conferred by clause
10th Amendment Act, 1961- Dadra and Nagar Haveli were
(3) of Article 370 of the Indian Constitution with
added to the Indian Union.
clause (1) of Article 370, the President announced
11th Amendment Act, 1961- Election of President or Vice-
on the recommendation of parliament that from 6th
August, 2019, all the provisions of Article 370 will President cannot be challenged on the basis of a vacancy
not be enforceable except some provisions. "370: All in the appropriate electoral college.
the provisions of the Constitution as amended at times 12 th Amendment Act, 1962- First schedule of the
without any modification or exception shall apply in constitution was amended to include Goa, Daman and Diu
relation to the State of Jammu and Kashmir". as union territories.
Under Article 370, there were originally special provisions 13th Amendment Act, 1962 - Special provision with respect
with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir was to the state of Nagaland was granted under this act.
enforced 14th Amendment Act, 1962 - Legislature and Council of
Special provisions have been made in relation to some Ministers were arranged for Himachal Pradesh, Manipur,
other States (Maharashtra, Gujarat, Nagaland, Tripura, Goa, Daman and Diu and Puducherry.
37
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21st Amendment Act, 1967 - Sindhi language was included * It was arranged under Article 21A that states should make
as the 15th language in the Eighth Schedule. arrangements to provide free elementary education for
22nd Amendment Act, 1969 - Creation of a separate children from 6 to 14 years.
autonomous state of Meghalaya from Assam. * Under Article 51A, the 11th duty related to the same was
24th Amendment Act, 1971 - Parliament can amend any added.
part of the Constitution (also Fundamental Rights). * The theme of Article 45 was changed, under which the
31st Amendment Act, 1973 - Number of Lok Sabha seats State will try to provide for free and compulsory education
were increased from 525 to 545. to all the children till they reach the age of six years.
36th Amendment Act, 1975 - Sikkim was granted full 91st Amendment Act, 2003 - It limits the size of the Council
statehood with the Indian Union. of Ministers which shall not exceed 15 per cent of the total
42nd Amendment Act, 1976 - The words 'socialist', 'secular' members of the Lok Sabha.
and 'integrity' were added to the preamble. * The State Council of Ministers shall not exceed 15 per cent
* Part-IVA added as fundamental duties of the citizens. of the total strength of the Legislative Assembly and shall
* The President was compelled to accept the advice of the not be less than 12.
Cabinet. 92nd Amendment Act, 2003 - Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and
The 44th Amendment Act, 1978 empowered the President Santhali languages were included in the Eighth Schedule.
to send the Bill back once for reconsideration. Thus, the total number of languages in the Eighth Schedule
In the context of the national emergency, the word 'Armed is 22.
Rebellion' was replaced by 'Internal Disturbance'. 97 th Amendment Act, 2011 - The right to form a
The Right to Property was abolished as a fundamental Cooperative Society became a fundamental right under
right and given the status of a legal right. Article 19.
During the national emergency, the fundamental rights * New Part-9B named 'Cooperative Societies' was added.
Articles 20 and 21 cannot be suspended. 100th Amendment Act, 2015 - It deals with land transfer
52nd Amendment Act, 1985 - Under this act there is a between India and Bangladesh.
system of disqualifying the members of Parliament and 101st Amendment Act, 2016 - Provisions related to Goods
State Legislatures in the case of defection. For this, the and Services Tax (GST) have been included under it.
Tenth Schedule was added. 102nd Amendment Act, 2018 - Constitutional status to
58 th Amendment Act, 1987 - Authorized text of National Commission for Backward Classes.
Constitution made available in the Hindi language. 103rd Amendment Act, 2019 - Provision of 10 per cent
reservation on the economic basis to the weaker sections
61st Amendment Act, 1988 - The voting age of citizens
of the general category.
was reduced from 21 years to 18 years.
104th Amendment Act, 2020 - It extended the reservation of
69th Amendment Act, 1991 - Union Territory of Delhi
seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative
granted National Capital Territory status. In addition, a
Assemblies for 10 years and it ended the reservation of
70-member legislative assembly was arranged for Delhi.
2 Anglo-Indian seats in Lok Sabha nominated by the
70th Amendment Act, 1992 - Elected members of the
President. It has also ended reservation of Anglo-Indians
National Capital Territory of Delhi and the Legislative
in Legislative Assemblies.
Assembly of Puducherry were also included in the
105th Amendment Act, 2021 - This Act restores the power
President's electoral college.
of the State Government and Union Territories to identify
71st Amendment Act, 1992- Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali
and specify socially and Educationally Backward Classes
language was included in the Eighth Schedule.
(SEBCs).
73rd Amendment Act, 1992 - Panchayats were given
constitutional status by adding Part-IX and Schedule 11 to
33 Important Articles of the Indian Constitution
the Constitution.
74th Amendment Act, 1992 - Part-IXA and Schedule 12 There were 22 parts, 395 Articles and 8 schedules in the
were added in the Constitution. original copy of the Constitution. [Uttarakhand UDA/LDA (Pre.)
* It gave constitutional status to urban local bodies. 2007; Jharkhand PCS (Pre.) 2003, 2017; 53rd to 55th BPSC (Pre.) 2003]
84th Amendment Act, 2001 - Restoration of Lok Sabha and A number of Articles were added and removed later through
State Legislative Assembly seats for 25 years (till 2026). amendments. At present, there are around 468 articles but these
86th Amendment Act, 2002 - Elementary education was are added in the form of sub-parts such as A,B,C etc., of the
accorded the status of a fundamental right. original Articles (395).
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Important articles of the Constitution : At a glance 53 - Executive power of the Union.

1- Name and territory of the Union. 54 - Election of President
2- Admission or establishment of new States. 55 - Manner of Election of President.
3- Formation of new States and alteration of areas, 57 - Eligibility for re-election.
boundaries or names of existing States. 58 - Qualifications for election as the President.
5- Citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution. 60 - Oath or Affirmation by the President.
14 - Equality before law. [UPPCS (Pre.) 2015] 61 - Procedure for impeachment of the President.
15 - Prohibition of discrimination on ground of religion, [UPPCS (Pre.) 2020]
race, caste, sex or place of birth. 63 - The Vice-President of India.
16 - Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment. 64 - The Vice-President to be ex-officio Chairman of the
17 - Abolition of untouchability. [UPPCS Lower (Pre.) 2002] Council of States.
18 - Abolition of titles. 66 - Election of Vice-President.
19 - Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech etc. 70 - Discharge of President’s functions in other contingencies.
20 - Protection in respect of conviction for offences. 72 - Power of President to grant pardons, etc., and to
21 - Protection of life and personal liberty. suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain cases.
21A - Right to elementary education. 74 - Council of Ministers to aid and advice President.
22 - Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases. 75 - Other provisions as to ministers.
23 - Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour. 75(1) - The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President
24 - Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc. and other ministers shall be appointed by the President
25 - Freedom of conscience and free profession, prActise on the advice of Prime Minister.
and propagation of religion. 76 - Attorney – General for India.
26 - Freedom to manage religious affairs. 79 - Constitution of Parliament.
27 - Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any 80 - Composition of the Council of States.
particular religion. 81 - Composition of the House of the People.
28 - Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or 83 - Duration of Houses of Parliament.
religious worships in certain educational institutions. 84 - Qualification for Membership of Parliament.
29 - Protection of interests of minorities. 85 - Sessions of Parliament, prorogation and dissolution.
30 - Right of minorities to establish and administer 89 - The Chairman & Deputy Chairman of the Council of
educational institutions. states.
32 - Remedies for enforcement of fundamental rights 93 - The Speaker & Deputy speaker of the House of the
including writs. People.
38 - State to secure a social order for the promotion of 100 - Voting in Houses, power of Houses to Act not with
welfare of the people. standing vacancies and quorum.
39 - Certain principles of policy to be followed by the State. 108 - Joint sitting of both the Houses in certain cases.
39A - Equal justice and free legal aid. 109 - Special procedure in respect of Money Bills.
40 - Organisation of Village Panchayats. 110 - Definition of ‘Money Bills’.
41 - Right to work, to education and to public assistance in 111 - Assent to Bills.
certain cases. [UPPCS (Pre.) 2015] 112 - Annual Financial Statement (Budget).
43 - Living wage, etc. for workers. 114 - Appropriation Bills.
44 - Uniform Civil Code for the citizens. 116 - Vote on account, vote of credit & exceptional grants.
45 - Provision for early childhood care and free & 117 - Special provisions as to Financial Bills.
compulsory education to children below the age of six [Jharkhand PCS (Pre.), 2013; UP UDA/LDA (spl) (Mains) 2010]
years. [UPPCS (Pre.) 2015] 122 - Court not to inquire into proceedings of Parliament.
48 - Organisation of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry. 123 - Power of President to promulgate ordinances during
48A - Protection and improvement of environment and safe recess of Parliament.
guarding of forests and wildlife. 124 - Establishment and Constitution of the Supreme Court.
49 - Protection of monuments and places and objects of 129 - Supreme Court to be a court of record.
national importance. 137 - Review of judgements or orders by the Supreme Court.
50 - Separation of judiciary form executive. 143 - Power of President to consult the Supreme Court.
51 - Promotion of international peace and security. 148 - Comptroller and Auditor - General of India.
51A - Fundamental Duties. [UPPCS (Pre.) 2016]
52 - The President of India. 153 - Governors of states
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154 - Executive power of state. 312 - All – India Services.

155 - Appointment of Governor. [UPPCS (RI) 2014; UPPCS (Mains) 2012]
161 - Power of Governor to grant pardons, etc, and to 315 - Public Service Commission for the Union and for the
suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain cases. States. [UPPCS (Pre.) 2023]
163 - Council of Ministers to aid and advice Governor. 323A - Administrative Tribunals.
164 - Other provisions as to Ministers. 323B - Tribunals for other matters.
165 - Advocate - General for the State. 324 - Superintendence, direction and control of elections to
167 - Duties of Chief Minister as respect the furnishing of be vested in an Election Commission.
information to the Governor etc. [Chhattisgarh PCS (Pre.) 2008]
169 - Abolition or creation of Legislative Council in States. 326 - Elections to the Lok Sabha and to the legislative
174 - Sessions of the State Legislature, prorogation and assemblies of States to be on the basis of adult suffrage.
dissolution. 330 - Reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled
200 - Assent to Bills. tribes in the House of people.
201 - Bills reserved for the consideration of President. 331 - Representation of the Anglo – Indian community in the
213 - Power of Governor to promulgate ordinances during Lok Sabha.
recess of legislature. (Provision of repeal by the 104 th Constitutional
214 - High Court for States. Amendment Act, 2019)
215 - High Court to be court of record. 332 - Reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled
tribes in the legislative assemblies of the States.
216 - Constitution of High Court.
333 - Representation of the Anglo – Indian community in the
217 - Appointment and conditions of the office of a judge of
legislative assemblies of the States.
a High Court.
(Provision of repeal by the 104 th Constitutional
226 - Power of High Court to issue certain writs.
Amendment Act, 2019)
231 - Establishment of a common High Court for two or more
338 - National Commission for scheduled castes.
States.
[UPPCS (Pre.) 2023]
233 - Appointment of District Judges.
338A - National Commission for scheduled tribes.
239 A - The provision contained in this Article applicable to
338B - National Commission for backward classes.
“Union Territory of Puducherry” shall also apply to
343- Official language of the Union.
the “Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir”. 239 AA
344 - Commission and Committee of Parliament on official
- Special provisions with respect to Delhi.
language.
241 - High Court for Union Territories. 350A - Facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at primary
243A - Gram Sabha. stage.
243B - Constitution of Panchayat. 350B - Special officer for linguistic minorities.
243H - Powers to impose taxes by, and funds of the Panchayats. 351 - Directive for development of the Hindi language.
243K - Election to the Panchayats. 352 - Proclamation of Emergency (national emergency).
243Z - Audit of accounts of municipalities. 356 - Provisions in case of failure of constitutional Machinery
243ZA - Elections to the municipalities. in States.
243ZD - Committee for district planning. 358 - Suspensions of provisions of Article 19 during
243ZI - Incorporation of Co-operative Societies. emergencies.
249 - Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to a matter 359 - Suspension of the enforcement of fundamental rights
in the State list in the national interest. during emergencies.
253 - Legislation for giving effect to international agreements. 360 - Provisions as to Financial Emergency.
262 - Adjudication of disputes relating to waters of inter – [UPPCS (Pre.) 2016]
State rivers or river valleys. 365 - Effects of failure to comply with or give effect to
263 - Provisions with respect to an Inter – State council. directions given by the Union.
266 - Consolidated Funds and Public Accounts of India and 368 - Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and
of the States. procedure there for.
267 - Contingency Fund. 370 - Temporary provisions with respect to the State of
280 - Finance Commission. Jammu and Kashmir. (Declared inoperative through a
[UPPCS (Pre.) 2023; UPPCS (Pre.) 2020] presidential notification on 6th August, 2019).
300A - Persons not to be deprived of property save by authority 371 - Special provision with respect to the state of Maha-
of law. rashtra & Gujarat.
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Indian History

A. Ancient History of India

Sources of Ancient Indian History Periods of History Chalcolithic Age Indus (Harappan) Civilization Vedic
Civilization Religious Movement in Sixth Century BC The Rise of Magadha Foreign Invasions in India The Gupta
Empire Vakataka Dynasty Vardhana Dynasty History of South India Early-Medieval Period The Bordering States
B. Medieval India
Invasion of Arabs Sultanate Period (1206 AD - 1526 AD) Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD) Tughluq Dynasty
(1320-1412 AD.) Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 AD) Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD) Delhi Sultanate - Governance
System Vijayanagara Empire Bahmani Kingdom The Independent Provincial States Bhakti Movement The
Mughal Empire Mughal Government System Advancement of Marathas
C. History of Modern India
The Decline and Disintegration of the Mughal Empire The Arrival of European Trade Companies Expansion of
British Power in Bengal Maratha Empire and Anglo-Maratha Clash under Peshwas The Revolt of 1857 Religious and
Social Reform Movements Indian National Freedom Movements Important Organizations and Institutions Related to
Indian National Movements Development of Education during British India History of Indian Newspapers Important
Facts related to the Indian Freedom Struggle History from 1947 to 1964 Consolidation of Princely States Other Major
Historical Facts
D. World History
Renaissance American Revolution or Freedom Struggle French Revolution Unification of Italy Unification
of Germany Russian Revolution Industrial Revolution Industrial Revolution World War I Nationalism and in
Germany, Nazism Rise of Fascism in Italy Japanese Imperialism World War II Turkiye Miscellaneous Facts

Indian History Sources for Study of Ancient Indian History

History is the study of past events. The word history comes
from the ancient Greek word ‘historia’, meaning 'inquiry',
'knowledge acquired by investigation. Herodotus first used the Literary Sources Archaeological
Sources
word history in his book ‘Historica’. Herodotus is, therefore,
considered as the ‘Father of History’. (RAS/RTS, 1994)
Scriptures Non-Religious Literature Records, Coins,
The History can be divided into three periods : Memorials, Sculpture,
A. Ancient, B. Medieval, C. Modern Paintings, etc.
Historical texts,
biography etc.
A Ancient History of India
Brahmanic Scriptures Non-Brahmanic/
1. Sources of Ancient Indian History Brahmantra Scriptures

There are two primary sources of the history of Ancient India: Vedas, Puranas, Aranyakas,
Upanishads, Mahabharata, Jain, Buddhist, etc
i. Literary sources ( Indian and Foreign Literature) Smriti Literature Religious texts

ii. Archaeological sources (i) Brahmanic Literature

Literary sources can further be divided into two parts: Brahmanic literature plays very significant role in the
i. Scriptures knowledge of Ancient Indian History.
ii. Non-religious or Secular literature Veda (or Vedas)
Scriptures again can be divided into two parts: The oldest scriptures are the Vedas. The Vedas highlight
i. Brahmanic the religious, social, cultural, economic and political life
ii. Non-Brahmanic /Brahmantra during the Aryan period.
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Maharshi Krishna Dvaipayana Veda Vyasa is said to be The Upanishads contain some of the oldest discussions
the compiler of Vedas. about key philosophical terms such as Atman (the self),
The 'Sam No Varunah' an invocation to lord Varun written Brahman (ultimate reality), Karma and Yoga etc.
in the Vedas, was adopted by the Indian Air force. The largest and the shortest Upanishad are Brihadaranyaka
(VDO, 2023) and Mandukya Upanishad respectively.
The number of Vedas is four. The earliest mention of the Vedanga is in Mundaka
Vedas are also known as 'Shruti'. The reason behind is that Upanished. Shankara Charya wrote Bhashya for 10
Vedas have been passed on from one generation to another Upanishads.
through verbal transmission. Vedanga
Rig Veda, Sama Veda and Yajur Veda are called Vedatrayi. There are six Vedangas : Shiksha (Phonetics), Kalpa
(UPPCS, 2010) (Ritual), Vyakarana (Grammar), Nirukta (Etymology),
The Gayatri Mantra is given in the third mandala of the Rig Jyotisha (Astronomy) and Chandas (Meter).
Veda, which is dedicated to the Godess Savitri. Sutra
(UPPCS, 2013) Sutra literature was introduced to keep Vedic literature
India was named 'Bharat' often the Bharat Dynasty. The intact.
first mention of this dynasty is in Rigveda. (SSS, 2023)
The Sutras are derived from a Vedanga called ‘Kalpa’.
Yajur Veda is written both in prose and poetry. Kalpa is classified into three parts-
The Yajur Veda is broadly grouped into two parts Shukla 1. Shrauta Sutra – Related to sacrificial rituals
Yajur Veda and Krishna Yajur Veda. 2. Grihya Sutra- Dealing with domestic rituals
The Maximum hymns of Sama Veda are taken from the
3. Dharma Sutra- Dealing with religious, social and
Rig Veda. (UPPCS, 1997)
political duties.
Brahmanic Text
Smritis developed from the Dharma Sutra itself.
The Brahmanic texts have been composed in simple prose.
The main smritis are – Manu Smriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti,
Brahma means ‘Yagya’, therefore, the texts that have their
Parashara Smriti, Narada Smriti, Brihaspati Smriti, etc.
themes as Yagya are called Brahmins.
Manu Smriti is considered to be the most ancient and
There are different Brahmin texts for each Veda.
authentic.
Aranyaka
The commentators of Manu Smriti were : Medhatithi,
There are three parts of Brahmana, as (1) Brahmana, (2)
Govindraja, Bharuchi and Kulluk Bhatta.
Aranyaka and (3) Upnishad.
The commentators of Yajnavalkya were: Vishwaroopa,
In Mahabharata, Aranyakas are called essence of Vedas.
Vijnaneshwara and Apararka.
Aranyaka is the last part of the Brahmin scriptures, in which
The most important Sanskrit Vyakaran Sutra of Panini is
philosophical and mystical subjects are described.
‘Astadhyayi’. (Jharkhand PCS 2011)
They are called ‘Aranyaka’ because they were read in the
forest. Purana
The main theme of Aranyakas is not only Yajna, but also The word Purana is found in the Atharva Veda.
the discussion of the spiritual facts presents within Yajna, The number of Puranas is 18. (UPPCS, 2009)

Yoga etc. The author of Puranas was Maharishi Lomharsha or his

A total of 7 Aranyakas are available. son Ugrashrava.
Upanishads There is a description of the rule of kings of Kalyuga in the
The name ‘Upanishad’ is a combination of the terms ‘Upa’ Puranas.
(meaning 'near') and ‘Nishad’ (meaning 'sit'). Matsya Purana is the most ancient and authentic.
The secret knowledge that is acquired by sitting near the Major Puranas and related Dynasties
teacher is called ‘Upanishad’. Puranas Dynasties
Being the last part of Vedic literature, they are also called
Vishnu Purana Mauryan Dynasty
‘Vedanta’.
Matsya Purana Andhra Satavahana and Shunga Dynasty
In the Upanishads, we obtain knowledge about the oldest
philosophical ideas. Vayu Purana Gupta Dynasty
The National Motto of India, ‘Satyameva Jayate’ is Epic
brought from Mundaka Upanishad. (IAS, 2014, UPPCS, 2004) Two epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, are
The number of Upanishads is 108. important scriptures along with Vedas.
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The Ramayana was composed by Maharshi Valmiki. Herodotus’s book 'Histories' mentions the relationship
The largest and the smallest Kand of Ramayana are - Bala between India and Persia in fifth century BC.
Kanda and Kishkindha Kanda respectively. There are total Details provided by Alexander's contemporaries Nearchus,
7 Kandas in Ramayana, initially there were 6000 verses, Onesicritus and Aristobulus are more authentic and reliable.
which later increased to 24000. (UPPCS, 2015)
The Mahabharata was composed by Maharshi Ved Vyas. Three ambassadors Megasthenes, Deimachus and
The Mahabharata consists of one lakh Shlokas that's why Dionysios are note worthy writers after Alexander.
it is called ‘Satasahastri Samhita’. (UPBEO, 2019) Megasthenes, the ambassador of Seleucus Nicator, came
Epics provide information about the social, religious and to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. (UPPCS, 2017)
political condition of ancient India during that period. Megasthenes, in his book ‘Indica’, has described the
ii. Brahmantra Literature contemporary Mauryan society and culture.
Buddhist Literature (UK UDA/UDA 2007)
The most ancient Buddhist literature is ‘Tripitaka’. Deimachus was the ambassador of the Syrian Monarch
The three pitakas are: Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and Antiochus, who came to Bindusara’s court.(UP Lower, 2007)
Abhidhamma Pitaka. (UP Lower 2003, 2004)
Dionysius was the ambassador of the Egyptian king
Sutta Pitaka is also called the ‘Encyclopedia of Buddhism’. Ptolemy Philadelphus who came to Mauryan Court.
Jatakas contain previous births of the Buddha. Ptolemy wrote a book called ‘Geography’ in the second
The ancient Buddhist texts are in the Pali language.
century BC.
The Deep Vamsa and the Maha Vamsa provide information
Pliny wrote a book called 'Naturalis Historia' (Natural
about Mauryan history.
History) in the first century BC.
Mahavastu and Lalitavistara, written in Sanskrit, give the
Natural history provides information about Indian animals,
life story of Mahatma Buddha.
trees, minerals, etc.
Jain Literature
Pliny the Elder called India as the country of "the sink of
Jain Literature is called ‘Agama’.
the world's gold."
Bhagwati Sutra portrays Mahavira’s life.
Cosmas Indicopleustes wrote Christian Topography.
Kalpasutra provides the early history of Jainism. Kalpasutra
There is no information about the author of the book
was composed by Bhadrabahu.
‘Periplus of the Erythraean Sea’. (64th BPSC 2018)
Jain texts were composed in Prakrit language.
The author is said to have visited the Indian Ocean in the
The most important Jain scripture is Hemchandra’s
first century BC and gave information about the Indian
‘Parishishtaparvan’.
ports and merchandise of that period.
The final compilation of Jain texts took place in Vallabhi
city, Gujarat in the sixth century. B. Chinese Author
Non-religious Literature/Secular Literature Fa-Hien came to India in the fifth century AD during the
Historical and semi-historical texts, foreign descriptions and reign of Chandragupta II. In his works, he has described
biographies belong to secular or non-religious literature, the socio-economic and religious conditions of that period.
containing the history of ancient India. (63th BPSC, 2017)

Kautilya’s Arthashastra has an important place in historical Hiuen-Tsang came to India during the reign of Harsha in
works. the seventh century AD. (BPSC, 2015)

Arthashastra is considered to be India’s first Political He stayed in India for 16 years and studied at Nalanda
Text. University for 6 years. (UPPCS, 1995)
Arthashastra is an important source of Mauryan history. The accounts of Hiuen Tsang’s visit to India are known as
Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta, Kathasaritsagara by ‘Si-Yu-Ki’. (UPPCS, 2016)
Somadeva and Brihatkathamanjari by Kshemendra are also Hiuen Tsang is called ‘Prince of Pilgrims’ or ‘Prince of
significant sources of Indian history. Passengers’.
The history of 11 th century Kashmir is known by I-tsing came to India in the second half of the seventh
‘Rajatarangini’ written by Kalhana. (MPPCS, 2012) century AD.
Details of Foreign Travellers He has given a description of Vikramshila and Nalanda
A. Greek and Roman Authors universities, the costumes of Indians wore besides telling
Theseus was a physician from Iran. what they ate and drank.
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Ma-Tuan-Lin has highlighted the history of the eastern Pradesh) provides evidence of the development of the
campaigns of Harsha and Chau-Ju-Kua has highlighted Bhagvat religion.
the history of the Chola Dynasty. A copper plate found at Sohgaura is said to belong to pre-
The Chinese traveller Sung Yun came to India in 518 AD. Mauryan period and mentions famine relief efforts.
(Jharkhand PCS 2016) Mandsaur inscriptions refer to the categories of silk
C. Arab Author weavers.
Al-Beruni came to India with Mahmud of Ghazni in the Persepolis and Behistun inscriptions reveal that the Iranian
11th century. (Jharkhand PCS 2011) emperor Darius had captured the valley of the Indus River.
He wrote a book titled ‘Tehqiq ma li-al-Hind’ or ‘Kitab-al- James Prinsep firstly decoded the inscriptions of Ashoka,
Hind’ which gives a detailed description of the Rajputa's written in Brahmi script in 1837 AD. (CGPSC, 2003)
Period society, religion, customs, etc. The study of inscriptions is called ‘Epigraphy’.
Al-Beruni was well-versed in Astronomy, Mathematics, The first epigraphic evidence of Sati practice has been found
Science, Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit. from Eran Pillar Inscription of Bhanugupta, Madhya
Arab traveller Sulaiman, who visited India in the 9th century Pradesh. (UPPCS, 2010)
AD, described the economic, political and social conditions Important Inscriptions
of the Pal and Pratihara rulers' period.
Inscriptions/Citations Rulers
Al-Masudi, who came to India from Baghdad, has given
Hathigumpha Inscription King of Kharavela
information about the history of the period of Rashtrakuta
Junagarh (Girnar) Inscription Rudradaman
and Pratihara rulers.
Nashik Prashasti Inscription Gautami Balashri
D. Other Foreign Authors
Prayag Prashasti Samudragupta
The travelogue of Ibn Battuta, written in Arabic, is ‘Rihla’.
Mandsaur Stone Inscription Malwa Ruler, Yashodharman
It is an important source of information about the social
and cultural life of the Indian subcontinent during the 14th Aihole Inscription Pulakeshin II

century. Gwalior Inscription Pratihara King Bhoja

Taranath was a Tibetan writer. He authored a book titled Bhitari or Junagarh Pillar Skandagupta
'Kangyur' and 'Tengyur'. Inscription

Marco Polo came to India during the rule of the Pandya Deopara Prashasti Inscription Bengal King Vijayasena
Dynasty at the end of the 13th century AD. B. Coins
Archaeological Sources of History The study of coins is called ‘Numismatics’.
Archaeological sources are the most authentic for the study In ancient times, coins were made of copper, silver, gold
of ancient India. and lead.
It mainly consists of inscriptions, coins, monuments, The oldest coins of India are ‘Marked’ coins which belong
buildings, sculptures and paintings. to Seventh to Sixth century BC.
A. Inscriptions These are known as ‘Punched Marked’ coins in Indian
The earliest inscriptions were found at Boghazkoi in Central language due to their stamping.
Asia Minor related to 1400 BC. Satavahana and Gupta rulers issued most coins, in Lead
Vedic deities Indra, Mitra, Varuna and Nastya (Ashwin) and Gold respectively.
are mentioned in the Boghazkoi inscriptions. The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue Gold coins in India.
(UPPCS, 2016, 1996) C. Sculptures, Memorials, Buildings and Paintings
The oldest inscriptions in India belong to Ashoka, related In the sculptures of Bharhut, Bodh Gaya and Amravati,
to 3rd Century BC. there is a lively tableau depicting the life of the people of
Ashoka’s name is mentioned in inscriptions related to that time.
Maski, Gurjara, Nittur and Udegolam. The of palaces and temples building style reveals the level
The scripts of Ashoka’s inscriptions are mainly Brahmi, of development of architecture of the time.
Kharoshthi, Greek and Aramaic scripts. The spread of Indian culture is highlighted by temples and
(UPPCS, 2015, IAS 1997) stupas built in South-East and Central Asian countries.
An article, written by Indo-Greek ambassador, Heliodorus Beautiful expressions of human imagination are found in
on Garuda Pillar found at Besnagar (Vidisha, Madhya the paintings of Ajanta and Ellora.
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C. Historic Period
2. Periods of History
Literary, archaeological and accounts of foreign writer's
Division of History descriptions are the main sources of information about this
To understand the vast material of ancient Indian History, period.
historians have divided into three parts -
(A) Pre-historic (B) Proto-historic (C) Historic
3. Chalcolithic Age
A. Pre-historic The period in which humans used tools made of stone and
There are no written records available for this period of copper is called the ‘Copper-Stone Age’ or ‘Chalcolithic
history. The history of this period is only known only by the Age’. (RAS 2021; 44th BPSC, 2000)
archaeological sources. Copper metal was first used in this period for making tools.
Historians have divided this early period of human The main regions where the traces of copper-stone age are
civilization into three periods- obtained in India are located in south-eastern Rajasthan
(i) Paleolithic Period (ii) Mesolithic Period (Ahar and Gilund), west Madhya Pradesh (Malwa, Kayatha
(iii) Neolithic Period and Eran), Western Maharashtra and South-Eastern India.
The cave paintings of Bhimbetka belong to the Palaeolithic The best pottery of this period is obtained in Malwa.
period. (MPPCS, 2004) Daimabad was known as the largest settlement of Jorwe
The wheel was used in the Neolithic period. culture.
Agriculture originated from the Neolithic period. The Old name of Ahar is ‘Tambavati’ which means ‘Place
(UPPCS, 2005) of Copper’.
The earliest evidence of paddy cultivation in India has been In Maharashtra, the deceased were buried beneath the floor
obtained from the village of Lahuradeva in around 7000 of the house resting the body in pits.
B.C. (UP Lower, 2008, 2004; UPPCS 2010, 2007; CGPSC 2017; The influence of pre- Harappan, Harappan and post-
BPSC 2018; UP RO/ARO 2021) Harappan culture is found on Kayatha’s Pottery.
The earliest plant to be domesticated was Barley. All Copper Stone age communities used black and red
(UPPCS, 1997) pottery on the wheels.
The Fire was first used by humans in the Neolithic period. The largest copper reserves have been found at Gungeria
Notably, humans discovered the fire in palaeolithic period. in Madhya Pradesh.
The earliest Neolithic Settlement was found in Mehrgarh Chalcolithic Civilization Navdatoti was excavated under
in Balochistan province (in Pakistan). the direction of H.D. Sankalia. (UP Lower 2009)
The earliest evidence of agriculture was found in
Mehrgarh. Note : The copper, bronze and iron metals were used by
Animal Husbandry began in the Middle Mesolithic Age. humans in this period.
(UPPCS, 2006) Indus (Harappan) Civilization
Evidence of animal husbandry was obtained from
Indus civilization is a proto-historical civilization.
Adamgarh (Narmadapuram, Madhya Pradesh) and Bagore
(MPPCS, 1990; UPPCS, 1996)
(Bhilwara, Rajasthan), India. (UPPCS, 2018)
The period of the Indus civilization is existed between 2300
Bone and horn-made equipment related to the Mesolithic
and 1700 BC based on radiocarbon dating.
age were found at Mahadaha (Pratapgarh, Uttar Pradesh).
The Red Pottery painted in black is the characteristic of the
Dog skeleton alongside a human skeleton was excavated
Harappan Civilization. (40th BPSC, 1995)
at Burzahom (Jammu and Kashmir). (UP Lower, 2008)
Pit-houses were used in Burzahom. (UPPCS, 2011) Note : The easternmost site of the Indus civilization
B. Proto-historic Period is Alamgirpur (district Meerut, Uttar Pradesh) on the
The art of writing developed during this period, but it has banks of the Hindon river, Sutkagendor (Baluchistan)
not so far been possible to decipher the script of this period.
(Westernmost site) situated on the banks of the Dashak
Both literary and archaeological sources are available to
(Dasht), Manda (Northermost site) (Jammu- Kashmir)
know the history of this period.
near Akhnoor on the banks of the Chenab, and Daimabad
The Harappan Civilization and Vedic Civilization is
existed in this period. (District Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) (Southern most
The Krishna-Lohit Pottery Culture belongs to this period. site) is situated on the banks of the Godavari.

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The Indus civilization was an urban civilization.

Note : In 1921, on the instructions of the Director-
(UPPCS, 2004, 1996, 1994; UPPCS, GIC, 2010)
General of Archaeological Survey of India, Sir John
The extension of Indus civilization is triangular.
Marshall, Daya Ram Sahni excavated the Harappan
The major cities that flourished during the Indus civilization
mound on the left bank of Ravi in the then Sahiwal
were Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Rakhigarhi, Dholavira,
district of Punjab (Pakistan).
Kalibangan.
(CGPSC, 2003; RAS/RTS 1997; BPSC, 2015)
Note : In July, 2021 Dholavira was named the 40 th
In 1922, Rakhaldas Banerjee unearthed the mounds of
Indian site on UNESCO's World Heritage list.
Mohenjodaro located on the right bank of the Indus River
After India's independence, the maximum number of sites in Larkana (Sindh province). (CGPSC, 2023; MPPCS, 2012)
of Harappan civilization were excavated in Gujarat. Mohenjodaro literally means “mound of the dead”.
Gold, Copper, Silver and Bronze metals were known to Cotton textiles were first produced in India during
Indus Valley Civilization but not Iron. (IAS, 1994)
Harappan civilization. (UPPCS, 2009)
Depictions of cow are not found on the seals and terracotta There is evidence of cotton production in the Indus Valley.
artifacts of the Harappan Civilization while depictions of
Seals in the shape of a humped bull were excavated from
Bull, Elephant, Rhinoceros, Tiger, Deer, and Sheep are
Mohenjodaro. (MPPCS, 2012; UPPSC GIC, 2010)
found in them. (IAS, 2001; BPSC, 2023; CGPSC, 2011)
The one-horned unicorn is the most common motif on Indus
Godiwada is found during the excavation of Lothal.
seals behind the humped bull.
A replica of plough was found at Banawali, Haryana.
The sculpture of a bronze dancing girl was excavated in
(62th BPSC, 2016)
Mohenjodaro. Its size is 10.5 × 5 × 2.5 cm.
Evidence of the great bath of the Indus civilization was
obtained at Mohenjodaro. (UPGIC 2010, 2007; UPPCS, 1992) The torso of a priest was excavated at Mohenjodaro.
Evidence of ploughed field was found at Kalibangan in A large granary was excavated at Mohenjodaro. It is
Rajasthan. (UPPCS, 1991, 2005; BPSC, 2020) probably the largest building belonging to Indus Valley
The Indus civilization was a Bronze Age civilization and Civilization.
its people were unknown to iron. Evidence of the use of decorative bricks was found at
Rakhigarhi is situated on the banks of Ghaggar in Hisar, Kalibangan.
Haryana. (UPPCS 2008, 2009, 2011) Evidence of the use of baked bricks was also found at
Evidence of paddy husk was found at Rangpur (Gujarat). Chanhudaro.
Evidence of pre-Harappan, Harappan and post- Fire altars were found at Lothal and Kalibangan.
Harappan civilization have been found at Rangpur. A great bath was excavated at Mohenjodaro, at the centre
(UPPCS, 2010) of which a bath with a length of 11.88 m. width of 7.01 m
The people of the Indus valley worshipped Pashupati and depth of 2.43 m. was found.
Shiva too. The proof of this is a seal found at Mohenjodaro Bead-making factories were found at Lothal and
which shows a yogi in a meditation posture. Chanhudaro.
(UK PCS, 2006; UK PSC 2006, RAS, 1993, 1997) The script of the Indus Valley civilization was known to
A tiger and an elephant on the left, and a rhinoceros and be Pictographic.
a buffalo on the right to the meditating Yogi are depicted. The people of the Indus civilization adopted the grid
The yogi, with three faces in three directions, has an pattern for city planning.
ornament, in the shape of a trident, worn over his head. The doors and windows of the houses opened towards the
Sir John Marshall called the yogi to ‘Rudra Shiva’.
streets rather than on the main road.
Harappan roads were almost straight and cutting each other
Lothal was the only city where doors of houses opened
at a right angle.
towards the main road.
Harappan Site, Lothal was discovered by S.R. Rao.
The main crops of the Indus Civilization were wheat and
(UPPCS, 1995, 1999)
Lothal was first excavated in 1957 by S.R. Rao. (UK PSC, 2010) barley.
Lothal city is called Mini-Harappa or Mini-Mohenjodaro. Evidence of rice husks found at Rangpur and Lothal
(UPPCS, 1995) prove that paddy cultivation was prevalent.
Rakhigarhi (Hisar District, Haryana), is the largest The unit of weight was probably in Multiples of 16. The
Harappan site in the Indian Subcontinent. people of the Indus valley civilization used bullock carts or
(Jharkhand PCS, 1996; UPPCS, 2004) buffalo carts with two and four wheels for transportation.
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On Mesopotamia inscriptions, the word ‘Meluhha’ is

Towns Situated on the Banks of Harappan
inscribed refers to the Indus Civilization.
The rule of Harappan Culture was probably in the hands
Rivers
of the merchant class. Towns Rivers Towns Rivers
Harappa Ravi Mohenjodaro Indus
Note : Piggot has called Harappa and Mohenjodaro, the
(JPSC, 2016)
twin capitals of a vast empire.
Ropar Sutlej Kalibangan Ghaggar
The people of Indus civilization worshipped the mother
Lothal (UPPCS Bhogava Sutkagendor Dasht
Goddess as the ‘Goddess of Fertility’. (UPPCS, 2012)
2012)
Evidence of mother Goddess worship, snake worship, tree
Sokhta Koh Shadi Kaur Alamgirpur Hindon
worship and water worship are also found during the Indus
Valley civilization. (SSC MTS, 2014) Rangpur Bhadar Kot-Diji Indus
Swastika symbol was prevalent in Harappan civilization Kunal Saraswati Chanhudaro Indus
indicating that the Indus people worshipped Sun. Banawali Saraswati Manda Chenab
(SSC MTS, 2015)
Bhagwanpura Saraswati Daimabad Pravara
The remains of any temple have not been found in any city
of the civilization. (CPO SI 2011) Amri Indus Rakhigarhi Ghaggar
Worship of Mother Goddess was most prevalent.
The Humped Bull was sacred and worshipped during this Major Minerals and Its Source Regions
civilization. (CPF, 2017) Metals Source Region
It is estimated that the Indus Valley civilization was
Copper Khetri (Rajasthan), Balochistan, Oman
Matriarchal, based on the presence of a large number of
female idols. (CPF, 2017) Lapis Lazuli Badakhshan (Afghanistan)
Indus people used cotton and woollen clothes. Tin Iran, Afghanistan
The principal means of entertainment in the Indus Valley
Silver Jawar and Ajmer Mines of Rajasthan,
civilization were hunting, animal and bird battles, Afghanistan and Iran
playing chaupada or chausar and dice.
Kalibangan was the only Harappan site, surrounded by a Lead Afghanistan, Iran , Azmer (Rajasthan)
rampart with bastons and salients. Bitumen Himalaya
The last rites took both forms-burial as well as burning. Gomed Stone Gujarat (India)
The burial of a dead body in Harappa and burning in
Mohenjodaro were in practice. Major Sites of Indus Valley Civilization,
Evidence of the couple's burial in the same grave was found Excavators and Present Condition
at Lothal and Kalibangan. (UPPCS, 2016)
Excavators/ Present
Extreme weather events in the form of floods and droughts Sites Year
Explorer Condition
were known to have been the cause of the destruction of
1. Harappa Dayaram Sahni 1921- Sahiwal District,
the Indus valley civilization.
and Madho Sarup 1926-27 Pakistan
The Reason for the Decline of the Indus Vats
Civilization and Related Scholars 2. Mohenjodaro Rakhaldas 1922 Larkana District,
Banerjee Sindh Province,
Reason Scholars
Pakistan
Climate Change Aurel Stein, A.N. Ghosh
3. Chanhudaro N.G Majumdar 1931 Sindh Province,
Geological Change M.R. Sahni (Pakistan)
Natural Disaster K.U.R. Kennedy 4. Kalibangan B.B.Lal and B.K 1961-69 Hanumangarh,
Flood Mackey and Marshall Thapar Rajasthan

Aryan Invasion Gordon Childe and Wheeler 5. Kot-Diji Fazal Ahmed 1957-58 Khairpur,
Sindh Province
Ecological Imbalance Fairservis (Pakistan)

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6. Rangpur S.R.Rao 1934-35 Surendranagar, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda were composed
Gujarat in the later Vedic Period.
7. Ropar Yagya Dutt 1953-55 Roopnagar, Punjab The Rigveda, Yajurveda and Samaveda are called
Sharma ‘Vedatrayi’. (UPPCS,GIC 2010)
8. Lothal S.R.Rao 1954-55 Ahmedabad, The first description of the word ‘Varna’ is found in
Gujarat Rigveda. (CGPSC, 2014; UK PSC, 2012)
(UPPCS, 2009) In Rigveda, the word 'Varna' is used for the 'colour' but
9. Alamgirpur Yagya Dutt 1958 Meerut, U.P sometimes also for 'choosing a business'.
Sharma Initially, three varnas are mentioned as Brahmin, Kshatriya
10. Sutkagendor Aurel Stein, 1927-1962 Makran Sea coast and Vaishya.
George Dales in Pakistan The word ‘Shudra’ is first mentioned in Purusha Sukta of
11. Banawali Ravindra Singh 1974-77 Fatehabad, the Tenth Mandala of the Rigveda.
Bisht Haryana Here, the origin of the four varnas is said to be from the
12. Dholavira J.P.Joshi Ravindra 1967-68 Kutch, Gujarat various organs of a ‘Virata Purusha’.
Singh Bisht 1990-91 (UPPCS, 2010) Rigveda is composed in the praise of God, Yajurveda for
(UP RO/ARO, 2017, 2018) sacrificial prayer and Samaveda for chanting songs (music).
There are a total of 10 mandalas in the Rigveda.
4. Vedic Civilization There are a total of 1028 hymns and 10552 verses in the
The Vedic Civilization came into existence after the Indus Rigveda. (UPPCS, 2016)
Civilization. The first and tenth Mandalas are the latest.
The Vedic Period is divided into two parts Vishvamitra is the author of the third mandala of Rigveda.
i. Rigvedic Period or Early Vedic Period - 1500- B C t o The famous Gayatri Mantra is found in the third mandala
1000 BC. of Rigveda. (CGPSC 2011; BPSC 1994; UK PSC, 2006UPPCS 2013)
ii. Post-Vedic Period - 1000 BC to - 600 BC. Several contents of the Rigveda are found in 'Avesta'.
(i) Rigvedic or Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC) Avesta is the oldest text in the Iranian language.
(UP Lower 2004)
The Vedic civilization was brought to India by Aryans.
In Rigveda, a maximum of 250 hymns are dedicated to
Aryans inhabited a region between Afghanistan to the
Indra and 200 hymns to Agni. (UPPCS, 2002)
Ganges valley.
The ninth mandala of the Rigveda is dedicated to ‘Soma’.
'Arya' is a Sanskrit word that literally means ‘superior’ or
(42th BPSC 1997)
‘noble’. (IAS, 1999, UPPCS, 1999, 1998)
Laws related to ‘Yagya’ are mentioned in the Yajurveda.
The Vedic culture was rural culture.
(RAS/RTS 1999)
The language of the Aryans was Sanskrit.
The Yajurveda has two parts - Shukla (bright) Yajurveda
The major source of Vedic civilization is ‘Vedas’. This
and Krishna (dark) Yajurveda. (UPPCS, 2018)
civilization derived its, name ‘Vedic Age’ from the Vedas.
Shukla Yajurveda is also known as Vajasaneyi Samhita.
The number of Vedas are four - Rigveda, Yajurveda, (UPPCS 2018)
Samaveda and Atharvaveda. Shukla Yajurveda is only in poetry and Krishna Yajurveda
Vedas, Upavedas and Their Priests is both in poetry and prose.
The last part of the Yajurveda is the ‘Isha Upanishad’,
Vedas Upavedas Priests
which is concerned with spiritual thought rather than Yajna
Rigveda Ayurveda Hota (UP RO/ rituals.
ARO 2013)
The Samaveda contains 1875 verses, of which all the rest
Yajurveda Dhanurveda Adhvaryu except 99 are mentioned in Rigveda. (UPPCS 1997)

Samaveda Gandharvaveda Udgata Indian music has its origin from Samaveda.
There are 3 main parts of Samaveda - 1. Kauthuma, 2.
Atharvaveda Arthashastra Brahma
Ranayaniya and 3. Jaiminiya. (UPPCS, 1994)
The four Vedas are collectively called ‘Samhita’. Atharvaveda has a total of 20 chapters, 730 hymns and
The most important and oldest Veda is the Rigveda. 5,987 mantras.
(UK UDA, 2007; UPPCS 1995, UK PSC 2010; MPPCS, 1999) In Atharvaveda, there is evidence of practices of tantra-
The Rigveda was composed during the Rigvedic Period. mantra and mesmerism.
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The administrative units of the Aryans were divided into The dialogue between Nachiketa and Yama is mentioned
several constituents. These were Kula or family, Grama in Kathopanishad. (UPPCS 1999, 2006)
and Jana. Some Kshatriya kings are mentioned in the Upanishads.
The head of the village was called ‘Gramani’, Vis was King Janaka of Videha, Pravahanjabali, King of Panchala,
headed by ‘Vispati’ and people’s ruler was called Rajan. Ashwapati, king of Kekaya Ajatashatru and King of Kashi
The Purohit (priest) and the Senani (fighters) were the are prominent. (UPPCS, 1999)
principal authorities during the Rigvedic period. The correct sequence of Vedic Literature is Vedic Literature,
The number of Ratnis (officials) was 12 - Senani, Purohita, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads in that order.
Yuvraj, Madhyamasi, Suta, Gramini, Kshatri, Sangrihitri, Indus river is mentioned most often in Rigveda.
Bhagadugha, Akshavapa, Palagala and Govinkartana. (UPPCS 2014)
Ratni was to be present on the occasion of coronation. Saraswati was the most sacred river of the Rigvedic Aryans.
Vrajapati was an officer in charge of the pasture land. (IAS 1996)
Vidatha formed the oldest assembly of Aryans. Saraswati was called Matetama, Devitama and Naditama.
In the Atharvaveda, the Sabhas and the Samitis have been (UPPCS 2008)
called the two daughters of Prajapati. (UPPCS 2009) The Kubha (Kabul), Krumu (Kurram), Gomti (Gomal)
The Sabha was the 'Body of the Elders' and the Elites. and Suvastu (Swat) rivers mentioned in the Rigveda flowed
(RAS, 1994) into Afghanistan. (UPPCS, 1999; UP GIC, 2010)
The committee was the central political institution (House The Ashrams (stages of life) (Brahmacharya, Grihastha,
of Representatives of the general public). The committee Vanaprastha and Sanyasa) came into vogue in the post-
used to appoint, depose and control the King. Vedic period. (IAS, 1994, 2011; UPPCS, 2010)
The head of the Samiti was known as 'Ishana'. Only three ashrams are mentioned in Chandogya
In the Rigvedic period, women used to participate in the Upanishad, while in Jabalopanishad, for the very first
Sabha and the Samiti. time four Ashrams are mentioned.
The Dasharajana war (The battle of 10 Kings) is described The ‘Varuna’ deity was considered as the head of the ‘Rita’
in the 7th Mandala of Rigveda. This war was fought between (moral order) in the Vedic Civilization. (CGPSC 2013)
Puru King Sudas and the ten kings on the banks of the Being the head of moral order, Varuna was also called
Parushni (Ravi). (UPPCS, 2008, 2011; 42th BPSC, 1997) ‘Ritasyagopa’.
The upanishads are philosophical texts. Brihaspati was considered a priest of Vedic Gods.
(UPPCS, 2002, 1998, 2004, 2002, 2003) (UPPCS, 2013)
The Upanishads are also called ‘Vedanta’. In Vedic Literature, many women are mentioned who
(IAS, 1997; UPPCS, 1999, 2002) composed Vedic mantras such as Apala, Ghosha, Vishwara,
For the first time, Salvation is mentioned in Upanishads. Lopamudra, etc. (IAS 1995)
(UPPCS 2003) Lopamudra was the wife of sage Agastya.
Terms used in Rigvedic Age and Their Meanings The Aryan society was patriarchal. (UPPCS, 1992)

S.No. Terms Meaning The smallest unit of the society was the family or clan,
headed by the father, known as ‘Kulap’. (CPO SI, 2007)
1. Aghanya Cow (UPPCS, 2008)
Women had freedom to participate in the yajna with their
2. Duhitri Milker of cow or a Daughter
husbands.
3. Urvara Fertile Land Child marriage and the Purdah system were not prevalent.
4. Langal Plough A widow could remarry her deceased husband’s younger
5. Vrik Bull brother (Dewar) or some other near relative. This was called
6. Yava Barley ‘Niyoga System’.
7. Godhuma Wheat The women who remained unmarried for a lifetime were
8. Suvarna Gold called ‘Amaju’.
Aryan's favourite beverage was Somaras.
9. Karesh Manure
The Aryans mainly used three types of clothes - Vass
10. Bekanaat Group receiving interest by lending
(wearing over lower portion), Adhivaas (wearing over
money
upper portion) and Neevee (wearing as inner).
11. Tandul Grain
The primary means of entertainment of the Aryans were -
12. Vrihi Rice chariot racing, horse racing, music and gambling.
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Animal husbandry and agriculture were the main The goddess of the forest was called ‘Aranyani’.
occupations of the Aryans. (UPPCS 1993)
Rigvedic Rivers
Aryan’s favourite animal was horse. (UPPCS, 1998)
The most loved deity of the Aryans was Indra. Old Name Modern Name
(UPPCS 2008) Krumu Kurram
The people of the Rig Vedic Period were not known to iron. Kubha Kabul
(IAS, 1997)
Vitista Jhelum
There is a discussion of Shyam Ayas or Krishna Ayas, a
metal used in the later Vedic Period. Askini Chenab (UPPCS GIC, 2010)
The Barter system was prevalent in the transaction. Parushni Ravi
The person giving loans on interest was called Vecnat Shutudri Sutlej
(usurer).
Vipasa Beas
People of the ‘Pani’ (heefCe) class were engaged in
commerce. (MPPCS 2019) Sadaneera Gandak
Agni was worshipped as an intermediary between humans Drishadwati Ghaggar
and deity. Gomti Gomal
The Rigveda mentions the Ganges once and the Yamuna
Suvastu Swat
three times.
In Mundakopanishad, the yajna has been compared to a
Rigvedic Deities
broken boat.
The famous 'Satyameva Jayate' is derived from Deity About
Mundakopanishad. (UPPCS Pre, 2004, Mains 2004, 1991; Indra War-lord and God of Rain (UPPCS, 2011)
IAS, 2004; MPPCS 1992, 1994; UPPSC RI 2014)
Agni The God of Fire, Mediator between God and
In Vedic Period, gold ornament or coin was called ‘Nishka’. humans
Shatapatha Brahmana is the Brahmana Scripture of
Yajurveda. Varuna The God of Personified Water, Creator of the
Heavens, Earth and Sun, God of the sea, the
Vedic Period Samhitas Controller of the World, the Patron of the
Vedas Brahmanas Aranyakas Upanishads Gods, the Ruler of the season, the Symbol of
1. Rigveda Aitareya, Aitareya, Aitareya, Kaushitaki Truth, the Changer of Seasons, the Doer of
Kaushitaki Kaushitaki day and night.
2. Samaveda Tanday, Jaiminaya Chandogya (most
Dyaus/Dyu The God of Sky
Jaiminaya Chhandogy- ancient), Jaiminaya
aranyak Soma The God of Plants
3. Yajurveda Taittiriya, Taittiriya, Birhadaranyaka, Usha The Goddess of Dawn
Shatapatha Shatapatha Kathopanishad
Ashwin The twin god of war and healers of diseases
(biggest)
4. Atharvaveda Gopath — Mundakopanishad, Pushan The God of cattles
(youngest) Mandukyupanishad Vishnu World’s Mentor, the preserver and protector
(smallest)
of the people.
Purushamedha is mentioned in the Shatapatha Brahmana.
Maruta The God of Storm
(UPPCS, 2008)
The word ‘Gotra’ was first mentioned in Rigveda. Rudra Amoral an Archer God whose arrows brought
(UPPCS, 2005) diseases
The word ‘Yava’ mentioned in Rigveda is established by Shatapatha Brahmana is related to Shukla Yajurveda.
‘Barley’. (UPPCS, 2008) Brahmanas gave a detailed explanation of Vedic rituals and
The original script of the Rigveda was Brahmi. instructions and deal with the science of sacrifice.
(UPPCS 2008) The latter portions of the Brahmanas were called the
Aitareya and Kaushitaki are the two Brahmin texts of the Aranyakas while the final parts of the Aranyakas and
Rigveda. philosophic books named Upanishad.
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The Aranyakas deal with Soul, Birth, Death and life beyond it. who were descendants from a common male ancestor or
The institution of Gotra appeared in the later Vedic age. patriline.
A teacher who taught the Veda and a part of it for The place of Indra and Agni was taken by 'Prajapati', the
remuneration was called Upadhyaya. (UK UDA/LDA, 2007) creator of the universe.
The Aitareya Brahmana is a Vedic text that explains the Pushana, who became the protector of animals or now the
Origin of Kingship. God of Shudras.
The Wife was called the 'Ardhangini of the husband' in The Upanishads explicitly condemn yajna and rituals and
Shatapatha Brahamana. accept the sole authority of Brahma.
The Story of the debate between Maharishi Yagyavalakya Six Vedangas were composed to make the understanding
and Gargi is described in the Brihadaranya Upanishad. of Vedas :
The 16 Samskaras are mentioned in Grihya Sutra. Sl. No. Vedangas Parts of Vedas
(MPPCS, 2015)
1. Shiksha Nose (UPPCS, 1997)
ii. Later-Vedic Period (1000-600 BC)
2. Kalpa Arms
The history of the later-Vedic period covers periods of
3. Nirukta Ears
Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda and Brahmana texts,
Aranyaka and Upanishads. 4. Vyakarana Mouth
Rajsuya Yajna was performed during the coronation of the 5. Jyotisha Eyes
king. 6. Chandas Foot
In this period, 'Varna' came to be based on birth rather than
occupation. Directions and Their Kings
The people of this period used iron weapons. King Later Vedic Word Emperor
The expansion of this civilization extended up to the Ganges East Prachi Samrat
and Yamuna Doab. West Pratichya Svarat
Agriculture was the chief means of survival for the later
North Udichya Virat
Vedic people.
Central Rajya Raja
In the Shatapatha Brahmana, all the four activities of
South Bhojya Bhoja
agriculture - ploughing, sowing, harvesting and rigging
are mentioned. The state namely Kasi, Kosala, Videha, Magadha and Anga
A plough drawn by 24 oxen is mentioned in Kathak were developed during post Vedic period. (UPPCS, 2007)
Samhita. Kuru and Panchala were regarded as the best representatives
Painted Greyware Pottery is the speciality of this period. of the Vedic Culture.
Due to the improvement in agriculture and various crafts In the post Vedic period, the position of the king was
during this period, the people of the later-Vedic period now hereditary.
took to settled agriculture and residence. In the Aitareya Brahmana, "the daughter is said to be the
In this era, the plough was called Sira and the furrow was root of all miseries".
'Sita'. Women are equated with gambling and alcohol in the
In the later-Vedic period, the unit of currency was Nishka Maitrayani Samhita.
and Satanama. (UPPCS, 2007, 2005; IAS, 1993) The first mention of Child Marriage is in Chhandogya
Sabha and Samiti continued to exist, but 'Vidhata' was Upanishad.
completely disappeared.
5. Religious Movement in Sixth Century BC
The entry of women in Sabha was prohibited.
The later-Vedic society was divided into four Varnas - A. Buddhism
Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. Gautama Buddha was the founder of Buddhism.
The status of women was declined in the later-Vedic period. He was born in Lumbini Vana (Rumindei) in Kapilavastu
In the Shatapatha Brahmana, the names of many females in 563 BCE. (MPPCS 2004, 1992; UPPCS, 2002)
of this period like Gargi, Maitreyi, etc. are mentioned. His childhood name was Siddhartha. (CGPSC, 2014)
The Gotra system Originated in this period. His father's name was Shudhodana and his mother's name
Its literal meaning is cow-pen or the place to keep your was Mayadevi or Mahamaya (the daughter of Kollia
cows, but with time, it came to be referred as people Republic).
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Shuddhodana was the head of the Sakya clan.

Symbols of Buddhism related to Buddha's Life
(UPPCS, 2008)
Buddha's mother died a few days after his birth. Events Symbols
Therefore, he was brought up by his aunt Prajapati Birth Elephant
Gautami. Birth Lotus and Bull
He was married at a young age to Shakya Clan's daughter
Yashodhara (other names - Gopa, Bimba). Great Departure Horse (BPSC, 1996)

The son of Gautama Buddha was Rahula. Enlightenment Bodhi Tree (UPPCS, 2002)
Distressed by worldly sorrows, Siddhartha left his Nirvana Footprints (UPPCS, 2005)
house forever at the age of 29. This act is known as
Mahaparinirvana Stupas
Mahabhinishkramana.
(BPSC, 2005; UPPCS 2011, 2009, 2005; UPPCS, 2014) According to one version, after the death, the remains of
After renunciation, Siddhartha studied Sankhya philosophy Buddha's body were dispersed over eight places and eight
by Alara Kalama in Vaishali. He got his education from stupas were built over them.
Uddaka Ramaputta of Rajgir. (UP GIC, 2010)
Note : The balcony like structure representing the abode
Later, he moved to Uruvela.
of the deities over the semicircular mound of the stupa is
He attained enlightenment (Nirvana) under a peepal tree
called 'Harmika'. (VDO, 2023)
on the banks of the Niranjana on the full moon day of
Vaishakh at the age of 35 after a hard penance of 6 years Detailed knowledge about Buddhism is learnt from
without consuming food and water in Uruvela. Tripitaka (Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma
(BPSC 2001; CGPSC 2011; MPPCS, 1997; IAS, 2015; UPPCS, 2012) Pitaka).
After attaining enlightenment, Siddhartha was known as Buddhism is basically atheistic. It does not believe in the
'Buddha' and the place where he attained enlightenment existence of the soul.
became famous as 'Bodh Gaya'. (67th BPSc, 2022) Buddhists were divided into two groups.
This first sermon he preached was called 'Dhammachakra (a) Bhikkhus - For the propagation of Buddhism, one who
Pravartana' in Buddhist texts. (UP Lower, 2013) embraced Mahabhinishkramana was called Bhikshuka.
Mahatma Buddha preached his first sermon at Sarnath (b) Upasaka - Those who adopted Buddhism while living
(Rishipatnam) in Pali, the language of the ordinary people. a household life were called Upasaka.
(BPSC, 2011, 2005; UPPCS 2004, 1999, 2014, 1993; Entering Buddhist order was called 'Upasampada'.
Jharkhand and PCS, 2013) Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha are 'Triratnas' in Buddhism.
He preached most of his sermons at Shravasti, the capital (UP RO/ARO 2017)
of Kosala. (UPPCS, 2004, 2010, 2011, 2015)
After the fourth Buddhist council, Buddhism was divided
His prominent followers were the rulers - Bimbisara,
into two schools of thought-Hinayana and Mahayana.
Prasenjit and Udayan.
The most sacred festival of Buddhism is Vaishakh Purnima,
It was only the request of his stepbrother and assistant
known as 'Buddha Purnima'.
Ananda, Buddha agreed to allow female followers into
It has importance as Buddha was born on the day of
Sangha.
Vaishakh-Purnima, the attainment of knowledge and
Devdatta was cousin and brother-in-law of Gautama
of Mahaparinirvana.
Buddha and was the brother of Ananda.
Kosala King Prasenjita adopted Buddhism along with his Buddha preached four noble truths related to worldly
family. sorrows which are as follows.
Notably, Prasenjita donated a Vihara to Buddha namely (1) truth of suffering, (2) truth of the cause of suffering, (3)
'Poorvaram'. truth of the end of suffering and (4) path that leads to the
Buddha died from an illness, it was tainted pork that led to end of suffering. (UPPCS, 2006)

his demise. Pratitya-Samutpada is a fundamental concept of Buddhism.

Mahatma Buddha spent his last rainy season in Vaishali. It describes the causes of suffering.
(UPPCS, 2015) Buddha spoke about the eightfold paths (Astangika-marga)
He died at the age of 80 at 'Kushinara' in Kushinagar for liberation from worldly sorrows, which are as follows:
district in 483 BCE. Buddha's departure from this world is (1) Right Views (2) Right Resolve
called 'Mahaparinirvana'. (UPPCS, 2011) (3) Right Speech (4) Right Conduct
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(5) Right Livelihood (6) Right Effort The Vajrayana as worshipped woman as a source of power.
(7) Right Mindfulness (8) Right Concentration Buddha attained his final birth as Shakya Muni after a series
The source of the eightfold path is 'Taittiriya Upanishad'. of reincarnations as Bodhisattvas, but Maitreya, the future
The ultimate goal of Buddhism is Nirvana which means Bodhisattvas are yet to incarnate.
'blowing out a lamp or fire', that is, to be free from the Most of the Buddha sculptures were built in Gandhara style,
cycle of life and death. but the first Buddha statue was probably constructed in the
Mahatma Buddha emphasized the following ten-fold Mathura art form.
path to attain Nirvana - (1) Truth, (2) Ahimsa, (3) Asteya Vasumitra was the first follower of Hinayana, later he
(nonstealing), (4) Aparigraha (non-covetousness any kind followed Mahayana.
of property), (5) Celibacy, (6) not eating untimely, (7) Not Evidence of Panchsheel sermon given by Buddha is
sleeping on a comfortable bed, (8) Renouncing fragrant described in Chandogya Upanishad.
substances, (9) Renouncing Kamini and Kanchan and (10) Buddhaghosha's work 'Visuddhimagga' explains Buddhist
Staying away from dancing, music, etc. principles. It is also known as the 'Path of Purification'.
(CGPSC, 2021)
It is mandatory for the householders to follow the first
five paths while it is mandatory for the monks to follow 'Milindpanha' Contains the dialogues between the
the 10 paths. Buddhist monk 'Nagasena and king of Milinda Menander'.
(UK PSC 2012)
Buddhist Councils There are 16 Mahajanapadas mentioned in the Bhagavati
Councils Time Place Presidents Rulers Sutra of Jainism and the Buddhist scripture Anguttara
First 483 BC Rajgriha Mahakassapa Ajatashatru Nikaya. (UPPCS, 2004)

Second 383 BC Vaishali Sabakami Kalashoka The Rise of Mahajanapadas

Third 247 BC Pataliputra Mogaliputta- Ashoka
Sl. Maha-
Tissa Capitals Current Status (Mainly)
No. janapadas
Fourth 1st Century Kundalvana Vasumitra, Kanishka
1. Anga Champa Bhagalpur, Munger (Bihar)
AD (Kashmir) Vice-President
Ashwaghosh 2. Avanti Ujjain/Mahismati Malwa (Madhya Pradesh)
(BPSC, 2002, 2020, 2014, 2018, 2023; IAS 2001; RAS 2010; 3. Shurasena Mathura Brajmandal Area (Uttar
UPPCS, 2000, 1990, 2091) Pradesh)
Mahatma Buddha preached the middle path (Madhyama 4. Kashi Varanasi Near Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh)
Pratipada). 5. Koshala Shravasti / Saket Ayodhya Mandal (Uttar
Buddhism is atheistic, similar to Jainism. (UPPCS, 1992) Pradesh)
Buddhism does not accept the existence of the soul but 6. Kuru Indraprastha Present Delhi, Meerut and
believes in rebirth. (UPPCS, 2002; CGPSC, 2017) some parts of Haryana
The Jataka stories narrate the previous births of Lord 7. Kamboja Hataka / Rajapur Some areas of Jammu and
Buddha. (RAS, 2012; UPPCS, 1996, 2001) Kashmir and Hazara district
Initially, the entry of women was prohibited in the Sangha, of Pakistan
but at the request of 'Ananda', women were allowed for 8. Ashmaka Potali / Potana Narmada and Godavari river
admission. area (only districts in south
The first woman to enter the Sangha was Prajapati India)
Gautami, the maternal aunt of Mahatma Buddha. 9. Chedi Shaktimati Bundelkhand (UP) and (MP)
Amrapali, the city courtesan of Vaishali, was also a disciple
10. Panchal Ahichhatra, Bareilly, Badaun, Farrukhabad
of Mahatma Buddha. Kampilya (UP)
Later, Mahayana was also divided into two schools of
11. Vajji Vaishali Hazipur (Bihar)
thought - Nihilism (Madhyamika) and Vijnanavada
(Yogachara). 12. Vatsa Kaushambi Prayagraj (Allahabad) and
Kaushambi
Nagarjuna was the propounder of Nihilism. (UPPCS 1998)
A branch of the Buddhist sect developed in the seventh 13. Magadha Girivraj/Rajgriha/ Patna, Gaya (Bihar), Nalanda
century called 'Vajrayana'. Patliputra etc.

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14. Matsya Viratnagar Areas near Jaipur, Alwar and Mahavir's father Siddhartha was a kshatriya king from
Bharatpur (Rajasthan) Jnathrika Clan and mother Trishala was the sister of the
15. Malla Pawa and Kushinagar Devaria, Lichchavi king Chetaka.
Kushinagar Gorakhpur, Siddharthanagar Mahavira Swami's childhood name was 'Vardhamana'. The
(Kushavati) and Nepal Area (Uttar wife of Mahavira was named Yashoda and his daughter's
Pradesh) name was Anonja or Priyadarsana. (CGPSC, 2022)
16. Gandhara Taxila (Pakistan) After the death of his parents at the age of 30, Mahavira
Rawalpindi and led an ascetic life after seeking permission from his elder
Peshawar brother Nandivardhana.
After 12 years of rigorous penance, Mahavira attained
Kamboja
Shurasena enlightenment under a Sal tree on the banks of the
Gandhara Rijupalika near Jambhikagrama.
Panchal
(UP RO/ARO, 2017; UPPCS, 2004)

Kosala After attaining enlightenment, Mahavira was called Jina

Vajji
Kuru
Mall (conqueror), Arhant (blessed one) and Nirgrantha (free
from bondage).
Mahavir Swami preached his sermons in Prakrit (Ardha
Matsya
- Magadhi) language.
Chedi
Jamali, the son-in-law of Mahavira became his first
Avanti Kashi Anga
Magadha follower. (BPSC, 2005)
Vatsa
Six Philosophical Schools and Their Promoters
Ashmaka Philosophy Promoter
Samkhya Kapila (UPPCS, 2010)

Yoga Patanjali (UPPCS, 2007)

Nyaya Gautama (UPPCS, 2005)

Vaishesika Konada or Uluka

Purva- Mimamsa Jaimini (UK UDA/UDA 2007)
B. Jainism Uttara-Mimamsa Badarayana
The first Tirthankara and founder of Jainism was Chandana, the daughter of Champa Naresh Dadhivahana
Rishabhdeva. (CGPSC, 2013; UPPCS, 2010) became Mahavira's first disciple.
The 23 Tirthankara of Jainism was Parshwanath.
rd
Mahavira had 11 prominent disciples, who were called
Parshwanath was the son of Ikshvaku Dynasty King Ganadhars. Of these, 9 died during Mahavir's lifetime.
Asvasena of Kashi. (UPPCS, 2016) Only Sudharman and Indrabhuti survived after Mahavira.
He renunciated at the age of 30. He attained enlightenment Mahavira died (Nirvana) in 527 BC in Pavapuri, Bihar, at
after 83 days of penance. the age of 72. (BPSC, 2017, 2001)
The teachings given by him are (1) Satya, (2) Ahimsa, Around 300 BC, due to a severe famine, lasting 12 years,
(3) Asteya (non-stealing), (4) Aparigraha (non- in Magadha, Bhadrabahu moved to Karnataka with his
possession property). disciples. (IAS, 1993)
Followers of Parshwanath were called Nirgrantha. Some followers stayed at Magadha along with Sthulabhadra.
Nirgrantha was divided into four ganas (sanghas), each On his return, Bhadrabahu differed with the Jaina of
gana under one ganadhar. Magadha, as a result of which Jainism was divided into
Mahavira's parents were followers of Parshwanath. two sects named Shvetambaras and Digambaras.
Mahavira Swami was the 24th and the last Tirthankara of The disciples of Bhadrabahu are called Digambaras
Jainism. (CGPSC 2022; UPPCS 1993; IAS, 1993) (living naked) and the disciples of Sthulabhadras are
He was born at Kundagram (Vaishali) in 599 BC. called Shvetambara (wearing white clothes).
(BPSC, 2005, 1997, 2004, 2017, 2011) Sudharman became the president of the Sangha.
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Triratnas of Jainism are- 16. Shantinath Deer

1. Samyak Darshana (right faith)
17. Kuntunath He-Goat
2. Samyak Gyana (right knowledge)
18. Arnath Fish
3. Samyak Charitra (right conduct) (CGPSC, 2017; BPSC, 2022)
Mahavira added the fifth Mahavrata 'Brahmacharya' to 19. Mallinath Waterpot
the four Mahavratas. 20. Muniswasth Tortoise
In Jainism, following five Anusvratas is mandatory for the 21. Naminath Blue Lotus
householders to attain Triratnas. (UPSC 1995) 22. Neminath Conch
Jainism believes in the existence of soul.
23. Parshwanath Snake (UPPCS, 2021)
Jainism is atheistic.
24. Mahavira Swami Lion (RAS, 2021)
Jainism believes in rebirth and karmavada.
(UP RO/ARO, 2016)
Doctrine of Janism was 'Saptabhanginaya'. (CGPSC, 2018)
The place of Nirvana of the 23rd Tirthankara, Parswanath
Other Names of Saptabhanginaya were "Syadvada and
is located at Sammed Shikhar (Parasnath Hill) mountain.
Anekantvada". (Jharkhand PCS, 2011; IAS, 2009 2011;
(UPPCS, 2002)
RAS, 2021, UK PSC, 2005)
Prabhasgiri is a Jain pilgrimage site located in Kaushambi,
King's who were ardent followers of Jainism were Udayan, Uttar Pradesh.
Chandragupta Maurya, Kalinga King Kharavela, Prabhasgiri is the site related to the 6th Jain Tirthankara
Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha and Chandela rulers. Padmaprabhu.
A monolithic statue of Bahubali referred to as 'Kaivalya' means omniscience in Jainism and is roughly
'Gommateshvara' was built by a minister and a commander translated as complete understanding or supreme wisdom.
Chamundaraya of Ganga dynasty king in the 10th century (UPSC, 1995)
AD. (UP Lower, 2009, UPSC, 1994)
Ahimsa is fundamental to Jainism. (UPPCS, 1993)
Jain temples were built at Khajuraho by the Chandela rulers. Fourteen Purva Text is the oldest sacred Jain Text.
Mathura was a famous centre of Jainism in the post- (41th BPSC 1995)
Mauryan era. Compilation of 12 Angas was completed at the first Jain
Biographies of Jain Tirthankaras are mentioned in Council.
Kalpasutra composed by Bhadrabahu.
Jain's Councils
24 Jain Tirthankaras, Their Symbols and Council Year
Nirvana Sites President Ruler Work
Place
Sl. No. Name of Tirthankaras Symbols First 310 BC Sthulabhadra Chandragupta Shvetambara Jain
1. Rishabhdeva Bull (UPPCS, 2017) Pataliputra Maurya Compilation of
(UK PSC, 2021) Literature
2. Ajitnath Elephant
Second 512 Devaradhi — Determination and
3. Sambharnath Horse AD, Vallabhi Kshamasramana editing of extinct
4. Abhinandanath Monkey Jain texts

5. Sumatinath Curlew Ashoka's grandson Samprati is said to have also promoted

6. Padmaprabhu Red Lotus Jainism.
Mount Abu in Rajasthan is known for the Dilwara temple
7. Suparswanath Swastika
which is dedicated to Jain Tirthankaras.
8. Chandraji Prabhu Moon These were built in pure white marbles and adorned with
9. Pushpadanta Crocodile exquisite sculptures.
10. Sheetalanath Kalpa Vriksha There are two major temple complexes.
11. Shreyanasnath Rhinoceros One was built around 1030 AD by Vimala Shah.
12. Vaspujya Buffalo The later temple, dedicated to the Tirthankara Neminatha,
was founded around 1230 AD by Tejapala.
13. Vimalnath Boar
Acharanga Sutra, Sutrakritanga and Vrihathakatha sutra
14. Anantnath Falcon
are part of early Jain literature.
15. Dharmanath Vajra Jain Literature is called Agama (doctrine).
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Mahamastakabhisheka, an important ritual of Jainism, is Shaivism was very popular in south India during the time
held at Sravanabelagola in Karnataka every 12 years. of Chalukya, Rashtrakuta, Pallava and Chola Kings.
(UPSC, 2009) The first combined idols of Shiva and Parvati were built
Major Jain Texts during the Gupta Period.
Bhadrabahu wrote the Kalpa Sutra. (BPSC, 1995) During the Pahlava period, the Nayanar saints contributed
Parishistaparvan was written by Hemachandra. significantly to the development of Shaivism. 63 Nayanars
Adi Purana was written by Jinasena. (UPPCS, 2006) were prominent among the saints - Appar, Sambandar and
This treatise is written in Sanskrit language. Sundaramurthy. (UP UDA/LDA 2006)
(UPPCS 2002; IAS, 1996) The famous 'Kailasha Temple' at Ellora was built by the
C Shaivism Rashtrakuta kings.
Religion-related to Lord Shiva is called Shaivism. The famous Rajarajeshwar Shaiva temple at Tanjore,
The worshippers of Lord Shiva are called 'Shaiva'. also known as the Brihadeshwara Temple, was built by
Shiva is called 'Rudra' in Rigveda. the Chola ruler Raja Raja I.
The first explicit mention of Linga worship is described Shiva Linga was established at Karamdanda and Khoh
in Matsya Purana. during the reign of Kumaragupta I.
From Ramayana, it is known that Shiva was a revered deity
During the Gupta Period, temples of Shiva and Nachna
in Sri Lanka apart from North and South India.
Kuthaar were built in Bhumra.
In the Taittiriya Aranyaka, Parvati's name is mentioned as
The figures of Shiva and Nandi are inscribed on the coins
Rudra's wife.
of Kushana rulers.
Number of Shaiva sect in Vamana Purana is four - Pashupat,
Kapalik, Kalamukh and Shaiva. Major Sects and Founders of Shaivism
The oldest sect of Shaivism is Pashupata sect. Sects Founder
The Pashupata sect was founded by Lakulisha.
Pashupat Lakulisha
Lakulisha is also considered as an incarnation of Lord
Shiva. Lingayat Basava
The followers of the Pashupata sect are called Pancha- Nath Matsyendranath
rathiks.
Shiva is said Pashupati, Bhawa, Bhupati etc. in Atharva
The Pashupata Sutra is the main theoretical text of this
Veda.
school of thought.
The Virashaiva or Lingayata movement was developed by
The second major sect of Shaivism is known as Kapalika.
Basavanna a minister of the Chalukya King Bijala Raya of
Its worshipper Bhairava is worshipped as an incarnation of
Kalyana.
Shiva.
Lingayata sect is influenced by Islam.
The Malatimadhav drama of Bhavabhuti shows that the
Lingatyatas don't believe in Rebirth and they ceremonially
place called Srisail was the main centre of Kapalikas.
bury their dead.
The followers of the Kalamukh sect are called
Mahavratadhars in Shiva Purana. D. Vaishnavism
People of the Kalamukh sect used to eat food, drink water The Vaishnava sect developed from the Bhagavata.
and alcohol in the male-cranium itself and rubbed ashes According to tradition, its founder was descendants of
over their bodies. Vrishni (Satvat) Vanshi Krishna. (RAS/RTS 1993)

Lingayat sect was prevalent in South India. They were also Krishna is first mentioned in Chandogya Upanishad.
known as Jangams. The people of this sect worshipped the Here, he is described as Devaki's son and a disciple of Ghor
Shiva Linga. (UPPCS 2007) Angiras. (RAS/RTS 1999)
The promoter of the Lingayat sect was Allama Prabhu He is also known as Vasudeva Krishna, being the son of
and his disciple Basava. Vasudeva.
Lingayat sect was also called Veerashaiva Sect. Followers of Krishna called him 'Bhagavata' (Sacred). For
In the 10th century, Matsyendranatha founded the Nath this reason, the religion he promoted became 'Bhagavata'.
Sect. In the Mahabharata period, Vasudeva Krishna was
The extensive propagation of the Nath sect took place compared to Vishnu and the Bhagavata religion became
during Guru Gorakhnath. Vaishnavism.
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The first stone monument related to the Bhagavata is the Brahma Dvaita Anandtirtha (Madhava)
Garuda pillar at Vidisha (Besanagar) which was built by
Rudra Shuddhadvaita Vallabhacharya/
Heliodorus, the Greek ambassador. (UPPCS, 2008)
Vishnuswami
The Greek ambassador Megasthenes referred to the
people of Shursena (Mathura) as worshipers of 'Heracles', Sanak Dvaitadvaita Nimbarka
indicating Vasudeva Krishna.
On the coins of Apollodorus, the first sign of the Bhagavata
Major Sects and Their Founders
religion is found. Sects Founders
Kushan rulers like Huvishka and Vasudeva were Vaishnava Varkari Namdev
followers. Dharkari Ramdas
The Gupta kings were Vaishnava followers and they made
Srivaishnava Ramanuja
it a state religion. Vaishnavism was at its climax during the
Gupta rulers. Parmarth Ramdas
Most Gupta rulers assumed the title of 'Param Bhagwat'. The Ramavat Ramananda
of Vishnu Garuda vehicle was the emblem of the Guptas. Ajivaka Makkhali Gosala
Amar Singh, the lexicographer of this era, has mentioned Ucchedavada Ajita Kesakambali
39 names of Vishnu in his book Amarkosh, describing him
Materalism Pakudha Kaccayana
as a son of Vasudeva.
The Sangam period's Literature shows that in the first Atomist Puran Kashyap
century of Christ, it was an important religion in the Tamil Materialism-Cynicism Sanjay Vethaliputta
region. Angkor Wat temple of Combodia was built by Suryavarman
The Eastern Chalukya ruler of Vengi was also a Vaishnava II.
follower and his emblem was similar to that of the Guptas Puri temple was constructed by a famous King of Ganga
'Garuda'. Dynasty Ananta Varman Chodaganga Deva.
Rashtrakuta ruler Dantidurga had built the famous Buddha is said to be Vishnu Avatar in Dashavatar Charita
Dashavatara Temple at Ellora. by Kshemendra and Matsya Purana.
The propagation of Vaishnavism in the Tamil region was
carried out by the Alvar saints. 6. The Rise of Magadha
The number of Alwar saints was 12. Magadha, situated between Patna and Gaya districts of
Among the prominent Alwar saints were Tirumangai, modern Bihar, was a kingdom of Ancient India.
Periyar, Alwar, Andal, Nammalwar, etc. The first dynasty to rule Magadha was the Haryanka
The early Alwar saints were - Poyagai, Pudam and Beyara
dynasty. (UP Lower 2002; BPSC, 2020; UK Lower, 2010)
who were residents of Kanchi, Mallai and Mayilapuram,
The founder of this dynasty was Bimbisara, who made
respectively.
Girivraja (Rajagriha) his capital.
The only female saint among the Alvars was Andal.
Bimbisara sent his royal physician Jivaka, for the treatment
Dashavatra of Vishnu as per Matsya Purana are- (1)
of Avanti Naresh Chanda Pradyota. (67th BPSC 2022)
Matsya (fish), (2) Kurma (Tortoise), (3) Varana (Boar),
Ajatshatru (Kunik) succeeded his father Bimbisara.
(4) Narsimha (Man-Lion), (5) Vamana (dwarf priest), (6)
The last ruler of the Haryanka dynasty was Nagadasaka.
Parasurama, (7) Rama, (8) Krishna, (9) Buddha, (10) Kalkin
Nagadasaka was overthrown by his official Shishunaga
(Kali).
who established the Shishunaga Dynasty.
Varaha's incarnation of Vishnu was most famous during
Shishunaga annexed Avanti in Magadha Kingdom.
Gupta Period. (UP UDA/LDA, 2010)
(UP Lower, 2008)
In Vaishnavism, the highest importance for attaining God
The last king of the Shishunaga dynasty was Nandivardhana
has been given to Bhakti.
or Mahanandin.
Some Other Sects, Beliefs and Their Founders The founder of the Nanda dynasty was Mahapadmananda.
Sects Beliefs Founders (UK PSC, 2016)
The last ruler of the Nanda dynasty was Dhanananda.
Dashanami Advaita Adi Shankaracharya
Dhanananda was a contemporary of Alexander.
Vaishnava Visishtadvaita Ramanuja (44th BPSC 2000)
57
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Chandragupta Maurya established the 'Mauryan Bindusara was a disciple of Guru Pingalavatsa.
Dynasty' after defeating Dhanananda. (BPSC, 2000) Ashoka
The Mauryan Empire After Bindusara, his son Ashoka ascended the throne of
Mauryan Empire was founded by Chandra Gupta Maurya. Magadha. (IAS Pre., 1998)
Mauryans are called as 'Shudras' in Puranas. Ashoka was coronated in 269 BC. (UPPCS 1993, 1995)
Chandragupta Maurya is said to be Kashatriya in Buddhist Before coronation, Ashoka was the viceroy of Avanti
Literatures like Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa. (Ujjaini) and Takshila.
Mudrarakshasa described Chandragupta Maurya as Vrishala Subhadrangi, was Ashoka's mother.
(Je=<eue), son of the Shudra. (46th BPSC, 2003) In the Puranas, Ashoka is called Ashoka Vardhana.
Mudrarakshasa is written by Vishakhadatta. His name 'Ashoka' is mentioned in the inscriptions of
Chanakya (Kautilya/Vishnugupta) helped Chandragupta Maski, Gujri, Nettur and Udagolam.
to defeat Dhananand and occupy the throne. He became (IAS, 1997, UPPCS, 2015)
Chandragupta's Prime Minister. (UPPCS, 2002, 2006) On records, Ashoka is addressed with the titles of
The book written by Chanakya is known as 'Arthashastra'. 'Devanampiyya' and 'Devanampiyadasi'.
It is based on polity. (UPPCS, 2012, 2015; BPSC, 2017) (IAS 1995, MPPCS, 2015)
In Kautilya's Saptanga Siddhanta, 'Amatya' denotes In the eighth year of his coronation (261 BC) Ashoka
minister and officer. (BPSC 2001; IAS 2022) attacked Kalinga.
Chandragupta became the king in 321 BCE. Ashoka was initiated into Buddhism by Upagupta..
In 305 BC, he defeated Seleucus Nicator (the ruler of Ashoka had built four caves in the Barabara hills, named
Babylon), who later married his daughter Cornelia (Helena) Lomas Rishi, Sudama, Karan Chaupar and Visva Zopri.
to Chandragupta, giving him four provinces Aria (Herat), Ashoka's inscriptions have been found in all caves except
Arachosia (Kandhar), Paropanisade (Kabul) and Gedrosia Lomas Rishi cave.
(Balochistan) as dowry. The Nagarjuni Caves were donated to the Ajivaka sect by
The battle between Chandragupta and Seleucus is described the Mauryas.
by the historian Appian.
'Megasthenes', the ambassador of Seleucus came to the Missionaries sent by Ashoka to other Countries
court of Chandragupta. (RAS/RTS 1997) Name of Missionaries Country
Megasthenes wrote a book named 'Indica'. (MPPCS, 2015) Sona and Uttara Suvarnabhumi (Burma)
Chandragupta was the disciple of a Jaina Monk Bhadrabahu. Mahendra and Sanghmatra Sri Lanka
Chandragupta Maurya died in Shravanabelagola,
Mahyantika Kashmir and Gandhar
Karnataka in 298 BCE.
Maharakkhita Yona (Greece)
Note : Justin calls Chandragupta Maurya's army a 'gang
Ashoka sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra
of robbers'.
to Sri Lanka to propagate Buddhism. (CGPSC, 2013)
Bindusara Ashoka's inscriptions are written in Brahmi, Kharoshti,
Bindusara succeeded his father Chandragupta in 298 B.C. Greek and Aramaic scripts.
Bindusara's (follower of Ajivaka) mother was Durdhara. Ashoka's inscriptions are divided into three parts - rock
Bindusara is also known as Amitraghata (enemy destroyer) edicts, pillars edicts and cave edicts.
and Singhasen. James Princep deciphered 'Rock Edicts of Ashoka' in 1837.
According to historian Strabo, King Antiochus of Syria (UPPCS, 2008, 2009; CGPSC, 2003; IAS, 2016; Jharkhand PCS 2021)
sent his ambassador, Deimachus, to Bindusara's court. It was about 1750 AD that an Ashokan inscription was first
(UP Lower, 2015) discovered when Padre Tieffenthaler saw fragments of the
According to Pliny, the Egyptian king Ptolemy (II) Delhi-Mirath Pillar at Delhi.
Philadelphus also sent an ambassador, Dionysius, to
Inscriptions Theme
Ashoka's Court.
Bindusara sent Ashoka first and then Susim to suppress the The first inscription The condemnation of animal sacrifice
rebellion at Taxila. First separate inscription All human beings are my children
According to Athenaeus, Bindusara requested Antiochus - I, Second Inscription Provides care for man and animals,
the ruler of Syria to send him sweet wines, dried figs and describes Chola, Pandyas, Satyapura and
a sophist. Keralputra kingdoms of South India

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Third Inscription Yuktas along with Rajukas shall go to all Provinces Capitals
areas of kingdom every five years Prachi Pataliputra
Fourth Inscription Dhammaghosa over Berighosa
Kalinga Tosali
Fifth Inscription Appointment of Dhammamahamatras
Avanti Ujjain
(in the 14th year of the coronation)
Udichya (Uttarapatha) Taxila
Sixth Inscription King's desire to be informed about
conditions of people regularly. Talks Dakshinapatha Suvarnagiri
about welfare measures The administrators of the provinces were called ‘Kumara’
Seventh Inscription Requests, tolerance towards all religions or ‘Aryaputra’.
Eighth Inscription Ashoka's first Dhamma Yatra to The provinces were divided into Vishayas (Districts), each
Bodhgaya and Bodhi Tree headed by the Vishayapati.
Ninth Inscription Condemns popular ceremonies and The smallest unit of administration was ‘Gram’, headed
rituals by ‘Gramika’.
Tenth Inscription Preaching of Dhamma According to Megasthenes, the city was divided into 6
Eleventh Inscription Explanation of Dhamma Policy committees to administer conveniently. Each committee
Twelfth Inscription Tolerance among all religions and sects consisted of 5 members. Provinces were known as 'Chakra'.
Thirteenth Inscription Ashoka's victory over kings. Victory of Administrative Committees and Their Works
Ashoka's Dhamma and Greek Kings
Committees Works
(UP Lower, 2008; UPPCS, 2016)
First Inspection of Industry and Craft Work
The total number of pillar edicts of Ashoka are 7. These
are written only in the Brahmi script. Second Care of Foreigners
These are found at 6 different places - Prayag, Delhi - Third Keeping records of Births and Deaths
Topra and Delhi - Meerut highways, Rampurva, Lauriya Fourth Supervision of Trade and Commerce
Nandangarh and Lauriya Areraj. Fifth Manufacture and Sale of Goods
Renowned historian D.R. Bhandarkar wrote the history of
Sixth Levying of Sales Tax
the Ashoka period only based on records.
The Kaushambi inscription is called the ‘Queen’s Sales Tax was charged at the rate of 4 per cent of the value
Inscription’. of domestic goods and 1/10 of the value of imported goods.
Rummindei pillar edict is the shortest. There was a provision of death penalty for tax evasion.
(UPCS 2013)
During Dhamma Yatra, Ashoka mentioned the reduction
Agronomoi was the revenue officer who measured the land
in the rate of land revenue in Lumbini in the Rummindei
and levied and collected tax. (UPPCS, 2020)
pillar inscription.
In Arthashastra, secret agents were named Guddha
The Shar-i-Kuna (Kandahar) inscription was found in
Purushas.
the Greek and Aramaic script. (CGPSC, 2011)
Stationary detectives were called ‘Samasthan’ and moving
During Ashoka's reign, the number of provinces in the
detectives were called ‘Sanchari’.
Maurya Empire was 5 or there were five political centrers.
Courts were of two types - 1. Dharmasthiya (civil court),
The provinces were called ‘Chakras’.
2. Kantakashodhan (criminal court).
The strongest evidence of Ashoka being a Buddhist is the (Chhattisgarh PCS, 2014)
Bhabru Minor Edict (Bairat). Government land was called ‘Sita’. (UPPCS, 2013)
In Maski’s minor inscription related to the coronation, The fertile land without rain was called ‘Adevamatrika’.
Ashoka calls himself ‘Buddha Shakya’. The principal officer arranging the State land was Sita-
The Maski inscription is currently located in the state of Adhyaksha. (RTS/RAS 2010)
Karnataka. Sthanika and Gopa, two officials, collected taxes in the
Sohgaura (copper inscription) and Mahasthan inscriptions provinces.
mention the distribution of foodgrains by the State at the Rajuka, Yukta, Pradeshika, Dhamma Mahamatra,
time of famine. (IAS 1998) Stryadhyaksha and Brajbhumik were principal
The Mauryan pillar capital was found at Sarnath, known administrative officials of the Mauryan Empire.
as the Singha capital (Lion Capital). (UPPCS, 1996)
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The central administration was divided into several There were many cities in the Maurya Empire, of which the
departments to facilitate governance. There departments city of Brahmagiri was located at the Southern most Point.
were called ‘Teerths’ (departments). The last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty was Brihadratha.
The Arthashastra mentions 18 departments and 28 (BPSC, 2008)
presidents. Brihadratha was killed by his commander Pushyamitra
Megasthenes divided Indian society into 7 categories - Sunga in 184 BC who founded the Sunga dynasty.
Soldiers, Magistrates, Philosophers, Herdsmen, Farmers, Sunga Dynasty
Artisans and Councillors. (46th BPSC, 2003) Pushyamitra Sunga founded the Sunga Dynasty.
The capital of the rulers of the Sunga dynasty was
Departments and Their Heads Mentioned in
Pataliputra.
Arthashastra
Pushyamitra Sunga performed two Ashwamedha Yajnas
Departments Heads and was conducted by the priest, Patanjali.
1. Purohita Chief Priest Pushyamitra got Bharhut Stupa renovated.
2. Yuvraj Crown Prince After the death of Pushyamitra, his son Agnimitra became
3. Senapati Commander-in-Chief the ruler of the Sunga dynasty.
The ninth ruler of the Sunga dynasty was Bhagabhadra
4. Samaharta Revenue Collector(UP Lower, 2008)
(Bhagavata).
5. Sannidhata Treasury Head In the 14th year of his rule, Heliodorus, the ambassador of
6. Lakshanadhyaksha Coin minting the Yavana ruler Antialcidas of Taxila, installed a Garuda
7. Akaradhyaksha Mining Officer pillar in the honour of Vasudeva in Vidisha.
Kanva Dynasty
8. Pradeshika Chief Justice of Criminal Court
The last ruler of the Sunga Dynasty was Devabhuti, who
9. Panyadhyaksha Officer of Commerce Department was assassinated by Vasudeva in 75 BC who established
10. Sitaadhyaksha Supervisor of Agriculture the Kanva dynasty.
11. Vyabharika Chief Justice of Civil Court Rulers after Vasudeva were Bhumimitra, Narayana,
12. Karmantika Head of Industries and Commerce Susharman.
Satavahana Dynasty
13. Dandapala Head of Police
Simuka killed Susharman, the last ruler of the Kanva
14. Vivitadhyaksha Head of Pastures dynasty, around 60 BC and founded the Satavahana
15. Antapala Guard of Borders dynasty. (UPPCS, 2008)

16. Sunadhyaksha Slaughterhouse Officer The capital of the Satavahanas was Pratishthana
(Maharashtra). (UP Lower, 2008)
17. Ganikadhyaksha Head of Prostitutes
Among the important rulers of this dynasty were
According to Kautilya's Arthashastra, the officer Simuka, Krishna, Satakarni I, Gautamiputra Satakarni,
commanding the cavalry in the Maurya administration Vasishthiputra Pulumavi and Yajna Sri Satakarni.
was known as Ashwadhyaksha. Gautamiputra Satakarni was called the lord of the
Megasthenes refers to the Six committees of five members west, had performed two Ashwamedha yajnas and one
each to look after the administration of Army. Rajasuya yajna.
These committees are given below - Satavahana rulers introduced currencies in silver, copper,
Committees Relation lead and potion metals.
(i) First Committee Navy Satavahana rulers were the first who introduced lead
(ii) Second Committee Transport and Supply coins.
Satavahana dynasty started the practice of donation of land
(iii) Third Committee Infantry
to Brahmins.
(iv) Fourth Committee Cavalry
The Satvahans had Prakrit as their language written in
(v) Fifth Committee War Chariots
Brahmi script.
(vi) Sixth Committee War Elephants The Satavahanas built the Karle, Chaitya, Ajanta and Ellora
The department was divided into 6 committees of 5 caves.
members each. This unit of 30 members looked after the The Amravati art style developed under the patronage of
administrative work. the Satavahanas. (SSC MTS, 2023)
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Satavahana rulers were called the ‘Lord of Dakshinapatha’. ‘Maheshwar’. On his coins, the figure of Shiva, Nandi and
The author of Gathasaptashati was ‘Hala’ and Brihat- Trishul were inscribed. (UPPCS, 2009)
katha's author was Gunadhya who belonged to the Kanishka was the most powerful ruler of this dynasty.
Satavahana period. The capital of Kanishka was Purushpura (Peshawar) which
was later shifted to Mathura.
7. Foreign Invasions in India Kanishka ascended the throne in 78 AD and this date is
Indo-Greek, Shakas, Pahlavas and Kushanas invaded India known as the beginning of the Saka Samvat.
at different times. (UP RO/ARO 2013)

India was invaded first by Indo-Greek ruler Demetrius (Dara The Kushana ruler, adopted the title of 'Devputra' which
I) in 183 BC. He made Sakala his capital. means 'Son of God'. (SSC MTS, 2023)

The most famous of the Indo-Greek rulers was Menander. The fourth Buddhist council was organized during his reign.
The capital of Menander's kingdom was Sakala (Sialkot). They followed the Mahayana sect of Buddhism.
Sakala was a major centre of education during this period. Charak was a physician in the court of Kanishka.
Menander was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena ‘Charaka Samhita’ is the most important work by Charak.
(Nagarjuna). Mahavibhasa Shastra is called an encyclopedia of
Milindpanho (Questions of Menander) describes questions Buddhism. Its creator was Vasumitra.
raised by Menander and Nagasena in detail. Ashvaghosha was a poet in the court of Kanishka. His
works were Mahayana, Shraddhotpada- shastra,
The Indo-Greek rulers issued scriptured and gold coins
Buddhacharita, Sundrananda, Sariputra Prakrana and
in India for the first time.
Sutralankara. (UPPCS, 2008)
Hellenistic art belongs to the period of Indo-Greek rule.
Acharya Nagarjuna, Parshva, Vasumitra, etc. also adorn
Gandhara art represents its best example.
the court of Kanishka.
A. Sakas
Nagarjuna was the propounder of Middle-way / nihilism.
Sakas came to India after the Greeks.
He wrote ‘Prajnaparamita Sutra’.
They originally came from Central Asia.
The Gandhara and Mathura styles of sculpture were
They were divided into five branches.
developed during the reign of Kanishka. (38th BPSC, 1992)
A ruler of Ujjain defeated the Sakas and assumed the title
The last ruler of the Kushana dynasty was Vasudeva.
of ‘Vikramaditya’ and started Vikram Samvat in 57 BC.
The Kushana rulers issued pure gold coins (112.75 grains
(UPPCS 1992)
in 123 grains).
Rudradaman was the most powerful Saka ruler in India.
The Kushana rulers had introduced the copper coins.
Rudradaman replaced Prakrit with Sanskrit as the language
The titles of Kushana rulers were ‘Maharaj Rajadhiraj
for records first implementing it at Junagarh and Girnar.
Devaputra’ and ‘Kaiser’.
The Sakas ran the Satrapa system of administration.
B. The Indo-Parthian or Pahlavas 8. The Gupta Empire
The Saka's rule was followed by a new invader, the Sri Gupta was the founder of the Gupta dynasty.
Indo-Parthians or Pahlavas who established their reign After Srigupta, Ghatotkach became the king of this dynasty.
in northwest India and formed Pahalva dynasty with Pataliputra was the capital of the Gupta Empire.
Gondophernes being its most powerful ruler between 20 Chandragupta-I ruled this dynasty from 319 AD to 335
AD and 41 AD. AD. (CGPSC, 2023)
During the reign of Gondophernes, Christian missionary, He first assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja and married
St. Thomas came to India to preach Christianity. Kumaradevi, a princess of the Lichchavi dynasty. (UPPCS, 2009)
Maues was the first Parthian ruler in India, while the real He started the ‘Gupta Samvat’ in 319 AD. (MPPCS, 1991)
force behind his power was Mithridates I . Samudragupta, famously known as Napoleon of India,
C. Kushana Dynasty followed Chandragupta I. (BPSC, 2015; UP Lower, 2009)
The Kushanas came to India after the Pahlavas (Parthians). He defeated 9 kings in the north and 12 kings in the south.
The Kushanas were a clan of the Yuezhi race of China. The coins of Samudragupta had the coins titles inscribed
The Kushanas dynasty was founded by Kujula Kadphises. which read as 'Apratirath', 'Vyaghraprakramank',
Among the Kushana rulers, Vema Kadphises first 'Parakrananka'. Samudragupta also assumed the title of
issued gold coins. Vema Kadphises assumed the title of 'Kaviraj'.
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The Sandhivigrahika (Foreign Minister) and Rajakavi The Gupta Empire was divided into several provinces. The
Harishena of Samudragupta authored ‘Prayag Prasasti’. province was known by different names. Desh, Avni or
Samudragupta offered protection to the great Buddhist Bhukti.
monk Vasubandhu. (UPPCS 2004, 2006, 2009) The ruler of Bhukti was called ‘Uprika’.
Samudragupta’s successor Chandragupta II occupied the The rulers of the frontier regions were called ‘Gopta’.
throne in 375 AD. (CGPSC, 2017, 2015, 2004) Bhukti was further divided into Vishyas whose head were
Samudragupta was the first Gupta King who assumed the Vishyapatis.
title "Param Bhagawata". (UPPCS, 2009) Dandpashika was the head of the police department.
'Gram' was the smallest unit of administration.
Samudra Gupta's Contemporary Kings of
Small units of village groups were called ‘Pethaka’.
South India
Generally, the rate of revenue was 1/6 during the Gupta
Kings Their Kingdoms period. (42nd BPSC, 1997)
Dhananjaya Kusthalpura Araghatta or Rahat (Ghati Yantra) was used for irrigation.
Nilaraja Avamukta Ujjain was a major trading centre during this period.
The Gupta kings issued the most gold coins, called
Ugrasena Palaka
‘Dinaras’. (UP RO/ARO 2017)
Vishnugopa Kanchi
The first mention of the Kayastha class is found in
The Chinese traveller Fa-Hein came to India during his Yajnavalkya Smriti.
reign. (BPSC, 2017) Kayasthas, as a caste, were first mentioned in Oshanam
After defeating the Sakas, he assumed the title of ‘Sakari’ Smriti.
and issued silver coins. Gupta rulers were followers of Vaishnavism.
Chandragupta II also assumed the title of ‘Param The royal emblem used by the Gupta rulers was 'Garuda'
Bhagawata’. (UPPCS, 2008, 2014) on whom Lord Vishnu rode.
Kumaragupta I succeeded Chandragupta II. He ruled from The Dashavatara temple of Deogarh was built during the
415 AD to 455 AD. Gupta period when actually the art of temple construction
Nalanda University was established by Kumaragupta I. began.
The region of Chandragupta IInd's son and successor, The present form of the Puranas was composed during
Kumargupta Ist, was a period of peace and relative Gupta period.
inactivity. During their reign, Yajnavalkya, Narada, Katyayana and
Skandagupta succeeded Kumaragupta I. He reigned from Brihaspati Smriti were composed.
455 AD and 467 AD. Cave numbers 16, 17 and 19 at Ajanta belong to the
During the reign of Skandagupta, the Hunnas invaded India. Gupta period.
(UPPCS 2006) This cave depicts various scenes (Birth, Mahabhinishkramana,
Bhitari pillar inscription of the Gupta ruler Skandagupta Mahaparinirvana, etc.) from the life of Mahatma Buddha.
describing a battle with the Pushyamitras. The caves of Ajanta belong to the Mahayana sect of
He renovated the Sudarshan lake at Girnar. Buddhism. (UK PCS 2006)

Construction and Renovation of the The great poet Kalidasa and famous Ayurveda physician
Dhanvantari resided at the court of Chandragupta II.
Sudarshan Lake
Aryabhata was a renowned mathematician. He wrote the
Rulers Officers texts ‘Aryabhatiya’ and ‘Surya Siddhanta’.
Chandragupta Maurya Pushyagupta (UK, UDA/LDA, 2007)
Ashoka Tushashk Notably, he flourished in Kusumapura - near Pataliputra
Rudradaman Suvishakh which was then the Capital of the Gupta Dynasty.
The Gupta period is called the ‘Golden Period of Indian
Skandagupta Chakrapalit
History’. (UPPCS, 2004)
Vishnugupta was the last ruler of the Gupta dynasty.
For administrative purposes, the Gupta empire was divided Note : Aryabhata first proclaimed that the Earth revolves
into several provinces. around the Sun. (64th BPSC 2018)

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Harshvardhana succeeded the throne after Rajyavardhan’s

Temples of Gupta Period
death in 606 AD.
Temples Places He was also known by another name Siladitya.
Vishnu Temple Tigawa (Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh) The accession of Harsha to the throne in 606 AD is
Shiva Temple Bhumra (Nagod, Madhya Pradesh) considered the beginning of Harsha Samvat. He ruled until
647 AD.
Parvati Temple Nachna Kuthaar (Madhya Pradesh) He assumed the title of Param Maheshwara, Parama-
Dashavatara Temple Deogarh (Lalitpur, Uttar Pradesh) bhattaraka.
Shiva Temple Khoh (Nagod, Madhya Pradesh) He shifted his capital from Thaneshwar to Kannauj.
(UPPCS, 1992)
Bhitargaon Temple Bhitargaon (Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh)
Harsh was a worshiper of Surya, Shiva and Buddhism.
L a x m a n T e m p l e Sirpur (Mahasamund, Chhattisgarh) He secured the remains of Mahatma Buddha's teeth from
(Built of bricks) the ruler of Kashmir forcibly.
Banabhatta, the author of ‘Harshacharita’, was at the court
9. Vakataka Dynasty of Harshavardhana. (BPSC, 2005)
Vakataka Dynasty was founded around 250 AD by Nagananda, Priyadarsika and Ratnavali are works by
Vindhyashakti. Harshavardhana. (RAS/RTS, 1999)

Pravarasena-I was the only Emperor of the Vakataka He fought against Pulakeshin-II on the banks of Narmada
dynasty who has assumed the title of 'Samrat'. in a quest to expand his empire to the south.
Emperor Harshavardhana organized Mahamoksha
He performed four Ashwamedha yajnas.
Parishad at Prayag every five years.
The kingdom of Vakataka was divided after the death
Harshvardhana sent an envoy to China in 641 AD.
of Pravarasena-I. His son Rudrasena ruled his capital
Harsha organized two huge religious assemblies at Kannauj
at Nandivardhana (Pravarpura), while Sarvasena made
and Prayag in 643 AD. (UP UDA/LDA, 2001)
Vatsagulma his capital. The Chinese Envoy arrived at the court of Harshavardhana
Rudrasena-II married Prabhavati Gupta, the daughter of in 643 AD.
Chandragupta-II. Hiuen Tsang visited Nalanda University first in 637 AD
Pravarsena-II composed ‘Setubandh’in Prakrit. and again in 642 AD. His main purpose was to collect
10. Vardhana Dynasty Buddhist texts. (BPSC, 2015, UPPCS, 1995)
He attended the sixth Mahamoksha Parishad.
After the fall of Gupta dynasty, Pushyabhuti or Pushgabhuti He wrote a treatise on his journey, known as ‘Si-Yu-Ki’.
laid the foundation of the Vardhana dynasty at Thaneshwar. Hui - Lee has written a biography of ‘Hieun Tsang'.
(67th BPSC, 2022) Harsha’s empire was divided into provinces, called ‘Bhukti’.
Prabhakaravardhana is believed to be the real founder The ruler of Bhukti was called Uparika, Rajasthaniya or
of the dynasty. Rashtriya.
He had two sons, Rajyavardhana, Harshvardhana and a Bhukti was divided into Vishayas, headed by ‘Vishyapati’.
daughter, Rajyashri. The Vishaya was divided into Pathakas (modern tehsils).
Rajyashri married King Grahavarman of the Maukhari The smallest unit of administration was ‘Grama’, whose
dynasty. head was called ‘Gramakshapatrik’.
Huns attacked during the reign of Prabhakarvardhana. Dynasties Place Chief rulers
Prabhakarvardhan’s elder son Rajyavardhana went on a Parvarti Gupta Magadha Mahasena Gupta
campaign against the Huns. Prabhakarvardhana died during Pushyabhuti or Thaneshwar Pushyabhuti, Prabhakarvard-
this period. Vardhana Dynasty hana, Rajyavardhana, Harsha-
After Prabhakarvardhana, Rajyavardhana occupied the vardhana
throne. Maitraka Dynasty Vallabhi Bhattraka, Dharasena IV
Devagupta, the ruler of Malwa, captured Rajyashri after Maukhari Dynasty Kannauj Harivarman, Ishanvarman,
killing her husband Grahavarman. Sharvavarman
Rajyavardhana killed Devagupta, but after a few days, Gauda or Chandra Bengal Shashanka
Gauda ruler Shashanka, a friend of Devagupta, cheated Dynasty
and killed Rajyavardhana. Dhruvasena II belongs to the Maitraka dynasty.
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11. History of South India The Chera ruler Senguttuvan introduced the practice of the
‘Pattini Cult’.
Sangam Age The Chera dynasty of South India was known for its
'Sangam' means Council / Seminar / Conference of Tamil maritime trade, the port of Muziris and cultural exchange
Poets, Scholars and Teachers etc. The literature on subjects with different civilizations.
discussed during these assemblies was called Sangam Chola Dynasty
Literature.
Karikala was the prominent among the Chola rulers
A total of three councils were held.
mentioned in Sangam literature.
The three Sangams were organized under the patronage of
He was called the 'Man with charred leg'.
the Pandya rulers.
Later, Vijayalaya (846AD–871AD) founded the Chola
The first and the third confluences were held at Madurai,
dynasty on the remains of the Pahlava dynasty.
the capital of the Pandyas, while the second was held at
(RAS/RTS, 2016)
Kapadapuram (Alavai).
The capital of this dynasty was Tanjore. (UP Lower, 2009)
Agastya Rishi was the president of the first Sangam.
Vijayalaya assumed the title of ‘Narkesari’ after taking
The first Sangam was patronized by 89 Pandya Kings.
over Tanjore (Thanjavur).
The second Sangam was held at Alavai or Kapadapuram.
Aditya-I established an independent kingdom of the Cholas.
Earlier its president was Agastya Rishi, who was later
He assumed the title of ‘Kodandarama’.
succeeded by Tolakapiyyar.
Paratanka-I, Rajaraja-I, Rajendra-I, Rajendra-II and
The second Sangam was patronized by 59 Pandya rulers.
Kulothunga were the greatest rulers of the Chola dynasty.
The only scripture composed at this Sangam was
Rajaraja-I created a new province ‘Mummudi-chola-
‘Tolkappiyam’.
mandalam after taking over the northern part of Sri Lanka
It was considered to be the oldest grammar book in the
and Polonnaruwa was made its capital.
Tamil language. (UPPCS, 1997)
(UPPCS, 2014, IAS, 2001)
Sangams in South India The rulers chola dynasty invaded Malaya to free its trade
First Second Third with China. (SSC CHSL, 2023)
Sangam Sangam Sangam Rajaraja-I built the Brihadisvara or Rajarajeshwara
Centre Madurai Kapadapuram Northern Madurai Temple (Shiva Temple) at Tanjore. (UPPCS, 2008)
(UPPCS 2006)
Rajendra-I defeated the ruler of Bengal, Mahipala and
President Agastya Agastya (later Nakkirar
assumed the title of ‘Gangaikondachola’.
Tolkappiyar)
The 'Chola dynasty' reached its peak during the reign of
Number of
549 49 49 Rajendra Chola I, who was known for his naval expeditions
Members
Text Available Tolkappiyam Ettutougai (8 Songs), and extensive trade with south-east Asia.
Pattu Pattu (10 Songs) To commemorate the Bengal conquest, he established the
Paripadal, etc. new capital at Gangaikondacholapuram and built a pond
Third Sangam was held in North Madurai. named Cholagangam near it. (UPPCS, 2008, 2016)
The President of the third Sangam was Nakkirar. Rajendra-III was the last ruler of this dynasty.
The third Sangam had the patronage of 49 Pandya kings. The higher officials of the Chola administration were called
5 epics mentioned in the Sangam period are Silappadikaram, ‘Peruntaram’ and the lower officials Siruntaram.
Manimekalai, Jivaka Chintamani, Valayapati and The entire Chola empire was divided into following
Kundalakesi. provinces-
Dynasties of South India Provinces / Mandalam
Chera Dynasty
The Sangam literature outlines the history of the three major Vallanadus
kingdoms. These kingdoms belonged to Chera, Chola and
Pandya dynasties. District / Nadus
The Chera kingdom was located in present Kerala.
The first Chera ruler during Sangam period was Kurram / Group of Villages
Udiyangeral. (UK PCS, 2021)
The emblem of the Cheras was the bow. Gram Sabha
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“Ur ‘was the assembly of the common people. The last great ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty was
The Sabha or Mahasabha was basically the Agrahara Krishna-III.
(assembly of Brahmin settlements) assembly of villages. Sri Ponna, the author of “Shanti Purana” and the leading
Its members were called Perumakkal. poet of Kannada language was in the court of Krishna III.
The assembly of merchants was called ‘Nagaram’. In the Mid-eighth Century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta Chief,
The tax-free land donated to Brahmins was called overthrew the Chalukya overlord in a ritual literally called
‘Chaturvedi Mangalam’ and the land donated in general Haryana Garbha.
was called ‘Brahmadeya’. The temples in Ellora and Elephanta Caves were built
The most commonly mentioned tax in the inscriptions of during the reign of the Rashtrakutas. (MPPCS, 2021)
the Chola dynasty that ruled Tamil Nadu is the 'Vetti', which Ellora has 34 rock-cut caves. Among them, the first twelve,
was collected in the form of forced labour rather than cash.
are Buddhist caves the next numbering 17 are Hindus caves,
Gold coins were called Kasu.
and the last five are caves belonging to Jainism.
Kamban composed the ‘Tamil Ramayana’.
The Jain Temple at Pattadakal was built by the Rashtrakuta
(UP UDA/LDA 2010)
dynasty. (SSC MTS, 2023)
Kamban, Kuttana and Pulgalendi were the ‘Triratnas’
Rashtrakutas allowed Muslim traders to settle in their
of Tamil literature.
kingdom and propagate Islam.
Nataraja’s statue is said to be a cultural essence of Chola
art. (UPPCS, 2006)
Chalukya Dynasty (Kalyani)
The important port in the Chola period was Kaveripattinam. After the fall of Rashtrakutas, Tailapa-II established the
The worshippers of Vishnu were called Alvars and those Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani (973-997 AD).
of Shiva are Nayanars. Tailapa-II made Manyakheta his capital.
The Pandya Dynasty Someshwara-I shifted the capital to Kalyani
The earliest known Pandya ruler was Palyagasalai The most powerful ruler of the Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani
Mudukudumi. was Vikramaditya-VI.
Nedunjeliyan was also the famous ruler of this dynasty. He The Virupaksha Temple of Hampi is of Vijaynagara
was a follower of Brahmana religion. architectural style. It represents the developed stage of
The official symbol of the Pandyas was a fish. Dravidian architecture. (VDO, 2023)
The first capital of the Pandyas was Korkai which was Bilhana the author of Vikramankadevacharita and
later shifted to Madurai. Vigyaneshwara author of Mitakshara Samhita, resided
Rashtrakuta Dynasty in the court of Vikramaditya-IV.
King Dantidurga defeated the Chalukya ruler Kirtivarman He established the Chalukya Vikram Samvat at the time of
and established the Rashtrakuta dynasty to rule over the his coronation.
former Chalukya kingdom. (IAS, 2006) The last ruler of the Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani was
He made Manyakheta his capital (present - Malkhed, near Someshwar-IV, son of Tailapa-III.
Kalaburagi). Varaha was the royal symbol of Chalukyas.
The Kailash Mandir (Guha Temple) of Ellora was built by
Aihole was called the ‘City of Temples’.
Krishna I. (UK PCS, 2021)
The Bhakti Saint Basavanna of South India was initially
Dhruva Dharavarsha was the first ruler of the Rashtrakuta
a Jain and was a minister in the Court of a Chalukya King
dynasty who took part in the tripartite conflict to bring
in the 12th Century.
Kannauj under his authority.
Chalukya Dynasty (Vatapi)
Amoghavarsha, an adherent to Jain religion, composed
Pulakeshin-I established the Chalukya Dynasty of Vatapi
‘Kavirajamarga’ in the Kannada language.
Amoghavarsha provided shelter to Jinasena, the author by making Badami or Vatapi (near Bijapur) its capital.
(UPPCS, 1991)
of Adi Purana and Mahaviracharya, the author of
Ganitasarasangraha. The most powerful ruler of this dynasty was Pulakeshin-II.
The Rashtrakuta dynasty reached its peak under the rule of (UPPCS, 1991)

Amoghavarsha I, who was known for his military conquests Aihole inscription shows that Pulakeshin-II defeated
and patronage of art and literature. Harshavardhana on the bank of Narmada. (UPPCS, 2016)
Almasudi, an Arab, came to India during the reign of Indra- Pulakeshin-II defeated hundreds of kings and assumed the
III. title 'Parameshvara'.
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Pahlava ruler Narasimhavarman-I defeated Pulakeshin-II Hiuen Tsang visited Kachi, the capital of Pallavas, durig
and assumed the title of ‘Vatapikonda’. the reig of arasimhavarma I.
Aihole inscription is related to Pulakeshin-II. Narasimhavarman-II built the Kailashnatha temple at
The languages of Aihole inscriptions are Sanskrit and Kanchi.
Brahmi. These were written by Ravi Kirti. Goperam or Temple entrance is characteristic of South Idia
Deccan was invaded during the reign of Vikramaditya-II. temple architecture.
Vikramaditya’s first wife Lokamahadevi built the The author of 'Dasakumaracharita' was Dandin who lived
Virupaksha Shiva Temple and the Trilokeshwar Temple at the court of Narsimhavarman-II. (UP Lower, 2008)
was built by the second wife Trilokadevi at Pattadakal. Aparajitavarman (879–897 AD) was the last ruler of the
Kirtivarman-II, the last ruler of this dynasty, was defeated Pahlava dynasty.
by his feudal lord Dantidurga, who established the Yadava Dynasty
Rashtrakuta dynasty. During the weak reign of the Chalukya King Someshwara-
Chalukya Dynasty (Vengi) IV, his Yadava Feudal lord Bhillam (1187-1191 AD) was
The founder of the Chalukya dynasty of Vengi was the first ambitious person to establish his independence,
Vishnuvardhana. and form the Yadava dynasty.
He made Vengi (Andhra Pradesh) its capital.
The capital of the Yadava dynasty was Devagiri.
Vijayaditya-II was the most powerful ruler of this dynasty.
Simhana was the most powerful king of this dynasty.
Pahlava Dynasty
The last king of this dynasty was Ramachandra, who
Simhavishnu (575-600 AD) established the Pallava
surrendered to Alauddin’s general Malik Kafur.
dynasty by making Kanchi its capital.
Hoysala Dynasty
Simhavishnu was a follower of Vaishnava cult.
The feudatory Vishnuvardhana of Chalukya declared
The author of Kiratarjuniya and Sanskrit poet Bharavi
independence and established the Hoysala dynasty.
was in the court of Simhavishnu.
The capital of the Hoysala dynasty was located at
The principal rulers of the Pahlava dynasty were
Dwarasamudra (modern Halebidu). (UP RO/ARO 2014)
Mahendravarman-I (600-630 AD), Narasimha varman-1
Chennakeshava temple at Belur was built by Vishnu-
(630-668 AD), Mahendravarman-II (668-670 AD),
vardhana.
Parameshwaravarman-1 (670 -700 AD), Narasimhavarman-
The Hoysaleshwara Temple was built with black polished
II (700-720 AD), Parameshwaravarman-II (720-731 AD)
Nandivarman-II (731-795 AD). stone by the Hoysala kig Vishnu Vardhan i 1116 AD to
Mahendra varman-I composed ‘Mattavilas Prahasana’. commemorate the victory over the Cholas.
(UP UDA/LDA 2010)
The last ruler of the Hoysala dynasty, Ballala-III, accepted
Narasimhavarman-I assumed the title of Vatapikonda. the suzerainty of Allauddin Khalji after defeat by paying
Nandivarman-II built the Mukteshwar and Vaikuntha him an annual tax.
Perumala temples at Kanchi. Kadamba Dynasty
The ruler of the Pahlava dynasty at the time of the Arab Mayurasharma, a feud of the Pallava dynasty declared
invasion was Narasimhavarman-II. his independence and established the Kadamba dynasty.
Narasimhavarman-I built the mandapa and monolithic The capital of the Kadamba rulers was Banavasi
temples by cutting the mountains, which were called (Vyjayanti). (UPPCS, 2005)
chariot temples. (UPPCS, 2015) Mayurasharma is said to have performed the rituals of the
All the temples of this style exist in Mamallapuram 18 Ashwamedha Yajnas.
(Mahabalipuram). This style of temple building is also Western Ganga Dynasty
called Mamallapuram style of architecture. Western Ganga dynasty was contemporary to Kadamba
Among eight chariot temples in this style, Draupadi Ratha, and Pahlava dynasties.
Dharmaraj Ratha, Valyank Utterath, Arjun Ratha, Wakul- The first ruler of this dynasty is mentioned in the records
Sahdev Rath, Ganesh Ratha, Pidari Ratha and Bhim Ratha. as Konkanivarma.
Among them, (Dharmaraja Yudhishthira’s chariot is the Western Ganga dynasty was founded by Konkanivarma.
largest and Draupadi’s the smallest. (UPPCS, 2011) Earlier, the capital of the Ganga dynasty was Kuvalal
These chariot temples are also known as Saptpagoda (Kolar), later Talakadu became the new capital of this
(seven pagodas). dynasty.
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The principal ruler of this dynasty was Sripurusha. Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in the
The famous black pagoda temple at konark is of Kalinga Second Battle of Tarain (1192 AD).
architecture. Paramara Dynasty of Malwa
The Chola ruler Rajaraja-I ended the Ganga dynasty and Paramara dynasty was founded in the tenth century AD by
merged it with his empire in 1004 AD. Upendra or Krishnaraja.
Dhara was the capital of the Paramara dynasty.
Note : Ganga dynasty was divided into two parts. The
Siyaka II established an independent Paramara dynasty.
western Gangas ruled in Mysore state (Ganga vadi) and
Bhoja was the most important ruler of the Paramara
the eastern Ganges ruled in Odisha.
dynasty.
12. Early-Medieval Period He built the Saraswati temple at the capital Dhara.
He composed texts like Sarasvati-Kanthabharana,
Gurjara- Pratihara Dynasty Shringara-Prakasha, Prakrit Vyakarana, Kurma-Sataka,
The founder of Gurjara - Pratihara dynasty was Nagabhata-I. Yukti-Kalptaru and Samarangana Sutradhara.
(UPPCS, 2003) Yuktikalpataru and Samarangana Sutradhara contain
Vatsraja is said to be the real founder of Gurjara - Pratihara their subject matter as Vastushastra.
empire. Bhojtal, a lake situated in Bhopal, was built by Bhoja.
Mihira Bhoja-I was the most powerful ruler of this The Tribhuvan Narayan temple at Chittor was built by
dynasty. (UP GIC, 2010) Bhoja. (MPPCS, 2019)
Mihira Bhoja-I assumed titles of Adivaraha and Prabhas. Chandela Dynasty
(UPRO/ARO, 2017) The ancient name of Bundelkhand was Jejakabhukti.
Famous scholar Rajashekhara resided at the court of (UPPCS, 2008)
Mahendrapala-I. (RAS/RTS 2013) Chandela dynasty was founded by Nannuka in 831 AD.
Rajashekhara composed famous texts such as King Dhanga shifted the capital of the Chandelas from
Karpuramanjari, Kavyamimamsa, Viddhasalabhanjika, Kalinjar to Khajuraho.
Balaramayana, Bhuvankosha and Harvilas. Vidyadhara was the most powerful of the Chandela rulers.
Gahadavala Dynasty Vidyadhara was the only Indian king who successfully
The Gahadavala dynasty was founded by Chandradeva. resisted the ambitions of Mahmud Ghaznavi.(MPPCS, 2021)
Govindchandra was the most capable and powerful ruler The temples of Khajuraho were built by the Chandela
of this dynasty. rulers. (MPPCS, 1993)
Govindchandra’s minister Lakshmidhar wrote a treatise ‘Kandariya Mahadev Temple’ is the most famous among
called ‘Krtyakalpataru’. the temples of Khajuraho. (UPPCS 1991)
Muhammad Ghori defeated Jaichand in the Battle of Among other temples at Khajuraho are Jagadambika
Chandawar (1194 AD). temple, Chitragupta temple, Vishwanath temple and
Chahamana Dynasty Parshwanath temple.
The founder of Chahamana Dynasty was Vasudeva. Kalachuri-Chedi Dynasty of Tripuri
Ajayaraja-I established the city of Ajmer and made it his Kokalla I was the founder of the Kalachuri dynasty.
capital. The capital of the Kalachuri- Chedi dynasty was Tripuri.
Vigraharaja-IV was the most powerful ruler of the The famous ‘Chausath Yogini temple’ of Bhedaghat (Jabalpur)
Chauhan dynasty. was constructed during the rule of Yuvarajadeva I.
The play named Harikeli Nataka was composed by Among the Rajput kings, Gangeyadeva introduced gold
Vigraharaja-IV. coins.
Somdeva wrote the book titled 'Lalitvigraharaj'. The Karnameru Shiva temple at Banaras was built by
Prithviraj Chauhan is also known as Prithviraj-III’. Kalachuri ruler Karna (Lakshmikarna).
(UPPCS, 2010) Chalukya or Solanki Dynasty of Gujarat
The famous poet Chand Bardai resided at the court of the Mularaja-I founded the Chalukya dynasty of Gujarat.
king of Prithviraj Chauhan. The capital of this dynasty was Anhilwara.
The epic called ‘Prithviraj Raso’ was composed by Chand Mahmud Ghaznavi attacked Somnath Temple during
Bardai. (43rd BPSC, 1999) the reign of Bhima-I.
Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Muhammad Ghori in the Vimal Shah, Minister of Bhima-I built the famous Jain
First Battle of Tarain (1191 AD). temple at Dilwara on Mount Abu.
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Jayachandra Suri composed Kumarapala Charita. Sandhyakar Nandi composed a historical book, a
Bhima II was defeated by Muhammad Ghori in 1178 AD. collection of poems, titled ‘Ramcharitram’.
The rulers of the Chalukya dynasty of Gujarat were There was a tripartite conflict between the Gurjara
followers of Jainism and worked for the promotion of the pratiharas in North India, the palas in eastern India and the
religion. Rashtrakutas in South India.
The style of sculpture prevalent in Bengal during the period
13. The Bordering States
between the hinth and eleventh centuries is called the Pala
State of Kashmir Style.
The history of the Hindu state of Kashmir is known from Sena Dynasty
the Rajatarangini, written by Kalhana. The first important ruler of the Sena dynasty was Vijaya
Kashmir was ruled by Karkota, Utpala and Lohara Sena.
dynasties. Ballala Sena wrote the texts titled ‘Dan Sagar’ and
In the seventh century AD, one Durlabhvardana founded ‘Adbhut Sagar’.
the Karkota dynasty in Kashmir. Jayadeva, the author of Gita Govinda, Dhoyin, the author of
Durlabhvardan's son and successor, Durlabhaka, founded Pavanduta, and Halayudha the author of Brahmanasarvas,
a city called Pratappur. resided at the court of Lakshmanasena. (UPPCS, 1999)
Lalitaditya Muktapida was the most powerful among the The capital of the Sena dynasty was Nadiya.
rulers of the Karkota dynasty. Varman Dynasty of Kamarupa
The famous Martand temple of Surya in Kashmir was Pushyavarman founded the Varman dynasty of Kamarupa.
built by Lalitaditya Muktapida. The capital of Varman dynasty was Pragjyotishpura.
Avantivarman (855-883 or 884 AD) was the first ruler of Bhaskaravarman was a contemporary to Harsha.
the Utpala dynasty.
He founded a city called Avantipur. B Medieval India
He built canals for irrigation in Avantipur.
Queen Didda of the Utpala dynasty was an extremely 1. Invasion of Arabs
ambitious ruler.
The first successful invasion on India by Arabs was led by
She was a princess of the Lohara dynasty. She married
‘Muhammad Bin Qasim’.
Ksemagupta, the ruler of the Utpala dynasty.
He invaded Sindh in 712 AD. (UPPCS, 1991)
The founder of the Lohara dynasty was Sangramraja.
Then the Hindu king Dahir was ruling Sindh.
Kalhana was a court poet of Harsha, the ruler of Lohara
Dahir was defeated in this battle.
dynasty.
After the victory over Sindh, Muhammad Bin Qasim was
Pala Dynasty of Bengal
the first who imposed religious tax jizya.
The founder of Pala dynasty in Bengal was Gopala (750-
Important information about the Arab invasion is gained
770 AD). (UPPCS, 2015)
from Futul-al-Baladan and Chachnama texts.
Gopala built viharas in Nalanda.
The main objective of this invasion by the Arabs primarily
Dharmapala established Vikramshila and Somapuri was to loot wealth and propagate Islam.
viharas. (UPPCS, 1999, 2005)
The most important impact of the Arab invasion was on
Famous Buddhist writer Haribhadra resided at Indian culture.
Dharmapala’s court. Arabs were inspired by Indian's knowledge of medicine,
The poet Soddhala of Gujrat calls Dharmapala an philosophy, science, mathematics and administration.
Uttarapathasvamin ('Lord of the North') for his suzerainty Mahmud Ghaznavi (998 - 1030 AD)
over North India. A person named Alaptagin established an independent
At the request of Balaputradeva, king Shailendra of Java Ottoman empire in Ghazni in 962 AD. (UP Lower, 2015)
Devapala donated five villages to build a Buddhist vihara Alaptagin’s slave and son-in-law, Subuktagin took over
at Nalanda. the throne in 977 AD.
The rulers of the Pala dynasty were followers of Buddhism. After the death of Subuktagin, his son Mahmud Ghaznavi
The Siddheshwar Mahadev Temple in Bengal reflects the became the ruler at the age of 27 in 998 AD.
architecture of the Pala dynasty.
Vikramashila Vihara was demolished by the Muslim Note : Subuktagin was given the title of (Al-Hajeb-al-
invader Bakhtiyar Khalji. Ajal) Most Noble Commander.
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The Khalifa of Baghdad conferred the titles of ‘Yamin-ud- Muhammad Ghori went back to Ghazni entrusted the
Daula' (the right hand of the empire) and 'Amin-ul-Millat' conquered Indian territories in the charge of his slave
(Guardian of the Faith) to Mahmud Ghaznavi. commander Qutbuddin.
Mahmud invaded India 17 times, but there is no credible
2. Sultanate Period (1206 AD - 1526 AD)
evidence of all these attacks.
After Ghori’s death, Qutbuddin Aybak laid the foundation
Mahmud started invading India in 999 AD.
of the Ghulam or Mamluk dynasty in 1206 AD.
Mahmud Ghaznavi attacked the Hindu Shahi army of
(UPPCS, 1990)
Jayapala in 1001 AD, in which Jaypala was defeated.
His capital was Lahore. (UPPCS, 1990)
The main motive behind Mahmud Ghaznavi’s invasion on
Qutbuddin Aybak was also known as the founder of the
India was his greed for money.
Turkish State of India. He did not assume the title of Sultan
Mahmud Ghaznavi was known in India as “robber and idol
while seated on the throne.
breaker”.
Aybak did not harangue his name nor did he issue coins in
Major expeditions of Mahmud Ghaznavi were directed at
his name. Later, Ghori’s successor Mahmud accepted him
Thaneshwar in 1014 AD, Mathura in 1018 AD and Somnath
as Sultan.
in 1026 AD.
Qutbuddin Aybak was called ‘Lakh Bakhsh’ (one who
His most fierce attack was on Somnath Temple in Gujarat,
gives in lakhs) and ‘Kurankhwan’. (J PCS, 2003)
during the reign of Bhima I.
Nalanda university building was demolished by Bakhtiyar
The last invasion of Mahmud Ghaznavi was on Jats in 1027
Khalji, commander of Muhammad Gori. (BPSC, 2016)
AD.
Aybak built mosques called ‘Quwwat-al-Islam' and ‘Adhai
Mahmud Ghaznavi died in 1030 AD.
Din ka Jhopra’ in Ajmer. (BPSC, 2015 JPCS, 2021)
Scholars like Alberuni, Firdausi, Utbi and Baihaki resided
at the court of Mahmud Ghaznavi. Note : Quwwat-al-Islam Mosque was built on the
Alberuni was also known as ‘Abu Rahyan’. He was born remains of 27 Hindu and Jain temples destroyed by
at Khwarizmi (present Khiva) in 973 AD. Muslim invaders. 'Adhai Din ka Jhopra' was built on a
Alberuni came to India at the time of Mahmud Ghaznavi’s site where earlier a Sanskrit school and a temple, built
invasion. His book ‘Kitab - ul Hind’ is an important source by a Chauhan ruler Vigraharaja or Bisaldev, stood.
to know the history of that time. (UK PCS, 2010, RAS/RTS 2010) Qutbuddin Aybak laid the foundation of Qutb Minar, later
Muhammad Ghori (1175 AD - 1206 AD) which was completed by Iltutmish. (67th BPSC, 2022)
Muhammad Ghori was the ruler of the Ghor province under He died in 1210 when he fell from his horse while playing
Ghazni. He belonged to the Ghurid dynasty. Chaugan (a game similar to modern Polo). He was buried
The first invasion of Muhammad Ghori occurred in 1175. in Lahore. (IAS, 2003)
He was born in Multan. The Muslim rulers of the Karmathi Qutbuddin Aybak was succeeded by Aram Shah who ruled
caste were then ruling Multan. for only a brief period of eight months.
In 1178, Ghori invaded Gujarat, but Bhim II defeated Ghori Iltutmish (1211-36 AD)
near Mount Abu under the able leadership of his worthy Iltutmish sat on the throne of the Sultanate in 1211 after
and courageous mother Maa Naikidevi. (UPPCS, 1990) killing Aram Shah.
Punjab, then ruled by the Ghazni dynasty, now passed to Qutubuddin’s slave and son-in-law Iltutmish Ilbari was
Ghori. a Turk.
Iltutmish was the governor of Badaun at the time of
Muhammad Ghori’s Major Battles
Qutubuddin Aybak's death.
Battles Years Opposition Results Iltutmish is considered the de facto founder of the Delhi
Tarain Battle I 1191 AD Prithviraj Victory of Prithvi- Sultanate.
Chauhan raj Chauhan He established Delhi as the capital of the Sultanate.
Tarain Battle II 1192 AD Prithviraj Ghori’s Victory (UPPCS, 2012)
Chauhan Muhammad Ghori freed him from slavery on account of his
Chandawar Battle 1194 AD Jaichand Ghori’s Victory exceptional abilities displayed during Khokhar Rebellion
(UPPCS, 2008)
in 1206.
On one side of the coins of Muhammad Ghori's reign the The Khalifa of Baghdad conferred the title of ‘Sultan-e-
figure of Kalma was inscribed while on the other side, the Azam’ on Iltutmish and gave statutory approval to his rule
figure of Lakshmi was inscribed. (UK PCS, 2006) in 1229.
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Iltutmish defeated Yildiz in the third battle of Tarain Nasiruddin conferred the title of ‘Ulugh Khan’ and ‘Naib
(1215–16 AD) at Kalinjar in 1221, at Ranthambore in 1226 -e- Mumlikat’ on Balban.
and in 1227 conquered Mandore. On the death of Nasiruddin Mahmud, Balban declared
He kept a troop of his loyal slaves called ‘Turkan - e - Sultan himself and succeeded in 1266.
Chahalgani’ or ‘Chalisa’. Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-1286 AD)
He issued two important coins, silver ‘Tanka’ (175 grains) Balban's (1266-1287) name was Ghiyasuddin Balban. He
and copper ‘Jital’ during the Sultanate period and also was also a slave to Iltutmish and a member of Chalisa.
started the practice of inscribing the names on coins. (Chattisgarh PCS, 2004)
During the reign of Iltutmish, Mongol leader Genghis Balban destroyed Turkan-i-Chahalgani.
Khan reached the northwestern border of India chasing Balban ascended the throne of Delhi in 1266 by the name
Mangbarni, the ruler of Khwarizm. (UPPCS, 1993) of Ghiyasuddin Balban. He succeeded in protecting Delhi
Iltutmish is credited with the introduction of the ‘Iqta from the Mongols.
System’ in India. (UPPCS 2010) He adopted a policy of ‘blood and iron’ for the prestige
The Iqtadari system of the Delhi Sultanate had an influence of the Sultan. (UPPCS, 2009)
on the Bahmani and Vijayanagara empires. He thought the king to be the representative of God on
Iltutmish's tomb was built in 1236 AD. earth, 'Naib-i-Khudai'.
He died in 1236. He believed that Sultan is Zil-i-Allah or Zil-i-Ilahi
After the death of Iltutmish, the Turkish nobles installed 'meaning' 'reflection of God'. (IAS, 1997)
his son Ruknuddin Firuz Shah. He established a military department called ‘Diwan-i-Arz’
Ruknuddin was overthrown by the masses and Raziyya to counter the Mongols.
was declared Sultan. He introduced the practice of ‘Sijda’ and ‘Paibos’ which
Raziyya Sultan (1236–40 AD) were originally picked from Iranian traditions.
Raziyya was the first Muslim woman ruler of medieval He started the practice of celebrating the Iranian (Persian)
India. (UPPCS, 2004) festival of ‘Navroz’ every year in his court. (IAS, 1993)
After discarding the purdah system by Raziyya, she wore Tughril Beg rebelled against Sultan Balban of Delhi and
the same clothes, a coat (Kuba) and hat (Kulah), as the men declared himself the independent ruler of Bengal in around
and conducted the task of governance effectively. 1279 AD.
According to Minhaj-i-Siraj (author of Tabaqat-e-Nasiri), Famous poets Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan started their
Raziyya ruled for 3 years 6 months 6 days. literary careers during Prince Muhammad.
She removed Nizamul Mulk Junaidi from the post of Wazir
Note : Amir Khusro was called ‘Parrot of India’ or
and granted the rank of ‘Amir-i-Akhur' to Habsi Sardar
‘Tuti-e-Hind and Amir Hasan-e-Dehalavi, 'Saadi of
Malik Yakut to break Turkish domination.
India'. (UPPCS, 2013)
Tabarhind (Bhatinda) rebelled against Raziyya on
instigation by Ikhtiyaruddin Altunia. Raziyya married After the death of Balban, his grandson Kayqubad succeeded
Altunia and tried to suppress the rebellion of the Turkish him. Thereafter, Kayumars became the ruler for a short
chieftains, but she failed. time.
Raziyya was murdered in 1240 in Kaithal by bandits while Ariz-i-Mamalik (Jalal-ud-din) captured the throne by killing
returning from the forest. Kayumars.
After the death of Raziyya, Bahram Shah sat on the throne Thus, the ‘Slave dynasty’ came to an end in Delhi.
in 1240, but he was also killed in 1242.
3. Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD)
Allauddin Masud Shah became the Sultan of Delhi (1242–
1246 AD) after the assassination of Bahram Shah. After the fall of the Slave dynasty in 1290, Jalaluddin Firuz
Alauddin Masud Shah was overthrown by a conspiracy Khalji founded the Khalji dynasty.
hatched by Balban and Nasiruddin Mahmud was declared Sultan Kayqubad assumed the title of ‘Shaista Khan’ and
the Sultan in 1246 AD. ‘Ariz-i-Mumalik’ i.e. the post of Army Chief.
Nasiruddin Mahmud was a ruler of humble origin. Jalaluddin Khalji made ‘Kilokhari’, near Delhi, his capital.
Minhaj-i-Siraj dedicated his book ‘Tabaqat-i-Nasiri’ to Jalaluddin adopted the ideal of liberal autocratism.
him. He formed a new department, Diwan-i-Waqt to look after
Balban married his daughter to Sultan Nasiruddin in 1249. the income and expenditure matters.
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His rule saw Delhi's notable saint Sidi Maula crushed by He also introduced the ‘Public Distribution System’.
an elephant. In India, Amir Khusro of the Sultanate period popularized
He was assassinated by his nephew and son-in-law, Qawwali, a genre of music whose name is derived from
Alauddin Khalji at Manikpur, in 1296. the Arabic word 'Qual'.
Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316 AD) The incident of Jauhar was first mentioned in Persian by
Alauddin Khalji (Aligurshap) became the ruler after Amir Khusro.
Jalaluddin’s assassination. Alauddin Khalji was the first The two new taxes levied by Alauddin Khalji were 1. Ghari
Sultan of Delhi who brought religion under state control. (House) Tax - which was levied on houses and huts. 2.
The Sultan of Delhi Alauddin Khilji was appointed master Charai (Grazing) Tax - which was imposed on milch
of ceremonies before becoming Sultan. animals. (UPPCS, 2011)
He had his name inscribed on coins as 'Second Alexander'
Major Taxes during Sultanate Period
(Sikandar-e-Sani)’. (UP Lower, 2008)
He was the first ruler of Delhi Sultanate who allotted posts Tax Type of Taxes
on merit. Jizya Tax received from non-Muslims
The ruler of Devagiri was Ramachandra Deva at the time Zakat Religious Tax charged from Muslims
of Alauddin’s invasion.
Khums Loot money from war
The first sultan of the Delhi Sultanate to launch a military
Kharaj Tax to be collected from non-Muslim farmers
campaign in South India was Alauddin Khilji. (SSC, 2023)
Alauddin conferred the title of Raya Rayan to Ramachandra This led to the appointment of an official named ‘Parwana
Deva. - Navis’ who issued a permit for goods.
Malik Kafur was a slave commander of Alauddin Khilji During this time, there were two types of markets - 1.Mandi
who led his army in the battle against Ramachandra of (food market), 2.Sarai-e-Adal (Manufactured goods,
Devagiri. garments, herbs, etc.).
He captured Malik Kafur during his Gujarat conquest. To control the market, Alauddin created a new post called
Malik Kafur was also called ‘Hazar Dinari’. Diwan-e-Riyasat (the controller of the entire market
(UK PCS, 2021) system), Shehna-e-Mandi (market superintendent).
The Chief Officer of the Intelligence Department Alauddin Khalji died in 1316.
was ‘Barid-e-Mumalik’. There were many ‘baraids’ During the reign of Alauddin Khilji, the textile/cloth market
(Sandeshvahak or Harkara) under him. was known as Sarai-i-Adl.
Alauddin established a new department ‘Diwan-e- Mubarak Khalji, the son of Alauddin Khalji, succeeded
Mustakhraj’ to eliminate corruption and clear arrears of him on the throne of Delhi in 1316.
revenues. He also used to come to the court wearing women’s clothes
Alauddin built the Siri Fort, Thousand Pillar Palace and on occasions.
Alai Darwaza. Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah Khalji declared himself a Khalifa
He kept a large and permanent army at the centre, who was and held the titles like ‘Al Imam’,‘Ul Imam’, ‘Khilafat Ullah’,
paid in cash. etc. (UP RO/ARO, 2016)
Khalji introduced the practice of 'Dagh' (branding of horses) Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah Khalji was succeeded by
and 'Huliya' (descriptive roles of soldiers). Nasiruddin Khusrau Shah (Khusrav Khan), the last ruler
He was the first Sultan who paid attention to measurement of the Khalji dynasty.
(Paimaish) of the cultivable land, known as Zabita.
Alauddin Khalji took 50% of the produce as agrarian tax
4. Tughluq Dynasty (1320-1412 AD.)
(Kharaj). (Jharkhand PCS, 2013) Ghiyasuddin Tughluq or Ghazi Malik was the first ruler of
He increased the Sultan’s share of the plundered money the Tughluq dynasty. (UPPCS, 1999)
(Khums) to 4/5 from 1/5. He ruled from 1320-1325.
Ibn Battuta authored Rihla, Isami wrote Futuh-us- He restored the old rights of Khutas and Muqaddans.
Salatin and Amir Khusrau completed his work Khazain He constructed a new city called Tughluqabad.
- ul- Futuh during Kahaji's reign. Relations between Sultan Ghiyasuddin and Nizamuddin
Amir Khusrau was the court poet to Alauddin Khalji. Auliya became bitter. Aulia had said that ‘Dilli hanuz dur
(UPPCS, 1995) ast’ (Delhi is yet far away).
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He built canals for irrigation. He was probably the first He was the first sultan of Delhi who imposed Haque-i-Sharb
ruler to have built canals. (UPPCS, 2017) i.e. Irrigation tax. (UPPCS, 2010)
He was the first Sultan of Delhi who assumed the title of He shifted two Ashoka's pillars from Topara and Meerut
‘Ghazi’. to Delhi. (UPPCS, 1996)
Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325–1351 AD) He made military services hereditary.
Juna Khan or Muhammad bin Tughluq (1325-1351 He was known for collecting slaves. At a period of time,
AD) became Sultan after the death of Ghiyasuddin. the number of slaves reached one lakh eighty thousand.
During his time, the Tughluq empire was divided into 23 He formed a separate department ‘Diwan-i-Bandagan’ for
administrative provinces. looking after these slaves.
He replaced silver coins with copper token coins. Dar-ul-Shifa, established by Firuz Shah Tughluq was a
A department called ‘Diwan - i - Amir - Kohi’ which charity hospital. (UPPCS, 2013)
looked after agriculture, was established by Muhammad Firuz Shah Tughluq wrote his autobiography ‘Futuhat-e-
bin Tughluq. (UPPCS, 2004) Firuzshahi’. (UPPCS, 2008)
Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveller, came to Delhi in 1333 He patronised Ziauddin Barani and Shams-i -Siraj Afif.
during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq. He issued coins called ‘Adha’ and ‘Bikh’ made of copper
(UPPCS, 1994, 2011) and bronze.
Muhammad bin Tughluq appointed Qazi, the chief of Delhi. Firuz Shah Tughluq destroyed the Jwalamukhi Temple
He served for eight years on this post. and got some of the 1300 texts from his library translated
Muhammad Tughlaq appointed Aziz Khummar, a wine into Persian by the scholar Azizuddin Khalid titled ‘Dalil-
distiller, to a high administrative post. i-Firuz Shahi’.
Ibn Battuta has written his travelogue in Arabic in a book Firuz Shah Tughlaq died in 1388 AD.
titled ‘Kitab-ul-Rihla’. Nasiruddin Mahmud (1394–1412 AD) was the last ruler of
Muhammad bin Tughluq was a learned ruler who was the Tughluq dynasty. (IAS, 2004)
interested in Arabic, Persian languages besides astronomy, During his reign, Khwaja Jahan established an independent
medical science, dialectics and philosophy. kingdom called Jaunpur.
He patronised many learned saints like Jain Dharmacharya Timur invaded India in 1398 during the reign of Nasiruddin
Jina Prabhusuri. Mahmud. (MPPCS, 2005)
Muhammad bin Tughluq often participated in the festivals He was proved to be such a weak ruler that his empire was
of Hindus, particularly Holi. (UPPCS, 2004)
said to have come to be restricted from Palam to Delhi only.
Major reforms by Muhammad bin Tughluq were Doab tax
increase, Change of capital (Delhi to Devgiri), Token Note : Tughluq dynasty came to an end after Nasiruddin
currency and campaigns of Khurasan and Karachi. Mahmud’s death in 1412. Daulat Khan Lodi became
During the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq, Harihara and Sultan with the consent of the chieftains in 1413 AD.,
Bukka brothers established an independent Vijayanagar but Khizr Khan invaded Delhi, defeated Daulat Khan
Kingdom in the south in 1336. and imprisoned him in the fort of Hisar establishing a
Muhammad bin Tughluq died in 1351 AD. new dynasty ‘Sayyid dynasty’ and ascend the throne of
Badauni writes on the demise of Sultan 'The King was freed Delhi in 1414.
from his people and they from their King'.
5. Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 AD)
(MPPCS, 1997, IAS 1999)
After the death of Muhammad Tughluq, his cousin ‘Firuz The founder of the Sayyid Dynasty, Khizr Khan, supported
Shah Tughluq’ became (1351-1388) the Sultan in 1351. to the Mongol invader Timur.
Firuz Shah Tughluq (1351-1388 AD) Khizr Khan was appointed as the Governor of Northwestern
Firuz Shah Tughluq constructed new towns called Hisar, frontier province by Timur (Lahore, Multan and Deepalpur).
Fatehabad, Firuzepur, Firozabad and Jaunpur (in the Khizr Khan did not assume the title of Sultan. He retained
Memory of Jauna Khan) and dug many canals. the title of Rayat-e-Ala.
(UP UDA/LDA 2006) After Khizr Khan, Mubarak Shah (1421-1434) ascended
He continuously levied Jizya for irrigation pruposes. He the throne. He patronised ‘Yahya bin Sirhindi’, the author
levied Jizya on Brahmins. (UPPCS, 2011) of ‘Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi’.
The credit for establishing the ‘Public Works Department’ Alauddin Alam Shah (1443–1451) was the last ruler of this
goes to Firuz Shah Tughluq. (UPPCS, 2000) dynasty.
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6. Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD) Wazir - The Prime Minister of the State was called ‘Wazir’.
His office was known as Diwan-e-Wizarat (Revenue
Bahlul Lodi (1451-1489) founded the Lodi Dynasty in 1451.
Department).
He brought Jaunpur under the control of the Delhi Sultanate.
He belonged to 'Shahu Khel' clan of the Afghans. Delhi Sultanate-Main Administrative
He was succeeded by Sikandar Lodi. Departments and Their Founders
He was the best ruler of the Lodi dynasty produced. Concerned
Name Founder
He started ‘Gaz-i-Sikandari’, a scale used for measurement. Departments
A treatise on 'Ayurveda' was translated into Persian Diwan - i - Arz Military Department Balban
(RAS/RTS, 2018)
and ordered by Sikandar Lodi, known as ‘Farhang-i-
Diwan - i - Riyasat Market Control Alauddin Khalji
Sikandari’.
Diwan - i - Waqf Expenditure Jalaluddin Khalji
A music work named "Lahjat-i-Sikandar Shahi" was
Department
developed during his reign.
Diwan - i - Mustakhraj Finance Department Alauddin Khalji
Sikandar Lodi was very fond of shehnai.
Diwan - i - Kohi Department of Muhammad bin
He wrote poems under the nickname ‘Gulrukhi’.
(UPPCS, 2015)
Agriculture Tughluq
(UPPCS, 2017)
Note : Sikandar Lodi constructed a new city, Agra Dewan - i - Bandagan Care of Slaves Firuz Shah Tughluq
in 1504 to secure his authority over the rulers of Dar - ul - Shifa Charity Hospital Firuz Shah Tughluq
neighbouring Rajasthan. (UPPCS, 1993) Diwan - i - Ishtiaq Pension Department Firuz Shah Tughluq
He prohibited the removal of the Tajiya and the practice by Diwan - i - Insha State Correspondence
Muslim women of going to the tomb of the Pirs and Saints. Department
Sikandar Lodi reimposed the Jizya tax on Hindus. In addition to Wazir, there were many other officers in
Sultan Sikandar abolished Zakat (property tax) imposed on these departments. Among them, Mushrif-e-Mumalik
grains. (UP UDA/LDA, 2010) (Accountant-General) and Mustaufi-e-Mumalik (Auditor-
Moth Mosque was built during the reign of Sikandar Lodi. General) were important. Both of them were given the
This mosque is a beautiful example of Lodi architectural charge of income and expenditure respectively.
style. Sultanate Period's Chief Departments
The double-domed feature of the Indo-Islamic architecture
Deewan-i-Insha - Department of Correspondence
was introduced by the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
Deewan-i-Risalat - Department of Foreign Affairs
After the death of Sikandar Lodi, his eldest son Ibrahim
Qazi-ul-Kazat - Justice Department
Lodi ascended the throne.
Sadr-us-Sudur - Department to look after religious
Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Rana Sanga in the Battle of
matters and endowments.
Khatoli in 1518. (RAS/RTS, 2012)
The head of the state was also the ex-officio of ‘Qazi’ and
In April, 1526, Babur fought in the field of Panipat, where
‘Sadr-us-Sudur’.
Ibrahim Lodi was defeated. The Delhi Sultanate also came
Dar-ul-Shifa is one part of the old city of Hyderabad,
to an end with the fall of the Lodis.
India. This was founded by Mohammed Quli Qutub Shah
7. Delhi Sultanate - Governance System in 1591 AD.
Assuming the title of ‘Sultan’ title was started by the Diwan-i-Barid - Intelligence Department Barid-i-
Turkish rulers. Mumalik was the principal officer in the Intelligence
The first ruler to hold this title was Mahmud Ghaznavi. Department. (J PCS, 2003)
Most of the Delhi Sultanate rulers ruled as the Nayab of Diwan - i - Riyasat - Alauddin Khalji had set up this
the Caliph. department for control of the market.
Alauddin challenged the supremacy of the Caliph, while Diwan-i-Amir Kohi was founded by Muhammad
Qutbuddin Mubarak Khalji declared the Caliph himself. Tughluq to the development agriculture.
The head of the central governance was the Sultan. Diwan -i- Mustakhraj - This department was founded
In the Sultanate period, the Council of Ministers was called by Alauddin Khalji to recover revenue dues.
‘Majlis-e-Khalwat’. Wakil- i -Dar - It looked after the personal services
Majlis-e-Khalwat used to meet at ‘Majlis-e-Khas’. of the royal palace and the Sultan.
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Amir-i-Hazib was the office in charge of the royal 3. Muqti - It was a mixed system of rent fixation. It was based
court. on Batai revenue system.
Amir-i-Shikar - used to arrange hunting for Sultan. Ghiyasuddin was the first ruler to promote a canal system
Amir-i-Akhur - This office commanding the horses. for irrigation. (UPPCS, 2017)
Amir-i-Majlis - An officer in charge of Royal feasts Sondhar or Taccavi (loan) was started by Muhammad
and festivals. Tughluq.
Sar-i-Jandar - Chief of the royal bodyguards. The land under the government's control was called Khalsa
Shahna-i-Pil - Superintendent of Royal Elephants. Land.
Diwan-i-Istihqak - belonged to the pension Alauddin requisitioned the donated land and converted then
department. into Khalsa land.
Diwan-i-Kaharat - Department of Charity. Types of Sultanate Revenue (Tax)-
Diwan -i- Bandagan - Department of Slave. Jizya - Protection tax to be charged from non-Muslims.
Diwan -i-Istihqak, Diwan -i- Khairat and Diwan - Zakat - Religious tax (40th part of property) to be
i - Bandhgan were founded by Firuz Shah Tughluq. charged from Muslims.
(RAS/RTS, 1999) Kharaj - Land tax to be charged from non-Muslims.
Wakil-i-Dar - Providing royal requirements of and Usra- Land tax to be charged from Muslims.
head of factories. Military System of Sultanate
The four sources of Muslim Law were-
1 Sarkhel = Head of ten cavalries
(1) Quran - The major source of Muslim Law.
(2) Hadith - It is a body containing the statements and actions 1 Sipahasalar = Head of ten Sarkhels (100 cavalries)
of the Prophet. If the problem is not resolved by the laws 1 Amir = Chiefs of 10 Sipahasalar (1000 cavalries)
of the Quran, then it was resorted to. 1 Malik = 10 Amirs (10,000 cavalries)
(3) Ijma -The universal and infallible agreement of either the 1 Khan = 10 Maliks ( Chief of 1,00,000 cavalries)
Muslim community as a whole or the Muslim scholars in
1 Sultan = Chief of Khans (supreme commander)
particular.
(4) Qiyas- Laws are explained on the basis of logic or analysis. The army of the Sultan in Delhi was called 'Ishm-e-Kaib'
Qazi-ul-Quzat was the supreme authority of justice after or 'Kaib-e-Sultani'.
the Sultan. The Sultanate military system was based on the ‘decimal
The cases during the Sultanate period were decided with system’ same as the Mongols used.
the help of Qazis and Muftis. The posts of Qazi and Mufti Alauddin provided soldiers with cash salaries.
were hereditary. Firuz Shah Tughluq had hereditary soldiers.
A department called Amir-e-Dah used to assist Qazi in The Sultanate Army mainly consisted of three divisions- the
court. cavalry, artillery and infantry.
The Delhi Sultanate was divided into several provinces The breeding of silkworms became popular during
called ‘Iqta’. Sultanate rule.
The Iqta was in charge of a Muqti or Iqtedar. A group of traders was called ‘Tujjar-i-Khas’.
Iqta was further divided into Shiqs (Janapadas), headed by Deval (Gujarat) was considered a prosperous city during
Shiqdars. the medieval period. It also served as an international port.
Mustakhraj were divided into parganas. Lahore and Bayana were famous for indigo plantation.
Amil used to be the chief officer of the pargana. Delhi Sultanate Buildings Constructors
The smallest unit of administration was the village. Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, Adhai Qutbuddin Aybak
In Sultanate period, mainly three types of land revenues Din ka Jhopra, Qutb Minar
existed.
Nasiruddin Mahmud Tomb or Iltutmish
1. Batai - The share of the state was decided in the actual yield. Sultanagarhi
This system existed with different names - Kismat-i-Galla,
Alai Darwaza, Jamat Khana Alauddin Khalji
Galla Bakshi or Hasil, etc.
Mosque (42nd BPSC, 1997)
2. Masshat - The yield was decided by the measurement of
Tughluqabad Ghiyasuddin Tughluq
land.
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Sultanate Period and Major Rulers Tarikh - e - Firuz Shahi Ziauddin Barani
(MPPCS, 2019)
Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)
Rihla Ibn Battuta
Qutbuddin Aybak 1206-1210 AD Kitab - Ul - Yamini Utbi
Aram Shah 1210-1211 AD Khazin - ul - Futuh, Tughluqnama Amir Khusro (UPPCS, 2021)
Sultan Iltutmish 1211-1236 AD Sri Krishna Vijaya Maladhar Basu
Ruknuddin Firuz Shah 1236 - 1236 AD Tarikh-I-Mubarakshahi Yahya Bin Abdullah Sarhindi
Sultan Raziyya 1236-1240 AD Fawaid-Ul-Fawad Amir Hassan Sizzi
(UPPCS, 2021)
Muizuddin Bahram Shah 1240-1242 AD
Haqaiq-e-Hindi Abdul Wahid Bilgirami
Allauddin Masud Shah 1242-1246 AD
Nasiruddin Mahmud 1246-1266 A.D. 8. Vijayanagara Empire
Ghiyasuddin Balban 1266-1286 AD The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in which 1336 was
Kaikubad 1286-1290 AD contemporary to the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughluq.
Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD) Although historians use the term Vijayanagara Empire and
contemporaries of this temple described it as Karnataka
Jalaluddin Firuz Shah Khalji 1290-1296 AD
Empire.
Alauddin Khalji 1296-1316 AD Two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, founded the
Qutbuddin Mubarak Khalji 1316-1320 AD Vijayanagara empire. (UK PCS 2004, JPCS, 2021)
Tughluq Dynasty (1320-1412 AD) The saint Vidyaranya was the inspiration to Harihara and
Bukka behind the empire.
Ghiyasuddin Tughluq 1320-1325 AD
Harihara and Bukka were earlier feudatories of the Kakatiya
Muhammad bin Tughluq 1325-1351 AD
ruler Pratap Rudradeva and later rose to become ministers
Firuz Shah Tughluq 1351-1388 AD in Kampiliya state.
Ghiyasuddin Tughluq II 1388-1389 AD The capital of Vijayanagara was Hampi, situated on the
Abu Bakr Shah 1389-1390 AD banks of the Tungabhadra.
Harihara-I ruled from 1336 to 1356 and his brother Bukka-I
Nasiruddin Muhammad Shah 1390–1394 AD
helped him in the administration. Bukka-I ruled from 1356
Alauddin Sikandar Shah 1394-1394 AD
to 1377.
Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah 1394-1412 AD Bukka-I assumed the title of ‘Vedamarga Prathisthapaka’.
Sayyid Dynasty 1414-1451 AD Harihara-II was a worshiper of Shiva’s Virupaksha.
Khizr Khan 1414-1421AD Harihara-II was the first ruler in his dynasty who assumed
the title of Maharajadhiraja.
Mubarak Shah 1421-1434 AD
Devaraya-I ruled from 1406 to 1422. He suffered the
Muhammad Shah 1434-1445 AD invasion of Firuz Shah Bahman.
Alauddin Alamshah 1445-1451 AD Devaraya-I built a dam on the Tungabhadra river and got
Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD) canals (water bridge or water system) up to his capital
Bahlul Lodi 1451-1489 AD Hampi.
During the reign of Devaraya-I, Italian traveller Nicolo
Sikandar Lodi 1489-1517 AD
Conti travelled to Vijayanagara. (MPPCS, 2016)
Ibrahim Lodi 1517-1526 AD Famous poet Srinatha, author of Harivalas was at the court
of Devaraya I.
Major Books and Its Authors during
Devaraya-II became ruler in 1422.
Sultanate Period Devaraya-II recruited Muslim soldiers in his army.
Books Authors The word Gajabetegara (hunter of elephants) was used
Kitab-ul-Hind or Tahqiq-e-Hind Al Beruni for him on the inscriptions of Devaraya-II.
Shahnama Firdausi (MPPCS, 2015) During the reign of Devaraya-II, Persian (Iranian)
Tabaqat - e – Nasiri Minhaj - i – Siraj ambassador, Abdur Razzaq visited Vijayanagara.
(42nd BPSC, 1997) (UP UDA/LDA, 2010)
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Mallikarjuna became the ruler in 1446. He is also called In the Talikota Battle, Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmednagar and
‘Praudh Devaraya’. Bidar formed a joint front against Vijayanagar, led by Ali
Virupaksha II ascended the throne in 1465. He was the Adil Shah.
last ruler of the Sangam dynasty. He ruled until 1485 AD. In the battle of Talikota, Vijaynagara was led by Rama
A powerful feudal lord Narasimha Saluva took over the Raya.
throne in 1485 AD. After the Talikota Battle, Sadashiva started to rule by
Saluva Narasimha appointed Narasa Nayaka as the guardian making Penukonda the capital with the help of Tirumala.
of his minor son. Rama Raya's brother Tirumala founded the Aravidu dynasty
Vira Narasimha, son of Narsa Nayak, killed Saluva king in 1570, overthrowing the last ruler of the Tuluva dynasty,
Immadi Narasimha in 1505. Sadashiva Raya.
Viranarasimha founded the Tuluva dynasty, the third The last ruler of the Aravidu dynasty was Sri Ranga- III.
dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire. For administrative convenience of the Vijayanagara
After the death of Viranarasimha in 1509, his younger Empire, the province was divided into ‘Mandal’, Mandal
brother Krishnadeva Raya ascended the throne. in ‘Kottam’ or ‘Balnadu’ (District), Kottam into ‘Nadu
Krishnadeva Raya was the ruler of the Tuluva dynasty. (Pargana or Tehsil), Nadu into ‘Melagram’ (cluster of
His court was decorated with eight great Telugu scholars villages) and The Melagram into ‘Ur’ (Gram).
and poets called ‘Ashtadiggajas’. (UP UDA/LDA 2010) The smallest unit of administration was Ur or Gram.
Peddana was ranked as the foremost of the Ashtadiggajas.
Foreign Travellers who visited Vijayanagara
Tenali Rama was at the court of Krishnadeva Raya.
The reign of Krishnadeva Raya was also known as the Nicolo Conti Italy Devaraya-I
‘Golden Age of Telugu Literature’. (UP UDA/LDA 2006) Abdur Razzaq Persia Devaraya-II
Krishnadeva Raya also assumed the titles of ‘Andhra Domingo Paes Portugal Krishnadeva Raya
Bhoja’, ‘Abhinav Bhoja’, ‘Andhra Pitamah’ and Barbosa Portugal Krishnadeva Raya
‘Yavanarajya Sthapanacharya’. (JPCS, 2013)
Fernao Nuniz Portugal Achyuta Deva Raya
Krishnadeva Raya was an excellent poet and writer.
His major work is 'Amuktamalyad' which is one of the Assemblies of Brahmadeya villages (villages given as
five epics in the Telugu language. grants to Brahmins) were called ‘Chaturvediamangalam’.
Krishnadeva Raya founded a city named 'Nagalpur' in the The assembly of Non- Brahmadeya villages was called
name of his mother. (UPPCs, 2016) ‘Ur’.
During the reign of Krishnadeva Raya, the Portuguese The Vijayanagara rulers introduced the system of
Traveller, Domingo Paes travelled to the Vijayanagara governance in local territories through the Iyengar system.
Empire. In Iyengar system, each village was organized as an
In his autobiography, Babur described Krishnadeva Raya independent unit, where twelve officers were appointed to
as the most powerful contemporary ruler of India. administer.
Krishnadeva Raya built Hazara Rama Temple and Vitthal The group of these twelve governing officers was called
Swamy Temple. (MPPCS, 2014) ‘Iyengar’. In return for their service, the king gave them
He died in 1529. land free of rent.
Achyuta Devaraya (1529–1542 AD) made Ramarai Jamata The rank of Iyengar was hereditary. Documents relating to
of Krishna Devaraya, a partner in the regime to avert civil the purchase and sale of land with the Iyengars were called
war. During his reign, the Portuguese traveller Fernao ‘Karnik’.
Nuniz travelled to Vijayanagara. Social and community taxes were imposed.
Sadashiva Raya became the ruler of the Vijayanagara ‘Marriage tax’ was imposed on both the bride and
Empire in 1543. bridegroom.
In the reign of Sadashiva Raya, the real power lay in the Lands that were given to soldiers and civilian officers in
hands of Aravidu dynasty chief, Rama Raya. return for their special services were called ‘Amaram’.
Rama Raya started recruiting a large number of Muslims The Amaram recipients were called ‘Amaranayakas’.
in Vijayanagara’s Army. At the time of gallantry in battle, the martyrs who showed
The battle of Talikota (Rakkasagi-Tangodi or Banni Hatti) heroism were donated land called ‘Rakta Kodge’.
took place on 23 January, 1565 AD, where Vijayanagara Tax exempted land offered for special services in the village
was defeated. (UPPCS, 1993) was called ‘Umbali’.
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‘Kuttagi’ land was the land of Brahmins, temples or big In 1485, Virupaksha II was killed by one of his sons. But
landowners who themselves did not engage in agricultural the killer offered the throne to his younger brother Praudha
work and had others to do it for themselves on a sharing Devaraya. But soon Narasimha Saluva de-throned him in
basis. 1485 AD and usurp the throne and laid the foundation of
Farmers engaged in farming works were called 'Kudi'. the Saluva dynasty, the second dynasty of Vijayanagara.
Agricultural labourers engaged in land, were also subjected Saluva Dynasty (1485 - 1505 AD)
to sale.
Narasimha Saluva 1485 - 1490 AD
The most famous gold coin of Vijayanagara was ‘Varaha’
Immadi Narasimha 1490 - 1505 AD
which was mentioned by foreign travellers. It was known
In 1490, Narsimha Saluva appointed Narasa Nayaka as the
as Hun, Pardaus or Pagoda.
‘Pagoda’ was the principal currency of the Vijayanagara guardian of both his minor sons before his death in 1485.
and ‘Hun’ of Bahmani states. Narasa Nayaka placed the elder son Immadi Narasimha on
Small gold coins were called ‘Pratap’ and ‘Phanam’. the throne, but retained the real power himself.
Small coins of silver were called 'Taar'. In 1500, Narsa Nayaka died. His son Veer Narasimha killed
Among the middle classes, there was a group called Chetti. Immadi Narasimha and founded Tuluva dynasty in 1505
Chetti was excellent in clerical and business work. The himself and occupied the throne.
people doing business equivalent to the Chetti and the
Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1570 AD)
artisan class were called 'Veerpanchal'.
Slavery existed in Vijayanagara. Veer Narasimha Tuluva 1505 - 1509 AD
The origin of Carnatic music belongs to the Vijayanagara Krishnadeva Raya 1509-1529 AD
dynasty.
Achyuta Raya 1529-1542 AD
The buying and selling of human beings was called
‘Besabaga’. Sadashiva Raya 1543-1570 AD
Nicolo Conti wrote- “There are a large number of slaves Aravidu dynasty
in the Vijayanagara Empire.” Tirumala Ranga II Venkata II Ranga III
Purdah System was prevalent in society.
The game of chess and dice was prevailing. Amuktamalyada, a Telugu epic Poem, was composed by
People who migrated from North to South India were called Raja Krishnadeva Rai.
‘Badwa’.
9. Bahmani Kingdom
The practice of Sati was common in Vijayanagara which
was described by Barbosa. The rebellion of the Amiran-i-Sadah (administrator of 100
There was a military commander named Amra in villages) of the Deccan resulted in the establishment of
Vijayanagara Empire. the Bahmani kingdom in the last days of Muhammad bin
Talar was known as the chowkidar of the village. Tughluq’s reign.
The military department was called ‘Kandacara’. In 1347, assuming the title of ‘Alauddin Hasan Bahman
Sadashiva Raya abolished the tax on rivers in the 16th Shah’, a chieftain Zafar Khan (Hassan Gangu, 1347-1358),
century. occupied the throne and laid the foundation of the Bahmani
Major Rulers of Vijayanagara Empire kingdom. (UK PCS, 2002)
Ruler Year He made Gulbarga the capital of his kingdom and gave it
Harihara-I 1336-1356 AD the new name ‘Ahsanabad’. (Chattisgarh PCS, 2014)

Bukka 1356-1377 AD He exempted Hindus from Jizya tax.

Alauddin Hasan Bahman was succeeded by his son
Harihara-II 1377-1404 AD
Muhammad Shah-I who ruled from 1358 to 1375.
Virupaksha-I 1404-1405 AD
He divided the empire into four provinces or tarafs of
Bukka-II 1405-1406 AD
Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Berar and Bidar.
Devaraya-I 1406-1422 AD
Each province was under a ruler.
Devaraya-II 1422–1446 AD The province of Gulbarga was the most important. Bijapur
Mallikarjuna 1447–1465 AD was annexed with it.
Virupaksha 1465-1485 AD He subdued the Hindu rulers of south India and started a
Praudha Devaraya 1485-1485 AD new practice of granting posts and jagirs to his supporters.
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Tajud-din Firuz Shah became the ruler of the Bahmani 3. Imadshahi Berar Fatahullah Imad 1490 AD
sultanate in 1397 AD. He encouraged Asian foreigners or Shah
Afaqis to stay back and integrate them into the society of
4. Qutbshahi Golconda Quli Qutb Shah 1512 AD
his Sultanate.
As a result, the rich class in Bahmani Sultanate was divided 5. Baridshahi Bidar Amir Ali Barid 1523 AD
into two groups called Afaqi and Deccan. The Bahmani kingdom ruled for around 180 years and had
This division led to the gradual decline of the kingdom and 18 rulers.
subsequently, it was disintegrated. The Bahmani kingdom was divided into four provinces
Firuz Shah Bahmani built an observatory at Daulatabad. (Tarafs) and their governors (Tarafdars) assumed special
Shihabuddin Ahmad I ascended the throne in 1422 AD. titles.
He first shifted his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
This new capital of the Bahmani kingdom was named Provinces and Titles of Their Governors
Muhammadabad. Sl.No. Provinces Titles
His reign was noted for being fair, just and pious. 1. Daulatabad Masnad-i-Ali
He was also called Ahmad Shah Wali or Saint Ahmad. 2. Berar Majlis-i-Ali
Alauddin Ahmad II assumed the title of Sultan in 1436 AD. 3. Bidar Azam-i-Humayun
During the time of Alauddin Ahmad, an Iranian (Afaqi)
4. Gulbarga Malik Naib
resident, Mahmud Gawan, flourished.
Mahmud Gawan assumed the title of ‘Malik-ut- Tujjar’. 10. The Independent Provincial States
After Alauddin’s death, his eldest son Humayun became
the ruler. Kashmir
Humayun was a ruthless ruler. His nickname was ‘Zalim’ Suhadeva founded the Hindu kingdom in Kashmir in 1301
for this trait. AD.
Humayun was also called Nero of Deccan. Shah Mir fraudulently captured Kashmir and established
After Humayun, Muhammad III ascended the throne. the Shah Mir dynasty in 1339 AD.
Russian traveller Nikitin travelled to the Bahmani Shah Mir ruled under the assumed name of Shamsuddin
kingdom during Muhammad-III rule. Shah.
Mahmud Gawan was the Governor of Bijapur during Shamsuddin Shah (Shah Mir) was the first Muslim ruler of
Muhammad-III ruel. Kashmir.
Mahmud Gawan established a Madrasa in Bidar. Shamsuddin Shah made Indrakot his capital.
Mahmud Gawan’s letters, written under the name of Riyaz'l He transferred his capital from Indrakot to Alauddinpur
Insha were collected. (Srinagar).
Muhammad III hanged Mahmud Gawan (in 1481 AD.) on Sultan Sikandar was called a ‘Butshikan’ for breaking
the charge of treason. Hindu temples and idols.
During the reign of Shihabuddin Mahmud Shah (1482- After Sikander’s death, his son Ali Shah ascended the
1518 AD.), the provincial governors started declaring throne.
independence. Ali Shah was captured by Khokhars while struggling with
The Bahmani Empire was disintegrated by the end of the his brother and died at Chatura.
fifteenth century. Ali Shah’s brother Shahi Khan ascended the throne under
The last Sultan of this dynasty was Kaleemullah Shah. the assumed name of ‘Zain-ul Abidin’ in 1420 AD.
After his death in 1527 AD, the Bahmani empire came to an Zain-ul-Abidin was the master of many languages.
end and five independent states were formed on its ashes.
Zain-ul-Abidin got ‘Mahabharata’ and ‘Rajatarangini’
Major Dynasties and Its Founders of the translated into Persian.
Independent States Zain-ul-Abidin was a tolerant ruler, and was called ‘Akbar
Sl. Year of of Kashmir’. (RAS/RTS 1993)
Dynasty State Founder Zain-ul-Abidin stopped the collection of Jizya tax in
No. Establishment
Kashmir. (UK UDA/LDA 2006)
1. Adilshahi Bijapur Yusuf Adilshah 1490 AD
The Mughal emperor Akbar annexed Kashmir to the
2. Nizamshahi Ahmadnagar Malik Ahmad 1490 AD Mughal Empire in 1586.
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Jaunpur Mughal Emperor Akbar annexed Bengal to the Mughal

Firuz Shah Tughluq founded the city of Jaunpur in empire.
memory of his brother ‘Jauna Khan’ or Juna Khan Malwa
(Muhammad bin Tughluq). (UPPCS, 2003) Alauddin Khalji took Malwa under his control in 1305 AD.
Sultan Mahmud, the son of Firuz Tughluq, conferred the Firuz Tughluq appointed Dilawar Khan as the Subedar
title of Malik-us-Sharqi (Lord of the East) on his Wazir of Malwa in 1390 AD.
Khwaja-e-Jahaan (Malik Sarwar). Dilawar Khan (Husain Khan Ghori) declared his
Taking advantage of the weakness of the later-Delhi independence and became its ruler in 1401 AD.
Sultanate, Malik Sarwar declared independence and laid After Dilawar, his son Alp Khan became the ruler of Malwa
the foundation of the Sharqi dynasty in Jaunpur. and assumed the title of Hoshang Shah.
Malik Sarwar never assumed the title of Sultan. Hoshang Shah shifted his capital from Dhar to Mandu.
After Malik Sarwar, Mubarak Shah, Ibrahim Sharqi, Hoshang Shah’s son Ghazni Khan renamed Mandu
Mahmud Shah Sharqi, Muhammad Shah Sharqi and Husain Shadiabad.
Shah Sharqi were followed. Mahmud Khalji laid the foundation of Khalji dynasty in
Under Sharqi's rule, Jaunpur developed immensely in the Malwa in 1436 AD.
field of literature and architecture, especially during the He was the most powerful Sultan of this dynasty.
period of Ibrahim Shah. By 1531, the Khalji Sultans had started ruling Malwa.
Due to the advancements in literature and architecture, Subsequently, Sher Shah conquered Malwa and appointed
Jaunpur was called ‘Shiraz of India’. (UPPCS, 2005) Sujaat Khan as governor.
Atala Masjid was built by Ibrahim Shah in 1408. His son Baz Bahadur became the ruler after his father Sujaat
The Atala Mosque was built after demolishing the temple Khan's death. Roopmati was his wife. Their love story and
of Atala Devi, built by King Vijaychand of Kannauj. their love for music have become part of folklore.
Hussain Shah Sharqi was the last ruler of this dynasty. Hoshang Shah built the Fort of Mandu.
Hussain He built the Jama Masjid in Jaunpur. Ghiyasuddin Khalji built Hindola Palace at Mandu.
Jhanjhari Masjid was built by Ibrahim Sharqi in 1430 AD Gujarat
and Lal Darwaza Masjid was built by the wife of Mahmud Alauddin Khalji, defeated king Karan (Rai Karan), the ruler
Shah in 1455 AD. of Gujarat and brought it under his control in 1298 AD.
Jaunpur was annexed by Bahlul Lodi in 1484. In 1391AD., Sultan Nasir-Ud-din Muhammad Shah
Bengal III appointed Zafar Khan, the son of Wajih-ul-Mulk as
In the first decade of the 13th century, ‘Muhammad bin governor of Gujarat and conferred him the title of Mujaffar
Bakhtiar Khalji’ annexed Bengal to the Delhi Sultanate. Khan.
Ghiyasuddin Tughluq divided Bengal into three parts After Zafar Khan, Ahmad Shah (1411–1441 AD.),
Lakhnauti (North Bengal), Sonargaon (East Bengal) and Mahmud Shah Begada (1458–1511 AD.) and Bahadur
Satgaon (South Bengal). Shah (1526–1537 AD.) ruled Gujarat.
Haji Ilyas reunited Bengal and ruled under the assumed Ahmad Shah settled a city called Ahmedabad on the banks
name of Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah in 1342 AD. of Sabarmati near Asawal.
Sikandar Shah (1358-1390 AD.) built the ‘Adina Masjid’ Ahmad Shah made Ahmedabad his capital by shifting it
(in 1364-74 AD.) in Pandua. from Patan.
Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah ruled Bengal from 1390-1409 AD. Mahmud Begada was the famous ruler of Gujarat.
Ghiyasuddin was entertained at his court by the Persian He laid out Mustafabad, a city near Girnar and
poet ‘Hafiz’ and many other scholars. Muhammadabad in Champaner.
The Chinese emperor requested Sultan Ghiyasuddin to Akbar annexed Gujarat to the Mughal empire in 1573.
send Buddhist monks in 1409 AD. Mewar (Modern Udaipur)
Alauddin Husain Shah (1493-1518 AD.) shifted the capital Alauddin annexed Mewar to Delhi Sultanate by defeating
from Pandua to Gaur. Ratan Singh, the ruler of the Gehlot dynasty of Mewar in
Mahaprabhu Chaitanya was a contemporary of Alauddin. 1303 AD.
Alauddin Husain started a movement called Satyapir. Hammir Deva of ‘Sisodia dynasty’ (branch of the Gehlot
Nusrat Shah was the ruler of Bengal during Babur’s dynasty) conquered Chittor and made the whole of Mewar
invasion. independent.
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Rana Kumbha built a Vijay Stambha (victory tower) at The Bhakti Movement was started by the Vaishnava Alvara
Chittor in 1448 AD. (UPPCS 2008, 2010, 2011) saints and Shaiva Nayanara saints of south India.
The Kirti Stambh was dedicated to Adinath, the first 'Chaitanya Mahaprabhu', Vidyapati Thakur and Chandidas
Tirthankara of Jainism. This seven-storied pillar was built were the exponents of Bhakti in Bengal with their great
by Jain traders in the 12th century. devotion to Lord Krishna.
The Battle of Khanwa was fought between Rana Sanga Important Saints of the Bhakti Movement
and Babur in 1527 AD, in which Babur defeated the Rajput Ramanujacharya:
king, Rana Sanga. The propagator of the Bhakti movement was Vaishnava
The Battle of Haldighati took place on 18th of June, 1576 Acharya Ramanuja. He advocated the philosophy of
AD. between Rana Pratap and Akbar. Vishishtadvaita. (UPPCS, 2021)
The capital of Mewar was Chittorgarh. According to Vishishtadvaita philosophy, brahmana is
During the reign of Jahangir, Mewar accepted the suzerainty eternal but he also included an element of plurality.
of the Mughal Empire. Acharya Ramanuja was born at Sriperumbudur in Madras
Khandesh (South India) (Chennai) in 1017 AD.
During the decline of Tughluq dynasty, Malik Ahmad His father was Asuri Kesava and his mother’s name was
Khan Raza, the Subedar of Firuz Shah Tughluq, created Kanthimathi.
Khandesh in the territory falling between Narmada and
He died in 1137 AD.
Tapti rivers.
Ramanuja emphasized the worship of a virtuous God.
The capital of Khandesh was Burhanpur.
According to him, the path of salvation lies in karma,
Khandesh was annexed to the Mughal empire by Akbar in
knowledge and devotion.
1601.
Vallabhacharya:
Odisha
Vallabhacharya was the son of Sri Lakshmana Bhatta, a
Before the Mughal rulers captured Odisha, multiple regional
Telang Brahmin of Somayazi clan.
dynasties ruled it.
He propounded the philosophy of Shuddha Advaitvad.
Anantavarman Chodaganga (ruler of the east Ganga
Ramananda:
dynasty) established a powerful kingdom in Odisha.
Ramananda was the first promoter of the Bhakti Movement
Anantavarman ruled from 1076 for about 70 years.
in North India.
He built the Jagannath temple in Puri.
He was born at Prayag (Allahabad)in 1299 A.D. and studied
Other dynasties that ruled Odisha were - Eastern Ganga,
at Prayag and Varanasi. (UPPCS, 2010)
and Suryavanshi Gajapati.
Ramananda first preached his sermon in Hindi. (IAS, 2002)
11. Bhakti Movement He said that devotion is the only means of salvation.
He worshipped Rama and Sita as ideals for society.
The great philosopher Sankaracharya was born in Kerala
Padmavati and Surasari (Women), Kabir (Weaver),
in the 8th century. His father’s name was Sivaguru and
Raidas (Cobbler), Sena (Barber) and Pipa (Rajput) were
mother’s name was Aryamba. (UPPCS, 1999)
amongst twelve prominent disciples of Ramananda.
Sankaracharya propounded the philosophy of Advaitavada
(UP Power, 2002)
to counter the influence of Buddhism in the 8th century.
The Bhakti movement was reborn in the fifteenth- sixteenth
(Chhattisgarh PCS, 2014)
century. It was led by Kabir, Nanak, Tulsidas, Surdas and
The following four views were articulated by Vaishnava
Mirabai.
Acharyas in opposition to the Advaita philosophy of
Kabir :
Sankaracharya.
Kabir was a saint associated with Nirguna Bhakti, who,
Founder Philosophy Sect despite being a saint, continued to live a family life.
Ramanujacharya Vishishtadvaita Shri Sect He considered Rama, Rahim, Hazrat, Allah as different
(UPPCS, 1991) forms of the same God.
Madhwaacharya Dvaitvada Brahma Sect He did not believe in the Vedas and the Quran.
‘Bijak’ is a compilation of sermons of Saint Kabir.
Vallabhacharya Suddha Advaitvad Pushtimarga
(MPPCS, 2020)
(UP UDA/LDA, 2002) Sampradaya
'Amarmool' is a compilation of dialogues of Kabir Das and
Nimbarkacharya Dvaita-Dvaitvad Sanaka Sect his disciple Dharmadas. (UPPCS, 2008)

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Kabir Das was a contemporary to Sultan Sikandar Lodi. Tulsidas :

Malukdasa : Tulsidas was born in 1532 AD. in a village, Rajapur, in the
Saint Malukdasa was born in Lala Sunderdas Khatri's Banda district of Uttar Pradesh.
house in 1574 at Kada (present Kaushambi district). The famous saint-poet, Goswami Tulsidas, was a
Guru Nanak : contemporary of Akbar and Jahangir. (UPPCS, 2004)
Guru Nanak was born in 1469, at Talwandi (Nankana Sahib He wrote many texts, among which ‘Ramcharitmanas
in Pakistan) in Punjab of undivided India. (UPPCS, 2007) and Vinayapatrika’ are famous. (UK UDA/LDA, 2007)
His father’s name was Mehta Kalu Chandra Khatri, and Abul Fazl has mentioned him in his work, ‘Ain-i-Akbari’.
mother’s name was Tripta. Namdev :
Guru Nanak (1469–1539 AD) founded Sikhism. Namdev was instrumental in popularizing the Bhakti
He believed in 'Monotheism' and emphasized the worship movement in Maharashtra.
of Nirguna Brahma. His teacher was Visoba Khechara.
He started a shared community kitchen called Guru Ka He belonged to the Varkari sect. (UPPCS, 2002, 04)
Langar. Among the saints of the Bhakti Movement, Namdev was
He was influenced by the Sufi saint Baba Farid. highly influenced by Islam. (UP UPA/LDA, 2010)
He strongly advocated Hindu-Muslim unity and condemned His compositions are famous as ‘Abhyanga’. Some of his
the fanatics of both religions and stressed on truth. verses are compiled in Guru Granth Sahib.
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu : Ravidas :
Chaitanyadeva, a sixteenth century bhakti saint from West Ravidas belonged to Kutbandhla chamar caste and
Bengal, preached selfless devotion to Krishna bhakti. resided at Kashi.
He was the originator of Bhakti movement in Bengal. He was one of the twelve disciples of Ramanand.
He was born in a Brahmin family in Nadia (Bengal), in His father’s name was Raghu, and his mother’s name
1485. was Ghurbiniya. They used to make a living by repairing
After his retirement, he moved from Bengal to Puri shoes.
(Odisha). His childhood nickname was Vishwambhar He founded the Raidasi sect.
Mishra. Dadu Dayal
He opposed caste system rituals, untouchability. He was born at Ahmedabad in 1544 and belonged to the
He established ‘Gaudiya Vaishnavism’ and also Tanner caste.
popularized the ‘Sankirtan System’. Dadu’s childhood nickname was Mahabali.
Surdas : After coming to Sambhar, he founded the Brahma sect,
Surdas was a poet of the Krishna Bhakti cult. later called Dadu Panth.
He was a contemporary of Akbar. He was a Nirguna worshipper. He also opposed
The life story of Krishna is presented in his famous work discrimination based on caste.
‘Sur Sagar’. He met Akbar in Amer in 1586.
His compositions, compiled in Sursagara, Surasaravali and He started a movement called ‘Nipakh’.
Sahitya Lahari. Anubhav Vani and Kambli are his works.
Mirabai : Sufi Movement
Mirabai was the only daughter of Ratan Singh Rathore Islamic mysticism is called ‘Sufism’ or ‘Sufi religion’.
of Merta. The word 'Sufi' originates from the Arabic word 'Safa',
She married Bhoj Raj, the elder son of Rana Sanga in 1516 meaning 'Purity'.
AD. (RAS/RTS, 1997) ‘Abul Fazl’ mentions fourteen Silsilahas in 'Ain-i-Akbari'.
She was born in a village called Kurki of Merta in 1498. Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadri, Shattari and Naqshbandi
She was a Hindu spiritual poetess whose hymns were were the most important among the fourteen orders
dedicated to Lord Krishna, and were popular in north India. (Silsilhas) or mystic organizations.
Ravidas was her mentor. A Murid, literally means "one who seeks", is a novice
Mirabai composed four texts, and these were Narsi ka committed to spiritual enlightenment by suluk (traversing
Mayra, Geet Govind Teeka, Raga Govind and Raag Sorath a path) under a spiritual guide, who may assume the title
Ke Pad. (Chattisgarh PCS, 2014) Murshid, Pir or Shaykh.
She was a contemporary of Hindi poetess, Tulsidas and The monasteries where the Sufis inhabited were called
often communicated with him through letters. ‘Khanqahs’.
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The Sufis’ religious associations were divided into Ba Dara Shukoh, the son of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, was
-Shara (proponents of Islamic doctrine) and in Be-Shara a follower of the Qadri order.
(not associated with Islamic doctrines). 4. Naqshbandi Order
1. Chishti order Naqshbandi order was founded by Khwaja Bahauddin
According to Sayyid Muhammad Hafiz, Chishti was the Naqshbandi.
first Sufi order had come to India. A prominent saint of this order ‘Khwaja Baqi Billah’ came
Abu Ishaq Shami and Abu Ahmed Abdal founded the Chisti to Delhi from Kabul.
order. Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, a disciple of Khwaja Baqi Billah,
Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti laid the foundation of Chisti became a famous saint of the Naqshbandi order.
order in India. (UPPCS, 2002) Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi was a contemporary of Mughal
Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti came to India with Ghori’s emperor Akbar.
army. Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi opposed Akbar’s liberal policies.
He was followed by Khwaja Bakhtiar Kaki, Sultan Note : Naqshbandi opposed the music. (UPPCS, 2003, 13)
Qutbuddin Aybak and Sultan Iltutmish.
5. Shattari Order
Sheikh Fariduddin - Ganj-i-Shakar was a Sufi saint of
In 15th century, Sheikh Abdullah Shattari established
Chishti Silsilah who was famous as ''Baba Farid''.
Shattari order in India.
Some of the compositions and ideas of ‘Baba Farid’ were
Shattari order was centred at Bengal, Jaunpur and Malwa.
compiled in Adi Granth of the religious text of Sikhism.
Shah Mohammad Ghaus, the saint of the Shattari order,
He was the son-in-law of Balban. (UPPCS, 1994)
believed Lord Krishna in the form of Auliya.
Nizamuddin Auliya’s acclaimed disciples were Sheikh
Salim Chishti, Amir Khusrau and Hassan Dehlavi. Note : Pranayama and Yoga practices were accepted by
(UPPCS, 2006) almost all Sufi sects, except Naqshbandi.
Baba Farid had two prominent disciples, Nizamuddin
Auliya (1238-1325 AD) and Nasiruddin Chirag-e-Dehlavi, Major Sufi Orders and Their Founders
the famous saints of the Chishti sect. Sects Founders
Some of the famous disciples of Nizamuddin include Sheikh
Chishti Abu Ishaq Shami Chisti
Nasiruddin Chirag Dehlavi, Amir Khusro and Shaikh Salim
Chisti. Suhrawardi Abu-al-Najib Suhrawardi
Nizamuddin Auliya was followed by Sheikh Nasiruddin Qadri Sheikh Abdul Qadir Gilani
and Sheikh Salim Chishti, the famous Chishti saints.
Shattari Sheikh Abdullah Shattari
Sheikh Salim Chishti lived at Fatehpur Sikri.
(RAS/RTS, 1999) Firdausi Badruddin
Amir Hassan-e-Dehlavi was called the ‘Saadi of India’ Naqshbandi Bahauddin Naqshband
because of his high quality ghazals. (UPPCS, 2013)
Sufi Saints and Their Titles
2. Suhrawardi Order
1. Khwaja Qutbuddin Qutb-ul-Aqtab
Abu-al-Najib Suhrawardi established this order.
Bakhtiar Kaki
This sect was propagated in India by Jalaluddin Tabrezi,
Bahauddin Zakariya and Hamiduddin Nagori. 2. Sheikh Hamiduddin Nagori Sultan Tariken
(61th BPSC, 2018) 3. Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya Mehboob-e-Ilahi, Sultan ul-
Saharuddin Arik, Sayyid Jalaluddin, Khursh Jalaluddin Auliya (UPPCS, 2014)
Tabrezi, etc. were the prominent saints of the Suhrawardi 4. Sheikh Sirajuddin Usmani Aina-e-Hind
sect.
5. Nasiruddin Chirag Dehlavi Chirag-e-Delhi
3. Qadri Order (UPRS/ARO 2017)
The founder of the Qadri sect was Sheikh ‘Muhiuddin
6. Sheikh Salim Chishti Sheikh-ul-Hind
Qadir Jilani’ of Baghdad. (UP Lower, 2004, 08)
In India, this order was established by ‘Sayyid Muhammad
7. Abdul Qadir Jilani Peeran-e-peer, Mehboob-e-
Gilani’ and 'Shah Niyamat Ullah'.
Subhani
The most famous saint of the Qadri Order was ‘Sheikh
Mir Muhammad’ or ‘Miyan Mir’. 8. Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi Mujaddid-e-Alfsani
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12. The Mughal Empire He was given the title of Kalandar due to his generosity.
He died on 26th December 1530, at Agra.
Babur established the Mughal Empire in India in 1526.
His body was first buried at Arambagh in Agra.
The Mughal rulers did not accept the authority of the
Later, he was buried in Kabul, a place that he chose in his
Caliphate and considered themselves independent kings.
former will.
Babur (1526-1530 AD)
He was a follower of the famous Naqshbandi Sufi saint
Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur was born on 14 th
Khwaja Ubaidullah Ahrar.
February, 1483, in the small state of Ferghana.
He was succeeded by Humayun.
(Chattisgarh PCS, 2003)
He was the fifth descendant of Timur from the paternal Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556 AD)
side and the fourteenth descendant of Chengiz Khan After Babur’s death, the eldest son Nasiruddin Muhammad
from the maternal side. Humayun ascended the throne at the age of twenty-three.
His father’s name was Umar Sheikh Mirza and his Humayun was born in Kabul in 1508.
mother’s name was Qutlugh Nigar Khanum. His mother Maham Begum belonged to the Shia sect.
Babur ascended the throne of Fergana in June 1494, at the He gave Kabul and Qandahar to his brother Kamran,
age of eleven. Sanbhal to Mirza Askari Alwar and Mewat to Mirza
He annexed Kabul in 1504 and assumed the title of Hindal out of his empire.
‘Padshah’ in 1507. (UPPCS, 2015) He gave the kingdom of Badakhshan to his cousin
He invaded five times to establish an empire in India. Suleiman Mirza.
He defeated the Yusufzai clan in his first campaign in 1519 His contemporary Afghan leader was Sher Khan, known
and went back after taking possession of Bajaur and Bhira. as Sher Shah Suri.
In the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 Babur first used He established a new city called Dinpanah.
the Tughlama battle tactic and the ‘Usmani’ tactic to
strengthen the artillery. (UPPCS, 1996) Major Battles of Humayun
Battle Year Between Conqueror
Major Battles of Babur
Battle of Chausa 26 June, Sher Khan and Sher Khan
Battle Date Between Conqueror 1539 Humayun
First Battle of 21 April,1526 Ibrahim Lodi Babur Battle of Bilgram 17 May, Sher Khan and Sher Khan
Panipat and Babur 1540 Humayun (UPBEO, 2019)

Battle of 16 March,1527 Rana Sanga Babur After winning the Battle of Chausa, Sher Khan assumed
Khanwa and Babur (UPPCS, 2004) the title of 'Sher Shah'.
Battle of 29 January,1528 Medni Rai Babur In the Bilgram Battle, Sher Khan defeated Humayun and
Chanderi and Babur annexed Agra and Delhi.
Battle of 6 May, 1529 Afghan and Babur
After his defeat in the Bilgram battle, Humayun migrated
Ghaghra Babur to Sindh and later to Iran, where he continued to live in
exile for 15 years (1540–1555).
After the Battle of Khanwa, Babur abolished the tax on
Humayun married Hamida Banu Begum, the daughter of
Muslims 'Tangha'.
the spiritual Guru of Persia Mir Ali Akbar Jami on 29th
He assumed the title of ‘Ghazi’ after his victory in the battle
August, 1541, while in exile.
of Khanwa.
Akbar was born to Hamida Banu Begum.
At the time of the Khanwa battle, Babur declared jihad
On 22nd June, 1555, Humayun defeated Sikandar Shah
(crusade to protect Islam). (UPPCS, 2009)
He mentioned two Hindu kingdoms along with five Suri in the Battle of Sirhind and annexed Delhi.
Muslim ones in his autobiography Babur Nama, one is Humayun Nama was written by his sister Gulbadan
Vijayanagara and the other is Mewar. (UPPCS, 1995) Begum. (UPPCS, 2002)

He wrote his autobiography Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Babur Nama Humayun believed in astrology. Thus, he made it a point
in Persian) in the Turkish language. (BPSC, 2015) to wear clothes of seven colours in a week with colour
His autobiography was translated into Persian by Abdul changing each day of the week.
Rahim Khane Khanan. Payanda Khan also assisted in On 27th January, 1556, Humayun died after falling from
this work. the stairs of the library at Dinpanah Palace.
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In the words of historian Lane-Poole, he "tumbled out of Islam Shah erected five forts there to protect the north-
life as he had tumbled through it". west border. These forts were built at Shergarh, Islamgarh,
The first garden tomb of the Indian Subcontinent is Rashidgarh, Firuzgarh and Mankot. These were jointly
Humayun's Tomb. called the ‘Forts of Mankot’.
Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545 AD) Akbar (1556-1605 AD)
Sher Shah was born in 1472 at a place called Bajwara Akbar was born on 15th October, 1542, of Humayun’s wife
(Hoshiarpur) of an Afghan wife of Hasan Sur. Hamida Banu Begum at Amarkot.
His childhood nickname was Farid. He belonged to the His childhood nickname was Jalal.
Sur Dynasty. He was in Punjab when Humanyun died.
His father was Hassan Khan, a landlord of Sasaram. He was crowned at the age of 13 on 14th February, 1556, at
Bahar Khan Lohani, the then ruler of southern Bihar, was Kalanaur on the throne of bricks by his patron Bairam
pleased with his bravery and conferred on him the title of Khan. (Chattisgarh PCS, 2015)
‘Sher Shah’. Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar ascended the throne
Sher Shah established Sur Dynasty and the second Afghan assuming the title of Ghazi.
Empire in North India in 1540. His teacher Abdul Latif was an Iranian scholar.
He ascended the throne of Delhi after defeating Humayun Bairam Khan remained a patron of Akbar from 1556 to
in the Battle of Bilgram in 1540. 1560.
He built ‘Rohtasgarh Fort’. Bairam Khan was killed by an Afghan in Gujarat during
He defeated Maldeo in 1543-44 and annexed Ajmer, a pilgrimage to Mecca.
Jodhpur and Marwar. In a bid to expand the empire, Akbar made his first attack
The battle at Kalinjar in 1545 is considered his last in 1561 against Baz Bahadur, the ruler of Malwa.
campaign. (UP RO/ARO, 2016) The Mughal army conquered Ahmadnagar in 1600 despite
He died in a gunpowder explosion on 13th May, 1545. facing strong opposition from Chand Bibi.
Kalinjar was ruled by Kirat Singh at the time of this Abdul Rahim had conferred the title of Khan-i- Khanan.
campaign.
Sher Shah’s tomb was built on the high mound in the middle Important Works by Akbar
of the lake in ‘Sasaram’ in Bihar. Work Year (AD)
(UPPCS, 2002, MPPCS, 2016) Abolition of Slave Practice 1562
He studied in Jaunpur which was an important centre of
Abolition of Purdah System 1562
higher education at that time. (RAS/RTS, 2013)
He is considered to be the precursor of Akbar as emperor Abolition of Pilgrimage Tax 1563
(BPSC, 2011)
and administrator.
He built the mosque named Rohtasgarh Fort, Qila-i- Abolition of Jizya Tax 1564
Kuhna (Delhi). (UPPCS, 2016) Foundation of Fatehpur Sikri 1571
He built the buildings of Purana Qila in Delhi.
Change of capital from Agra to Fatehpur 1571
He used 30.36-inch Gaj-e-Sikandari and Flax stem for
Sikri
land measurement.
He introduced Kabuliyat and Patta System.(UPPCS, 2008) Establishment of Ibadatkhana (House of 1575
He introduced silver and copper coins. (UPPCS, 1991)
Worship) (MPPCS, 1981)

He re-established Pataliputra as Patna in 1541. Proclamation of Mazhar 1579

He defeated the ruler of Bengal, Nusrat Shah, and assumed Din-i-Ilahi was established 1582
the title of ‘Hazrat-i- Ala’. (44th BPSC, 2000)
Beginning of Ilahi Era 1583
He was impressed by the valour of the Rajputs in the war
of Marwar, said that "for a handful of Bajra, I nearly lost On 5th November, 1556, the second battle of Panipat took
the Kingdom of Hindustan". The ruler there at that time place between Akbar and Hemu.
was Maldeo. (UPPCS, 2007) Raja Birbal died in an attack by the Yusufzais.
Sher Shah was succeeded by his son Islam Shah. Akbar built the Buland Darwaza at the capital at Fatehpur
(MPPCS, 2018) Sikri in commemoration of Gujarat victory.(UPPCS, 1993)
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Kandahar province first came under the Mughal rule in Famous musician Tansen lived in Akbar’s court.
1595 during Akbar’s reign. Akbar conferred the title of ‘Kanthabharan Vani Vilas’
Akbar’s Rajput policy was based on repression and on Tansen.
settlement. His original name was Ramtanu Pandey. (UPPCS, 2011)
Akbar won Khandesh, a southern kingdom, in 1601. The main works of Tansen are Miyan Ki Todi, Miyan Ki
Malik Ambar, who opposed the Mughals in the Deccan, Malhar, Darbari Kanhara and Miyan Ka Sarang, etc.
was an efficient administrator of the Ahmednagar State. Tansen, one of the Nauratnas of Akbar's court, was expertise
The first rebellion during Akbar’s reign occurred in 1564 in playing the Rudra Veena or Rabab.
when Uzbeks rose in revolt. Swami Haridas was a great musician during Akbar’s reign.
In the Battle of Haldighati (1576), the commander of He lived in Vrindavan and sang devotional songs of Lord
Akbar was Man Singh. (UP PCS, 2010) Krishna.
Akbar conferred the title of ‘Amir-ul-Umra’ on Bhagwan The famous painters of Akbar’s court were Abdus Samad,
Das, the son of Raja Bharmal of Amer. Daswanth and Basawan. (RAS/RTS, 1992)
During the conquest of Gujarat, Akbar first time saw the Baz Bahadur, Baba Ramdas and Baiju Bawra were
sea and met the Portuguese. prominent composers during Akbar’s reign.
Akbar was the principal patron of the Din-i-Ilahi religion
The main feature of Akbar’s system of governance was the
which he started in 1582. (Chattisgarh PCS, 2011)
Mansabdari System.
Abul Fazl was the chief priest of the Din-i-Ilahi religion.
The Mansabdari System was borrowed from Central Asia
He also composed Akbar Nama.
(Mongolia), and its inspiration came from the Caliph ‘Abba
Note : Smith said- 'Din-i-Ilahi is a memorial to Akbar’s Said’.
stupidity, not his intelligence'. Adham Khan, the son of Maham Anga was killed by Akbar
Faizi, the elder brother of Abul Fazl, held the position of in 1562. (UPPCS, 2010)
poet laureate at the court of Akbar. Adham Khan had killed Akbar's lawyer Ataga Khan.
Birbal was the first and last Hindu to accept Din-i-Ilahi The state of Mewar did not accept Akbar’s Suzerainty.
religion. (UP Lower, 2004)
His childhood nickname was Mahesh Das. After the death of Rana Pratap, his son Rana Amar Singh
Akbar conferred the titles of ‘Jagadguru’ on Jain Acharya concluded a treaty with Jahangir in 1615.
Hari Vijaya Suri and ‘Yug Pradhan’ on Jin Chandra Suri. In 1580, a religious teacher of Jaunpur, Mulla Yazdi issued
(UPPCS, 2002) a fatwa for all Muslims to rise in revolt against Akbar.
Akbar conferred the titles of ‘Raja’ and ‘Kavi Rai’ on (UPPCS, 2011)
Birbal. The style of the Panchmahal building at Fatehpur Sikri
‘Rahim’ or Abdul Rahim was a famous Hindi poet at built by Akbar is similar to a Buddhist Vihara.
Akbar’s court. Birbal, Abul Fazl, Tansen, Todar Mal, Faizi, Man Singh,
Sheikh Mubarak drafted the document titled ‘Mazhar’. Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Mulla do Piaza, and
Sheikh Mubarak was the father of Abul Fazl and Faizi. Fakir Azizuddin were the nine jewels at Akbar’s Court.
Diwan Todar Mal of Akbar gained fame in the field of land Abul Fazl was killed by a Sardar named Vir Singh
revenue collection. (UPPCS, 1992) Bundela in 1602 while returning to Agra from the south
He implemented the Dahsala system for land revenue. under Jahangir’s instructions. (JPCS, 2013)
Todar Mal was known as Mushrif-i-Diwan. (VDO, 2023) Akbar set up a translation department headed by Faizi.
In 24th year of his rule, Akbar introduced a new tax system As wished by Akbar, Abdul Qadir Badauni translated the
called ‘Ain-i-Dahsala’ or ‘Zabt System’. (BPSC, 1994) Ramayana written in Sanskrit into Persian.
Under this system, revenue was charged one-third of (UPPCS, 2013, 15)
the average by taking the standard of the last ten years Faizi translated Leelavati, and Abul Fazl translated Kalia
production of different crops and their prevailing prices at Daman into Persian.
the same time. Akbar’s reign is called the ‘golden period of Hindi
Coins with figures of Rama and Sita and Ram Siya written Literature’.
in Devnagari script were issued during Akbar's reign. Akbar conferred the title of ‘Kavipriya’ on Birbal and
(UPPCS, 2011) ‘Mahapatra’ on Narahari.
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Akbar conferred the title of ‘Zari Kalam’ on Muhammad Do - Aspa and Shi-Aspa were introduced during the reign
Hussain and ‘Sirin Kalam’ on Abdus Samad. of Jahangir. (16th BPSC, 2004)
(UPPCS, 1995) First, this post was given to Mahavat Khan, the commander
Akbar’s contemporary was the famous Sufi Saint Sheikh of Jahangir.
Salim Chishti. The Treaty of Chittorgarh was signed between Rana Amar
Akbar was a contemporary of Queen Elizabeth-I of Singh and the Mughal Emperor Jahangir in 1615.
England. (UPPCS 2002)
(UPPCS, 2008)
At the time of the establishment of the East India Company
in December 1600, the Queen of England was Elizabeth. Sikh Gurus
Ralph Fitch was the first English merchant to reach Guru Period Achievements
Fatehpur Sikri and Agra. (UPCS, 2003)
Nanak 1469-1539 Founder of Sikhism
The official language of the Mughals was Persian.
(UPPCS, 2012) Angad 1539-1552 Father of Gurmukhi script
(UPPCS, 2017)
Akbar used to play an instrument called Nakkara (Nagara).
Akbar died on 16th October, 1605, after suffering from Amar Das 1552-1574 Construction of 22 preaching
dysentery. centres
Akbar was buried at Sikandra near Agra. Ram Das 1574-1581 Founder of Amritsar City
Jahangir (1605-1627 A.D.) (UPPCS, 1996)
Jahangir (Salim), the son of Mughal emperor Akbar, Arjan Dev 1581–1606 Built the Golden Temple
was born on 30th August 1569, at Sheikh Salim Chishti’s Hargobind Singh 1606–1644 Erected the Akal Takht
hut located at Fatehpur Sikri of Mariam-uz-Zamani, the
Har Rai 1644–1661 Participated in the war of
daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amer (Jaipur).
succession
Mariam-uz-Zamani’s real name was Harkha Bai.
Jahangir was named Salim after the Sufi saint Salim Chishti. Har Krishan 1661-1664 Died at a young age
Salim’s main teacher was Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan. Tegh Bahadur 1664-1675 Hanged by Aurangzeb
He was crowned at Agra Fort on 12th October, 1605. (Chhattisgarh PCS, 2004)

After the coronation, he assumed the title of ‘Nuruddin Gobind Singh 1675-1708 Establishment of Khalsa Panth
(MPPCS, 2014)
Muhammad Jahangir Badshah Ghazi’.
The twelve declarations of Jahangir were called Tuzk-e- Jahangir had five sons- 1.Khusrau, 2.Parviz, 3. Khurram,
Jahangiri. 4.Shaharyar and 5.Jahandar. (MPPCS, 2015)
Jahangir’s eldest son Khusrau revolted against his father Khurram (Shah Jahan) revolted, but the revolt was
in 1606. Khurram killed Khusrau in 1622. suppressed by Mahabat Khan in 1623.
Arjun Dev, the fifth Guru of the Sikhs, was executed for Mughal painting reached its climax during the reign of
the crime of assisting Khusrau.
Jahangir. (IAS 1996)
Amar Singh, the Sisodiya Rajpur ruler of Mewar, accepted
Jahangir’s reign is considered the golden period of
the Service of the Mughal's during the reign of Jahangir.
painting.
Jahangir married Mehrunnisa (Nur Jahan) in 1611 and
conferred the title of ‘Nur Mahal’on her. Ustad Mansoor and Abul Hasan were the best painters
Mehrunnisa was the former wife of Ali Quli Beg. during the reign of Jahangir.
Jahangir conferred the title of ‘Sher Afghan’ on Ali Quli Emperor Jahangir conferred the title of ‘Nadir-ul-Asr’ on
Begh for killing a lion. Ustad Mansur and ‘Nadir-ud-Jama’ on Abul Hasan.
After the death of Sher Afghan, Mehrunnisa was employed (UPPCS, 2013, 04)
in the service of Salima Begum, Akbar’s widow. Ustad Mansur was a famous painter of birds' pictures,
Lado Begum, the daughter of Mehrunnisa from Sher while Abul Hasan had mastered in painting of human
Afghan, was married to Shaharyar, the son of Jahangir. pictures. (UPPCS, 1998)
Jahangir appointed Nur Jahan’s father Ghiyas Begh as Jahangir wrote his autobiography ‘Tuzuk-e-Jahangiri’ in
diwan and conferred the title of ‘Itimad ud-Daulah’ on Persian. (UPPCS, 2001)
him.
Mutamid Khan wrote the biography of Jahangir, known as
Jahangir banned the use of tobacco in his empire.
(UPPCS, 2005)
Iqbalnama-i-Jahangiri.
Nur Jahan built the tomb of his father “Itmad-ud-Daulah”
Note : Nur Jahan formed a group called ‘Junta Group’. between 1622 and 1628. (BPSC, 2008)
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After Jahangir’s death, his son, Shah Jahan ascended the

Note : Notably, it is the first building finished in white
throne in 1628.
marble.
In 1632, Shah Jahan waged a campaign against the
The tomb of Itmad-ud-Daulah was the first work in Pietra
Portuguese at Hooghly, where the Portuguese were
Dura style (inlay) of construction.
defeated.
Mughal Rulers and Their Nick Names Mumtaz Mahal died in June, 1631 due to labour pain.
Ruler Nickname After the death of Mumtaz Mahal, Shah Jahan built the
Aurangzeb Zinda Pir Taj Mahal in her memory.
Ustad Ahmad Lahori was the chief architect to built the
Jahandar Shah Lustful stupid
Taj Mahal.
Farrukhsiyar Disgusting coward
Rafi-ud-Darjat Puppet ruler Note : Humayun’s Tomb is considered to be the
Muhammad Shah Rangila precursor of the Taj Mahal.
Bahadur Shah-I Shahi-i-Bekhabar Shah Jahan’s reign is called as the ‘golden period of Mughal
Bahadur Shah-II Zafar rule for its architectural beauty.
Shah Jahan built Moti Masjid at Agra Fort.
Jahangir’s scripture is engraved on Ashoka’s Kaushambi
Pillar. Note : The construction of the Red Fort was completed
William Hawkins came to the Mughal emperor Jahangir's under the supervision of ‘Hamid Ahmad’.
court.
Jahangir offered the mansab of 400 to Hawkins. Major Books During Mughal Period
He conferred the title of ‘English Khan’ on Hawkins and Book Name Author Language
married him to a woman from Armenia. (UPPCS, 2015)
Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Babur Nama) Babur Turkish
He was buried in a garden at Shahdara (Lahore).
Tarikh-e-Rashidi Mirza Haider Dughlat Persian
(UK Lower, 2010)
His tomb was built by Nur Jahan. Humayun Nama Gulbadan Begum Persian
Sir Thomas Roe was the first ambassador of the British Tarikh - i - Salatin - i - Afghaniyah Ahmad Yadgar Persian
Emperor, who came to the court of Jahangir. (UPPCS, 2008) Habib - Us - Siyar & Khondmir Sayyid Khundmir Persian
Major Architecture Qanun-i-Humayuni
Architecture Builder Year (A.D) Tarikh-i-Sher Shahi Abdas Khan Persian
Agra Fort Akbar 1565-73 Tohfa-i-Akbar Shahi Sarwani
Fatehpur Sikri Akbar 1571-85 Akbar Nama Abul Fazl Persian
Taj Mahal Shah Jahan 1631-48
Tobaqat-i-Akbari (UPPCS, 2016) Nizamuddin Ahmad Persian
Jama Masjid (Delhi) Shah Jahan 1644-56
Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh Abdul Qadir Badauni Persian
Red Fort Shah Jahan 1639-48
Iqbalnama-i- Jahangiri Mutamad Khan Persian
Bibi Ka Maqbara Azam Shah 1651-61
Tazkirat-ul-Waqiat Jauhar Aftabchi Persian
(Aurangzeb's son)
Waqiat-e-Mushtaqi Rizaqulla Mushtaqi Persian
Shah Jahan (1628–1658) AD
Shah Jahan was born in Lahore on January 1592 to Mughal emperor Shahjahan built Sheesh Mahal in Agra.
Jahangir’s wife Jagat Gosain Manavati (Rajput). Shah Jahan first invaded Ahmadnagar in south India and
Jagat Gosai was the daughter of Mota Raja Udai Singh, conquered and annexed it to the Mughal Empire in 1636.
the ruler of Jodhpur. Shah Jahan was presented the Kohinoor diamond by
The childhood name of Shah Jahan was Khurram. Muhammad Sayyid (Mir Jumla). (UPPCS, 2015)
In 1612, Khurram married Arjumand Banu Begum, the Mir Jumla was the Prime Minister of Sultan Abdullah Qutb
daughter of Asaf Khan. Shah of Golconda.
‘Arjumand Banu Begum’ was later known as ‘Mumtaz Shah Jahan shifted his capital from Agra to Delhi in 1638.
Mahal’. (JPCS, 2003) (UPPCS, 2008)
Shah Jahan conferred the title of Wazir on Asaf Khan He laid the foundation stone of Shahjahanabad on the
and Khan-i-Khanan on Mahabat Khan. right bank of Yamuna.
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During the reign of Shah Jahan, Dara Shukoh translated the 4. Mumtaz Mahal Dear wife of Shah Jahan. She was also a
Upanishads into Persian titled Sirr-e-Akbar.(UPPCS, 2000) prominent expert in cosmetics and jewellery.
He appointed an Iranian who composed poems in Persian 5. Jahanara Jahanara was the eldest daughter of Shah
style, Kalim as a ‘royal poet’. (UPPCS, 2015)
Jahan, a woman of very high religious and
He abolished the court custom ‘Sijda’ started by Balban. moral ideology. She remained with Shah
(UPPCS, 2010)
Jahan during his captivity.
He had four sons - Dara, Shah Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad.
6. Zebunnisa The daughter of Aurangzeb, she established
In September 1657, Shah Jahan fell seriously ill. Rumours
a library called “Betul-ul-Uloom” in Delhi.
of his death resulted in a war of succession among his sons.
7. Asmat Begum Invented the method of making perfumes.
Shah Jahan conferred the title of “Shah Buland Iqbal” on
Dara Shukoh. (UP RO/ARO, 2014)
Aurangzeb (1658–1707) AD
In April 1658, the Battle of Dharmat was fought between Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb was born on 3 rd
the imperial army and Aurangzeb, where the royal army November, 1618, of Mumtaz Mahal, the wife of Shah Jahan,
was defeated. (IAS, 2003) near Ujjain, at a place called ‘Dohad’.
In May 1658, the battle of Samugarh between Dara Aurangzeb was first coronated on 21st July, 1658, and the
Shukoh and Aurangzeb where Dara was took place in which second at Delhi on 5th June, 1659. (UPPCS, 2002)

defeated. He was called Zinda Pir. (UP RO/ARO, 2017)

The last battle of succession was fought between Dara and Treaty of Purandar was signed on 11th June, 1665,
Aurangzeb in the Valley of Deorai in March, 1659. between Jai Singh and Shivaji.
Dara was defeated in the Battle of Deorai and while On the assurance of Mirza Raja Jai Singh, on 12th May,
wandering in the wilderness, he reached Malik Jeevan 1666, Shivaji along with his son Shambhaji appeared at
Khan, the zamindar of Dadar. the court of Aurangzeb where he was fraudulently arrested
Malik Jeevan fraudulently handed Dara over to Aurangzeb. and kept in Jaipur Bhavan.
Aurangzeb killed Dara after insulting him. Shivaji escaped from Aurangzeb’s arrest through a
stratagem.
Note : ‘A.L. Srivastava has called the reign of Shah
Guru Teg Bahadur was the ninth of ten Gurus of the
Jahan the ‘golden period’ of the Mughal empire.
(41th BPSC, 1996)
Sikh religion. He was publicly beheaded by the orders of
Aurangzeb in 1675 for refusing to convert in to Islam.
Shah Jahan died on 22nd January, 1666.
(Chattisgarh PCS, 2005)
He was buried at the Taj Mahal near the tomb of his wife.
Aurangzeb abolished major Abwabas (local taxes), such
Dara Shukoh
as ‘Rahadari’ (inland transport duty) and Paandari
Dara Shukoh was born in 1615 of Shah Jahan’s beloved
(mercantile taxes) for the redressal of the economic
wife Mumtaz Mahal.
sufferings of the subjects.
For Dara's tolerance and generosity, Lane-Poole has called
He re-imposed Jizya tax in April 1679. (UP PCS, 2002)
him 'Little Akbar'.
He was a staunch conservative Sunni Muslim.
Daras Shukoh translated Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita,
In 17th century, Bibi Ka Maqbara was built in Aurangabad
Yoga Vashishth and Ramayana into Persian.
(Maharashtra) by Aurangzeb's son Azam Shah. This
Majm-ul-Bahrain is the original creation of Dara Shukoh.
(Chhattisgarh PCS, 2018) Maqbara was commissioned by Aurangzeb and built by
Azam Shah.
Prominent Women During Mughal Period
Sl. Note : Bibi Ka Maqbara is also known as the ‘Second
Woman Work
No. Taj Mahal’. (UPPCS, 2013)
1. Gulbadan Composed Humayun Nama. She was a fiery Aurangzeb annexed Bijapur to the Mughal Empire in 1686.
Begum scholar of Arabic and Persian. (UPPCS, 1992)
2. Maham Anga Till 1560-62 AD, she ran the petticoat Golconda was annexed to the Mughal Empire in 1687 by
government Established ‘Madrasa-i- Aurangzeb.
Begum’ in Delhi. (UPPCS, 2012) The Brahmins named Madanna and Akana were related to
3. Nur Jahan Jahagir's wife, led ‘Junta Group’ which Abul Hasan, the ruler of Golconda.
brought about an elegant transformation in During the reign of Aurangzeb, the Mughal army had the
many cosmetics and jewellery. maximum number of Hindu commanders. (UPPCS, 2000)
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Aurangzeb stopped the practice of lighting diyas on After issuing the certificate called ‘Sarkhat’, the soldiers
Thursday (Jumerat) night on pirs and other graves. were paid salaries.
His goal was to make India country Dar-ul-Islam in place In Mughal administrative parlance the word ‘Mal’ was
of Dar-ul-Harb. related to land revenue. (UP Lower, 2009)
He prohibited Hindu festivals and celebrations.
During the reign of Aurangzeb, there was a rebellion led
Some Mughal Officials
by Jat leaders Gokul and Rajaram. Mustaufi Auditor
This rebellion was suppressed in 1670 where Gokul died. Mushrif Accountant
Taking advantage of Aurangzeb’s engagements in southern Mir-e-Barr Forest Superintendent
campaigns, a rebellion against started led by Rajarama, in
Mir-i-Bahar Chief of the Naval Staff
which the Jats looted Akbar’s tomb at Sikandra.
The foundation of Bharatpur dynasty was laid by Wakia Navis News Reporter
Churaman, a Jat leader and nephew of Rajaram, during Sawaneh Nigar Biographer
the reign of Aurangzeb. Khufia Navis Secret Writer
Aurangzeb appointed Raja Bishan Singh Kachwaha of
Harkarah Verbal Reporter
Amer to eliminate the Jats.
Bishan Singh defeated Churaman and annexed his kingdom. In the Mughal administration, Muhtasib was the Chief of
Aurangzeb was skilled at playing Veena. (UPPCS, 2010) the Inspection Department of Public Conduct.
He banned writing the history of that time in his court. (47th BPSC, 2005)
Music was banned by Aurangzeb. Akbar expelled the prostitutes from the city and settled
During the reign of Aurangzeb, most books of classical them in a new place and named it ‘Shaitanpuri’.
music were written in Persian. The Mansabdari system was a special administrative
He banned Kalma inscriptions on coins, celebrating Navroz system, introduced by Akbar. (UPPCS, 1992)
festival, cultivating hemp, Jharokha darshan, song-music, The Mughal military system was based on the decimal
etc. system.
Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb attempted to demolish the The word Mansab means 'category' or 'Rank'.
Kailash temple in Ellora. There were 33 categories under the Mansabdari System.
His physician was ‘François Bernier’, a French traveller. Akbar introduced the dual system of Zat and Sawar in the
He died on 3rd of March, 1707 at Ahmadnagar. 40th year of his rule.
He was buried near the tomb of Sufi saint Zain-ud-din Land revenue was the major source of income of the State
Shirazi, four miles away from Daulatabad. during the medieval period.
13. Mughal Government System An order given by a prince was called ‘Nishaan’.
The royal order was called ‘Farman’.
The basis of Mughal kingship was ‘Shariat’ (combined ‘Al-tamgha Jagir’ was started in the time of Jahangir.
name of Quran and Hadis).
The Mughal regime was highly centralized. Medieval Currencies
The word ‘Wizarat’ was used for the Council of Ministers. Currency Dynasty Metal
The Mughal Prime Minister was called ‘Wakil’. Muhar Akbar Gold Coin
The Diwan, Mir Bakhshi, Mir Saman and Sadr-us- Sudur
Shamsab Akbar Gold Coin (Largest)
were assistants to the Wakil.
Akbar increased the powers of the Diwan to limit powers Ilahi Akbar Gold Coin
of Wakil. Rupaya Sher Shah Silver Coin
Akbar established a new post ‘Diwan-i-Wazarat-i- Kul’ Dam Akbar Copper Coin
in the 8th year of his reign. (UPPCS, 2008)
During the reign of Aurangzeb, Asad Khan served as Diwan Jital Iltutmish Copper Coin
for 31 years.
Nisar Jahangir Copper Coin
Mir Bakhshi was the head of the military department in
the Mughal period. (IAS, 1997) The Judicial Department was headed by Qazi-ul-Quzat.
Mir Bakhshi was in charge of military payments and The principal officer of the Royal Home Department was
accounts. also known as ‘Mir Saman’ or ‘Khan-i- Saman’.
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‘Tanab’ was a bamboo rod with iron rings used for land In Pargana, Amil, Qanungo and Amin were the principal
measurement. officers for land revenue collection.
Takavi was an agricultural loan given by the government Akbar employed an officer named Karori in all areas
to farmers. of northern India except Bengal, Bihar and Gujarat to
Khut was the title of revenue collector of the village. implement his Dahsala system in 1573.
Zaribana was a fee paid to the employees measuring the Akbar introduced ‘Jharoka Darshan’ and ‘Tuladan’.
land from Jarib. Aurangzeb stopped Jharoka Darshan and Tuladan.
Madad-i-Mash was a grant of land or pension provided to
Women in Mughal Period
saints and scholars. (46th BPSC, 2003)
Akbar’s foster mother Maham Anga ran the Purdah
During Akbar’s rule, the land was divided into four
government from 1560-62 AD and established the ‘Khair-
categories on the basis of the yield - Polaj, Parati, Chachar
ul-Manzil Madrasa’ in Delhi.
and Banjar.
Nur Jahan was the wife of Jahangir who led the 'Junta
Akbar started using Ilahi Gaj (41 Angul or 33 inches) in
group'.
place of Sikandari Gaj (30.36 inches) in the 31st year of
Nur Jahan’s mother, Asmat Begum invented the art of
rule (1686-87) for land measurement.
extracting perfumes from rose flowers.
During the Mughal Period, the major system of land revenue
determination was Batai or Ghalla Bakhshi. (BPSC, 2008) Peshwa Battles and Its Consequences
The offerings made by the rich to the emperor on various Battle Year Between Conqueror
occasions in the Mughal period was called Nazarana or Kheda 1707 Tarabai and Shahu Shahu
‘offering’.
Varna 1731 Shambhaji and Shahu
The foundation of Jagirdari system was laid during the Shahu
reign of Akbar.
Sangola 1750 Peshwa and Peshwa
Jagirs used to have hereditary officers called ‘Chaudhuri’ Chhatrapati
and ‘Qanungo’ related to the Land Revenue Administration. Third Battle of 1761 Abdali and Balaji Abdali
Jahangir appointed a Hindu named ‘Srikanth’ as the Panipat Bajirao
‘Judge’ to decide the cases of Hindus. I- Anglo- 1775-1782 British and The British
In the Kankut System, cultivation was measured by steps Maratha Battle Maratha (Treaty of
or rope, and then revenue was estimated by estimating the Salbai)
yield per bigha. Maratha II- 1803-1805 British and The British
Anglo-Maratha Maratha
Mughal Emperors and Their Provinces Battle
Name of III-Anglo- 1817-1818 British and The British
Number of Subahs Newly joined Subah Maratha Battle Maratha
Emperor
Akbar 12 Provinces (12+3=15) 3 (Barar, Khandesh and Real Names and Titles of Mughal Rulers
Described in Ain-i- Ahmadnagar)
Ruler Real Name Titles
Akbari
Babur Babur Padshah, Mirza, Ghazi
Jahangir 15 Provinces (Kangra
Humayun Humayun Nasirunddin Muhammad
Jeetak merged with
Akbar Jalal Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar
Lahore) Badshah Ghazi
Shah Jahan 18 Provinces 3 (Kashmir, Thatta and Jahangir Saleem Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir
Odisha) Badshah Ghazi
Aurangzeb 20 Provinces 2 (Bijapur- 1686 and Shah Jahan Khurram Abul Muzaffar Shahabuddin,
Muhammad Sahib, Qiran-i-Sani
Golconda- 1687)
Aurangzeb Aurangzeb Abul Muzaffar, Muhi-ud-Din
Mughal Revenue Officers Muhammad, Aurangzeb Bahadur,
The main unit of land revenue was the village which Alamgir, Badshah Ghazi
consisted of two officers belonging to Malguzari (Revenue) Bahadur Shah-I Mohammad Shah Alam-I, Shahi-i-Bekhabar
- Muqaddam and Patwari. Muazzam

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Jahandar Shah Muizuddin Lustful Stupid There was a council of ministers named Ashta Pradhan
during the Maratha rule. (UPPCS, 2013)
Farrukhsiyar Farrukh-siyar Abominable Coward
Alamgir-II Aziz-ud-din Alamgir-II
Ashta Pradhan
Peshwa Minister of King
Shah Alam-II Ali Gauhar Shah Alam-II
Amatya Revenue and Finance Minister
Shah Jahan-II Rafi-ud-dawlah Shah Jahan-II
Waqia-Navis King’s day-to-day operations and the daily
Muhammad Muhammad Rangeela proceedings of the court
Shah Shah
Sachiv Head of Royal Correspondence
Mughal Emperors and Their Mausoleums Samant or Dabir Foreign Minister (MPPCS, 2014)

Mughal Emperor Tomb Senapati or Sar- Military recruitment, organization,

i-Naubat logistics, etc.
Babur Kabul
Pandit Rao Head of religious affairs
Humayun Delhi
Nyayadhish Chief Justice
Akbar Agra (Sikandra)
Shivaji died in 1680.
Jahangir Lahore (Shahdara)
Successors of Shivaji
Shah Jahan Agra
1. Shambha ji Shambha ji was the eldest son of Shivaji
Aurangzeb Aurangabad (Daulatabad) who ruled between 1680 and 1689.
2. Rajaram Maratha freedom struggle against the
14. Advancement of Marathas Mughals continued under the leadership
of Rajaram. Shivaji’s younger son Rajaram
Shivaji is said to have been the founder of the Maratha
ruled as the representative of Shahu, the son
Empire. of Shambhaji.
He was born on 19th February 1630 in the fort of Shivneri.
3. Tarabai After the death of Rajaram, his widow
His father’s name was Shahji Bhonsle and mother’s name Tarabai's four-year-old son Shivaji-II
was Jija Bai. ascended the throne and the struggle
Samarth Ramdas was the teacher of Shivaji. continued.
Shivaji captured the forts of 'Kalyan' and 'Javali' in Konkan 4. Shahuji Maratha power expanded during the reign
in 1656. of Shahuji.
The Sultan of Bijapur sent his commander Afzal Khan to After Shivaji's death, Power in the Maratha state effectively
subjugate Shivaji in 1659. (UPPCS, 1999) passed into the hands of the Peshwas. Peshwa Chitpavan
Aurangzeb appointed Shaista Khan, as the Governor of was from a Brahmin Family who served Shivagi's
Deccan to subdue Shivaji. Successors.
Shivaji entered into a treaty with Raja Jai Singh on 11th During the Maratha period, Saranjami System was related
June, 1665. This treaty became famous as the ‘Treaty of to land revenue administration. (BPSC, 1994)
Purandar’. Shivaji’s land revenue system was influenced by the one
Aurangzeb imprisoned Shivaji in 1666 at Jaipur Bhavan in adopted by Malik Ambar.
Agra, from where he managed to escape. (MPPCS, 2005) The income of the land was determined by ‘Kadi’ and
Shivaji was coronated in 1674 and assumed the title of ‘Zarib’.
‘Chhatrapati’ which made Raigad his capital.(UPPCS, 1996) ‘Chauth’ and ‘Sardeshmukhi’ were the second- largest
Pandit Vishweshwar alias ‘Ganga Bhatta’ of Banaras source of state's income apart from land tax.
declared him a Kshatriya and crowned him. Peshwas
Shivaji entered Poona stealthily in the night and suddenly Balaji Vishwanath (1713- Balaji Vishwanath is famous
attacked Shaista Khan in 1663. Shaista Khan panicked and 1720 ) as the second founder of the
ran away. Maratha Empire.
He invaded Surat in 1664. Peshwa Bajirao-I (1720- Bajirao proved to be the best
He attacked Surat again in 1670. 1740 ) Maratha general. Maratha
He used to give salary in cash to the officers by abolishing dominated the entire Malwa
the practice of granting jagir. region and Gujarat in 1733.
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Balaji Bajirao (1740-1761)During the period of During the reign of Muhammad Shah, the Persian ruler
Balaji Bajirao, the Chauth Nadir Shah attacked Delhi in 1739. (UPPCS, 2004)
and Sardeshmukhi were The Battle of Karnal took place on 24 February 1739,
th

recovered from the south. when the Mughal army was defeated.
Madhav Rao-I (1761-1772) — Nadir Shah is known as the Napoleon of Iran.
Narayan Rao (1772-1773 ) — He returned to Iran with Takht-i-Tavous and Kohinoor
Raghunath Rao (1773-1774) — diamonds that adored the court of Shah Jahan.
Madhav Ravnarayan (1774- — Muhammad Shah was the last Mughal ruler who enthroned
1796) the Takht-i-Tavous.
Bajirao-II (1796-1818) — Rafi-ud-Daulah assumed the title of Shah Jahan II.
In the reign of Muhammad Shah in 1748, Ahmad Shah
The post of Peshwa was abolished in 1818.
Abdali attacked India but returned after being defeated in
Peshwa Bajirao-II was exiled to Bithur in Kanpur on an
the battle of Manupur.
annual pension of eight lakh rupees.
Ahmad Shah Abdali is known as Durr-i - Durrani (the pearl
Modi script was used in Maratha inscriptions. of the era).
During the battle of Plassy, Alamgir II was ruling the
C History of Modern India Mughal empire.
The third battle of Panipat and the Battle of Buxar were
1. The Decline and Disintegration of the fought during the reign of Shah Alam II (Ali Gauhar).
Mughal Empire The third battle of Panipat was fought between Ahmad
Shah Abdali and the Marathas, in which the Marathas
Aurangzeb’s death was followed by a war of succession
were defeated.
among his three sons - Muazzam, Azam and Kam Bakhsh. During the reign of Shah Alam II, the British took over
His elder son, Muhammad Muazzam (Shah Alam) was Delhi in 1803.
victorious in the war of succession. Shah Alam-II granted Clive the Diwani (civil administration)
Muhammad Muazzam assumed the title of Bahadur of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. (UP UDA/LDA, 2006)
Shah-I after occupying the throne in Delhi. Slave Qadir Khan killed Shah Alam-II in 1806.
Bahadur Shah I freed Shivaji’s son Shahu from prison. Akbar-II conferred the title of Raja on Ram Mohan Roy.
He was also known as ‘Shahi-i- Bekhabar’. The last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah-II got the nickname
He abolished jizya tax levied by Aurangzeb. Zafar.
After the death of Bahadur Shah I, Jahandar Shah Bahadur Shah Zafar was imprisoned by the British for
became the emperor with the help of Zulfiqar Khan. taking part in the revolt of 1857 and exiled to Rangoon.
Jahandar Shah is also known as ‘lustful stupid’. He died there in 1862.
He had allowed a prostitute named Lal Kunwari to
The Later Mughal Emperors (in AD)
interfere in his administration.
Bahadur Shah-I (Shah-e-Bekhbar) 1707-1712
He conferred the title of ‘Mirza Raja’ on Jai Singh.
He conferred the title of Maharaja on Marwar ruler Ajit Jahandar Shah (Dissolute Fool) 1712-1713
Singh. Farrukh Siyar (Abominable Coward) 1713-1719
Sayyid brothers Hussain Ali Khan Barha and Abdullah Muhammad Shah (Rangeela) 1719-1748
Khan were known as king-makers. (UP RO/ARO, 2017)
Ahmad Shah 1748-1754
Farrukh Siyar was called a despicable coward among
Alamgir-II (Azizuddin) 1754-1759
Mughal rulers.
Farrukh Siyar executed Banda Bahadur in 1716. Shah Alam-II (Aligauhar) 1759-1806
Muhammad Shah got the nickname Rangeela, because Akbar-II 1806-1837
of leading a very luxurious life. (MPPCS, 2014) Bahadur Shah Zafar 1837-1857
Sayyid brothers witnessed their and end during the reign
of Muhammad Shah. Note : Farrukh Siyar was succeeded by Rafi - ud -
Hussain Ali Khan was assassinated by the Turani soldier Darajat (February, 1719 - June, 1719) and Rafi - Ud -
Haider Quli Khan in 1720. Daulah (June, 1719 - September, 1719).
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Independent States (from Mughals) Gustavus Fort was founded in 1653.

They employed industrial workers on pay for the first time
1. Awadh Saadat Khan (Burhan-ul-Mulk)
in India.
2. Hyderabad Chinkilich Khan or Nizam-ul-Mulk
They eventually suffered a decline in India in 1759 AD.
3. Ruhelkhand Daud Khan and Ali Muhammad Khan
The battle was fought between the British and the Dutch.
Bangesh
C. The English
4. Bengal Murshid Quli Khan Queen Elizabeth I of England granted the charter of
5. Karnataka Saadatullah Khan authority to the East India Company on 31st December,
6. Bharatpur Chudaman and Badan Singh 1600 AD. (IAS Pre, 1993, 1997, 1999)
Captain Hawkins came to the court of Jahangir in 1608 as
2. The Arrival of European Trade Companies an ambassador of the British East India Company.
A. The Portuguese Jahangir permitted the British to establish a permanent factory
Portuguese came to India at the end of the fifteenth century. at Surat in 1613 AD. (UPPCS, 2011, 2018; IAS, 2006, 2010)
They were the first amongst Europeans. Sir Tomas Roe came to the court of Jahangir in 1615 and
Vasco da Gama reached Calicut Port on the west coast obtained some facilities for English trade.
of India on 20th May 1498, discovering a new sea route to The Sultan of Golconda issued a golden decree to the
India from Europe. British in 1632 AD, according to which, by paying 500
(MPPCS, 1995, UPPCS, 1992; Chattisgarh PCS, 2004, 2022)
pagodas annually, the British could trade freely at the Port
The Hindu king Zamorin of Calicut warmly welcomed
of Golconda state. (CPF, 2007, 2011, 2017)
Vasco da Gama, while the Arab merchants settled in Calicut
Englishman Francis Day took Madras on lease from the
adopted an attitude of disloyalty towards him.
King of Chandragiri in 1639 AD. The British built a fortified
(CGPSC, 2022; UP Lower, 2013)
factory in Madras.
Francisco de Almeida was appointed the first Portuguese
Viceroy to India in 1505 AD. (BPSC, 2001, UP Lower, 2013) This fortified factory was named Fort St. George.
King Charles II of England was married the Portuguese
Note : The order of the European companies to arrive in princess Catherine of Braganza in 1662 AD.(CAPF, 2003, 2007)
India were Portuguese, Dutch, English and French. The Portuguese gifted Charles II with Bombay Island as
(UPPCS, 1997)
dowry in 1662 AD.
Francisco de Almeida is known for the ‘Blue Water Charles II gave Bombay to the East India Company in 1668
Policy’. (Uttarakhand PCS, 2016) AD with an annual rent of 10 pounds. (UK PSC, 2010)
Afonso de Albuquerque arrived in India as the Viceroy In 1651, Shah Shuja, the Subahdar of Bengal, granted the
of Portugal in 1509 AD. English permission of trade in Bengal in exchange for
He is considered the de facto founder of Portuguese rule
annual payment.
in India. (UP Lower, 2003)
The foundation of modern Calcutta was laid by Job
He conquered Goa from the Adilshahi Sultan of Bijapur in
Charnock, combining Kalikata, Gobindpur and Sutanati
1510 AD. (IAS, 2003; UPPCS, 2010; UK PSC, 2004)
villages. Later, the foundation of Fort William was laid at
The Portuguese opened their first trading factory at Cochin.
Calcutta. (UP Lower, 2008; UPPCS, 2004)
(UPPCS, 2010)
The Dutch came to India after the Portuguese. The first President of Fort William was Charles Eyre.
The Portuguese started the printing press in India. D. The French
B. The Dutch The first factory of the French was founded at Surat in
They were residents of the Netherlands or Holland. 1668 by Francois Caron.
The Dutch East India Company was established in 1602. Francis Martin founded Pondicherry in 1674.
They opened their first trading factory at Masulipattam in European Trade Companies
1605 AD.
English East India Company 1600 (CAPF, 2007)
They established another factory at Pulicat and made it
their headquarter. Dutch East India Company 1602 (CPO SI, 2008)
Dutch established their first factory in Bengal (1627 AD) Danish East India Company 1616
at Pipli. French East India Company 1664
The Dutch fort of Chinsurah near Hooghly is known as
Swedish East India Company 1731
‘Gustavus Fort’.
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Anglo-French Clash (Carnatic Battles) Alivardi Khan, the Subadar of Bihar, became the Nawab of
The First Battle of Karnataka (1746-1748 AD) was Bengal by killing Sarfaraz Khan in the Battle of Giria in 1740.
merely an extension of the succession of Austria. (BPSC, 2000) During his reign, Bengal became so prosperous that it came
The Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle in Europe (1748) ended to be known as the ‘Paradise of India’.
the war for succession of Austria, resulting in the end of Alivardi Khan compared the Europeans to bees and said
the first battle of Karnataka. (UPPCS, 1995, 2016, 2017) that ''if they are not pierced, they will give honey and if
French Governor-General Dupleix was defeated in the teased, they will bite and kill''.
Second Battle of Karnataka (1749–54 AD).(CGPSC,2023) Alivardi Khan stopped paying taxes to the Mughals during
his reign.
He was called back to France. He was replaced by Charles-
After Alivardi Khan’s death, his grandson (son in law's
Robert Godeheu who signed the treaty of Pondicherry
son) Siraj-ud-daulah succeeded him.
(1755 AD). (UPPCS, 2016; UPGIC, 2017)
On the night of 20th June 1756, 146 Britishers were locked in
The Third (1758-63 AD) and decisive Battle of Karnataka
a small room by Siraj-uddaulah, leaving only 23 Britishers
took place in Wandiwash. (UPGIC, 2017; UPPCS, 2012)
alive the next day. This incident is known as the 'Black
In the Battle of Wandiwash (1760 AD), the English Army Hole' tragedy. (SSC MTS, 2017)
led by Eyre Coot crushed the French Army led by Count J Z Holwell was the eyewitness of the Black Hole tragedy.
de Lally. (UK PCS, 2016) The Battle of Plassey was fought on 23rd June, 1757,
In1761, the British captured the French territory of between the British commander Robert Clive and the
Pondicherry. Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-daulah.(MPPCS, 2006, 2008, 2007)
The Third Battle of Karnataka ended in the Treaty of Paris The battle of Plassey occured in the Present Indian State
(1763 AD) between the British and the French. (UPPCS, 1990) of West Bengal.
Through the Treaty of Paris, the British returned In the Battle of Plassey, the commander of Siraj-uddaulah’s
Pondicherry and some other territories to the French except army was Mir Jafar. (UPPCS, 2005, 2007, 2014)

Chandranagar. (UPPCS, 1995, 1997, 2001) The treachery of Mir Jafar preceding the Battle of Plassey
resulted in the defeat of Siraj-ud-daulah.
Carnatic Battles A small army led by Mohan Lal and Mir Madan remained
Battle Year (AD) Treaty loyal to the Nawab in the Battle of Plassey. Mir Madan was
First Carnatic Battle 1746-48 Treaty of Aix La Chapelle
killed fighting. (UK PSC, 2010; IAS, Pre, 2005)
(1748) The British appointed Mir Jafar the Nawab of Bengal, in
return for which Mir Jafar gave the land of 24 Parganas to
Second Carnatic Battle 1749-54 Treaty of Pondicherry (1755)
the British.
Third Carnatic Battle 1758-63 Treaty of Paris (1763) The British despised Mir Jafar and installed his son-in-law
Mir Qasim as the Nawab of Bengal in 1760.
3. Expansion of British Power in Bengal Mir Qasim was the second most qualified Nawab of Bengal
after Alivardi Khan. (UPPCS Lower 2003; IAS, 2005)
Bengal was highly fertile and the most prosperous among
Mir Qasim moved his capital from Murshidabad to Munger.
the provinces of India.
On 22nd October 1764, the Battle of Buxar was fought
The British established their first factory in Bengal after between the British on one side and the combined forces of
the permission of Shah Shuja in 1651 AD. (MPPCS, 2008) Mir Qasim, Nawab Shuja-uddaulah of Awadh and the Mughal
Murshid Quli Khan was the independent ruler of Bengal. Emperor Shah Alam II on the other. (UPPCS, 2003, 1990)
He shifted his capital from Dacca to Murshidabad. Under the leadership of Hector Munro, the English army
(UPPCS, 2013) defeated the combined forces of Mir Qasim.(UP UDA, 2002)
He started the monopoly system and provided Takavi (advance After the Battle of Buxar, the East India company's rule
agricultural tax) loans to the farmers. (MPPCS, 2009) was firmly established in India. (UPPCS, 1990, 03)
In 1765 AD the East India company obtained diwani rights
Note : The Izaredari System was called ‘contractual
in Bengal. (SSC MTS, 2023)
practice’.
In Bengal, Diarchy lasted from 1765 and 1772.
After Murshid Quli Khan, his son-in-law Shuja-ud-din (SSC MTS, 2019)
ascended the throne of Bengal. (CAPF, 2013, 2019)
Note : Diarchy was introduced by Lord Clive in 1765,
Sarfaraz Khan became the Nawab of Bengal after Shuja-
ud-din. (CPO SI 2007, 2009, 2013, 2019)
and abolished by Warren Hastings in 1772.
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Nawabs of Bengal Note : Lord Cornwallis commented on the Treaty of

1. Murshid Quli Khan 1717-1727 Seringapatnam, "We have effectively crippled our
2. Shujauddin 1727-1739 enemy without making our friends too formidable."
3. Sarfaraz Khan 1739-1740 4. Maratha Empire and Anglo-Maratha
4. Alivardi Khan 1740-1756 Clash under Peshwas
5. Siraj-ud-daulah 1756-1757
Peshwas were the propagators of the new Maratha Empire
6. Mir Jafar 1757-1760
in the leadership of Shahu. (IAS, 2000; UP RO, 2016)
7. Mir Qasim 1760-1763 The Maratha leader Shahu appointed Balaji Vishwanath
8. Mir Jafar 1763-1765 as Peshwa in 1713. (UPPCS, 2014, 2023, 2005, 1997)
9. Nizam-ud-daulah 1765-1766 Balaji Vishwanath is considered the second founder of
10. Saif-ud-daulah 1766-1770 the Maratha Empire.
11. Mubarak-ud-daulah 1770-1772 Peshwa was the Prime Minister of Chhatrapati.
The post of Peshwa became hereditary with the first Peshwa.
Anglo-Mysore Relations (Karnataka PCS, 2014)
Balaji Vishwanath died in 1720. (UPPCS, 2004, 2023)
Wadiyar dynasty was established in Mysore in 1399.
Sahu appointed Balaji Vishwanath’s elder son Baji Rao- I
Haider Ali started his career as a horseman.
as Peshwa in 1720. (UPPCS, 2004, 2007)
He became the ruler of Mysore in 1761.(Karnataka PCS, 2008)
Baji Rao -I propagated and popularized the idea of the
He was defeated and died in the Battle of Porto Nova during
Hindu rank of Padshahi.
the Second Anglo-Mysore War. (Jharkhand PCS, 2003)
The Battle of Palkheda was fought between Baji Rao -I
He was victorious in the First Anglo-Mysore War
and Nizam-ul- Mulk in 1728.
(1767–1769). (Karnataka PCS, 2009; UPPCS, 2015)
The First Peshwa who invaded Delhi on 29th March, 1737
After his death, his son Tipu ascended the throne of Mysore.
was Baji Rao I.
Tipu Sultan was born in 1750. (BPSC, 1992, 1996)
Bajirao I died in 1740.
By the Treaty of Mangalore, Tipu Sultan and the British
After his death, his son, Balaji Baji Rao became Peshwa.
exchanged conquered territories.
After the Treaty of Sangola (1750), all rights to the
(UPPCS, 2014, 2017; UK PSC 2016, 2018; IAS 2005, 2003)
Peshwas were secured.
He assumed the title of Padshah in 1787.
Maratha kingdom expanded the most during the reign of
Due to the treaty of Srirangapatnam in 1792 AD, almost
Balaji Bajirao.
half the ara of Mysore state was handed over to the East
Balaji Baji Rao is also known as Nana Saheb.
India Company. (UPPCS, 2009; BPSC, 1997)
During the reign of Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao reign, the third
He planted a tree of freedom in his capital Srirangapatnam.
battle of Panipat (14 January, 1761) was fought between
Tipu himself became a member of the Jacobean Club and
the Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali.
started calling himself Citizen Tipu.
Marathas were defeated in the third Battle of Panipat.
He died in Seringapatam during the Fourth Anglo-Mysore
War in 1799. (CGPSC, 2014, 2016; MPPCS, 2000)
Sadashivrao Bhau led the Marathas in the third Battle of
Panipat.
Anglo - Mysore Wars
Anglo-Maratha War
Governor-
Major War Year General Important War Year (AD) Governor-General
Treaty
First Anglo- (1767-1769AD) — Treaty of Madras First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782) Warren Hastings
Mysore War (1769) Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805) Wellesley
Second Anglo- (1780-1784 AD) Warren Treaty of Manga- Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818) Lord Hastings
Mysore War Hastings lore (1784)
Madhav Rao-I became the Peshwa in 1761.
Third Anglo- (1790-1792 AD) Lord Treaty of Serin-
Madhav Rao-I attempted to restore the lost prestige of the
Mysore War Cornwallis gapatnam (1792)
Marathas.
Fourth Anglo- (1799 AD) Lord —
After the death of Madhav Rao, his younger brother
Mysore War Wellesley
Narayan Rao became the Peshwa.
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Peshwa Narayan Rao (1772-73) was killed by his uncle Guru Ramdas was a contemporary of Akbar and the son-
Raghunath Rao. in-law of Amardas.
Madhav Rao Narayan was appointed Peshwa in place Akbar granted 500 bighas of land to Guru Ramdas. On this
of Raghunath Rao with the active intervention of the land, he settled in Amritsar city. (UK UDA/LDA, 2007)
Britishers.
Note : Guru Nanak was a contemporary of Babur and
Due to the minor age of Peshwa Madhav Rao Narayan, the
Humayun.
Maratha state was looked after by a council of 12 members
named Barbhai Council. Guru Ramdas nominated his son Arjan Dev as his successor
There were two important members in this council- Mahadji and made the post of Guru hereditary.
Scindia and Nana Fadnavis. The fifth Guru of the Sikhs was Arjan Dev (1581–1606).
The First Anglo-Maratha War was fought during the Guru Arjan Dev built Harminder Sahib in the middle of
Amritsar pond.
reign of Madhav Rao Narayan.
Guru Arjan Dev compiled the Adi Granth.
Baji Rao II, son of Raghunath Rao, was the last Peshwa.
(Uttarakhand PCS, 2004)
Baji Rao II was the first Maratha chief to accept the second
Jahangir awarded the death penalty to Guru Arjan Dev in
subsidiary alliance. (41st BPSC, 1996)
assisting Prince Khusrau in 1606. (UP UDA/LDA, 2002)
Under the Treaty of Purandar in 1776, the company
The sixth Guru of the Sikhs was Hargobind (1606–1644).
withdrew its support from Raghunath Rao.
He created a martial spirit among the Sikhs and ordered
The First Anglo-Maratha War ended in 1782 with the
them to carry weapons to protect themselves.
Treaty of Salbai.
Guru Hargobind ordered the fortification of Amritsar city
Note : The Treaty of Salbai was signed on 17th May, and constructed ‘Akal Takht’ here.
1782 with the effort of Mahadji Scindia. The seventh Guru of the Sikhs was Har Rai (1644–61 AD).
The Second Anglo-Maratha War was fought during 1803- The eighth Sikh Guru Harkrishan (1661–64) died of
1805. smallpox.
Bhonsle (Nagpur) challenged the British in the second war. The ninth Sikh Guru was Guru Tegh Bahadur (1664-1675
The Second Anglo-Maratha War was concluded by the AD).
Treaty of Rajpur Ghat between the temporary Governor- Aurangzeb killed Guru Tegh Bahadur for not accepting
General of the Company, George Barlow and Holkar in Islam. (Chattisgarh PCS, 2004)

January 1806. Guru Gobind Singh (1675–1708 AD) was the tenth and
After the third Anglo - Maratha War (1817-1818), the the last Guru of the Sikhs.
hereditary post of Peshwa was abolished. He was born in Patna in 1666 AD. (BPSC, 2015)

Peshwa Baji Rao II was the last Peshwa. His original name was Gobind Rai.
He established Anandpur City and his throne there.
5. Relation between Sikh and British
The autobiography of Guru Gobind Singh is titled Bichittar
Guru Nanak was the founder of Sikhism. Natak.
He was born in 1469 AD at Talwandi in Punjab (now in He founded the Khalsa Panth on Baisakhi Day in 1699
Pakistan). AD. (MPPCS, 2014)
He introduced the Sangat (Dharamshala) and Mangat He asked the followers of Sikhism to add the word Singh
(Langar) System. to their names.
He died at Kartarpur in 1539 AD. He introduced the Pahul System.
Guru Angad (1539–52 AD) was the second Guru of the He told Sikh followers to carry five things - Kesh (Hair),
Sikhs. Kanga (Comb), Kachera, Kirpan and Kara.
His earlier name was Lahna. He gave the present form to Adi Grantha (Guruvani), the
Guru Angad invented the Gurmukhi Script.(UPPCS, 2017) religious text of the Sikhs.
Amardas (1552–74 AD), the third Guru of the Sikhs, Fateh Singh and Zorawar Singh, the sons of Guru Gobind
established his throne at Goindwal. Singh, were done to death by erecting bricked walls around
Mughal emperor Akbar went to Guru Amardas Goindwal them by Sirhind Mughal Fauzdar Wazir Khan.
and granted some land to his daughter Bibi Bhani. Guru Gobind Singh was assassinated in 1708 AD by a
The fourth Guru of the Sikhs was Ramdas (1574–81 AD). Pathan at Nanded in South India.
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Banda Bahadur’s childhood name was Lakshmanadeva In March 1849, Lord Dalhousie annexed the Sikh State to
or Laksman Das. (UPPCS, 2014) the English empire.
Banda Bahadur established the first Sikh kingdom. Maharaja Dilip Singh was given an annual pension of
He introduced coins with the names of Guru Nanak and 50 thousand pounds and was sent to England to pursue
Guru Gobind Singh inscribed on them and made the seal education.
of Sikh State. He took the Kohinoor diamond and gave it to Queen
He was awarded the death penalty during the rule of Farrukh Victoria.
Siyar.
Major Rebellions Against the British Rule
After the death of Banda Bahadur, small Sikh states were
Affected
established in Punjab, known as Misls. Revolt Related Leaders Time
Areas
At that time, 12 misls existed in Punjab.
Sanyasi Bihar, Bengal Kena Sarkar and 1763-1800
Sikh Misls and Its Founding Leaders Rebellion Dirji Narayan
Misls Founder/ Leader Fakir Rebellion Bengal Majmun Shah and 1776-77
Chirag Ali
Ahluwalia Jassa Singh
Chuar Rebellion Bankura Durjan Singh 1798-99
Sukerchakia Charat Singh
(Bengal)
Faizullapuria Nawab Kapoor Singh
Poligar Rebellion Tamil Nadu Veer P. 1799-1801
Phulkian Ala Singh Kattabomman
Kanheya /Dhaniya Jai Singh Bhil Rebellion Western Ghats Triyambak G. 1818-31
Bhangi Hari Singh Ramosi Rebellion Western Ghats Chittur Singh, Umaji 1822-26
Ramgarhia Jassa Singh Ramgarhia Pagalpanthi Bengal Karamshah and Tipu 1825-33
Nakai Heera Singh Rebellion (BPSC, 2013)

Nishanvali Sardar Sangat Singh Ahom Rebellion Assam Gomadhar Kunwar, 1828-33
Roop-Chandra Konar
Shahidi Gurubakhsh Singh
Wahabi Bihar, Uttar Sayyed Ahmad 1820-70
Crore Scindia Baghel Singh Movement Pradesh Barelvi
Dalle Walia Tara Singh Note : The Wahabi agitators wanted to reestablish Islam of
Ranjit Singh Muhammad's time.
Ranjit Singh was born of Maha Singh, the head of the Kol Rebellion Chotanagpur Budhu Bhagat 1831-32
Sukerchakia Misl in November, 1780. (UPPCS, 2004) (Jharkhand)
In 1798, the ruler of Kabul, Jamshanah, conferred the title Khond Rebellion Tamil Nadu to Chakra Bisoi 1837-56
of ‘Raja’ on him for his services. Bengal
Ranjit Singh became the ruler of Lahore in 1799. Khasi Rebellion Meghalaya Tiruth Singh 1833
Treaty of Amritsar was signed between Charles Metcalfe Farizi Movement Bengal Dadu Mir 1818-62
and Ranjit Singh on 25th April, 1809. (UPPCS, 1997) Shariatullah
Ranjit Singh’s kingdom was divided into four states - Santhal Rebellion Bengal and Siddha - Kanhu 1855-56
Peshawar, Kashmir, Multan and Lahore. Bihar
Lahore was the capital of Ranjit Singh’s empire. Munda Rebellion Bihar Birsa Munda 1899-1900
(UPPCS, 1995, 1996; UPSI, 2009; UK PCS, 2006)
Paika Rebellion Odisha Bakhshi Jagabandhu 1817-1825
He received a Kohinoor diamond from Shah Shuja.
Indigo Rebellion Bengal Digambar Vishwas, 1859-60
(41st BPSC, 1996)
Vishnu Vishwas
He died in June, 1839.
Pabna Rebellion Pabna Ishan Chandra Rai & 1873-76
The Foreign Minister of Ranjit Singh was Fakir Azizuddin.
(Bengal) Shambhupal
The First Anglo - Sikh War was fought from 1845 to 1846.
Deccan Rebellion Maharashtra — 1875
The Second Anglo - Sikh War was fought from 1848 to
1849. Mopalah Malabar Ali Musliyar 1920-22
Rebellion (Kerala)
The First Anglo - Sikh War ended with the Treaty of Lahore
(9th March, 1846). Kuka Movement Punjab Bhagat Jawahar Mal 1840-72

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Rampa Rebellion Andhra Sitaram Raju 1922-1924 On 10th May, 1857 occurred the revolt of the Third Bengal
Pradesh Light Cavalry of Meerut marked the beginning of the Revolt
Tana Bhagat Bihar Jatra Bhagat 1914 of 1857. (UPPCS 1990, 1994)
Movement Charles Canning was the Governor-General of India and
Tebhaga Bengal — 1946 Palmerston was the Prime Minister of England during the
Movement revolt of 1857. (UPPCS 1990, 1991, 2012)
Note : Ram Singh, a disciple of Bhagat Jawahar Mal, fought Deccan rebellion of 1857 took place in Maharashtra.
with the British bravely in 1872, but was imprisoned and sent Madras remained untouched by the revolt of 1857.
to Rangoon. He died in 1885.
Note : Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s novel, Anandamath, is Historians’ Opinions Regarding the Nature of
based on the Sanyasi rebellion. Warren Hastings suppressed
the Revolt of 1857
this rebellion.
Nature Opinion
Military Rebellion Before the Revolt of 1857 This was the first freedom struggle V.D. Savarkar
1806 Vellor Revolt against the order to of India. (MPPCS, 2008)
remove religious symbols This was a national rebellion. Disraeli
1824 Barrackpore Opposition of the order to go to
It was a full-fledged Sepoy Mutiny. Sir John Lawrence and Seale
Burma by sea route.
It was a conspiracy of Hindus and James Outram, W.Taylor
1844,1849,1850,1852 Rebellion for not getting remote
area service allowance. Muslims against the British. (BPSC, 1995)

23rd January, 1857 Dum Dum The cartridges were greased The war between barbarism and T.R. Holmes
(Calcutta) with cow's and pig's. civilization.
26 February, 1857 Berhampur The cartridges were greased This was a war of Fanatic religionists L.E.R. Rees
(Bengal) with cow's and pig's fat. against the Christians.

6. The Revolt of 1857 Important Books and Their Authors

The immediate cause of the revolt of 1857 was the loading
Books Authors
Enfield rifle required tearing open the greased cartridges with
one's teeth, and many sepoys believed that the cartridges 1. The Indian War of Independence 1857 V.D. Savarkar
(UPPCS, 2004)
were greased with the fat of cows and pigs. (RAS, 1993)
On 29 March, 1857, Mangal Pandey, a soldier of the
th 2. The Great Rebellion Ashok Mehta
34th Bengal Native Infantry Barrackpore, attacked his 3. The Sepoy Mutiny and the Revolt of R.C. Majumdar
officers, Lieutenant Baugh and Sergeant Major Hewson. 1857
Consequently, he was arrested and hanged on 8th April,
4. Eighteen Fifty-Seven S.N. Sen
1857. (UK PCS, 2002; UPPCs, 2010, 2014, 2016, 1990)

Important Events and Personalities related to the Revolt of 1857

British who suppressed the
Centre of Revolt Led by Date of Revolt Date of Suppression
Revolt
Delhi (UPPCS, 1994) Bahadur Shah Zafar, Bakht Khan 11th May, 1857 Nicholson and Hudson 21st September, 1857
Kanpur Nana Saheb, Tatya Tope 5th June, 1857 Campbell 6th December, 1857
Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal 30th May,1857 Campbell March, 1858
(UPPCS, 2015) (UPPCS 1990)
Jhansi Rani Lakshmi Bai June , 1857 Huge Rose (UPPCS, 1992) 1858
Allahabad Liyaqat Ali (UPPCS, 2015) June,1857 Colonel Neil 1858
Jagdishpur Kunwar Singh June, 1857 William Taylor and Vincent Eyre 1858
(BPSC, 2014)
Bareily Khan Bahadur Khan 1857 Campbell 1858
(UPPCS, 1998)
Faizabad Maulavi Ahmad Ulla 1857 Campbell 1858
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At the time of the mutiny, the Company’s chief commander Keshav Chandra Sen’s liberalism caused the first division in
was George Annison. the Brahmo Samaj as the books of Christians, Islam, Parsi
The commander after the start of the rebellion was Colin and Chinese religion began to be read at the gatherings of
Campbell. the Brahmo Samaj.
The Emperor of India during the mutiny was Bahadur Shah Devendranath Tagore removed Keshav Chandra Sen as
Zafar. a trustee of the Brahmo Samaj and withdrew his title of
The real name of Tatya Tope was Ramchandra Hierophant (Acharya) in 1865.
Pandurang. (UPPCS, 2011)
Keshav Chandra Sen formed a new Brahmo Samaj.
Note : By Changes in the Home Government, the (UPPCS, 2008)
Secretary of State for India was made responsible to the Shivnath Shastri and Anand Mohan Bose founded the
government of British India in the year 1858. Sadharan Brahmo Samaj in 1878.
He was hanged by the British at Shivpuri on 18th April, Prarthana Samaj
1859. Atmaram Pandurang established ‘Prarthana Samaj’ in
Rani lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, a brave warrior and key figure Mumbai in 1867. (UP UDA/LDA, 2010)

of the Indian Independence rebelion of 1857, is often Mahadev Govind Ranade is called the ‘Pioneer of Cultural
remembered for her courage in leading the resistance Renaissance in Western India'.
against the British. He fought his last battle in Gwalior city. He founded Poona Sarvajanik Sabha in 1870. He was
Rani Lakshmi Bai received martyrdom on 18th June, 1858. also called ‘Socrates of Maharashtra’.
On 31st December 1893, DK Karve formed the Widow
7. Religious and Social Reform Movements Reunification Association.
Brahmo Samaj Balgangadhar Tilak and other peoples established the
Brahmo Samaj was founded by Raja Rammohun Roy on Deccan Education Society in 1884, and later it was
20th August, 1828. (MPPCS, 1992) transformed into Fergusson College Pune.
Brahmo Samaj is credited with writing literary works for Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar and Mahadev Govind
the abolition of Sati Pratha. (BPSC, 2005, 2007) Ranade did their work related to religious reforms in
It opposed idol worship, pilgrimage, rituals, etc. Maharashtra through Prarthana Samaj.
Raja Rammohan Roy formed the Atmiya Sabha in 1815.
Social Reforms
(BSSC, 2023; BPSC, 1996, 2019)
Governor-
Vedanta College was founded by Rammohan Roy in 1825. Year of Abolition Subject
General
Raja Rammohan Roy is called the Pioneer of the Indian
Renaissance, the originator of the reform movements, the Infant Slaughter Prohibition of Infant
father of modern India and the star of the new morning. (1795, 1804 AD) Slaughter
(RAS, 1996; UPPCS, 1996; UPPCS, 2000) Sati Practice (1829 Lord William Prohibition of Sati
He is considered the ‘Forerunner of Indian Journalism’. AD) Bentinck Tradition
He founded the Hindu College at Calcutta in 1817 with The Slavery System Alan Burrows Prohibition of Slavery
the help of David Heyer. (UP RO, 2013; UP RO/ARO, 2021) (1843 AD)
He authored Tuhfat-ul Muwahhidin and the Precepts of Widow Remarriage Lord Canning Widow Marriage
Jesus books besides publishing Sambad Kaumudi, Mirat- (1856 AD) Permitted
ul-Akbar and Brahmanical Magazine in English.
Native Marriage Act Northbrook Encouragement to
Raja Rammohan Roy is the author of the book Gift
(1872 AD) Intercaste Marriage
to Monotheists, written in Persian, which condemns
Age of Consent Act Lansdowne Marriage age for girls
polytheism. (UPPCS, 2005, 2007, 2013)
(1891 AD) was fixed at 12 years
Mughal emperor Akbar-II conferred the title of Raja on
Rammohan Roy. (BPSC, 1998, 2000; UPPCS, 2012) Sarda Act (1929 AD) Irwin Marriage age for girls was
After Raja Rammohan Roy, Devendranath Tagore took the fixed at 14 years (and for
leadership of the Brahmo Samaj. (BPSC, 2001, 2003) boys it was 18 years)
Devendranath Tagore founded the Tattvabodhini Sabha. Veda Samaj
After Devendranath Tagore, Keshav Chandra Sen led the K. Shri Dharalu Naidu founded the Veda Samaj in Madras
Brahmo Samaj. in 1864 inspired by Keshav Chandra Sen.
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Veda Samaj of Madras was inspired by Brahmo Samaj. Swami Ji established the Vedanta Society in America in
(SSC, 2023) 1894. (CGPSC, 2019; UP Lower, 2015)
Arya Samaj He founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897.
Swami Dayanand Saraswati established Arya Samaj in (UPPCS, 2004)
Bombay in 1875. (UP Lower, 2009) The headquarter of the Ramakrishna Mission was established
He gave the slogan, ‘Back to the Vedas’. (MPPCS, 1997) at Belur in Howrah. (UPPCS 2004, MPPCS, 1996, 1999)
Arya Samaj raised its voice against untouchability, caste Subhash Chandra Bose called Swami Vivekananda the
discrimination, child marriage and advocated widow 'Spiritual Father of the Modern National Movement'.
remarriage and inter-caste marriage. (CAPF, 2015, 2017) Theosophical Society
The ‘Shuddhi Andolan’ was launched by Swami Dayanand Madame Blavatsky and Colonel Alcott established the
Saraswati, which reopened Hinduism and opened the doors Theosophical Society in 1875 in New York.
for the return of people from other religions. (UPPCS, 2010) (BPSC 2005, UP RO, 2016; 53rd to 55th BPSC, 2011)
Arya Samaj founded the Gau Raksha Andolan and the International Office of Theosophical Society was opened
Gau Rakshini Sabha. (SSC MTS, 2019, 2022) in Adyar (Madras) in 1882.
Swami Dayanand Saraswati was the first reformer who Mrs. Annie Besant became a member of the Theosophical
was in favour of Shudra and women reading Vedas, getting Society in 1889 and came to India in 1893.
higher education, wearing Yajnopavit. After the death of Alcott, Annie Besant became the
Mool Shankar was the childhood name of Swami Dayanand
President of this society in 1907.
Saraswati.
For development in the field of education in India, Annie
Major Books by Swami Dayanand Saraswati Besant established the Central Hindu College in Benares
1. Satyarth Prakash (1875), 3. Paakhand Khandan (1866), in 1898 which became the ‘Banaras Hindu University’
(UK PCS, 2006) in 1916 by the efforts of Pt. Madan Mohan Malviya. Both
2. Panch Maha Yajya Vidhi 4. Advaitmat Khandan (1877) Hindu religion and scientific subjects are taught here.
(1874), Other Religious Movements
Radhakant Deb established Dharma Sabha in 1830.
He hoisted the Paakhand Khandani Pataka at the Kumbh
Gopal Hari Deshmukh became famous as Lokhitwadi.
of Haridwar in 1867 to symbolise his denial of fake
(UPPCS, 2015)
religions.
The Paramhansa Mandali Organization was established
In the political arena, Arya Samaj believed that 'the worst
in Poona, Satara and other cities of Maharashtra, which
of a bad country is better than the best of a foreign state'.
worked against Brahminical orthodoxy and attempted to
The word Swaraj was first used by Dayanand.
reform Hinduism.
(RAS/RTS, 1999)
Deva Samaj was founded by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri in
Young Bengal Movement
This movement was started by Henry Vivian Derozio in Lahore in 1887. (CAPF, 2014, 2016; UPPCS, 2002)

1826. Behramji Malabari founded Seva Sadan in Bombay in

Surendranath Banerjee accepted Derozio as "the pioneer 1908. (CPOSI, 2008, 2010, 2017)

of the modern civilization of Bengal. Servants of India Society was founded by Gopal Krishna
Derozio is also called the first national poet of Modern Gokhale in 1905. (BPSC, 1998, 1999; UPPCS, 2016)

India. The Indian National Social Conference was founded by

Ramakrishna Mission and Swami Vivekananda M.G. Ranade and Raghunath Rao in 1887. This movement
Swami Vivekananda was the disciple of Ramakrishna started as a pledge movement to stop child marriage.
Paramahamsa called Swami of Dakshineswar. Social Service League was established in 1911 by N.M.
Swami Vivekananda’s childhood name was Narendranath. Joshi.
He represented India at the World Religion Conference Hridaynath Kunzru established the Seva Samiti in
held in Chicago, USA, in 1893. Allahabad (now Prayagraj) in 1914.
(MPPCS, 1993, 2013; UPPCs, 2015; UPPCS, 2008; BPSC, 2020) Rahunmai Mazdayasnan Sabha was associated with the
Before joining this conference, Swami Vivekananda Parsi Reform Movement which was started in 1851. Naoroji
changed his name from ‘Narendranath’ to Swami Fardun Ji, Dadabhai Naoroji and SS, Bengali, etc. founded
Vivekananda at the suggestion of Khetri Maharaj. it in Bombay.
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Rahanumai Mazdayasnan published the Rast Goftar ("The D.K. Karve established the first Women’s University in
Truth Teller") magazine. Mumbai in 1916. (UPPCS, 2002, UP GIC, 2010)
Muslim Reform Movement Inter-caste marriage was recognized by the enactment of
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan launched the Aligarh Movement. the Native Marriage Act in 1872. (UPPCS, 2019)
He advocated for the abolition of the Piri Muridi system Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar was a popular leader of the
and published a magazine called Tehzib-ul-Akhlaq reformist organization Prarthana Samaj.
(Civilization and Ethics). Social Reformer Related Governor-General
Muhammad Qasim Nanautvi and Rashid Ahmad
Sati Practice Lord William Bentinck
Gangohi in 1866 established Islamic seminary at Deoband.
Thugee Practice Lord William Bentick (Colonel Sleeman)
The Moplah or Muslim farmers launched a powerfu anti-
landlord movement in the state of Kerala. Slavery Practice Lord Ellenborough
Shibli Nomani was a supporter of Deoband. Sarda Act Lord Irwin
He founded Nadwatul-’Ulum and Darul Uloom.
(BPSC, 1997, 1998; UPPCS, 2014)
8. Indian National Freedom Movements
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad founded the Ahmadiyya The Indian National Freedom Movement is mainly divided
Movement in 1889. into three phases in chronological order –
In 1864, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan founded the ‘Scientific 1. First Phase (1885–1905)
Society’ and ‘Aligarh Muslim - Anglo Oriental College’ 2. Second Phase (1905–1919)
in 1875. This college was transformed into Aligarh Muslim 3. Third Phase (1919–1947)
University in 1920. (BPSC, 1996; UP RO/ARO, 2016) Indian National Union, the precursor of the Indian National
Sir Syed Ahmad published a magazine named Tehzeeb- Congress (INC), was formed at the initiative of A.O. Hume
ul-Akhlaq in 1870. in 1885 and it held its first session at Gokuldas Tejpal
Ahmadiyya movement opposed Jihad. Sanskrit Vidyalaya, Bombay on 28th December, 1885.
Mirza Ghulam Ahmad claimed to be the incarnation of (BPSC, 1997, 2000, 1999; UPPCS, 2007, 10)
Krishna and Jesus Christ on the Earth after being the At the first Conference, the name of the Indian National
Messiah and the Mahdi. Union was changed into “Indian National Congress” by
At the annual session of the Muslim League, the idea the suggestion of Dadabhai Naoroji.
of a separate nation for Muslims in India was first time Dadabhai Naoroji, Rahnumai, was one of the founders of
conceived by the poet Muhammad Iqbal in 1930. Majdayasan Sabha or Religious Reform Association.
(UPPCS, 2003) Self rule or Swaraj as the ultimate goal of the Indian
Iqbal used the word ‘Inquilab’ for the first time in his Urdu National Congress - this was announced by Dadabhai
book ‘Bang-i-Dara’. Naoroji at the Calcutta session of the Indian National
Lower Caste Movement Congress (INC).
Lower caste movement first started in Maharashtra. (UPPC 2010; UK PSC 2006; Jharkhand PC 2003; BPSC 1999)

Jyotiba Phule founded the Satya Shodhak Samaj in 1873 Titles Received by and Given by
in Bombay to fight against the caste system. (UPPCS, 1997)
Title Received by Given by
He wrote a book, ‘Ghulamgiri’. (UPPCS, 2000)
Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore Mahatma Gandhi
In 1924, Babasaheb Ambedkar founded the Bahishkrit
Mahatma Mahatma Gandhi Rabindranath Tagore
Hitakarini Sabha in Bombay and started the publication
Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Adolf Hitler
of a magazine Bahishkrit Samaj in Marathi in 1927.
(UPPCS, 1991, 04)
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Women of Bardoli
In 1932, Mahatma Gandhi named the untouchables as Deshratna / Dr. Rajendra Prasad Mahatma Gandhi
Ajatashatru (BPSC, 2000)
‘Harijan’, (Children of God) and also established the
Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah Mahatma Gandhi
Harijan Sevak Sangh. (UPPCS, 2017)
In South India, EV Ramaswamy Bald Naicker started the Desh Nayak Subhash Chandra Bose Rabindranath Tagore
Self-Respect Movement in 1920. Vivekananda Swami Vivekananda Maharaja Khetri
Other Movements and Reforms Father of the Nation Mahatma Gandhi Subhash Chandra
Bose (UPPCS, 2009)
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar worked tirelessly for widow
remarriage. Raja Ram Mohun Roy Akbar-II(CPO SI 2004)

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9. Important Organizations and Institutions Servants of Indian

1905 Gopal Krishna Gokhale
Society
Related to Indian National Movements
Agha Khan and
Muslim League 1906
Establishment Salimullah

Institution Year Founder Shri Narayan Malhar

Social Service League 1911
Joshi
William Jones
Asiatic Society 1784 Visva Bharati University* 1921 Rabindranath Tagore
(UPPCS, 2006)

Atmiya Sabha 1815 Raja Ram Mohun Roy Gadar Party 1913 Lala Hardayal
Young Bengal Henry Louis Vivian Hindu Mahasabha 1915 Madan Mohan Malviya
1826
Movement Derozio Home Rule League 1916 Tilak and Annie Besant
Brahmo Samaj 1828 Raja Ram Mohun Roy Women’s India
1917 Annie Besant
Tatvabodhini Sabha 1839 Devendranath Thakur Association
Atmaram Pandurang, Khilafat Movement 1919 Ali Bandhu
Paramahamsa Mandali 1840 Balakrishna Jayakar, All India Trade Union 1920 N.M. Joshi
Dadoba Pandurang
Motilal Nehru and
Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Swaraj Party 1923
1851 Dadabhai Naoroji Chittaranjan Das
Sabha
Hindustan Republican
Balika Vidyalaya 1851 Jyotiba Phule 1924 Sachindra Nath Sanyal
Association
Mohammadan Literary
1863 Abdul Latif Bahishkrit Hitakarini
Society 1924 B.R. Ambedkar
Sabha
Veda Samaj 1864 K. Sridharalu Naidu
Rashtriya Swayamsevak
1925 Dr. Hedgewar
Scientific Society 1864 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan Sangh
East India Association 1866 Dadabhai Naoroji Bhagat Singh, Chhabil
Naujawan Sabha 1926
Das and Yashpal
Poona Sarvajanik Sabha 1870 G.V. Joshi, H.S. Sathe
Hindustan Socialist
Prarthana Samaj 1867 Atmaram Pandurang 1928 Bhagat Singh
Republican Association
Satya Shodhak Samaj 1873 Jyotiba Phule
Khudai Khidmatgar 1929 Abdul Ghaffar Khan
Aligarh Mohammadan
1875 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan Harijan Sevak Sangh
Anglo-Oriental College 1932 Mahatma Gandhi
(Pune)
Indian League 1875 Shishir Kumar Ghosh
Swatantrata Shramik
1936 B.R. Ambedkar
Swami Dayanand Party
Arya Samaj 1875
Saraswati
Forward Block 1939 Subhash Chandra Bose
Madam Blavatsky and
Theosophical Society 1875 Azad Hind Sarkar 1943 Subhash Chandra Bose
Colonel Olcott
Anand Mohan Bose, Note : In September 2023, Shantiniketan became India's 41st
Indian Association 1876
Surendranath Banerjee world Heritage List.
Indian National
1885 A.O. Hume
Congress 10. Development of Education during
Bombay Presidency
Ferozshah Mehta, British India
1885 Taillang and Badruddin
Association Warren Hasting, the Governor-General established the
Tyabji
Belur Math 1899 Swami Vivekananda
‘Calcutta Madrasa’ in 1780 where Persian and Arabic
languages were taught. (UPPCS, 2006)
Indian Social
Conference
1887 Mahadev Govind Ranade William Jones founded the “Asiatic Society of Bengal”
in 1784. It is now known as Asiatic Society.
Sarda Sadan 1889 Ramabai
(UPPCS, 2006, 2004; CGPSC, 2003; RAS, 1999)
Ramakrishna Mission 1897 Swami Vivekananda The British Resident Jonathan Duncan founded Sanskrit
Abhinav Bharat Society 1904
Vinayak Damodar College to educate Hindu Law and Philosophy in Varanasi
Savarkar in 1791. (UPPCS, 2017, 2019; UK PCS, 2006)
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Lord Wellesley founded Fort William College in 1800

11. History of Indian Newspapers
to educate the Company’s civil officers.
Lord Macaulay presented the Macaulay Minute in 1835 The Portuguese introduced the printing press in India in
which criticized the Indian language and literature and sixteenth century. (UPPCS, 2004; Jharkhand PCS, 2021)
praised the Anglo language and literature. The clergy of Goa printed the first book in India in 1557.
As a result of the British Education Act of 1835, English (UDA, 2010; UPPCS, 2001)
was made the medium of higher education. James Augustus Hicky published ‘Hicky's Bengal
The theory of downward filtration of education was Gazette’ in 1780 which is said to be the first newspaper
formulated by Alexander Duff. in India. (UPPCS, 2004)
'Charles Wood’s Despatch' (1854) is called the ‘Magna The first newspaper published in English by an Indian
Carta of Indian Education’. was the ‘Bengal Gazette’, published by Gangadhar
(IAS, 2018; MPPCS, 2015; UPPCS, 2004; UP Lower, 2004) Bhattacharya in 1816. (WBPSC, 2007, 2009, 2011)
The Hunter Commission was formed in 1882 which The establishment of a national press in India is attributed to
suggested measures for the expansion of primary education. Raja Rammohan Roy who published Sambad Kaumudi
(UPPCS, 2004) and Mirat-ul-Akhbar. (UPPCS, 2000)
The University Commission was formed in 1902 under the Ishwara Chandra Vidyasagar published Som Prakash
chairmanship of Thomas Raleigh. (BPSC, 2008; SSC MTS, 2009) in Bangla. (IAS, 2007)
Department of Agriculture and Archeology was The action was taken against Som Prakash and Bharat
established during Lord Curzon’s tenure. Mihir under Lytton’s Vernacular (native language) Press
Calcutta University Commission or Sadler Commission Act, passed in 1878.
was formed in 1917. (48th to 52nd BPSC, 2008) The editor of the Hindu Patriot was Kristo Das Pal who
For the first time, at the government level, the cause of was called the ‘Prince of Journalism’.
women’s education was taken up and arrangements were Motilal Ghosh published ‘Amrita Bazar Patrika’ in
made in the ‘Wood's Despatch’, the report of Hunter Bengali from Calcutta in 1868.
Commission and Sadler Commission for promoting To avoid Lytton’s Vernacular Press Act, this (Amrita Bazar)
women's education. (IAS, 2018, 1996, 1999) Patrika changed into an English daily overnight.
On the pattern of the University of London, Wood’s ‘Maratha’ in English and ‘Kesari’ in Marathi were
Despatch suggested the establishment of Universities in published by Bal Gangadhar Tilak from Bombay.
Calcutta, Bombay and Madras Presidencies. (UPPCS, 1990)
For the first time, a provision was made by the company to Udant Martand was the first Hindi language newspaper
spend Rs 1 lakh on education in the Charter Act of 1813. published in India in 1826, from Calcutta by Pt. Jugal
(UPPCS, 2009) Kishore Shukla. (UPPCS, 2016)
Among the supporters of oriental learning were - H.T. Gadar was published from San Francisco (USA), in 1913.
Prinsep and H.H. Wilson. Its publication started in Urdu, English and Punjabi.
The Government of India established the University Gadar was also published though not regularly in Hindi,
Grants Commission (UGC) in 1953 at the suggestions Marathi, Gujarati and Pashto (only one issue).
of Radhakrishnan Commission (1948). Ban imposed against the Press
The first Indian effort toward women’s education was made Lord Wellesley controlled newspapers by enacting the Press
by ‘Brahmo Samaj’. Control Act (censorship) in 1799. (UPPCS, 2001)
The Indian Public Service in India was formed by Lord Hastings abolished the Act in 1818.
Cornwallis. Thus, he is considered the Father of the Indian Governor-General, Adams made it mandatory to obtain
Public Service. a licence for setting up a printing press and a licence for
Under British rule in India, Governor General Lord publications by enacting a licence rule in 1823.
Cornwallis professionalized, bureaucratized and Euro- The Mirat-ul-Akhbar, newspaper of Raja Rammohun Roy
peanized the administration of the East India Company. was banned under the License Rule. (IAS, 2006)
Hartog Committee was constituted in 1929 under Governor-General, William Bentinck’s approach was
the Chairmanship of Philip Hartog to report on the liberal towards Indian Newspapers.
development of education in India. Charles Metcalfe has been called the 'Liberator of Indian
The Central Education Advisory Board was reorganized in Newspapers'.
1935 by the recommendation of this committee. Metcalfe implemented the ‘Liberation of the Indian Press
Sargent Scheme was introduced in 1944. Act’.
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The Registration Act was passed in 1867. Som Prakash Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
The Vernacular Press Act was passed in 1878 during Lord
Amrita Bazar Patrika Sisir Kumar Ghosh
Lytton's reign, it was called the ‘Silencing Act’.
Commonweal, New India Annie Besant
(IAS, 2005; BPSC 1994; UPPCS, 2007, 2009)
Lord Ripon abolished this Act in 1882. (UPPCS, 2007) Free Hindustan Tarak Nath Das(39th BPSC, 1994)
In 1908, the Newspaper Act was passed. (BPSC, 2023) The Revolutionary Sachindra Nath Sanyal
The Indian Press Act was passed in 1910. Poverty and Un-British Rule in Dadabhai Naoroji
A press committee was appointed under the Chairmanship India, Rasta Goftar (UPPCS, 2016)
of Tej Bahadur Sapru to review newspaper related laws India Divided Dr. Rajendra Prasad
in 1921. Unhappy India Lala Lajpat Rai
Lord Wellesley, Minto, Adam, Canning, Lytton, are known
India Wins Freedom, Ghubar-e- Abul Kalam Azad
to have opposed the freedom of the Indian Press. Khatir, Al-Hilal
Lord Hastings, Bentinck, Metcalfe, Macaulay and Ripon
Discovery of India, Glimpses Jawaharlal Nehru
were known as proponents of the freedom of the Indian of World History, Meri Kahani
Press.
Hints for Self Culture Lala Hardayal
Important Newspapers, Magazines and Books Indian Unrest Sir Valentine Chirol
Papers Magazines and Books Authors / Editors India for Indians Chittaranjan Das
Abhyudaya, Leader, Hindustan Madan Mohan Malviya The Indian War of Independence, Veer Savarkar
Indian Mirror Manmohan Ghosh, Keshav 1857
Chandra Sen (UPPCS, 2007) Home and the World, Gitanjali Rabindranath Tagore
Independent Motilal Nehru (UPPCS, 2012) Nil Darpan Dena Bundhu Mitra
Kaal Shivram Mahadev Paranjape Soje Watan, Karmabhoomi, Premchand (UK PCS, 2010)
Comrade, Hamdard Muhammad Ali Shatranj Ke Khiladi
Kesari (Marathi), Maratha Bal Gangadhar Tilak Bang - e - Dara, Taran - e - Hind Muhammad Iqbal
(English), Geeta Rahsya (UPPCS, 1990; UK PSC, 2010;
MPPCS, 2008; IAS, 2005) Bharat Bharti Maithili Sharan Gupt
Karmayogi, Yugantar, Vande Arvind Ghosh (UPPCS, 1996) Bharat Durdasha Bharatendu Harishchandra
Mataram, Life Divine, Savitri History of Indian National B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya
Bengali, A Nation in Making Surendranath Banerjee Congress
Bhawani Mandir Barindra Kumar Ghosh Satyarth Prakash Dayanand Saraswati
Young India, Harijan, Mahatma Gandhi Indian Struggle Subhash Chandra Bose
Navjeevan, Hind Swaraj, My (UPPCS, 2000)
Experiment with Truth Anandmath, Devi Chaudharani Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay
Sambad Kaumudi Raja Ram Mohan Roy Bandi Jeevan Sachindra Nath Sanyal

12. Commissions/Committees during the British Period

Commission Year President Governor-General Objective
Strachey Commission 1878 Richard Strachey Lytton Famine Prevention
(Famine Commission)
Hunter Commission 1882 William Hunter Ripon Development of Education
Aitchison Commission 1886 Charles Aitchison Dufferin A scheme for fulfilling the claims of Indians
to higher and more extensive employment in
public service
Opium Commission 1893 Mackworth Young Lansdowne To stop opium consumption
Harshell Commission 1893 Harshell Lansdowne Suggestions related to taksal
Famine Commission 1898 James Lyall Elgin Consideration of the report of the first Famine
Commission
Famine Commission 1900 Anthony McDonnell Curzon Suggestions on the report of the second Famine
Commission
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Irrigation Commission 1901 Colin Scott-Moncrieff Curzon Financial considerations to improve irrigation
University Commission 1902 Thomas Raleigh Curzon Inquiry into the conditions and prospects of
Universities in India
Fraser Commission 1902 Fraser Curzon Police Reforms
Butler Commission 1927 Harcourt Butler Irwin Indian State's relations with British Crown
(IAS, 2017)
Islington Commission 1912 Islington Hardinge Recommendation for the participation of Indians
in Civil Services
Calcutta University Commis- 1917 Michael Sadler Chelmsford Review the conditions of Calcutta University
sion (Sadler Commission) Commission
Lee Commission 1924 Lord Lee Reading Recommended for setting up of a Public Service
Commission.
Butler Commission 1927 Harcourt Butler Irwin To investigate and clarify the relationship
between the paramount power and the Princes
of Princely States
Simon Commission 1927 John Simon Irwin To review the Act of 1919
Linlithgow Commission 1928 Linlithgow Irwin Suggestions on agricultural problems
Whitley Commission 1928 J.H Whitley Irwin Considerations for the status of workers
Lindsay Commission 1929 Lindsay Irwin For the development of Higher missionary
education
Sapru Commission 1934 Tej Bahadur Sapru Willington Reveiw of Unemployment problem
Sargent Plan 1944 John Sargent Wavell For the division of Education

13. Congress Sessions and related Major Facts

Sessions Year Place President Special Point
1st 1885 Bombay Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee Attended by 72 delegates
(UPPCS, 2004) (UPPS, 2003; BPSC, 2011)
2nd 1886 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji (BPSC, 2001)
3rd 1887 Madras Syed Badruddin Tyabji First Muslim President
(UPPCS, 2003)
4th 1888 Allahabad George Yule First English President (UP RO/ARO, 2013)
5th 1889 Bombay Sir William Wedderburn
6th 1890 Calcutta Feroz Shah Mehta (W.B. PCS, 2007, 2009)

7th 1891 Nagpur P. Ananda Charlu

Note : In this conference, Chairman P. Anand Charlu said that the second name of Congress is ‘Nationality’.
8th 1892 Allahabad Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee
9th 1893 Lahore Dadabhai Naoroji
10th 1894 Madras Alfred Webb
11th 1895 Poona Surendranath Banerjee
12th 1896 Calcutta Rahimtullah M. Sayani Sung Vande Mataram for the first time
(BPSC, 2020)
13th 1897 Amravati C. Sankaran Nair
14th 1898 Madras Ananda Mohan Bose
15th 1899 Lucknow Romesh Chunder Dutt (BPSC, 2002, 2007)

16th 1900 Lahore N G Chandavarkar

17th 1901 Calcutta Dinshaw Eduljee Wacha (CAPF, 2007, 2013; CPO SI, 2018)

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18th 1902 Ahmedabad Surendranath Banerjee

19th 1903 Madras Lal Mohan Ghosh (T.N. PCS 2015, 2017, 2019)

20th 1904 Bombay Sir Henry Cotton

21st 1905 Banaras Gopal Krishna Gokhale (UP Lower, 2003, 04)

22nd 1906 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji The word 'Swaraj' was used for the first time
23rd 1907 Surat (Suspended) Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh First division of Congress
(Gujarat PCS, 2006, 08, 11)
23rd 1908 Madras Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh Formation of Congress Constitution
(UPPCS, 2007)
24th 1909 Lahore Madan Mohan Malviya
25th 1910 Allahabad William Wedderburn
26th 1911 Calcutta Bishan Narayan Dar Jana Gana Mana was sung for the first time
27th 1912 Bankipore R. N. Mudholkar (BPSC, 2011) (BPSC, 2009, 2006)

28th 1913 Karachi Nawab Syed Mohammed Bahadur

29th 1914 Madras Bhupendra Nath Bose
30th 1915 Bombay Satyendra Prasanna Sinha
31st 1916 Lucknow Ambica Charan Mazumdar, Congress Muslim League Pact
32nd 1917 Calcutta Annie Besant First Woman President
Special 1918 Bombay Hasan Imam Second division of congress
Session (Maharashtra PCS, 2006, 2009)

33rd 1918 Delhi Madan Mohan Malviya

34th 1919 Amritsar Motilal Nehru
35th 1920 Nagpur C. Vijayaraghavachariar Changes in Congress Constitution (UPPCS, 2016)
Special 1920 Calcutta Lala Lajpat Rai (W.B. PCS, 2008, 2007)
Session
36th 1921 Ahmedabad C.R. Das (Acting-President-Hakim Ajmal Khan)
37th 1922 Gaya Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das
(BPSC, 2015)
38th 1923 Kakinada Maulana Mohhmad Ali
Special 1923 Delhi Abul Kalam Azad Youngest President
session
39th 1924 Belgaum Mahatma Gandhi (UPPCS, 2011)
40th 1925 Kanpur Mrs. Sarojini Naidu First Indian woman President
41st 1926 Guwahati S. Srinivasa Iyengar Khadi Clothing made compulsory for the
members
42nd 1927 Madras M.A. Ansari Demand for complete Independence
43rd 1928 Calcutta Pandit Motilal Nehru (W.B. PCS, 2003, 05)

44th 1929 Lahore Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru Demand for Complete Swaraj (UPPCS, 2013)
45th 1931 Karachi Sardar Vallabbhai Patel Demand for Fundamental Rights (UPPCS, 2005)
46th 1932 Delhi Amrit Ranchardas Seth
47th 1933 Calcutta Mrs. Nellie Sengupta
48th 1934 Bombay Dr. Rajendra Prasad
49th 1936 Lucknow Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru
50th 1937 Faizpur Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru The First session was held in the village

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51st 1938 Haripura Subhash Chandra Bose

(UPPCS, 2008)
52nd 1939 Tripuri Subhash Chandra Bose Rajendra Prasad became the President after
Bose’s resignation (UPPCS, 1997, 07)
53rd 1940 Ramgarh Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
54th 1946 Meerut J.B. Kriplani
55th 1948 Jaipur B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya
56th 1950 Nasik Purushottam Das Tandon

14. Important Facts related to the Shyamji Krishna Verma founded the India Home Rule
Society in London in 1905. (UPPCS, 2002, 04, 07)
Indian Freedom Struggle
The partition of Bengal was announced in July, 1905 by
The credit for raising the revolutionary spirit in Maharashtra Lord Curzon. (UPPCS, 2011)
goes to Tilak’s newspaper ‘Kesari’. The call for Swadeshi Movement was given at the Town
Tilak started the celebration of Ganapati Festival in 1893 Hall in Calcutta on 7th August 1905 to protest against the
and Shivaji Festival in 1895. (UPPCS, 2005) partition of Bengal. (UPPCS, 1994)
Valentine Chirol called Bal Gangadhar Tilak the 'Father The partition of Bengal came into effect on 16th October,
of Indian Unrest'. (UPPCS, 2013) 1905 and this day was observed as a National Mourning
Lord Dufferin called Congress only represents the day. (IAS, 2009)
microscopic minority. (UPPCS, 2012) The idea of the Swadeshi Movement was first published
Bankim Chandra Chatterjee said that Congressmen are in 1905 by Krishna Kumar Mitra in his newspaper
hungry for posts. Sanjeevani. (UPPCS, 2014)
The famous novel Durgeshnandini was written by Bankim Barindranath Ghosh and Bhupendranath Dutt published
Chandra Chatterjee (Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay). a newspaper named Yugantar in 1906.
Curzon said that "The Congress is tottering to its fall Dadabhai Naoroji, while presiding over the Calcutta Session
and one of my great ambitions in India, is to assist it to a of Congress in 1906, demanded Swaraj for the first time.
peaceful demise." (UPPCS, 2002) (UPPCS, 2014)
Dadabhai Naoroji formulated the 'drain of wealth' theory. In Surat Session of Congress in 1907, the party split into
(UK UDA/LDA 2007) Moderates and Extremists. (IAS, 2015)
He (1892) was the first Indian to win the election for the The Swadeshi Movement in Andhra Pradesh was called
British House of Commons representing the Liberal Party. Vandemataram Movement.
(JPCS, 2013) Rabindranath Tagore wrote Amar Sonar Bangla, a
Angry with the adverse effects of the Plague, the Chapekar famous song during the Swadeshi movement which became
Brothers of Pune (Damodar and Balakrishna) killed the the national song of Bangladesh in 1971.
plague officers Rand and Amherst in 1897. Vishva-Bharati University was founded by Rabindranath
Rabindranath Tagore started Shantiniketan Institute in the Tagore.
year 1901. (SSC MTS, 2023) Hemachandra, a revolutionary of the Anushilan Samiti,
The first revolutionary organization Anushilan Samiti was went Russia to learn the art of bomb-making from Russian
established in Bengal in 1902 by Gyanendranath Basu at revolutionaries.
Midnapore and Pramathnath Mitra at Calcutta, Jatindranath A conference was held in Dacca on 30th December, 1906
Banerjee and Barindranath Ghosh. by Salim Ulla Khan, the Nawab of Dhaka, presided over
Another Anushilan Samiti was formed under the leadership by Bakar-ul Mulk. (UPPCS, 2006, 07)
of Satish Chandra Basu at Calcutta in March 1902. All India Muslim League was established at the Dhaka
Pulin Bihari Das formed the Dacca Anushilan Samiti in Conference presided over by Salim Ulla Khan.
1906. The Constitution of the Muslim League was formed in
Aurobindo Ghosh wrote a pamphlet ‘Bhavani Mandir’. Karachi in 1907. (UP Lower, 2008)
Vinayak and Ganesh Damodar Savarkar founded the Under the Constitution of the Muslim League, its first
Abhinav Bharat Samaj in Maharashtra in 1904. session was held in Amritsar in 1908, in which Agha Khan
(UPPCS, 2000, 15) was appointed as the President.
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The Muslim League supported the partition of Bengal. reaching the coast, the Canadian police sieged the Indian
Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose attempted to ship and prevented passengers from entering the country.
assassinate the magistrate, Kingsford of the Bengal The Shore Committee was formed under Hussain Rahim,
Presidency on 30th April, 1908. Prafulla Chaki committed Balwant Singh and Sohan Lal Pathak to fight for the rights
suicide to escape his arrest while Khudiram Bose was of travellers. After the refusal of the Canada govt., the
hanged. (48th to 52nd BPSC, 2008) British India govt. ordered the ship to be brought directly to
Khudiram Bose was the youngest revolutionary to be Calcutta. When the ship reached Budge-Budge (Calcutta),
hanged. there was a scuffle started between the angry passengers
Bhikaji Rustom Cama (mother of Indian revolution) and the police, in which 18 passengers were killed and the
hoisted the Indian National Flag at Stuttgart, Germany, in rest were put in jail. (IAS, 2005)
1907. (56th to 59nd BPSC, 2015) King Mahendra Pratap, along with his associate Barkatullah,
Madan Lal Dhingra shot and killed William Curzon Wyllie. formed India’s first provisional government in Kabul in
He was later hanged on 1st July, 1909. (63rd BPSC, 2017) 1915. (UPPCS, 2012)
Ajit Singh established an organization called Anjuman-e- In the Lucknow Session of the Congress (1916), there was
Mohisban-e-Watan in Lahore. unity between the two factions of Congress-Moderates and
Viceroy Lord Hardinge organized a grand court in Delhi Extremists.
in 1911 to welcome Emperor George V of England and Bal Gangadhar Tilak founded Home Rule League in
Queen Mary. April, 1916.
In this court, the partition of Bengal was annulled. Bal Gangadhar tilak was associated with the establishment
(UPPCS, 1991, 1993) of Fergusson college.
It was announced to shift the capital from Calcutta to New Annie Besant founded Home Rule League in Madras,
Delhi. During the time of Viceroy Lord Hardinge, Delhi in September, 1916. (UPPCS, 2010)
became the capital of India. (Uttarakhand PCS, 2006) Gandhiji established Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad,
in 1917.
Note : The Delhi Town Planning Committee was set up
Gandhiji went to Champaran on the insistence of Rajkumar
in 1912 to plan, develop and design the major buildings
Shukla of Bihar. (UPPCS, 2016)
like Viceroy's House, the Secretariat buildings etc.
Gandhiji's first ‘Satyagraha’ was organised in Africa
Edwin Lutyens became a member of this committee in in 1906, while in India, it was first observed in 1917 at
March, 1912. Champaran (Bihar). (69th BPSC, 2018)
Viceroy Lord Hardinge was attacked in Delhi on 23rd Mainly at the behest of Rajkumar Shukla, Mahatma Gandhi
December, 1912, by Rash Behari Bose. went to Champaran to understand the problems of the
Basanta Kumar Biswas (Servant of Rash Behari Bose), a farmers.
woman in disguise threw a bomb at Lord Charles Hardinge. Mahatma Gandhi first organized a hunger strike in 1918,
The case related to the attempted murder of Lord Hardinge in support of Ahmedabad Mill workers. (UPPCS, 2010)
is known as Delhi Conspiracy Case. Gandhiji launched ‘no tax’ campaign from Kheda district
Basanta Biswas, Balamukund, Awadh Bihari and of Gujarat in 1918.
Master Amirchand were hanged in the case of throwing Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel and Indulal Yaghik helped
bombs on Hardinge. Rash Behari Bose fled to Japan. Gandhiji by arranging for him to visit villages in kheda
On 1 st November 1913, Sohan Singh Bhakna and and encouraging the farmers to stand strong against the
Lala Hardayal founded the Pacific Coast Hindustan government.
Association, which brought out Ghadar Patrika in The Rowlatt Act was passed on 18th March, 1919. It was
different languages, after which the name of this institution called "No Lawyer, No Appeal, No Arguments".
came to be known as ‘Ghadar Movement’. (IAS, 1998) (UPPCS, 1993)
In 1915, the British Government conferred the title of On 6th April, 1919, Gandhiji organized a nationwide strike
Kaiser-e-Hind on Mahatma Gandhi. against the Rowlatt Act.
Significantly, Hindu Mahasabha was founded in 1915. On 13th April, 1919, General Dyer opened fire on a public
Kamagata Maru was a Japanese ship, hired by Gurdit meeting at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar opposing the arrest
Singh of Punjab in March 1914 with 376 passengers aboard of Dr. Satyapal and Saifuddin Kitchlew, killing 1000
sailing towards the Canadian port of Vancouver. Upon innocent people according to Congress and 379 according to
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government reports. The incident is known as the infamous On 3rd February, 1928, the Simon Commission came
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. (UPPCS, 2002) to India (Mumbai). It is also called the White Man
Shankaran Nair resigned from Viceroy’s Executive Council Commission. (UPPCS, 1996)
in protest against this incident. (UPPCS, 2007) Lala Lajpat Rai was injured and later died in a police lathi
As a mark of protest against this gruesome massacre, charge during the protest against the Simon Commission
Gandhiji, Jamnalal Bajaj and Rabindranath Tagore returned on 30th October, 1928, at Lahore. (UPPCS, 2008, 2016)
their titles to the colonial rulers. Chandrashekhar Azad and Bhagat Singh founded the
(IAS, 2004, UPPCS, 2016, 2022) ‘Hindustan Socialist Republican Association’ at Feroz
A committee was formed under the chairmanship of Lord Shah Kotla, in Delhi, in 1928.
Hunter to investigate the causes of the Jallianwala Bagh Revolutionaries, led by Bhagat Singh shot and killed the
massacre. (IAS, 2001) then Assistant Superintendent of Police, Saunders, at
A probe committee (1919) was set up under the Lahore, on 17th December, 1928.
chairmanship of Madan Mohan Malviya to investigate On 8th April, 1929, in protest against the passing of the
this incident on behalf of Congress. Public Safety Bill, Batukeshwar Dutt and Bhagat Singh
The Khilafat movement was a movement of Indian Muslims threw bombs and pieces of paper on the empty benches of
against the European allies especially against Britain in the Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi, in which it was
support of the Turkish Khalifa. written that our objective is not to kill anyone, but have to
Khilafat Day was celebrated on 17th October, 1919. make a voice to the ears of the deaf. (UP UDA/LDA, 2013)
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Annie Besant and Bipin Chandra Purna Swaraj was declared its goal in the Lahore Session
Pal did not agree with Gandhiji for launching the Non- of the Congress in 1929. The session was presided over by
Cooperation Movement. Jawaharlal Nehru. (UK PCS, 2021)
Gandhiji started the Non-Cooperation Movement on The tricolour flag (Tiranga) was hoisted by Jawaharlal
1st August, 1920 to oppose the Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Nehru on the banks of the river Ravi at 12 noon on 31st
Bagh massacre and in support of the Khilafat movement. December, 1929. (UP Lower, 2004)
Unfortunately, Bal Gangadhar Tilak died on the same day. Urdu Poet Mohammad Iqbal spoke in the year 1930 about
(UP Lower, 2008) the need for a 'North-West Indian Muslim State' within the
M.N. Roy founded an overseas Indian communist party in sovereign Indian confederation. (SSA, 2023)
Tashkent in 1920. It was decided to celebrate 26th January, 1930 as the First
Bipin Chandra Pal, Annie Besant and Muhammad Ali Independence Day in the Lahore Session.(66th BPSC, 2020)
Jinnah left the Congress for being dissatisfied with the On 12th March, 1930, about 390 km from Sabarmati
Non-Cooperation Movement. Ashram, Mahatma Gandhi started the march to Dandi
On 4th February, 1922, at Chauri-Chaura in Gorakhpur and after reaching there on 6th April 1930 (24 days of
district, agitators set on fire a police station in which 5 journey), Gandhiji broke the Salt Law and started the Civil
British policemen were burnt alive. (UPPCS, 2006, 2008) Disobedience Movement. (UK PCS, 2005, 2006)
The Non-Cooperation Movement was suspended by The Muslims of the North-Western Frontier Province
Gandhiji on 12th February, 1922 on being hurt by the organized a civil disobedience movement under the
Chauri-Chaura incident. (UPPCS, 2006) leadership of Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (Frontier
In Gaya, Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru founded Gandhi).
the Congress Khilafat Swaraj Party in March 1923. The ‘Khudai Khidmatgar’ or 'Lal Kurti' ‘organization
(UP Lower, 1998) was formed under the leadership of Khan Abdul Ghaffar
Sachindranath Sanyal established the ‘Hindustan Khan who played an active and vital role in this movement.
Republican Association’ at Kanpur in 1924. (UP Lower, 2009)
(40 BPSC, 1995)
th
American journalist Web Miller was related to the ‘Civil
The Kakori Train Action Day occurred on 9 August, th
Disobedience Movement’.
1925, in which the government treasury inside the train In Tamil Nadu, C. Rajagopalachari started a salt march
was looted by the revolutionaries. (UP Lower, 2008) from Trichinapalli to Vedaranyam.
Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaq Ullah Khan, Rajendra On 5 th March, 1931, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was
Lahiri, Roshan Singh were involved in the act, therefore concluded. After this, Gandhiji suspended the Civil
hanged whereas Sachindranath Sanyal was sentenced life Disobedience Movement. (67th BPSC, 2021)
imprisonment. (65th BPSC, 2019) Gandhi - Irwin Pact is also known as Delhi Pact.
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The First Round Table Conference was held in London The first conference of All India Kisan Sabha was held
from 12th November, 1930 to 19th January, 1931. This was in 1936 in Lucknow, under the chairmanship of Swami
the first such dialogue in which Indians were given equal Sahajanand. N.G. Ranga was elected as its General
status by British rulers. (UP RO/ARO, 2014) Secretary. (BPSC, 2016)
The Second Round Table Conference took place from 7th In the Tripuri Session of Congress, Subhash Chandra
September, 1931 to 1st December, 1931. Mahatma Gandhi Bose became the President of Congress defeating Pattabhi
participated in this as a Congress representative. Sitaramayya, a candidate proposed by Mahatma Gandhi
(RAS/RTS, 2008) in 1939. (UPPCS, 2004)
On 3rd May, 1939, Subhash Chandra Bose established the
Note : In the Second Round Table Conference, Gandhiji Forward Block.
arrived in England as the sole representative of Congress On 13th March 1940, Udham Singh of Punjab shot and
by a ship called ‘S.S. Rajputana’. (UPPCS, 2000) killed former Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, Dyer in
The Second Round Table Conference failed due to London. (Uttarakhand PCS, 2006)
Communal Representation. (41st BPSC, 1996) Gandhiji started Individual Satyagraha on 17th October,
After the failure of the Second Round Table Conference, 1940 in Pavnar, Maharashtra.
Gandhiji again started the Civil Disobedience Movement Sucheta Kripalani established the women's wing of congress
on 3rd January, 1932. in the year 1940.
The Third Round Table Conference took place from 17th The first, second and third Satyagrahi of the individual
November, 1932 to 24th December, 1932. Satyagraha movement was Vinoba Bhave, J.L. Nehru
The Prime Minister of England was James Ramsay and Brahma Dutt respectively. (IAS, 2009)

MacDonald during all the three Round Table Conferences. Quit India Movement resolution was passed in Congress
Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar participated as a representative of Working Committee (CWC) meeting on 14th July 1942 in
the untouchables in all the three Round Table Conferences Wardha. (RAS/RTS, 2010)

in London. (UPPCS, 2011)

On 7th August 1942, the Congress met at the historical
On 16th August 1932, the then British Prime Minister Gwalia Tank Ground in Bombay where the ‘Quit India
proposal’ was accepted on 8th August.
Ramsay MacDonald presented the Communal Award.
(Chhattisgarh PCS, 2015)
Under this, along with Muslims and Sikhs, the Dalit class
The Quit India Movement was started on 9th August, 1942.
was also considered a minority and separated from Hindus.
In the Quit India Movement, Gandhiji gave the slogan of
(UPPCS, 1999)
‘Do or Die’. (IAS, 2009)
In protest against this decision, Gandhiji started a fast unto
All prominent Congress leaders were arrested in the night
death on 20th September, 1932 in Yerwada Jail in Poona.
on 8th August, 1942 under Operation Zero Hour.
(IAS, 2012)
Gandhiji was kept in the Agha Khan Palace in Pune and
On 24 September, 1932, on behalf of Gandhiji, there was
th
other members of the Congress Executive were kept in the
an agreement between Madan Mohan Malaviya and Fort of Ahmadnagar. (41st BPSC, 1996)
other leaders and Ambedkar which was known as ‘Poona After escaping from the prison of Hazaribagh, Jayaprakash
Pact’. Under this pact, separate electorates of Dalit class Narayan went underground and took the charge of this
were abolished, but the number of seats reserved for Dalit movement. (67th BPSC, 2021)
sections in the provincial legislatures was increased from During this movement, parallel governments were formed
71 to 148. The number of seats reserved for Harijans in the in Ballia, Tamluk and Satara. (UPPCS, 2002)
Central Legislature was increased by 18 per cent. In June 1942, the Indian Independence League was
(47th BPSC, 2005) formed under the leadership of Rash Behari Bose. Rash
The civil Disobedience Movement was finally withdrawn Behari Bose went to Japan to escape the Delhi Conspiracy
by Gandhiji on 7th April, 1934. Case.
All India village Industries Association was started by The idea of the formation of Indian National Army first
Mahatma Gandhi in the year 1934. struck in the mind of Captain Mohan Singh and it was
The soldiers of the Garhwal Rifles refused to shoot at the established on 1 September, 1942 by Rash Behari Bose.
Pathan Satyagrahis of the Civil Disobedience Movement. Mohan Singh was appointed the Commander-in-Chief.
On 23 rd March, 1931, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and (BPSC, 1994)
Rajguru were hanged. (67th BPSC, 2021) On 4 July, 1943, Subhash Chandra Bose was appointed
th

Congress Socialist Party was established in May, 1934. the supreme commander of the Azad Hind Fauj.
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Azad Hind Government was formed in Singapore on 21st The Muslim League accepted the Cabinet Mission Plan on
October, 1943 by Subhash Chandra Bose. (42nd BPSC, 1997) 6th June, 1946 and the Congress on 24th June, 1946.
Three Brigades of Azad Hind Fauj were named After the acceptance of Cabinet Mission by the Congress
Subhash Brigade, Gandhi Brigade and Nehru Brigade and the Muslim League, elections were held in July, 1946
and Women's Brigade were named as ‘Lakshmibai to form the Constituent Assembly, in which the Congress
Brigade’. secured 208 seats including 4 Sikh members. The Muslim
On 6th of November, 1943, Japan handed over Andaman League won 73 seats.
and Nicobar to the government of Subhash Chandra Bose, The Muslim League celebrated ‘Direct Action Day’ on
which he named ‘Shaheed Dweep and Swaraj Dweep’ 16th August, 1946. (UPPCS, 2007, 2008)

respectively. On 30th of 1943, Netaji hoisted the Tiranga On 2nd September 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru formed the
Interim Government. (UPPCS, 2006, 2016)
at Port Blair.
Mountbatten Plan of partition of India was published on
Azad Hind Fauj officials P.K. Sehgal, Colonel Gurudyal
3rd June, 1947. (MPPCS, 2014)
Dhillon and Major Shahnawaz Hussain, were trialled at
Mountbatten plan was accepted by the Congress Working
the Red Fort in Delhi on charges of treason. Later, due to
Committee (CWC) on 3rd June, 1947.
public opposition, the Viceroy waived his sentence.
The Muslim League accepted the Mountbatten plan with
(UPPCS, 2019, IAS 2021)
an overwhelming majority on 10th June, 1947.
Tej Bahadur Sapru, Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhula Bhai
The Indian Freedom Bill was introduced in the British
Desai, K.N. Katju etc. pleaded on behalf of Azad Hind Parliament on 4th July 1947, passed by the House of
Fauj. Commons on 15th July 1947 and the House of Lords on
On behalf of the accused (Azad Hind Fauj), Bhula Bhai 16th July 1947. It was signed by the British Emperor on
Desai presided over the group of lawyers. (UP GIC, 2010) 18th July 1947.
On 18th February 1946, the Navy revolted in Mumbai on a According to this Bill, the country will be divided into two
ship named H.M.I.S. Talwar. Dominions, India and Pakistan and will be given complete
On 19th February 1946, the Air Force soldiers went on strike independence and sovereignty.
against the British government demanded equal treatment Pakistan was established on 14th August, 1947 and Indian
for both Indian and British soldiers. The strike soon started Dominion was established on 15th August, 1947.
in Lahore, Delhi and Bombay also. The Emperor of England was George VI during India’s
Under the pressure of Sardar Patel, the Navy stopped the Independence and was the first head of the Commonwealth
rebellion. countries. (JPCS, 2016)
On 24th March, 1946, the Cabinet Mission came to Delhi During India’s Independence, the Prime Minister of Britain
under the leadership of Pethick-Lawrence. Its other was Clement Attlee. Attlee belongs to the Labour Party.
members were - Stafford Cripps (Chairman, Board of (Chattisgarh PCS, 2008)
Trade), and A.V. Alexander (Minister of the Navy). Notably Congress President was J.B. Kriplani, during
(UP GIC, 2010) India’s Independence. (UPPCS, 2015)

15. Important Movements and Events related to the History of Indian Independence
Movements and Events Year Related Subjects / Persons
Banga - Bhang Movement 1905 Against the partition of Bengal
Partition of Congress 1907 Split into Moderates and Extremists
Lucknow Pact December, 1916 Agreement between Congress and the Muslim League
Montague Declaration 20th August, 1917 Declaration of Secretary of India, Lord Montague
Rowlatt Act March, 1919 Black Act (No Dalil, No Vakil, No Appeal)
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre 13th April, 1919 Massacre by General Dyer (Amritsar)
Khilafat Movement 1919 Shaukat Ali, Mohammad Ali
Congress Session at Nagpur December,1920 Proposal of Non-Cooperation Movement has been passed
Non-Cooperation Movement 1st August, 1920 Mahatma Gandhi (Tilak died on the same day)
Chauri-Chaura Incident 4th February, 1922 Gorakhpur (Uttar Pradesh)
Formation of Swaraj Party January, 1923 Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjan Das
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Appointment of Simon Commission November, 1927 A seven-member commission headed by John Simon
Simon Commission's visit to India 3rd February, 1928 Lala Lajpat Rai suffered severe injuries in a lathi charge during
protests and later died.
Nehru Report August, 1928 Pt. Motilal Nehru, President
Bardoli Satyagraha (IAS, 2003) October, 1928 Agitation under the leadership of Sardar Patel against the hike
in rent of farmers of Gujarat
Central Legislative Assembly Bomb 8th April, 1929 Bombs thrown by Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt in the
Case Legislative Assembly
Congress Session at Lahore December, 1929 Passed the resolution on Poorna Swaraj
Independence Day 26th January, 1930 Announcement made to celebrate 26 th January as the
Independence Day
Dandi March 12th March-5th April, Mahatma Gandhi violated the ‘Salt Law’ to travel from
1930 Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi
Civil Disobedience Movement 6th April, 1930 Civil Disobedience Movement begins
First Round Table Conference 12th November, 1930 Held in London under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister
to 19th January, 1931 MacDonald
Gandhi- Irwin Pact 5th March, 1931 Announced to postpone the Civil Disobedience Movement
concluded between Mahatma Gandhi and Viceroy Irwin
Second Round Table Conference 7th September, 1931 Gandhiji participated in this conference
to 1st Dec., 1931
Communal Award 16th Aug.,1932 Providing separate representation to Dalits too, by McDonold
Poona Pact 24th September, 1932 Agreement between Gandhiji and Dr. Ambedkar
Third Round Table Conference 17th November, 1932 Congress did not participate in the conference
Formation of Congress Socialist 1934 Jaiprakash Narayan, Meenu Masani and M.S Joshi
Party
Mukti Diwas 22nd December, 1939 Celebrated by the Muslim League after the resignation of
Congress cabinet
Formation of Forward Block May, 1939 Subhash Chandra Bose
Demand for Pakistan 22nd-24th March, 1940 Lahore Conference of the Muslim League
August Offer 8th August, 1940 Viceroy Linlithgow
Cripps Mission March, 1942 Stafford Cripps
Quit India Movement 9th Aug., 1942 Mahatma Gandhi
Shimla Conference 1945 All Political Party Meeting
Naval Rebellion 18th-23 February, 1946 Mumbai (by HMIS Talwar soldiers)
Announcement of Prime Minister 20th February, 1946 Assurance to declare India's Independence
Attlee
Arrival of Cabinet Mission 24th March, 1946 Pethik Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and A. V. Alexander
Direct Action Day 16th August, 1946 By the Muslim League
Establishment of Interim Government 2nd September, 1946 Nehru became the Vice-President of the Executive Council
Mountbatten Plan 3rd June, 1947 Plan of partition of India
The Attainment of Freedom 15th Aug., 1947 The Indian Independence Act
Establishment of Indian Republic 26th January, 1950 Dr. Rajendra Prasad (First President)
Bhoodan Movement 1951 Started by Vinoba Bhave
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16. Governor - Generals / Viceroys of India

Governors of Bengal /
Tenure Work
Governor -General
1. Robert Clive (Governor) 1758-1760 (i) Treaty of Allahabad (1765) with Nawab Shujaud-daulah of Awadh and
(1765-1767) Mughal Emperor Shah Alam (ii) Dual Government in Bengal (iii) White
(BPSC, 2020) Rebellion (iv) Restrictions on taking gifts by Company's employees (v)
Establishment of Society for Trade
2. Warren Hastings (Governor) 1772-1774 (i) End of Dual Government in Bengal (1772) (ii) First Anglo - Maratha
Warren Hastings (First Governor- 1774-85 War (1775-82) (iii) Second Anglo - Mysore War (1780-84) (iv) The
General of Bengal) Supreme Court of Judicature at Fort William, Calcutta, founded in 1774
by the Regulating Act of 1773 (v) Nand Kumar (Brahmin) hanged on
wrong charges (1775) (vi) Pitts India Act (1784) (vii) Five year Land
Settlement replacing the traditional zamindars with the highest bidding
revenue speculators (viii) Treaty of Banaras (1773) (ix) Establishment
of Government Mint in Calcutta.
3. Lord Cornwallis Cornwallis 1786-1793 (i) Third Anglo-Mysore War (ii) Establishment of 4 Provincial Courts in
twice held the post. First Tenure Calcutta, Murshidabad, Dhaka and Patna (iii) Introduction of Permanent
- 1786-1793. For the second time, Land Settlement System in Bengal (1793) (iv) Father of Indian Civil
he came to India in 1805, but died Service (v) Seperation of Revenue Administration and Civil Jurisdiction
before he could took the post. (vi) Cornwallis Code, 1793 (vii) Establishment of Revenue Board (viii)
Mausoleum at Ghazipur (U.P.)
4. Sir John Shore 1793-1798 (i) Battle between the Nizams and Marathas (1795) of Kharda (ii) Passed
the Charter Act of 1793. (iii) The policy of non-interference (laissez-faire)
towards the native states.
5. Lord Wellesley 1798-1805 (i) Implemented Subsidiary Alliance System (ii) Fourth Anglo-Mysore
War (1799) (iii) Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05) (iv) Establishment
of Fort William College in Calcutta (v) Treaty of Bassein with Bajirao
in 1802 (vi) Princely States annexed in British Empire by Subsidiary
Alliance (a) Hyderabad - 1798 (b) Mysore - 1799 (c) Tanjore - 1799 (d)
Awadh- 1801 (e) Maratha- 1802 (f) Bhonsle - 1803
6. Sir George Barlow 1805-1807 Sepoy Mutiny in Vellore
7. Lord Minto I 1807-1813 The famous ‘Treaty of Amritsar’ (1809) with Maharaja Ranjit Singh
8. Lord Hastings 1813-1823 (i) First Anglo-Nepal War (1814-16) (ii) Third Anglo-Maratha War
(1817-18) (iii) Suppression of Pindaris (1817-18)
John Adams (Acting) January- (iv) Tenancy Act implemented in Bengal (1822)
August 1823
9 . Lord Amherst 1823-1828 (i) First Anglo - Burma War (1824-26) (ii) Treaty of Yandaboo between
the British and the Burma (iii) Revolt in the military cantonment of
Barrackpore (1824)
Governors-General of India
1. Lord William Bentinck June (1834- (i) Abolition of Sati Practice (1829) (ii) Suppression of Thuggee Practice
1835) (1830) (iii) Banned female infanticide (iv) Charter Act of 1833 (v)
Establishment of Medical College in Calcutta (1835) (vi) Government
Declaration to end discriminatory policy in services (vii) First Governor-
General of India (viii) English became the official language of Indian
administration (1835) (ix) Agra became new Presidency (x) Anglo-
Oriental Education Disputes (xi) Appointment of Commissioners of
circuit and revenue
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Note : On 4 March, 1828 Lord William Bentinck was appointed as Governor General of Bengal. He was appointed
Governor General of India on 16th June, 1834.
2. Charles Metcalfe 1835-1836 (i) Removed the ban on newspapers (ii) Liberator of the Indian Press
3. Lord Auckland 1836-1842 (i) First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-42) (ii) Tri-party treaty between the
Company, Maharaja Ranjit Singh and Shah Shuja (iii) Repair of Grand
Trunk Road from Calcutta to Delhi
4. Lord Ellenborough 1842-1844 (i) Sindh merged into British State (ii) Abolition of Slavery (1843) (iii)
First Anglo-Afghan War ended
5. Lord Hardinge 1844-1848 (i) First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) (ii) Occupation of Lahore by the
British
6. Lord Dalhousie 1848-1856 (i) Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49) (ii) Mergence of Punjab into
the British State (1849) (iii) Second Anglo-Burmese War (1853) (iv)
Introduced 'Doctrine of Lapse' (v) Abolition of the title of Nawab of
Karnataka and Raja of Tanjore (vi) Berar annexation on charges of
taking more debts. (vii) Construction of the first Railway line [1853 (BPSC,
2008)] (viii) Sir Charles Wood’s Despatch on Education (1854) (ix) The
beginning of the first electric wire (1852) (x) Postal system (1853) (xi)
Santhal Rebellion (xii) Annexation of Awadh on charge of misrule [1856
UPPCS, 1994)] (xiii) State merged with Doctrine of Lapse Principle (a)
Satara – 1848 (UPPCS, 2016) (b) Jaitpur, Sambhalpur – 1849 (c) Baghat –
1850 (JPCS, 2016) (d) Udaipur - 1852 (e) Jhansi – 1854 (f) Nagpur – 1854
(g) Awadh – 1856 (xiv) Establishment of Public Works Department and
Public Service Department

Viceroys of India
1. Lord Canning (Governor- 1856-1858 (i) Revolt of 1857 (ii) Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 (UP Lower, 2002, 2003)
General) (iii) Act of 1858 (iv) Establishment of Universities in Bombay, Madras
1 st Nov., 1858-21 st and Calcutta (v) Indian Council Act 1861 (vi) Establishment of a High
March, 1862, first Court in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras under the High Court of India Act,
Viceroy) 1861 (vii) Indian Penal Code (1860) (viii) Civil Penal Procedure Code
(1861) (ix) Last Governor-General appointed by East India Company
2. Lord Elgin 1862-1863 Suppression of Wahabi Movement
3. Robert Napier 21st November, 1863 —
2nd December, 1863
4. William Denison 2nd December 1863- Acting Viceroy
12th January 1864
5. Sir John Lawrence 1864-1869 (i) Famous non-interference policy in the context of Afghanistan (Ring
Fence Policy) (ii) Terrible famines in Orissa in 1866 and Rajputana
and Bundelkhand in 1868-69 (iii) Construction of railways and canals
in large numbers (iv) Established first marine communication system
with Europe.
6. Lord Mayo 1869-1872 (i) Decentralization of Finance in India (ii) Establishment of Mayo
College at Ajmer (iii) Murdered by an Afghan at Port Blair during his
tenure. (iv) Census for the first time in India in 1872. (UPPCS, 2000)

7. Lord Northbrook 1872-1876 (i) Kuka Movement in Punjab (1872) (ii) Famine in Bengal (1873)
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8. Lord Lytton 1876-1880 (i) Formation of a Famine Commission under the chairmanship of
Richard Strachey (1878) (ii) Conducting a Grand Durbar in Delhi (1877)
(iii) Queen Victoria’s title of ‘Kaiser-i-Hind’ (1877) (iv) Vernacular
Press Act (UPPCS, 2007) and Indian Arms Act (1878) (v) Maximum age
in appearing civil services exam lowered from 21 to 19. (vi) Second
Anglo-Afghan War (1878-80)
Note : Lord Lytton used to write literature under the name of ‘Owen Meredith’.
9. Lord Ripon 1880-1884 (i) First Factory Act (1881) (ii) Appointment of Hunter Commission (for
primary education) (1882) (iii) Ilbert Bill Controversy (1883-84) (iv)
Starting of local self-government [1882 (UPPCS, 2015)] (v) Establishment
of Census system (vi) First systematic census in 1881 (except Kashmir)
(vii) Decision of systematic census after every 10 years (regular)
Note : Lord Ripon was called the ‘Saviour of India’ by Florence Nightingale.
10. Lord Dufferin 1884-1888 (i) Establishment of Indian National Congress (1885) (ii) Third Anglo-
Burmese War (1885) (iii) Bengal Farmers Act passed (1885)
11. Lord Lansdowne 1888-1894 (i) Manipur Rebellion (1891) (ii) Determination of the Border Line
(Durand Line) between India and Afghanistan (1893) (iii) Passed Indian
Council Act, 1892 (iv) Declaration of ‘Ganapati Festival’ by Tilak (1893)
(v) Second Factory Act (1891)
12. Lord Elgin II 1894-1899 (i) Terrible famine in North India in 1896-97 (ii) Formation of Famine
Commission in the name of ‘Lyall Commission’ (iii) Declaration of
Shivaji Festival by Tilak (1895) (iv) Two British officers killed in Poona
by Chapekar Brothers (1897)
Note : Elgin II said that “India has won on the strength of the sword and it will be protected on the strength of the sword.”
13. Lord Curzon 1899-1905 (i) Appointment of Agricultural Inspector-General in 1901 to look
after the agricultural work. (ii) Formation of new province namely
North-West Frontier Province (iii) A delegation led by Younghusband
went to Lhasa, Tibet (1904) (iv) Indian Universities Act (1904) (v)
Formation of Indian Public Service Board (1905) (vi) Appointment
of Police Commission under Sir Andrew Frazer (vii) Establishment of
University Commission under the chairmanship of Sir Thomas Raleigh
(1902) (viii) Famine Commission constituted under the chairmanship of
Sir Antony MacDonnell (1900) (ix) [Ancient Monuments Preservation
Act 1904 (UPPCS, 2005)] (x) Partition of Bengal (1905) (xi) Formation of
Irrigation Commission (Chairman Colin Scott Moncrieff) (1901) (xii)
Constitution of Railway Board (1905)
14. Lord Minto II 1905-1910 (i) Formation of the Muslim League (in Dacca) (1906) (ii) Anglo-
Russian Friendship (1907) (iii) Execution of Khudiram Bose (iv) 6 years
imprisonment of Tilak (1908) (v) [Indian Council Act or Marley - Minto
Reforms Act passed (1909) (UPPCS, 1994)] (vi) S.P. Sinha appointed to
Viceroy’s executive (1909) (vii) Congress divided in Surat Session (1907)
15. Lord Hardinge II 1910-1916 (i)The arrival of King George V of Britain to India (December 12, 1911)
(ii) Annulment of the partition of Bengal in Delhi (1911) (iii) Declare the
shift of capital of India from Calcutta to Delhi (1911) (iv) Delhi again
became the capital (1912) (v) Balmukund sentenced to death for throwing
a bomb at Hardinge at the time of his entry in Delhi (December, 1912)
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(vi) The beginning of the First World War (August, 1914) (vii) Gandhiji
returned to India from South Africa (1915) (viii) Death of Gokhale and
Feroze Shah Mehta (1915) (ix) Lord Hardinge was appointed as the
Chancellor of Banaras Hindu University (1916) (x) Hindu Mahasabha
was founded in 1915.
16. Lord Chelmsford 1916-1921 (i) Establishment of the Home Rule League by Tilak and Annie Besant
(1916) (Tilak in April, Besant in September) (ii) Declaration of the
establishment of Banaras Hindu University (1916) (iii) Gandhiji’s
Champaran Satyagraha (1917) (iv) Rowlatt Act (April, 1919) (v)
First session of the Indian Trade Union Congress (1920) (vi) Khilafat
Movement (vii) The Non-Cooperation Movement by Gandhiji (1st
August, 1920) (viii) Sir S.P. Sinha, first Indian Governor of Bihar
(ix) [Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13th April, 1919) (UPPCS, 1993)] (x)
Montague - Chelmsford Reform Act (1919) (xi) Third Afghan War
17. Lord Reading 1921-1926 (i) Visit of Prince of Wales to India (November 1921) (ii) Moplah
Rebellion (Malabar Coast, Kerala) (iii) Formation of Communist Party
of India by M.N. Rai (1920) (Tashkent) (iv) [Chauri-Chaura incident (4th
February, 1922) (UP Lower, 2002)] (v) Non-Cooperation Movement ended
(12th February, 1922) (vi) Kakori train conspiracy (9th August, 1925) (vii)
All India Communist Party formed in Kanpur (1924)
18. Lord Irwin 1926-1931 (i) Appointment of Simon Commission (1927) (ii) Opposition of Simon
Commission on its arrival in India (1928) (iii) Bomb thrown at Assembly
Hall of Delhi by Bhagat Singh, Batukeshwar Dutt (8th April 1929) (iv)
Congress Declaration of ‘Poona Swaraj’ at Lahore Session (December
31st, 1929) (v) Historical Dandi March (12th March to 5th April, 1930)
(vi) First Round Table Conference in London (November, 1930) (vii)
Gandhi - Irwin Pact (5th March, 1931), The Meerut conspiracy trial.
(BPSC, 2011)
19. Lord Willington 1931-1936 (i) Gandhiji participated as the representative of Congress in the Second
Round Table Conference (7th September to 1st December 1931) (ii)
Declaration of Communal Award (16th August 1932) (iii) Pact between
Mahatma Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar (24th September, 1932) (iv) Civil
Disobedience Movement restarted by Gandhiji (v) Third Round Table
Conference organized (17th November, 1932 to 24th December, 1932)
(vi) Civil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn by Congress (April,
1934) (vii) Government of India Act (August, 1935)
20. Lord Linlithgow 1936-1943 (i) Elections were held in eleven provinces for the first time with
eight states-(Assam, Orissa, North-West Frontier Province, Bihar,
Bombay, Central Province, Madras, United Provinces) Establishment
of new governments by Congress (Absolute majority in 5 provinces
of Congress) (ii) Subhash Chandra Bose was reelected President in the
Tripuri Congress Session despite the opposition of Mahatma Gandhi.
(iii) ‘Establishment of Forward Block’ by Subhash Chandra Bose
(iv) Declaration of ‘August Offer’ by Viceroy (8th August, 1940) (v)
Individual Civil Disobedience Movement (started on17th October, 1940)
(vi) Quit India movement was started (vii) Karachi Session of the Muslim
League ‘Divide & Quit’ slogan
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21. Lord Wavell 1943-1947 (i) Wavell met Congress and the Muslim League's representatives in
Shimla (June - July, 1945) (ii) Navy revolted in Bombay (iii) Arrival of
Cabinet Mission in India (iv) Declaration of Cabinet Mission Proposal (16
May, 1946) (v) ‘Direct Action Day’ was observed by the Muslim League
(16th August, 1946) (vi) Election for the Constituent Assembly (July,
1946) (vii) Interim Government formed led by leadership of Jawaharlal
Nehru (September, 1946) (viii) [First meeting of the Constituent
Assembly (9th, December, 1946) (UPPCS, 2009)] (ix) The British Prime
Minister, Attlee announced the Independence of India by June 1948
(20th February, 1947)
22. Lord Mountbatten 1947-1948 (i) Radcliff Commission was constituted (ii) According to the ‘Third
June Plan’, the Declaration of Partition of India (3rd June, 1947) (iii) The
Bill of Indian Independence was introduced in the British Parliament,
July (1947) and accepted by the Emperor on 18th July. (iv) India became
independent (15th August, 1947).

Exam Oriented Facts Elphinstone was the Governor of Bombay province, India
Lal Bahadur Shastri is known as the man of peace. during 1819-27.
Sometime before the Maurya Empire period, about 2400
Gopal Krishna Gokhale is called the diamond of India.
years ago, emperors in Chia began building the Great.
The famous Hing Laj Mata Temple is located in India's The first Indian cotton mill was established at fort
neighbouring country Pakistan. Gloucester, Calcutta in 1818 AD. by Henry gauger.
Vedika, Chhatra and harmika are related to the structure The Mongols, led by Genghis Khan, invaded Transoxiana
of the Stupa, while Vimana is not related to the Stupa. in north-eastern Iran in 1219. (SSC MTS, 2023)
Narayan Guru advocated the idoalogy of Oru Jaati, Oru Shikhana element in North. Indian temple architecture
Matam, Oru Manushyanu, (one caste, one religion, one refers to the superstructure or tower over the sanctum
God for manknd. sanctorum and pillared mandapas. (SSC, 2023)

17. History from 1947 to 1964 : Consolidation of Princely States

At the time of Independence, there were 565 princely states (2) A large administrative union was formed by combining
in the Indian region, where either Nawab or Raja was ruling. some princely states.
On the 15th of June, 1947, the All-India Congress accepted (i) United States of Kathiawar (Saurashtra)
the British Plan for the Partition of India in New Delhi. (ii) United States of Matsya
On 15th June, 1947, the All India Congress Committee (iii) United States of Rajasthan
announced that 'It cannot accept the right of any Princely (iv) United States of Vindhya Pradesh
State of India to declare independence and remain separate (v) Gwalior, Indore and the United States of Malwa
from India'. (vi) Formation of Patiala and East Punjab States Union
The Government of India established a separate department (PEPSU).
called Princely States Department in June 1947, the Junagadh Princely States
responsibility of which was assigned to Sardar Vallabhbhai
The princely state of Junagadh declared to join Pakistan,
Patel.
while most of the princely states' people were Hindus, who
Integration of princely states was done by two processes.
wanted to stay in India.
(1) To merge smaller princely states into any area or
In February 1948, the state of Junagadh was incorporated
neighbouring provinces was administered by the Central
into the Union of India by holding a referendum.
Government.
(a) Under this, the eastern princely states merged into either The Princely States of Hyderabad
the provinces of Orissa or Madhya Pradesh. Hyderabad was the largest princely state of India.
(b) The princely states of Deccan and Gujarat merged into The ruler of Hyderabad was a Muslim, but most of the
Bombay province. people of the state were Hindus.
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The Government of India started military operations in According to this agreement that the basic issues and causes
Hyderabad on 13th September, 1948. of conflict which have bedevilled the relations between
Major General EL. Edroos, a military commander of the the two countries for the last 25 years shall be resolved by
princely state of Hyderabad surrendered to the commander peaceful means.
of the Indian Army, Major General JN Choudhuri. Both sides will always have respect for each other’s
Thus, Hyderabad was merged into the Indian Union. territorial integrity, universality and political freedom.
The Government of India named this secret military Other Important Points
operation ‘Operation Polo’. (UP UDA/LDA, 2013) In India, the first general election was held in 1952.
The Princely States of Kashmir Nagaland became the sixteenth state of India in the year
The King or ruler in the princely state of Kashmir was a 1962.
Hindu, but the majority of the people were Muslims. Panchayati Raj was first established in 1959, in Nagaur,
On 20th October, 1947, the North-West Frontier province Rajasthan.
tribals and many Pakistani's attacked Kashmir.
Fearing this situation, on 24th October 1947, Raja Harisingh 18. Other Major Historical Facts
demanded military assistance from the Government of India
The Tashkent Agreement was signed on 10th January,
to protect his kingdom from the invaders and prayed to
1966 between Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri
annex Kashmir to the Union of India.
and President of Pakistan, Ayub Khan.
On 26 th October, 1947, Raja Hari Singh signed the
Bangladesh was created on 16th December, 1971.
Instrument of Accession.
(MPPCS, 2014)
On 31st October 1951, the Constituent Assembly of the state
The Shimla Agreement was signed between Zulfikar Ali
of Jammu and Kashmir came into existence.
Bhutto and Mrs. Indira Gandhi on 2nd July, 1972.
On 15th February, 1954, the merger of Jammu and Kashmir
Panchsheel Agreement was signed between India and
into the Union of India was retified by the Constituent
China on 29th April, 1954.
Assembly.
On 20th October, 1962 China invaded India.
On 19th August, 1952, under Article 370, Sadr-e-Riyasat
Bandung Conference was held in April, 1955 in Bandung
(President) Karan Singh and Wazir-i- Azam (Prime
City, Indonesia. The conference was organized by India,
Minister) Sheikh Abdullah were nominated.
Burma, and Indonesia jointly.
On 17th November, 1956, a separate constitution for the
From 1st to 6th September 1961, the Non-Aligned Movement
state was passed by the Constituent Assembly.
was formed with the cooperation of India’s Prime Minister
On 26th January 1957, the new Constitution of Jammu and
Jawaharlal Nehru, President of Egypt, Colonel Nasser
Kashmir came into force.
and President of Yugoslavia, Marshal Tito etc.
The term of Sadr-e Riyasat (President) and Wazir-i-Azam
The first Non-Aligned Summit was held in Belgrade in
(Prime Minister) was abolished by the Sixth Constitutional
September, 1961.
Amendment Act, 1965, in 1965.
On 5th August 2019, the President of India in the exercise
D World History
of the powers entitled under clause (1) Article 370 of the
Constitution had issued the Constitution (Application
1. Renaissance
to Jammu and Kashmir) Order, 2019. Through this, the
Government of India modified Article 370 itself (not Renaissance means ‘Rebirth’.
revoked it). The Renaissance was the intensification of the cosmic
tendencies of Western European thought, literature and art
Note : At the time of Independence, Chandranagar during the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
(Calcutta) Pondicherry, Karaikal, Mahe were in The basic mantra of the Renaissance was - Worldliness
possession of France, later, they were handed over to or Cosmicity which is related to this world, not the
India in 1954. supernatural world.
Goa, Daman and Diu were under the Portuguese at the time Renaissance started in Italy. The city of Florence was the
of independence, were merged into India in 1961. largest centre of the Renaissance.
Shimla Agreement The strong reason for the Renaissance was the rise of trade.
The Simla Agreement was signed between India and This led to the rise of cities and their importance began to
Pakistan on 2nd July, 1972. grow.
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“If I had control, I would throw all Aristotle’s texts Michelangelo was an amazing sculptor and painter. His
into the fire, because one wastes time and ignorance most famous picture was - The Last Judgment and The
increases due to the rise of false ideas.” - Roger Bacon Fall of Man.
The credit of inventing paper is given to China, but Italy Sistine Madonna is counted as the most famous painting
was the world’s Fuhrer in making the best paper initially. of the world due to its liveliness and beauty which was
The essential basis of the Renaissance was humanism, in painted by Raphael.
which humans, rather than God, were given the main focus. Science of Renaissance Period
Petrarch, a resident of Italy, is considered the founder of Although the emergence of science took place in the 17th
‘Humanism’. and 18th centuries but it was initiated in the Renaissance
Literature of the Renaissance Period period.
The best expression of the cosmic spirit of the Renaissance Copernicus refuted the geocentric theory of Ptolemy,
period is in literature. rendering the Sun-centered theory.
In the field of literature in Italy, residents of Florence Dante, According to Copernicus, the Earth is not at the centre of
Petrarch and Boccaccio, are the pioneers. the universe, but it is at the centre of the Solar System and
Dante (1265-1321) has been called the 'Forerunner of the like other planets, the Earth revolves around the Sun.
Renaissance' and the ‘first person of the Renaissance’. The Law of Gravitation was proposed by Newton.
Dante’s work is ‘Divine Comedy’ in which there is a lot The promoter of the Reformation Movement was Martin
Luther (1483–1546), who was born in an ordinary peasant
of discussion about Christian stories and theology.
family in Germany.
Dante, in his political book ‘De Monarchia’ argues for the
John Wycliffe is called the ‘Morning Star’ of the
unification of Italy under the leadership of the Holy Roman
Reformation movement.
Empire.
America was named after the name of Italian Amerigo
Story collection called ‘Decameron’ is of Boccaccio, which
Vespucci.
describes dirty romance.
Magellan I travelled the whole world by sea.
Machiavelli’s famous work ‘The Prince’.
Sir Thomas More composed ‘Utopia’. 2. American Revolution or Freedom Struggle
Martin Luther translated the Bible into the German
America’s freedom struggle lasted between 1763 and 1783.
Language.
According to the Treaty of Paris in September 1783,
Erasmus is called the Prince of Humanists.
Britain recognized the Independence of America.
He wrote the book ‘Praise of Folly’ in a satire style.
According to this treaty, Britain accepted the independence
Erasmus was the first thinker to call Jesus a historical figure.
of 13 English colonies of North America.
During the reign of Elizabeth (1558-1603) in the field of
The immediate reason for the American freedom struggle
literature 'Nest of Singing Birds' was composed.
was the tea policy of the British Prime Minister, Lord North.
In the field of Spanish Renaissance literature, the names of
On 16th December, 1773, there was an incident of the
Cervantes and Lope de Vega is profound.
‘Boston Tea Party’ whose hero was Samuel Adams.
Cervantes is composed by Don Quixote. America’s freedom struggle started with the Boston Tea
Shakespeare’s most famous work is Romeo and Juliet. Party incident.
Renaissance and Art The slogan of American independence was – No Taxation
The Renaissance of Italy took place mainly in the field Without Representation.
of art, painting, crafts and architecture which progressed George Washington was the hero of the American freedom
greatly. struggle. Later, he became the first President of the US.
Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, and Titian (UK UDA/LDA, 2007)
are famous painters. America attained complete independence on 4th July, 1776.
In addition, being painter and sculptor, Leonarda da Vinci The Constitution of America came into force in 1788.
was also a scientist, mathematician, engineer, composer Red Indians were native to America.
and philosopher. The first written Constitution in the world came into force
Last Supper, Monalisa, Virgin of Rocks are famous in America.
paintings by Leonardo da Vinci. A civil war in America began on 12th April, 1861, against
In the Renaissance period ‘Giotto’ is considered as the the southern states supporting slavery and the northern
father of painting. states opposing it.
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Slavery was abolished in America on 1st January, 1863 by 4. Unification of Italy

Abraham Lincoln.
The American Civil War ended on 26th May, 1865. "We work for humanity by working according to the real
The first English settlement established in America was principles of our country. Our country is the action point
named Jamestown. of the lever we use for the betterment of the common
man"Joseph Mazzini.
3. French Revolution Joseph Mazzini is considered the "father of the Unification
Napoleon Bonaparte said- “Without Rousseau, the of Italy."
French Revolution would not have taken place”. He was born in Genoa, Italy.
Louis XVI would have saved himself if he had controlled He said - ‘First you are a man, then a citizen of a country
writing”. or something.
Many reasons for the French Revolution were the He founded ‘Young Italy’ in 1831.
unbalanced economy, social class - impermanence, 'If the revolution is to be brought in the society, then give
exploitation of peasants, weakness of autocratic monarchy, the leadership of the revolution to the young men'- Mazzini.
a rebellious attitude of intellectuals, etc. Austria was the main barrier to the unification of Italy.
The French Revolution took place in 1789 during the reign Integration of Italy was accomplished by Mazzini’s
of Louis XVI. idealistic Christian activities, from Garibaldi’s adventurism
Louis XIV (1643-1715) said - “I am the kingdom and my to Kabur’s well-planned diplomatic experiment.
words are the law”. Garibaldi is called the sword of unification of Italy.
Louis XVI reigned between 1774 and 1792. The unification of Italy began with the joining of Lombardy
The judiciary of France was called Parlama. and Sardinia.
The immediate cause of the French Revolution was to call
Garibaldi organized a contingent of armed youth who came
a meeting of the Estates-General.
to be known as the Red Shirts.
The session of the Estates General was inaugurated on 5th
The first war of unification of Italy was fought in 1848,
May, 1789 by Louis XVI.
in which the people of Naples, Sicily and Rome were
Political prisoners were freed on 14th July 1789, escaping
participated, which was called the National War.
the Bastille prison in France.
The birth of Italy is considered to be in 1860, but its
Versailles was made the capital of France and mirror
integration was completed in 1871 by count Kavur.
palaces were built by Louis XIV here.
Rousseau, Montesquieu and Voltaire had significant 5. Unification of Germany
contributions in the French Revolution.
Bismarck strongly believed that “great contemporary
Voltaire's statement was - “A lion’s rule is better than a
questions can be resolved not by speeches and majority
hundred rats.
but by 'blood and iron'.
Rousseau’s work is ‘Social Contract’, while Montesquieu’s
He was born on 1st April, 1815 in Altmark Prussia.
work is ‘The Spirit of Laws’.
Bismarck was Prime Minister of the ruler of Prussia
Napoleon was born on 15th August, 1769 in an ordinary
William I.
family on the island of Corsica.
Germany was unified by Bismarck.
He claimed himself to be the ‘Son of Revolution’.
He assumed the title of Chancellor of Prussia in 1871.
He was appointed as the General of the French Army on
15th October, 1795. King of Prussia believed in the unification of Germany
Napoleon was proclaimed himself the Emperor of France under the leadership of William I. But its most staunch
in 1804. opponent was Austria.
On 21st October, 1805, Trafalgar War broke out between Austria surrendered to Prussia in 1866.
England and Napoleon. The ‘Friedrich List’ is considered the Father of Germany’s
The Bank of France was founded in 1800 by Napoleon. Economic Nationalism.
The Battle of Waterloo took place on 18th June, 1815 Under the Prague Treaty of 23rd August, 1866, Schleswig
between the Allied army and Napoleon, in which Napoleon and Holstein joined the administration.
was taken captive. The Battle of the Sedans was fought on 1st September, 1870
Napoleon died in May, 1821 and was cremated on the island between Prussia and France.
of St. Helena. The Treaty of Frankfurt was signed between Prussia and
He originated the ‘continental system’. France in 1871.
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Bismarck used France’s defeat to unity Germany. 7. Industrial Revolution

On 18th January, 1871, King William I of Prussia was
declared the emperor of Germany in the Palace of The beginning of the Industrial Revolution is believed to
Versailles. be from 1750 AD to 1850.
A unified Germany emerged on the map of Europe. The Industrial Revolution started in England.
The basic intention of ‘Industrial Revolution’ is- ‘Changes
6. Russian Revolution in the Production System.
In Russia, one group was called Bolshevik or Majority A man named Brindley built the canal from Manchester to
Party and the other faction was the Menshevik or minority Worsley.
group. The author of the book ‘The Wealth of Nations’ is Adam
The leader of the Bolshevik faction was Lenin. Smith.
Lenin was a deeply committed revolutionary. He had Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876.
intellectualism, vigour, indomitable power and great ability The safety coating was invented by Humphry Davy.
to set the summer policy of revolution. The term industrial revolution was first used by the French
In 1898, the Russian Marxists established the Social socialist leader Blancci in 1837.
Democratic Party. In 1829, George Stephenson began the era of rail transport
The term ‘Socialism’ was first used by Robert Owen of by driving a train between Liverpool to Manchester at a
Wales. speed of sixteen miles per hour with his own engine.
Karl Marx a German is considered the founder of Scientific A Civil War, also called the Great rebellion (1642-1651)
Socialism. broke out in England in 1642 during the reign of Charles
I. This civil war lasted for 9 years.
'Das Kapital' and 'Communist Manifesto' are books of
King James II had to lose the throne due to the glorious
Kark Marx.
revolution (1688).
On 8th March, 1917, the first explosion of the revolution
It is also called the ‘Bloodless Revolution’ because in this
took place in Russia. On the same day, poor peasants and
revolution, not a single drop of blood of a person from
labourers marched on the streets of Petrograd.
any side came out and it was only by demonstration and
St. Simon is considered the Father of French Communism.
conversation that the revolution became successful.
The ruler of Russia was called the Czar. This system of
This revolution occurred when Emperor James II challenged
monarchy ended in March 1917.
the supremacy of the Parliament.
“If not today, tomorrow or not tomorrow, day after
War of the Roses took place in England.
tomorrow, the building of European imperialism is
There was a 100 year war between England and France.
going to collapse” – Lenin
After the glorious revolution, the divine rights of the king
Karl Marx’s slogan was- "Workers of the world, unite". were invalidated and the era of constitutional monarchy
‘Czar Nicholas II’ was the last Czar of Russia who was flourished in England.
killed in a bombing.
In March 1919, the Bolshevik Party was renamed as 8. World War-I
Communist Party. The series of secret treaties in Europe was the fundamental
War Minister, Trotsky is credited with organizing the Red cause of World War-I.
Army. Bismarck, the Chancellor of the German Empire initiated
In April 1917, Lenin published a revolutionary plan in the ‘secret treaties’.
Russia, known as the ‘April Theses'. World War-I broke out on 28th July, 1914.
He said ‘One Step Forward, Two Steps Back’. The assassination of the Crown Prince of Austria
He died in the year 1924. Archduke Franz Ferdinand proved to be the immediate
Stalin is considered the Creator of Modern Russia. cause of the First World War.
He accused Trotsky of treason and anti-communism and In First World War, the world was divided into two camps
removed him from the party. - Allied and Central Powers.
Stalin said- “Right now we are 50 or 100 years behind Allied nations were England, Italy, Russia, America,
the developed countries. We have to finish this distance France, Japan.
within ten years. Either we will achieve it or we will be Among the Central Nations - Germany, Turkey, Hungary
crushed. and Austria, etc. were the countries, led by Germany.
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Germany attacked France and Russia on 1st August, 1914 ‘Mein Kampf’ is an autobiography of Adolf Hitler.
and 3rd August, 1914 respectively. Nazism rose in Germany under the leadership of Adolf
America joined World War I on 6th April, 1917. The then Hitler in the third decade of the twentieth century and
President of the United States was Woodrow Wilson. the establishment of the Third Reich was the logical
Italy joined the Allied powers in April 1915. culmination of all German history and philosophy.
Britain joined World War I on 4th August, 1914, because Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933,
of the German army's entrance into Belgium. and contemporary to the President Hindenburg.
World War I lasted for more than 4 years. Austria was the first victim of Hitler’s expansionist policy.
World War I ended on 11th November, 1918. Hitler said ''There should be no hesitation in lying if
After World War I, the Treaty of Versailles was signed the lie that uttered is effective''.
with Germany on 28th June, 1919. Hitler committed suicide on 30th April, 1945.
The Paris Peace Conference began in January 1919, with The symbol of Hitler’s Nazi Party was Swastika.
US President Woodrow Wilson, UK Prime Minister Lloyd
George and French Prime Minister George Clemenceau
10. Rise of Fascism in Italy
taking the lead. After World War I, there was widespread dissatisfaction
The real results of the First World War were - the in Italy. The Paris Conference did not accept Italy’s claims
development of liberalism and democracy and the that Italy considered justified.
establishment of the League of Nations. Benito Mussolini was born in 1883 in Italy.
The first council meeting of the league of nations was Initially, he was of leftist ideology and an active worker of
held on 16th of January, 1920, and the first meeting of the the Italian Communist Party.
Assembly of the League took place on 15th November, His party was named National Fascist Party. It was
1920. established in Milan in 1919.
He launched a newspaper called ‘La Lotta Di Classe’ (class
9. Nationalism and in Germany, Nazism struggle). Later, he went on to support war and nationalism
Before 1870, Germany was a country of disciplined, (today we are residents of Italy only). Fascism began with
persistent, hardworking people of Nordic Tutan species the slogan 'Italy Always' (Viva I’Italial).
divided into many small states, princely states and In Italy, the Fasces members are called ‘fascists’ and
territories. its doctrines are called Fascism.
Napoleon Bonaparte was a major contributor to the rise of The word Fasces is derived from the Latin Word 'Faseis',
German nationalism, he organized 200 German states into meaning Gatta or Bundle.
the Rhine Union of 39 states. 'Fasces in' the ancient Roman Empire was called the
The Union Parliament of the Rhine Union was located in sceptre, an axe-like weapon made by tying several sticks
Frankfurt. of banquet or elm which the officers carried.
Hitler was born in Austria on 20th April, 1889. Fasces was made a symbol of the Fascist Party in 1919.
Nazi Party rose in Germany under Hitler’s leadership. Mussolini taught his team members to wear uniforms, tie
The Nazi Party was founded in Munich in 1919 by Anton arms, parade and carry flags.
Drexler. In 1920, Hitler named it the National Socialist The shirt worn by the men at this party was black So, these
German Workers Party. people became famous as Black Shirts.
In 1924, after a failed attempt to control the state of Bavaria, Mussolini was also known as Il Duce (The Leader).
the Nazi Party was temporarily banned and Hitler was The Fascist Grand Council was established by Mussolini
jailed. in 1923 and he became its permanent President.
In March 1933, the German Parliament Reichstag passed Ethiopia was invaded by Mussolini in 1935.
the Enabling Act, giving Hitler government the power to The incident of the formation of his cabinet is known as
issue mandates without Parliament’s permission. his invasion on Rome.
In July 1933, the government ordered that only the Nazi He was hanged along with his wife on 28th April, 1945.
Party would remain in Germany.
After the death of President Hindenburg on 2nd August,
11. Japanese Imperialism
1934, Hitler assumed the title of Führer (Supreme Leader) Military service was made mandatory in Japan in 1873.
along with Chancellor. China became the first victim of imperialism of Japan.
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Russia was defeated by Japan in 1905. The war concluded At San Francisco Conference on 24th October, 1945, the
with the Treaty of Portsmouth. Allies established the United Nations, a successful attempt
The United Nations sent the ‘Lytton Commission’ to to prevent war after World War-II.
Manchuria.
13. Turkiye
Manchuria was invaded by Japan in 1931.
Japan relinquished the membership of the United Nations In World War-I, Turkiye supported Germany. Therefore,
in March, 1933. post-war victorious allies imposed a ‘Treaty of Sevres’ on
Atomic bombs were used by the US on Hiroshima (Little Turkiye and ended its empire.
Boy) on 6th August, 1945 and Nagasaki (Fat man) on 9th The creator of modern Turkiye, Mustafa Kemal Pasha was
August, 1945. a staunch opponent of imperialism and a strong supporter
Forced by this horrific massacre, Japan had to accept the of nationalism and modernity.
unconditional surrender and on 2nd September, 1945 signed He proposed six principles-republicanism, nationalism,
the MoU. judicial system, economy, secularism and revolutionism
to modernize Turkiye.
12. World War II
He was called Ataturk (Father of the Nation) of Turkiye.
The possibility of World War II had occurred since the The Treaty of Lausanne between Turkiye and the Allies
time of the peace conference of 1919, when the victorious was concluded in 1923. It was the last treaty of the First
nations made a humiliating treaty of Versailles with World War.
Germany. The Khilafat was abolished on 3rd March, 1924.
The immediate cause of World War II was the German The Republic of Turkey was declared on 29th October, 1923.
invasion on Poland on 1st September, 1939. On 20th April 1924, a new constitution was announced in
According to Cyril Pfalz, World War II was originally a Turkey.
vengeful war. Mustafa Kemal Pasha abolished the rights of the Caliphs.
The French commander, Marshal French, in 1919 said that Muslims of India (Agha Khan and Amir Ali) reported
“the Treaty of Versailles is not a peace treaty, but only a against it and wrote a letter to Kemal Pasha but he did not
cease-fire treaty for twenty years”. worry about these people and described them as the flunky
The western states promised that if Germany invaded of British imperialism.
Poland, they will send their soldiers. Hence, France and Kemal Pasha banned the previously prevalent face cap and
Britain declared war against Germany. burqa and encouraged European dress pants, coat and tie.
On 3rd September, 1938, Britain declared war against Mustafa Kemal Pasha founded the ‘Republican People’s
Germany, a few hours later France did the same. Party’.
On 22nd June, 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union He died in 1938.
under Operation Barbarossa. He ended the Purdah System and the Polygonal marriage,
On 8th December, 1941, America (Operation Fritz) in World instead of arranging education for women.
War II.
Germany invaded Russia on 22nd June, 1941, alleging 14. Miscellaneous Facts
breach of the agreement reached with Russia on 23rd China was known as the ‘Patient of Asia’.
August, 1939. Turkiye was called the ‘Patient of Europe’.
Italy participated in World War II on behalf of Germany The hero of the Chinese revolution in 1911 was Sun Yat-
on 10th June, 1940. Sen.
The President of the United States at the time of World War An organization called ‘Tung Meng Hui’ was founded by
II was Franklin D. Roosevelt while the Prime Minister of Sun Yat-Sen.
Britain was Winston Churchill. Sun Yat-Sen is called the Father of China. He proposed
In 1936, the civil war started in Spain. Spain was the first three principles - nationalism, democratism and social
victim of Italy and Germany jointly. justice.
During the Second World War, the British Government Mao Tse-Tung (Mao Zedong) was the first President of the
assumed Indians to give Dominion State Status in reform Chinese Communist Republic.
for war aid against the slogan 'Asia for Asians' of Japan. Portuguese started geographical discoveries in 15th century.
World War II was fought for 6 years. Prince Henry initiated in this direction that he was known
It ended on 2nd September, 1945. as Henry the Navigator.
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Geography

A. World Geography
Cosmos Solar System Bodies of Solar System Other Bodies of Solar System World’s Top Geographical
Discoveries Internal Structure of the Earth Lithosphere Endogenic Process The Earthquake Rocks
Continents and Major Peninsulas Atmosphere Temperature Local Winds and their Different Names
Hydrosphere
B. Geography of India
General Introduction Neighbouring Countries of India The Physical Characteristics of India Drainage System
Major Lakes and Waterfalls in India Climate of India Soil of India Agriculture in India Irrigation and
Multipurpose Projects in India Mineral Resources in India Transportation in India Classification of Roads
in India Associated Organizations Rail Transport in India Industries of India Major Wildlife Sanctuaries in
India Tribes in India India and Antarctica The Census of India

The study of Geography is about more than just

memorising places on a map. It is about the complexity A World Geography
of our world, appreciating the diversity of cultures across
the continents. 1. Cosmos
Ocean, rivers, mountains, terrestrial and celestial bodies, Everything we can touch, feel, sense, measure or detect is
and other parts of nature and space, constitute the universe the cosmos. It includes things of nature, such as planets,
and are studied as the subject matter of geography. stars, galaxies, dust clouds, light and even time which are
The Term 'Geography' was coined by the Greek scholar regarded as part of the cosmos.
Eratosthenes, who combined two Greek words 'Geo' (The Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial objects (such
Earth) and 'Graphien' (to describe). as stars, planets, comets and galaxies) and phenomena that
Eratosthenes is considered the “Father of the Systematic originate outside the Earth’s atmosphere.
Geography”. Claudius Ptolemy, the Greek astronomer, pioneered a
systematic study of the universe.
The Systematic approach in geography was introduced
Ptolemy argued that the Earth is at the centre of the universe
by Alexander Von Humboldt, a German geographer
and the Sun and other planets revolve around it.
(1769-1859) while the regional geography approach
Nicolaus Copernicus first expressed that the Sun, not the
was developed by another German geographer and
Earth is at the centre of the universe.
a contemporary of Humboldt, Karl Ritter (1779-
Copernicus is considered the father of Modern
1859).
Astronomy.
The main divisions within human geography include urban Johannes Kepler propounded three laws that govern the
geography, economic geography, cultural geography, motion of planets around the sun, which are known as
political geography, social geography, and population Kepler's laws of planetary motion.
geography. There are mainly three principles of the origin of the
Hecataeus, the renowned historiographer of Greece, is the universe.
father of geography. 1. Big-Bang Theory (UPPCS, 2016; BPSC, 2022;
Alexander von Humboldt is the founder of systematic 2. Steady-State Theory SSC MTS, 2021 CAPF, 2016;
modern geography. 3. Pulsating Universe Theory CPO, 2020; UPPCS, 2016)
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Big-Bang Theory : Light Year is a unit that measures the astronomical distance.
The most valid theory of the origin of the universe is the (MPPCS, 1994)
Big-Bang Theory. (RAS/RTS, 2007) Parsec is also a distance-measuring unit approximately
This theory was formulated in 1927 by Georges Lemaitre equal to 3.26156 light-years.
(1894–1966 AD) and later explained by Robert Wagner An astronomical unit is the distance between the sun and
in 1967. (67th BPSC, 2022) the Earth.
According to this theory, all the substances responsible for The Indian astronomer Varahamihira in the 6th century
the origin of the universe were initially in the conglomerate AD first revealed that the moon revolves around the Earth.
form with high temperature and density. Due to excessive Earlier, there were I Planets in the solar system. Their
distance in accending order from the sun are as follows -
concentration, this mass exploded resulting in the splintering
Mercury (57.9 million km.)
of substances and creating many cosmic bodies in the process
Venus (108.2 million km.)
since then the universe has been expanding continuously.
Earth (149.6 million km.)
Scientists supporting this theory, believe the Big-Bang
Mars (228 million km.)
occurred 13.7 or 13.8 billion years ago.
Jupiter (778.5 million km.)
Steady-State Theory:
Saturn (1433 million km.)
Steady-State Theory is the second primary theory of the
Uranus (2872 million km.)
origin of the universe. According to this theory, the universe
Neptune (4495 million km.)
did not originate from an explosion. The universe has no Source - Jet Propulsion Laboratory
beginning or end, though this theory includes expandability
while maintaining a constant average density, as new Note : In August, 2006 the 26th General Assembly of
stars and galaxies form continuously while old ones International Astronomical Union was held in Prague,
correspondingly disappear. Propounders of this theory are (Czech Republic). The assembly excluded Pluto from
Fred Hoyle, Hermann Bondi and Thomas Gold. the list of planets and reclassified it as a Dwarf Planet.
Pulsating Universe Theory: Solar system can also have more than one star. These are
According to this theory, our universe keeps expanding and called Binary star system.
shrinking at intervals of millions of years. The propounder Our solar system orbits the centre of milky way galaxy at
of this theory is Dr Allan Sandage. According to him, there about 828,000 km/hr. Our solar system takes about 230
was a sharp explosion 12 billion years ago and the universe million years to complete one orbit around the galactic
has been expanding since then. After 29 billion years', this centre.
expansion will stop and the universe will start to shrink. Ku
ip
e rB
Exam Oriented Facts Sa
elt
tur
Otto Schmidt a Russian scientist revised the Nebular n Pluto
Ea
Hypothesis, and proposed his ‘Inter-stellar dust Sun M
erc
rth
hypothesis’ in 1943 to explain the complex problems of ur
y
Neptune
the origin and characteristics of the solar system and the rs
us Ma
Ve n
earth. Ju p
iter Uranus

The most outstanding characteristic feature of this

hypothesis is that the earth and solar system have taken
to have been formed from gas and dust particles.
The Sun
2. Solar System The sun has an atmosphere. The lower region of the solar
The solar system consists of the sun and stars revolving atmosphere is called the Chromosphere. The uppermost
around it. portion of sun's atmosphere is called Corona.(UPPCS, 2001)
The solar system evolved about 9.1 billion years after the Sun is at the centre of the solar system.
Big-Bang, that is, approximately 4.6 billion years ago. (BPSC, 1995; MPPCS, 2016)
It is called the galaxy or the milky way in which our solar Sun is a Yellow dwarf star, with a hot ball of glowing gas.
system is located. (BPSC, 2022; UPPCS, 2001) It is the source of all energy of the solar system.
The distance travelled in 1 year at a speed of 3 × 108 m/s The cloud of gases create stars, so the sun is a gaseous
in a vacuum by light is called Light Year. (UK PSC, 2006) sphere. In terms of atomic number, the sun consists of
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approximately 91.2% hydrogen and 8.7% helium, while 2. The outer Planets or gaseous planets or giant planets-
in terms of mass it has 70% hydrogen and 27.1% helium. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are called outer
The temperature of the core of the sun is 1.5 × 107 °C or 15 or gaseous planets. (IAS, 1998)
million °C while its outer surface temperature is 5500°C – There are 8 planets in the solar system. (UPPCS, 1992)
6000°C. (IAS 1994, IAS, 1998) The order of the planets based on the distance from the sun
There are three main layers in the sun's interior : the Core, is - Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus
the radiative zone and the Convective zone. and Neptune.
The boundary between the Sun's interior and the Solar The planet closest to the sun is Mercury and the farthest
atmosphere is called the Photosphere. planet is Neptune.
The diameter of the sun is 109.2 times the diameter of the The descending order of planets based on size is- Jupiter,
Earth. (MPPCS, 2014) Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Earth, Venus, Mars and Mercury.
The age of the Sun is 4.6 billion years. The descending order of planets based on mass is- Jupiter,
The Sun is about 1.3 million times larger than the Earth. Saturn, Neptune, Uranus, Earth, Venus, Mars and Mercury.
Earth receives only two billionth part of the thermal The most giant planet is Jupiter and the most minor is
radiation of the sun. Mercury. (UPPCS, 2004, 2016; IAS, 1998)
The sunlight takes about 8 minutes 19 seconds (499 The direction of rotation of Venus and Uranus is east to
seconds) to reach the Earth. west (clockwise) while for all other planets it is from west
(38th BPSC - 1991; MPPCS, 1996; UPPCS, 2005; BPSC, 2019) to east (anti-clockwise).
Nuclear fusion is the source of all sun's energy. Solar eclipse occurs when the moon comes between the
(UPPCS, 2006, 2001, 1996) sun and the Earth so that the sun's light does not reach
Subsurface the Earth during the eclipse.
Internal structure :
flows (UPPCS, 1991, 1990; MPPCs, 1993; RAS/RTS, 2000, 1999)
Photosphere A solar eclipse occurs only on New Moon Day or
Inner core
Amavasya.
Radiative The Mercury:
zone The magnetic field is found in the Mercury. (IAS, 1997)
It completes the circling of the sun in the shortest time
(in 88 Earth days). (UPPCS, 2002)
Convection
zone The average distance from the Sun to Mercury is roughly
58 million km. (41st BPSC, 1996)
The temperature of Mercury is the highest in comparison
to other planets. (UPPCS, 2003, SSC MTS, 2016)
Its temperature in the day-time is 430°C and at night it drops
to the level of -180°C, which makes the days extremely hot
Chromosphere and the night is snowy.
Corona It is the nearest to the sun and the most minor planet.
(UPPCS, 2004, BPSC, 1996)
Bodies of Solar System Mercury has no satellite. (UPPCS, 2016)
The Planets :
The word Planet is Greek and means 'wanderer'. Planet is the Note : Satellites are those celestial bodies that revolve
Celestial Body which does not have light or heat of its own. around their planets or the Sun or any other big celestial body.
A Planet should possesses the following qualities : The Venus :
It should orbit around the sun. Venus is the brightest planet. (W.B. PCS, 2008, 210)
It should not be a satellite of any planet. Venus has the warmest surface temperature of all the planets
Due to its own mass and self-gravity, it should have due to how strongly the atmosphere of the gas carbon
a spherical shape and any other celestial body should dioxide traps heat.
not cross in its orbit. (UPPCS, 1992) It completes the orbit of the sun in approximately 225 earth
The Planets are classified in order of their distance from days.
the Sun and based on their characteristics. They are : Venus is the hottest and nearest planet to Earth.
1. The inner planets or terrestrial planets or rocky planets. (41st BPSC, 1996; UPPCS, 1991, 1993, 1997, 2012)
Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are called inner or Venus is called the Morning Star or Evening Star.
terrestrial planets. (UP Lower, 2010)
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Venus is also called the sister of the Earth because it is The Mars:
almost identical to the Earth in density and size. Mars is known as the Red Planet. It appears red due to the
(UPPCS, 2007) presence of reddish Iron Oxide in it.
The atmosphere of Venus mainly consists of carbon The axial tilt of Mars is 25°12' relative to its orbital Plane.
dioxide. (IAS, 2005) Mars has two satellites, namely Phobos and Deimos.
There is no satellite of Venus. Its axis is tilted and days are similar to the Earth. So similar
The sun light takes 6 minutes to travel from the Sun to change of the season is observed on Earth and Mars.
Venus. Carbon dioxide (95.1%), Nitrogen (2.59%), Argon (1.94%),
The Earth: Oxygen (0.16%) and water are found in Mars' atmosphere.
Earth is the only planet in the solar system that provides The presence of frozen water indicates life on Mars.
sustenance or life on it.
'Nix Olympia', a volcanic mountain found on Mars and
Earth is the third planet from the sun and the fifth largest
known as the Olympus Mons, is approx three times larger
in the solar system. (UP Lower, 2003, 2002)
than Mount Everest.
Due to the presence of water on Earth, it is also called 'Blue
It is the largest volcanic mountain in the solar system.
Planet'.
(UPPCS, 1990)
Earth's only satellite is the Moon. (UPPCS (Mains), 2011]
It takes 24.7 hours for Mars to make one revolution on its
The earth's axis is inclined at an angle of 66½° to the orbital
axis.
plane.
It completes the orbit of the sun in approximately 687 earth
Earth is tilted on its axis at 23½°.
[UPPCS 2016; IAS, (Pre), 2005; MPPCS, 1990]
days.
Weather changes on the Earth occur due to its axis tilt The Jupiter :
and rotatory motion. Jupiter is the most giant planet in the solar system.
The Earth completes one orbital revolution in 23 hours Jupiter is the fastest spinning planet in our solar system
56 minutes and 4 seconds. This motion is called rotatory rotating on average once in just under 10 hours.
motion or daily motion. (IAS, 1994, 2003; UPPCS, 2001) Notably, Great Red Spot, a gigantic storm twice as big as
The movement of the Earth on its axis is called spin or Earth, the spot was first observed 300 years ago – and may
rotation due to which day and night occurs. have been churning long before that.
(4th BPSC, 2018; RAS/RTS, 1999, 2000) It completes one revolution of the sun in about 11.86 years.
It takes 365 days 6 hours, 9 minutes and 9.51 seconds or Ganymede is the largest and most massive moon in the
365.25 days for the Earth to complete one revolution of solar system.
the sun. (41st BPSC, 1996) Jupiter is also called the Miniature Solar System.
The time taken by the Earth in a revolution of the Sun is As of July, 2024, 95 satellites of Jupiter has been discovered.
called the solar year. Each solar year is increased by about (MPPCS, 1996, 1990, BPSC, 1996; UPPCS, 1990)
6 hours from the calendar year which is included in the Among these, the 4 largest satellites of Jupiter are IO,
calendar every fourth year as a leap year. Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. These four are also known
The Earth revolves around the Sun at a velocity of 29.8
as Galilean Moon.
km/second. (BPSC, 2001; Jharkhand PCS, 2015)
Jupiter has the shortest day in the solar system. One day
The Earth is nearest to the sun on January 4, and it is called
on Jupiter takes only about 10 hours (the time it takes for
Perihelion.
Jupiter to rotate or spin around once), and Jupiter makes
The Earth is at the farthest from the Sun on July 4 and it
a complete orbit around the Sun (a year in Jovian time) in
is called Aphelion.
about 12 Earth years (4,333 Earth days).
The star closest to the Earth after the Sun is Proxima
Centauri. The Saturn :
The Earth's magnetic field Varies from Place to Place. Saturn is the second-largest planet in the solar system.
On 21st March and 23rd September, the day and night are Seven rings are found around Saturn. (UPPCS, 1990)
equal in both hemispheres of the Earth. There are 146 natural satellites of Saturn. (IAS, 2009)
(UK PCS, 2002; MPPCS, 1992; UPPCS, 1994) Titan, the largest satellite of Saturn is also the second-
The longest day in the northern hemisphere of the Earth largest satellite of the solar system. (UP UDA/LDA, 2006)
falls on 21/22 June while the longest day in the southern The satellite called Phoebe orbits Saturn in the opposite
hemisphere falls on 22nd December. direction.
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The average density of the Saturn is less than water. It Pluto takes 247.7 Earth years to complete a revolution
means that when Saturn is placed into water, it will float. around the sun.
Saturn takes approximately 29.456 years Saturn to complete Ceres, Haumea, Makemake and Eris are also dwarf
a revolution around the Sun. (44th BPSC, 2000) planets.
The Uranus : The Moon:
The planet Uranus was discovered by William Herschel The only satellite of Earth is the Moon.
in 1781 AD. (IAS, 2005; UK Lower Sub, 2004)

Uranus is the third largest planet in the solar system. It completes the orbit of the Earth in about 27 days 7
Uranus takes 84.07 Earth years to complete a revolution hours 43 minutes and in that time it also completes a
rotation on its axis.
around the sun. (44th BPSC, 2000)
Only 59% of the Moon's is visible from the Earth.
Uranus rotates from east to west on its axis while other
The plane of the Moon's orbit is inclined at a mean angle
planets rotate from west to east.
of 5.145° to the plane of Earths orbit around the sun.
Note : Uranus is one of only two planets that rotate from The moon is tilted 6.68° on its axis (orbital plane).
east to west. Only Venus and Uranus rotate like this. The minimum distance from the Earth to the Moon is
363300 kilometres the maximum is 405500 kilometres
Sunrise occurs in the west and sunset in the east on Uranus.
while the average distance is 3,84,400 kilometres.
Due to its greater tilt (97.8°), the planet Uranus appears to
It takes 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes and 3 seconds
be lying on its sides.
(29.53059 days) for the Moon to return to the same point
Titania is the largest satellite of Uranus. on the celestial sphere with respect to the sun (due to the
The number of satellites of Uranus is 27. movement of the Earth around the Sun).
Uranus holds the record for the coldest temperature The time taken by the Moon to revolve around the sun
ever measured in the Solar System: a very chilly -224. from one full moon to another full moon is called a Lunar
(MPPCS-2014) Month or Synodic Month.
The Neptune: When the moon is closest to the Earth, that condition is
Neptune is farthest from the Sun. called super moon or full perigee moon.
It takes about 165 Earth years to complete a revolution When two full moon falls in a calendar month, the second
around the sun. full moon is called a blue moon. (UPPCS, 2007, 2009)
It was discovered by the German astronomer Johann Galle Humans (Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin) first stepped
in 1846. on the moon on 20 July 1969. (MPPCS, 1995)
A cloud of super-cool methane is capped around Neptune. The Sea of Tranquility is located at Moon. Apollo 11 landed
It appears bright blue. here.
It has a total of 14 satellites. (MPPCS, 1994) When the Earth comes between the Sun and the Moon, it
Its largest satellite is Triton. is called a Lunar Eclipse.
(MPPCS, 1994, 1992, Uttarakhand Lower, Sub, 2010)
Dwarf Planets:
“Supermoon” is described as a full Moon within at least
The number of dwarf planets is 5.
90 percent of perigee. Supermoons only happen three to
Criteria for being a dwarf planet- It should be like the
four times a year, and always appear consecutively.
moon, huge and spherical in size, and revolve around the
At its closest point, the full moon can appear up to 14
sun and its orbit does not fall in the way of the neighbouring
percent bigger and 30 percent brighter than the faintest
planet.
Moon of the year, which occurs when it’s farthest from
On August 24, 2006, Pluto was removed from the planet
Earth in its orbit.
category and placed in the dwarf planet's category for The area of the dark spot on the Moon is called the Sea of
not meeting the planetary criteria at the International Tranquility.
Astronomical Union (IAU) conference in Prague, Czech The Lunar Eclipse always occurs on the Full Moon day.
Republic. (MPPCS, 2012; BPSC, 2018) (MPPCS, 1994)
Pluto was discovered in the year 1930 by Clyde William A “blood moon” happens when Earth’s moon is in a
Tombaugh. (CAPF 2015; CPO, 2018) total lunar eclipse. While it has no special astronomical
The orbit of Pluto does fall in the way of the planet Neptune. significance, the view in the sky is striking as the usually
The number of Pluto's satellites is 5. whitish moon becomes red or ruddy brown.
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Half Moon Meteors:

First Quarter Meteoroids are cosmic particles moving in the universe
Waxing Gibbous Waxing Cresent at a rapid pace. (IAS, 1995)
7 Meteors are dust particles of asteroids or comets.
10 4 Meteors begin to glow due to atmospheric friction when
they enter the atmosphere.
14 (0 & 29) Some fragments of meteor do not burn to perfection and
Midnight Noon New
Full fall on the earth in the form of stones called Meteorites.
Moon Moon
Meteor is also called meteorite or a falling star.
Lonar Lake of Maharashtra is the result of a meteor hitting
18 the Earth. Notably, this lake was declared as Ramsar site
26 in 2020.
22
Waning Gibbous Waning Cresent Black Hole:
Last Quarter S. Chandrasekhar propounded the Black Hole Theory.
Half Moon (BPSC, 2001, 2003; UPPCS, 2005, 1996)
A black hole is an astronomical field in space that does not
Other Bodies of Solar System
allow any radiation to come out due to very high density
The Asteroids :
(its intense gravitational field).(UPPCS, 2001, 2003; IAS, 2000)
Most of the asteroids are located between Jupiter and
Earth:
Mars. (IAS, 1997, 2011; UPPCS, 2008; IAS, 1998)
In the Carboniferous Era, the entire part of the Earth
Asteroids revolve around the sun. (IAS, 1998; UPPCS, 1998)
existed as a large continent called Pangea.
Asteroids were formed as a result of Big-Bang.
The entire water body was called Panthalassa.
A huge crater is formed on the surface of the Earth when
Pangea split into two parts in the Triassic Era about 200
the asteroids hit it. million years ago.
The northern part was called Laurasia and the southern
part was called Gondwana Land.
Present North America and Eurasia were parts of Laurasia
Asteroid Belt
while South America, Africa, India and Australia, etc. were
Mars parts of the Gondwana Land.

Polar Zone
Sun
Earth Arct
ic Ci
rcle
Jupiter Temperate Zone
Tropic of can
ce r
Asteroid Belt Equator
SUN Tropical Zone
Tropic of
Ca pricorn

Comets: Temperate Zone

Comets are bodies of the solar system that are made of Antarc
tic Cir
cle
small fragments of stone dust, ice and gas. Polar Zone
Comets also revolve around the sun like planets. South Pole
Comets are visible only when they are moving towards the Latitude: Latitude is the angular distance of a place north
Sun because only then the rays of the Sun make their gases or south from the equator on the globe.
glow. Equator: The latitude of zero degrees on the globe of the
Comets have tails always in the opposite direction to the Earth is called the Equator. (IAS, 2001)
Sun. The northern part of the Equator is called the Northern
Coma is the top part of a comet. It is a gaseous coating Hemisphere and the southern part is called the Southern
generally made of ice and comet dust around the comet's Hemisphere. (MPPCS, 1997)
nucleus. The equator passes through Sao Tome and Príncipe, Gabon,
The comet is also called the tail star. (MPPCS, 1997) Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo,
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Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, Maldives, Indonesia, Kiribati, Niger, Algeria, Libya, Saudi Arab, Egypt, UAE, India,
Ecuador, Colombia and Brazil. Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Oman and Taiwan.
The latitude lines are assumed to be drawn at an interval Tropic of Capricorn : It is an imaginary line of latitude
of every 1° north and south of the equator. at 23.5° South to the Equator around the Earth.
Each degree of latitude is approximately 69 miles (111 It passes through Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay,
kilometres) apart. Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Mozambique,
Longitude : The imaginary lines joining the North Pole Madagascar, French Polynesia, Tonga and Australia.
with the South Pole are called longitude lines. (UP Lower Sub, 1997; UPPCS, 2003)
(UPPCS, 2011) Zero latitude and Zero longitude lines intersect each
All longitudinal lines are equal in length. other in the Atlantic Ocean.
The zero degrees (0°) line of longitude that passes through The Equator, the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England is the Capricorn, all three lines pass through the Continent of
Greenwich Meridian. (UPPCS, 2005)
Africa.
It's also called the Prime Meridian.
Solstice, either of the two times in the year when the Sun's
The Prime Meridian line passes through the United
apparent path is farthest north or South from the Earth's
Kingdom, France, Spain, Algeria, Mali, Burkina Faso,
Equator.
Togo, Ghana and Antarctica (Southern Hemisphere).
June 20/21 is the longest day of the year in the Northern
Just opposite to the Greenwich (0° longitude) line, 180°
Hemisphere at the time of Summer Solstice. (IAS, 2022)
longitude line is known as the International Date Line.
December 21/22 is the shortest day of the year in the
The International Date Line passes through the middle of
Northern Hemisphere at the time of Winter Solstice.
the Pacific Ocean and is the imaginary line that separates
(MPPCS, 1990)
two consecutive calendar days.
The standard time is determined internationally from the In contrast, the shortest day in the Southern Hemisphere
Greenwich line itself. would be on 20/21 June and the longest day on 21/22
There is usually a difference of 4 minutes at 1-degree December. (MPPCS, 2015)

longitude. Each hemisphere of the Earth is divided into different zones

based on temperature.
N The 23.5° northern and 23.5° southern parts of the equator
are called the Tropical Zone.
The region from 23.5° North to 66.5° and South in both
hemispheres is called Temperate Zone.
East The region from 66.5° North to 90° South and in both
to
West hemispheres is called a Frigid Zone/ Polar Zone.
The temperature in the polar zone is very low as a result,
International Date line

a Day
Gains it always remains covered with snow.

66 1 24-hour day
/2° N ARCTIC
Loses
a Day CIRCLE
East Tro 40°
to We pic Nor
st of C th
Add a Day anc
Substract a Day 23 1/ er
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Night Day
Equ
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0°
S Tro
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The Equator and Greenwich lines meet at the Gulf of of
23 1/ Capri
Guinea, west of the Continent of Africa. 2° cor
40°S n
Tropic of Cancer: 23.5° latitude on the north side of the outh
equator is called the Tropic of Cancer. 24-hour night
Tropic of Cancer passes through Hawaii Island (USA), ARCTIC
Mexico, Bahamas, Mali, Western Sahara, Mauritania, CIRCLE
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Equinoxes : A total lunar eclipse occurs when the earth umbra

Equinoxes occur when the earth reaches the points in its obscures the entire the moon's surface.
orbits where the equatorial and the orbital planes intersect,
SUN
causing the sun to appear directly overhead at the equator.
On 21st march, the Sun is directly overhead at the equator.
Throughout the world, on this day all the places experience
almost equal hours of day and night. This position of the EARTH
Sun is called spring equinox.
On 23rd September, the Sun is directly overhead on the
equator and it is called autumn equinox.
Solstices :
MOON
The rays of the Sun fall vertically at the tropic of cancer
(23½°N). The Earth’s Revolution and the Seasons
When the sun's rays fall vertically on the Tropic of March 21
Capricorn, is known as winter solstice (22 December). Northern Hemisphere North Pole
spring Equinos
Eclipses :
An eclipse is a complete or partial obscuration of light June 21
Northern
from a celestial body which passes through the shadow Hemisphere South Pole
Summer
of another celestial body. Solstice North Pole North Pole
The eclipses are of two types.
(A) Solar Eclipse : Direct rays Direct rays
SUN
It occurs on New Moon days, when the moon is between South Pole
South Pole
the Sun and the Earth. Direct rays on Equator
December 22
Northern
A partial solar eclipse happens when the moon partially Hemisphere
North Pole Winter solstice
covers the disc of the sun.
An annular solar eclipse occurs when the moon passes
centrally across the solar disc. During a total solar eclipse, September 23
Northern Hemisphere
South Pole
the moon's shadow is short enough to cover the whole sun. Autumn Equinox

The outer regions still glow and look as bright as a ring.

Such a phenomenon is called a diamond Ring. Difference Between Rotation and Revolution
SUN Rotation Revolution
It defines spinning of the It defines movement of earth
earth from west to east on its around the Sun in its eliptical
axis. orbit.
It takes 24 hours to complete It takes 365¼ days to
a rotation. complete a revolution.
MO
ON It is known as the daily or It is known as annual
EARTH diurnal movement. movement of the earth.
Rotation causes days and Revolution Results varying
nights to alternate, tides, lengths of day and night,
deflection of winds and changes in the altitude of the
ocean currents and also midday sun and change of
(B) Lunar Eclipse: gives the earth its shape. seasons.
It occurs on a Full Moon position when the earth is between
the Sun and the Moon. World’s Top Geographical Discoveries
A partial lunar eclipse can be observed when only a part In 1492 AD, Columbus, a resident of Spain, discovered the
of the moon's surface is obscured by earth's umbra. Caribbean islands, Central America and South America.
Penumbral Lunar eclipse happens when the moon travels The claim for the discovery of North America or the
through the faint penumbral portion of the earth's shadow. present United States is disputed. Some people claim
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that European traveller Leif Eriksson (approx. 986 AD) (i) Crust :
discovered America while some support the belief that The crust is the outermost, substantial and brittle part of
Chinese Admiral Zheng (1421 AD) was the first to reach the earth.
and find America. Oceanic crust is thinner as compared to the continental
In the United States, Columbus is largely considered to crust.
have discovered America and Columbus Day is celebrated The mean thickness of the oceanic crust varies in the range
there on the second Monday of every October. 5-30 kms whereas that of the continental is around 50-70
John Cabot discovered Newfoundland (1497 AD). kms.
Vasco da Gama (Portugal) came to India (1498 AD) via The crust mainly consists of Silica (Si) and Aluminium
(Al), thus it is known as "SiAl" layer.
the Cape of Good Hope.
The mean density of the materials in the crust is about 2.7
Nicolaus Copernicus wrote a manuscript named "Little
g/cm3.
Commentary" in which he placed the Sun rather than the
Whereas the average density of earth is about 5.51 g/cm3.
Earth at the Centre of the Universe.
(ii) Mantle:
In 1610, Galileo saw for the first time in human history that
The Mantle forms about 83 percent of the earth's volume
the Moon orbits Jupiter.
and holds approximately 67% of he earth's mass. It extends
Johannes Kepler (Germany) propounded the law of
from Moho's discontinuity to a depth of 2900 km.
Planetary Motion in 1609. The density of upper Mantle varies between 2.9 - 3.3 g/cm3.
The Hawaiian Islands were discovered (1778 AD) by The lower Mantle extends beyond the asthenosphere. The
Captain James Cook. density ranges from 3.3 - 5.7 g/cm3 in the lower mantle.
The North Pole was discovered (1909 AD) by Robert The Mantle is approximately solid bulk of Earth's interior.
Peary (America). Mantle comprises 45% oxygen, 23% magnesium and 21%
The first expedition to reach the South Pole (in 1911) was silicon. The silicate rocks in the mantle are rich in iron and
led by the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen. magnesium relative to overlying crust.
The Mantle mainly comprises of Silica (Si) and Magnesium
3. Internal Structure of the Earth
(Ma). Hence, it is called "SiMa" layer.
The earth's interior is made up of three concentric layers - Mantle is partially molten between 100 to 250 km depth.
(i) Crust, (ii) Mantle, (iii) Core. This zone is said to be asthenosphere, also known as Mohr
The crust is a silicate solid, the mantle is viscous molten discontinuity, a simplification of Mohorovicic, the name of
rock, the outer core is a viscous liquid, and the inner core the seismologist who discovered it.
is dense solid. In the 1930s, Arthur Holmes presented the Convectional
Current Theory. It talked about how convection currents
CONOROD - discontinuity between might be present in the mantle section. The mantle’s thermal
upper & lower crust
fluctuations are caused by radioactive materials, which
create these currents.
MOHOROVICIC (iii) Core :
Discontinuity { Crust The core (inner core and the outer) core accounts for just
between lower
Upper Mantle about 16 percent of the Earth's volume but 33% of the
crust & upper
mantile
{ Mantle Earth's mass.
Outer Core :
GUTTENBERG Outer Core The Outer core, surrounding the inner core, lies between
Discontinuity
between lower
mantile and
outer core
{ Inner Core
2900 km. and 5100 km. below the earth's surface.
The outer core is comprised of iron mixed with nickel
(NiFe).
The Nature of the outer core is liquid due to not enough
REPITI LEHMANN pressure.
Discontinuity Discontinuity According to dynamo theory convection in the outer core,
between upper
& lower Mantile
inner core combined with the Coriolis Effect gives rise to Earth's
magnetic field.
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Inner Core : Mohorovic Discontinuity - It separates (Moho the crust

The inner core is solid and extends from the center of the from mantle.
earth to 5100 km. below the earth's surface. Asthenosphere - It is highly viscous mechanically weak
It is generally believed to be composed primarily of iron and ductile part of mantle.
(80%) and some nickel (NiFe). Repiti Discontinuity - It separates lower mantle and upper
Because it consists of Nickel (Ni) and Iron (Fe). Hence, it mantle.
is called "NiFe" layer. Guten berg discontinuity - It lies Between the mantle and
Thus, Earth's structure can also be explained as SiAl, SiMa outer core.
and NiFe. Lehman Discontinuity - It lies between the outer core and
The average density of the Earth is 5.5 gram/cm3 and the inner core.
equatorial radius is about 6378 km. The outer surface of the Earth can be divided into
Moving down the Earth's crust towards the core, the following parts: Lithosphere, Hydrosphere and
temperature increases by 1°C after every 32 mtrs. Biosphere.
The crust is the outermost layer of Earth and forms about 4. Lithosphere
0.5-1.0 percent of earth's volume and less than 1 percent
The rigid, rocky outer layer consisting of the crust and
of Earth's Mass.
the outermost solid layer of the upper mantle form
1. The continental crust can be thicker than 70 km. in the Lithosphere.
areas of major mountain systems. It is as much as 70- The 'Lithosphere' is derived from the Greek words 'lithos'
100 kms. thick in Himalayan region. meaning rocky and 'spharia' meaning sphere.
2. The temperature of the crust increases in depth reaching The term 'Lithosphere' was introduced by 'Joseph Barrel',
values typically in the range from about 200°C to 400°C an American Geologist.
at the boundary with the underlying mantle. The maximum altitude of the lithosphere is 8,848 m
The temperature increases by as much as 30°C for every (8848.86m) (Mount Everest) and the maximum depth
kilometer in the upper part of crust. is approximately 11,033 m (Mariana Trench).
The outer covering of the crust is sedimentary material About 70.9% of the Earth's surface is covered by water and
and below that lie crystalline, igneous, and meta morphic the remaining 29.1% part is land.
rocks which are acidic in nature. The lower layer of the Water is found in about 61% of the Earth's Northern Hemi-
crust consists of Basaltic and ultra basic rocks. sphere area and about 81% in the Southern Hemisphere
The continental crust is composed of lighter Sodium area.
Potassium Aluminium silicate rocks (Felsic), like granite.
The oceanic crust, on the other hand, is composed of dense Earth Movements
(mafic) iron magnesium silicate igneous rocks, like Basalt. Endogenetic
Element % By Weight
Slow Movements Sudden Movements
Oxygen (O) 46.6 (Diastrophism) (Catastrophism)
Silicon (Si) 27.7
Epirogenic Orogenic
Earthquakes Volcanoes
Aluminium (Al) 8.1 (Continent (Mountain
Forming) Building)
Iron (Fe) 5.0
Tension Compression
Calcium (Ca) 3.6 Upward Downward
Movement Movement
Sodium (Na) 2.8
Potassium (K) 2.6 Exogenetic

Magnesium (Mg) 1.5 Weathring Erosion

Seismic Discontinuities : Physical Chemical Glacier River Water
Seismic discontinuities are the areas in the Earth where
Biological Waves Winds
there is abnormal behaviour or the seismic waves due to
Under ground water (karst)
the change in physical and Chemical properties.
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NORTH AMERICAN
PLATE
EURASIAN PLATE
PHILIPPINE
COCOS PLATE
CARIBBEAN PACIFIC
PLATE
JUAN DE FUCA PLATE INDIAN PLATE
PLATE ARABIAN PLATE N
PLATE
W E
PACIFIC
PLATE S
SOUTH AFRICAN
NAZCA AMERICA PLATE
EASTER PLATE PLATE AUSTRALIAN
PLATE PLATE

JUAN FERNANDEZ
PLATE
ANTARCTICA PLATE
SCOTIA PLATE

Endogenic Process wide oceans have implications for old ocean basins.
Plate Boundaries : The Divergent Plate Boundary is also called Constructive
plate boundary or accreting plate margin.
Lithosphere plates are sometimes called as crustal plates
Examples of Divergent Plate boundaries are Oceanic ridges
or tectonic plates.
and Rift Valley.
Earth's lithosphere is divided into a series of major and Convergent Plate Boundary :
minor mobile plates. It is the margin where two plates collide with one another.
Eurasian Plate, Indo-Australian Plate, South American Examples of Convergent Plate Boundaries are Trenches
Plate, Pacific Plate, African Plate and antarctic Plates are and Fold mountains.
the major plates. Subduction zone - A subduction zone is a Boundary where
Divergent Plate Boundary : one plate sinks under other plate. It was first identified by
It is the margin where two plates move are moving away 'Kiyo Wadati' and 'Benioff.'
from one another. The zone marking the Boudary of the two colliding plates
Narrow oceans represent young divergent boundaries and is known as Suture line.

Mid-Oceanic Ridge

Ocean
Trench
Subduction
Continental Oceanic
Lithosphere Lithosphere

Cold
Convection
Cell
Hot
Outer
core

Inner
core
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Subduction zones are the most seismically active areas on Fault - A Fault is a break in Earth's crust where blocks of
the earth. rock crust slide past each other.
Transform Plate Boundary : Types of Fault :
Transform Plate Boundary is the margin where two plates Normal Fault - Vertical displacement of crust is called a
move side by side. normal fault.
The lithosphere is neither destroyed nor created by The normal fault is caused by tensional force where plates
the Transform Plate Boundary. Hence it is called as diverge.
conservative or 'Passive plate Boundary'. Examples of Normal Fault are Graben and Horst.
Convection Cell : Reverse Fault - A reverse Fault is a horizontal displace-
Convection cell is the circulation of the molten material ment of the crust. It is caused by compressional forces along
caused by the heat derived from the core. convergent plate boundaries.
When the molten materials (magma) circulate in different
directions, they Push or Pull in the different directions.
Thus the Plates move towards each other, away from one
another and side by side.
The Plate movements cause the formation of fold, fault,
earthquake and volcano the occur.
Internal Forces :
The Internal Forces are also called the tectonic forces.
Hanging Wall Block
They are caused by convection cell and Plate movement. Foot Wall Block
Fold - A fold is geologic structure that is formed by layers.
Significantly, the plane that marks the center of the fold is
called the Axial plane. Normal Fault
Parts of a Fold :
Up thrown Part of a fold is called 'anticline.' Down thrown Exogenic Process :
part of a fold is called 'Syncline'. The side of the fold is The process which occur on earth's surface due to the
called 'Limb'. The top of the fold is called 'Crest'. influence of external forces are called as 'exogenic Process'.
Crater (if filled with water,
a crater lake is formed). Exogenic Process
Weathering
Cone
Lava Physical Chemical Biological
Vent
Ash Side Vent
Solution Carbonation Hydration

Unloading Temperature Freezing,

& Changes & Thawing & frost
Crust Expansion Expansion wedging
Mass Movements

Types of a Fold depend on the nature of the rock. Slow Mass Creep Rapid Mass
When compressional force is equal from both sides, the Movements movements
Solifluction
limb angle is equal on both sides. Such as fold is called
'Symmetrical fold'. Earth Mud Debris Landslides
When compressional force is more from one end, one flow flow Avalanche
limb is steeper than the other. Such as fold is called
Slump Debris Slide Rock Slide
Asymmetrical fold. Erosion
'Isoclinal folds' are symmetrical and aligned in a parallel
fashion. Running Ground Glaciers Waves and Winds
When one limb of the fold is pushed over the other limb Water Water Currents
of the fold, it is called 'over turned fold'. Deposition
When one side of the fold is pushed so much that it lies
positioned over the other such a fold is called 'recumbent Running Ground Glaciers Waves and Winds
Water Water Currents
fold'.
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(A) Weathering - It is the process of disintegration and The world’s largest volcano in terms of size, Mauna Loa
decomposition of rocks. There are three types of is located on the south-central part of the Island of Hawaii,
weathering. U.S. (UPPCS, 2004; 2014)
'Physical Weathering' is the disintegration of rocks Shield volcanoes are constructed primarily of thin lava
mainly induced by elements of weather. flows that cover large areas. Examples of shield volcanoes
'Thermal Weathering' is the disintegration of rocks under are Kilauea and Mauna Loa. (UPPCS, 2014, 2005)
the extreme temperature condition. The dominant lavas of Hawaii, from the eruption of which
'Chemical Weathering' is the decomposition of rocks result the structures typical of Hawaiian volcanoes, are the
due to chemical effects. olivine basalts and basalts, and the closely related picrite-
'Biological Weathering' is the alteration of rock by action basalts and basaltic ande- sites.
of Plants, animals and man. Mount Etna and Stromboli in Italy, Colima in Mexico,
(B) Mass Wasting - Mass wasting is the movement of large Cotopaxi in Ecuador, Barren Island volcano in
masses of rocks, soil and down ward by the pull of gravity. Andaman Nicobar, Mount Erebus in Antarctica, are
some important among the active volcanoes in the world.
Volcanoes
Stromboli volcano located in Lipari Island north of Sicily
A volcano is a vent in the crust of the Earth or a planet or in the Mediterranean Sea is called the lighthouse of the
satellite, through which molten rocks, hot rock fragments Mediterranean Sea. Presently, Vesuvius Volcano of Italy
and hot gases gush out of the surface. (UK PSC, 2016) is an active volcano. Earlier, it was in the category of a
Gases forcing their way out of Earth's surface following dormant volcano. (IAS, 2005; BPSC, 2022)
volcanic eruption contain a high quantity of water vapours (ii) Dormant Volcano-
(H2O). (Jharkhand PCS, 2013) A dormant volcano is not currently active or erupting, but
At the time of volcanic eruption, the fluid embedded in geologists think that it is potentially active.
Earth's surface is called Magma. (UPPCS, 2015, 2017) Mt. St. Helen’s of USA is famous dormant volcano in the
When magma hits the ground, it is called Lava. world.
At the time of the eruption of the volcano, water vapours (iii) Extinct Volcanoes:
from the holes and crevices sometimes rise to a considerable Extinct volcanoes are those that once erupted in earlier
height and are known as Geysers. times, but are now inactive.
Old Faithful is a major geyser located in Yellowstone Park, Among the extinct volcanoes, Koh-i-Sultan of Pakistan,
United States of America. (MPPCS, 2019, 2021) Damavand in Iran, Popa in Myanmar, Kulal and
The water vapours that come out in the last phase of the Kilimanjaro in Africa, Chimborazo in Ecuador, are
volcano eruption are called Fumaroles. prominent. (MPPCS, 2011, 2009; 44th BPSC, 2000)
A fumarole rich in sulfur gases is called a Solfatara. Due to the presence of a large number of active volcanoes
Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes (filled with myriad in coastal parts of the Pacific Ocean, the region is called
fumaroles) is a volcanic region in Mount Katmai southern the Pacific Ring of Fire.
Alaska in the U.S. The most active volcanoes are located on the coasts of the
Ojos del Salado is an active and the highest active volcano continents of America and Asia.
in the world at 6,893 m in the Andes mountain range on
Argentina–Chile Border. (MPPCS, 1997)
The Earthquake
The highest peak in the Andes, the Mt. Aconcagua (6,962 An earthquake is an intense shaking of the Earth’s surface
metres) is the world’s highest extinct volcano that was caused by movements in its outermost layer.
active about 9.5 million years ago. Seismology is a scientific discipline that deals with the
Based on the nature of the eruption of lava, the volcano is study of earthquakes and the propagation of seismic waves
divided into three types. within the Earth.
(i) Active Volcano : Earthquakes produce three types of seismic waves-
The active volcano erupts frequently. primary, secondary and surface. (SSC MTS, 2009)
Kilauea on the Hawaiian Islands of America is the most The fastest seismic waves are called primary waves, or P
active volcano in the world. (UPPCS, 2006, 2009) waves.
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These waves are the first to arrive at the surface when A Tsunami is a series of enormous ocean waves caused
an earthquake occurs. These waves are similar to sound by earthquakes, underwater landslides, volcanic eruptions
waves. (W.B. PCS, 2009, 2011) or asteroids.
Primary waves (P-waves) can travel through solids, liquids, Tsunami is a Japanese word. (UK PSC, 2005)
and gases. (Kerala PCS, 2005, 2007) Earthquake waves are measured by an instrument named
As they pass through a material, the particles of the material Seismograph. (UK Lower Sub, 2010; UPPCS, 2017)
are slightly pushed together and pulled apart (longitudinal The Richter Scale measures magnitude while Mercalli
waves). Scale and Rossi Forel Scale are used to measure the
Secondary waves are also called S waves. (CDS 2009) intensity of earthquakes.
When secondary waves pass through a material, the The Ring of Fire also referred to as the Circum-Pacific
material’s particles are shaken up and down or from side Belt, is a path along the Pacific Ocean characterized by
to side (transverse waves). (CDS, 2011) active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes.
Secondary waves can travel through rocks (solids) but Around 90% of earthquakes are experienced in the Pacific
unlike primary waves, they cannot pass through liquids Ocean region.
or gases. Dhajji-Dewari system of construction is earthquake
Surface waves, also known as long waves or L-waves, are resistant, and is located in Jammu and Kashmir, India.
seismic waves that move along Earth’s surface, not through Rocks
its interior.
Hard materials found on the outer layer of the Earth are
The first kind of surface wave is called Love wave also
called rocks.
known as Q waves, named after A.E.H. Love, a British
Quartz and Feldspar are minerals that we can find
mathematician who worked out the mathematical model
prominently in the earth’s crust. More than 60% of the
for this wave in 1911. These are surface seismic waves that
earth’s crust consists of Feldspars. (IAS, 2001)
cause horizontal shifting of the Earth during an Earthquake.
Based on origin, the rocks are divided into three parts -
The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave,
(i) Igneous Rocks
named after John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, who
(ii) Sedimentary Rocks
mathematically predicted the existence of this wave in
(iii) Metamorphic Rocks (MPPCS, 1993)
1885. These waves roll along the ground just like a tide
runs across a lake or an ocean. Because these roll, they Magma
move the ground in every direction following the direction
of the movement. Most of the shaking and damage from an crystallization melting
Earthquake is caused by this wave. melting
It is the surface waves that are almost entirely responsible
Metamorphic
for the damage and destruction associated with earthquakes. Igneous Rock
Rock
The place where an earthquake originates is called Focus. heat & pressure
It is the point inside the Earth where the rocks break off
weathering, erosion heat &
and pressure is generated.
& deposition pressure
All three types of waves P, S and L emerge from the focus weathering, erosion
& deposition
of the earthquake.
An area between 105° and 145° from the earthquake Sedimentary Rock
Sediment
epicentre (where no earthquake waves are recorded) is the
Shadow Zone for the P waves and the entire zone beyond compaction &
105° which does not receive S-waves is the Shadow zone cementation
of S-waves. (Chattisgarh PCS, 2020) Igneous Rocks- Igneous rocks are formed by the
The place where an earthquake originates initially on the solidification of magma and lava. (40th BPSC, 1995)
surface of the Earth, just above the focus, is called the Igneous rocks are also known as Primary Rocks.
epicentre of the earthquake. (UP RO/ARO, 2017) Examples of Igneous rocks are basalt, granite, pegmatite,
P waves reach the epicentre first. (UP RO/ARO, 2017) diorite and gabbro. (UK PCS, 2006)
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Igneous rocks are rigid and do not contain any fossils. Mountains are of four types based on structure-
Igneous rocks consist of magnetic iron, nickel, copper, lead, (i) Block Mountains
zinc, chromite, manganese, gold and platinum. Block Mountains are those formed as a result of faulting
(40th BPSC, 1995) caused by tensile and compressive forces generated by
(ii) Sedimentary Rocks- These are formed as layers of endogenic forces.
sediments caused by erosion of rocks. The strain causes cracks or crevices due to which some
The sedimentary rocks are flaky. parts get elevated while some parts of the surface sink.
Sandstone, conglomerate, silt, cheek soil, coal and loess The elevated part of the mountain is called the Block
are examples of sedimentary rocks. (MPPCS, 1993) Mountain and the sunk portion (lowland region) in the
Fossils of flora and fauna are found in sedimentary rocks. middle is called the Rift Valley.
Iron ore, phosphate, coal and cement forming rocks are The Vosges Mountains (France), Black Forest (Germany)
found in them. and Salt Range (Pakistan) are the prime examples of Block
Mineral oil is also found in sedimentary rocks. Mountains.
(iii) Metamorphic Rocks- Because of chemical reactions,
temperatures, pressures, sedimentary rocks undergo change Note : The Sierra Nevada Mountains of California
transforming themselves into metamorphic rocks. (USA) are the most extensive Block Mountains in the
Examples of metamorphic rocks are Slate, Schist Quartzite, world.
Marble, Phyllite and Gneiss. The Jordan River Valley is the longest rift valley in
There are three kinds of rock: igneous, sedimentary, and the world extending from the basin of the Red Sea to the
metamorphic. Igneous rocks form when molten rock Zambezi River (approx. 4800 km).
(magma or lava) cools and solidifies. Sedimentary rocks (ii) Residual Mountain
originate when particles settle out of water or air, or by Residual mountains are those which have been formed by
precipitation of minerals from water. They accumulate in the erosion of hard rock caused by wind, rain, frost and
layers. running water.
Transformation of various basic rocks takes the following
Vindhyachal, Nilgiri, Parasnath, Rajmahal Hills of India
forms :
and the Sierras of Central Spain and Mesas of USA are
Transformation of the Rocks some examples of Residual Mountains.
(iii) Accumulated Mountain
Basic Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic Rocks
The mountains formed out of the accumulation of volcanic
Sand stone Quartzite materials, pebbles, stones, sands and clays are called
Lime stone Marble Volcanic Mountains or Mountains of Accumulation.
Sand dunes or hills of sand that are shaped by winds as
Shale Slate
they blow across deserts are examples of Mountains of
Slate Phyllite Accumulation.
(iv) Fold Mountain
Coal Diamond
Fold mountains are created where two or more of Earth’s
Various Topographies tectonic plates are pushed together.
Various types of topographies have been created on the Fold mountains are also known as wave-like mountain.
surface caused by the endogenous and exogenous forces Numerous anticlinal and synclinal folds are found in the
of the Earth. fold mountains.
Based on structure, topography is mainly divided into The distributional pattern of fold mountains across the globe
mountains, plateaus and plains. shows that they are generally found along the margins of
(A) Mountains: the continents either in north- south or east-west direction.
Mountain is a landform that rises prominently above its The Himalayas in India, the Urals in Russia, the Rockies
surroundings, exhibiting steep slopes, a relatively confined in North America and the Andes in South America are
summit area considerable local reliefs. examples of fold mountains.
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Arctic Circle
G Eurasian Plate
A North American
Plate C
Juan De
H
Fuca Palte D
Caribbean
E
Tropic of Cancer Plate Arabian
Plate Philippine
Cocos Plate African Plate Indian Plate Plate
Euator Somali
Plate
B South American
Plate
Tropic of Capricorn Nazca Australian Plate
Plate
Pacific
Plate
Scotia Plate F
N

Antarctic Plate

A. Rocky Mountains E. Atlas Mountains

B. Andes Mountains F. Southern Alps
C. Alps G. Ural Mountains
D. Himalayas H. Appalachian Mountains
The Aravalli Range, an eroded stub of ancient mountains, The Black Mountains and the White Mountains are
is the oldest range of fold mountains in India. located in the United States of America.
Guru Shikhar, a peak in Mount Abu in Rajasthan, is the The Great Himalayas mountain range is the world’s highest
highest point of the Aravalli range. mountain range and home to the planet’s highest Mountain
Aravalli range is also an example of residual mountains. peaks with Mount Everest being the highest peak in the
The structure of the fold mountain is based on the plate world.
tectonic theory which was propounded by McKenzie, British Columbia is called the Sea of Mountains.
Parker and Morgan in 1967. (UPPCS, 2015)
The seafloor spreading hypothesis is related to geophysicist
Harry H. Hess. Major Mountain Ranges of the World
The Himalayas consist of parts of the Tethys Sea. Name Location Highest Point
Based on plate tectonic theory, it is believed that today 1. Cordillera de Los South-West Aconcagua
where the Himalayan mountains are located; there was once Andes America
a vast Tethys Sea. Northward displacement of the southern 2. Rocky Mountain North-West Mount Albert
plateau pushed the base of the Tethys Sea which resulted Range
in the formation of the Himalayas. 3. Himalaya- South-Central Asia Mount Everest
The world's longest above-water mountain range is the Karakoram-Hindukush
Andes, about 7200 km long. 4. Great Dividing East Australia Kosciuszko
(MPPCS, 2012; UK PCS, 2006; 41st BPSC, 2006)
Range
Drakensberg mountain range is the highest mountain 5. Trans Antarctica Antarctica Vinson Massif
Mountains
range in Southern Africa, with peaks that rise up to 3,482
metres. 6. Tien Shan South Central Asia Pik Pobedy
The Pyrenees mountains form the natural land border 7. Altai Mountains Central Asia Belukha
between Spain and France. 8. Ural Mountain Range Central Russia Narodnaya
Mount McKinley (also known as Denali) is the highest 9. Kamchatka Range East Russia Klyuchevskaya
mountain in the North American continent. Sopka

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10. Atlas Mountain North-West Africa Toubkal Infinite deposits of lavas raise the level of the surface
11. Verkhoyansk Range East Russia Mus-Khaya causing coastal plateau to be formed.
12. Western Ghats Western India Anamudi The coastal plateau is also known as shield. (MPPCS, 1996)
13. Sierra Madre Mexico Potosi The Canadian Shield, Brazilian Shield, Siberian Shield,
Oriental Baltic or Fenno Scandian Shield are the prime examples
14. Zagros Mountain Iran Dena (Qash- of the coastal plateau.
Range Mastan) A Glacial plateau is formed by the erosion process
15. Elburz Iran Damavand undergoing extensive glacial mountains.
16. Scandinavian Range Western Norway Galdhopiggen The Prussian Plateau in Germany is the prime example of
17. Drakensberg South Africa Thabana Ntlenyana
the glacial plateau.
The fluvial plateau is formed both by the sedimentary
18. Caucasus Russia Elbrus
action caused due to deposits by the river and the vertical
19. Alaska Range USA (South Peak) Mount McKinley
movement of Earth.
(Denali)
The Vindhya Plateau and the Shillong Plateau in India
20. Cascade Range USA-Canada Mount Rainier
and the Shan Plateau in Myanmar are examples of fluvial
21. Apennine Italy Corno Grande
Plateau.
22. Appalachian Eastern USA- Mount Mitchell
The Potawar Plateau in Pakistan and the Loess Plateau in
Canada
China are prime examples of Aeolian Plateau.
23. Alps Central Europe Mont Blanc
The Volcanic Plateau is formed due to the eruption of the
24. Sierra Madre del Cerro Nube
volcanoes.
Sur Mexico
Volcanic Plateaus are found in New Zealand, South Africa,
B. Plateaus Northern and Southern Argentina, Brazil, Western United
A plateau is that part of the land which is more or less flat States, France and Siberia.
and level and stays at an elevated level. It often comes with The Columbian Plateau of the United States is an example
its steep slopes or vertical cliffs on one or more sides.
of a volcanic plateau.
Their height generally varies between 300 to 500 metres.
Plains:
The Plateau of Pamir is called the roof of the world.
Plains are broad, nearly level stretches of land that have
The Plateau of Patagonia (South America) is called the
no significant changes in the level of elevation. Plains are
reservoir of minerals. (RAS/RTS, 2010)
generally at a lower level than the land around them.
Different categories of plateau are as follows - Piedmont
Plains are of two types: the erosional plain and the
Plateau, Inter-mountain Plateau, Domed Plateau, Coastal
depositional plain.
Plateau, Continental Plateau, Glacial Plateau, Fluvial
(i) Erosional Plains- Erosional plains are formed on the
Plateau, Aeolian Plateau and Volcanic Plateau.
Earth's surface caused by denudation by water run-off,
The flatness of the mountains or the elevation in the middle
rivers, winds and glaciers wear out the rugged surface and
of the plain is called Mountainous Plateau or Piedmont
smoothen them.
Plateau.
The Piedmont Plateau of the United States and the The following are the types of erosional plains-
Patagonia Plateau of South America are prime examples (a) Loess Plains- Loess plains are formed by the deposits of
of the mountainous plateau. soil and sand, etc. brought by the winds.
The plateau formed in the mountain ranges is called the (b) Desert Plains- The plains where sand accumulates in large
Inter-Montane Plateau. quantities are desert plains and are developed by wind action.
The Bolivian and the Peruvian plateaus are prime examples (c) Glacial Plains- These are formed by the movement of ice
of the inter-mountain plateau. from highlands to low lands.
The fold plateaus are formed by folding action on the (d) Karst Plains- The Karst plains are formed by dissolution
terrain. of water with limestone in rocky regions.
Chotanagpur and Ramgarh plateau in India and the (e) Peneplains- A peneplain (almost a plain) is a low-relief
Ozark plateau in the United States are prime examples of plain which is formed as a result of erosional cycle.
the domed plateau. (ii) Depositional Plains- The depositional plain is an erosional
The plateau situated on the coastal part of the sea is called plain that is formed by the deposits brought by rivers, winds,
the coastal plateau. glaciers and waves.
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The depositional plain is also known as alluvial plain and These grasslands are called the Prairie in the United States
delta plain. and Canada, the Pampas in Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil,
The Ganges-Sutlej, Mississippi and the Hwang Ho Plains Veld in South Africa, Steppes in Eurasia and the Downs
are examples of depositional plains. in Australia. (UPPCS, 2002, 2012)

External Factors that bring changes on the 5. Continents and Major Peninsulas
surface and the consequent topography
Seven continents together constitute the Earth.
Depositional
Factors Erosional Landforms These are- 1. Asia, 2. Europe, 3.North America, 4.South
Landforms
America, 5.Africa, 6.Australia and 7. Antarctica.
1. River V-shaped valley, gorge, can- Delta, alluvial fan, allu- Asian Continent
yon, waterfall, River estuary/ vial cone, floodplains, The word Asia is derived from the Hebrew word 'Asu'.
Meander, River terrace. natural embankments. The meaning of Asia is 'Rising Sun'.
2. Ground Doline, Polje, Uvala, lapies, Stalactite, Stalagmite, The Asian continent is known as 'The Mainland of All
Water Ponores, natural bridge, Cave pillar, Dripstone, Religions'.
Blindvalley, Karst/solution Globulite, Helictite, he- Asia is the largest continent in the world.
valley, sinking creek. ligmites, drapes or cur- (UPPCS, 1992, 2017)
tains, flow stones. It has approximately 29.9 per cent of the Earth’s land
3. Sea Coastal clips, grooves, coast- Pulin / Beach, Tombolo, area.
Water al caves, cisterns, natural Spit, Coastal barrier, It is also the world’s most populous continent residing in
chimney or vault holes nat- Barrier island, Ringed it with roughly 60 per cent of the total population.
ural arches, stacks, arched barrier. Its area is 44568,500 square kilometres.
altars, miniature cisterns. Three major latitudinal circles (Equator, Cancer and Arctic)
4. Glacier Cirque, Tarn, U-shaped Drumlin, Kame, Esker, pass through it.
valley, Horn, Arete, Fjord, Kettle, Moraine. Asia makes up the eastern part of the Eurasian supercontinent;
Roche, Terminus. Europe occupies the western part.
5. Wind Deflation hollows, Piedmonts Loess, dunes, Barchans, The border between the two continents is unclear and
mushroom rock, Yardang, Bajada, Sand dunes. debatable. However, most geographers define Asia’s
Zeugen, Dreikanter, Stone western border following the line that runs along the Ural
Lattice, Wind Bridges. Mountains, the Caucasus Mountains, and the Caspian sea
and the Black Sea.
Grasslands:
The Arctic borders Asia in the North, the Pacific in the East
Grasslands are found in the region extending from the
and the Indian Ocean in the South.
equator to the poles.
The Red Sea and the Suez Canal separate Asia and Africa.
The grasslands are divided into two categories based on
The Bering Strait separate Asia and North America.
the nature of the grass :
Gondwana Land (Peninsular India) and Angara Land
(i) Tropical Grasslands
(Russia and China) of the ancient era, are located in Asia.
The equatorial region between north and south latitudes at
The Arabian peninsula, Deccan peninsula and Indo-
10 to 25 degrees has extensions of tropical grasslands.
China peninsula are the three significant peninsulas in
These grasslands are called Savannah in Africa, Llanos Asia.
in Venezuela and Colombia, Campos in Brazil, Paraguay, Russia is the biggest country in Asia in terms of area.
Argentina and Uruguay, Parkland in North America and Maldives is the smallest country in Asia in terms of area.
Selvas in the Amazon Basin. (UPPCS, 2012, 2018, 1993, 2011) According to UNO, India is the biggest country in Asia and
Tropical rainforests, located in Amazon Basica, is called the world in terms of population. Earlier, China had this
selvas. (MPPCS, 1997) status. (UPPCS, 2015 Mains)
(ii) Temperate grasslands The largest peninsula in the world is the Arabian
Temperate grasslands are found in central regions between peninsula.
latitudes at 30 to 45 degrees North and South. The world's highest plateau in Asia is the Tibetan Plateau
Due to the high terrestrial expansion in the Northern (average elevation 4500 m).
Hemisphere, the expansion of these plains is found The Tibetan Plateau (25 lakh sq km) in Central Asia is
somewhere up to 50° North latitude. the most extensive in the world.
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Singapore is the most densely populated country in the China is the world's top fishing nation.
world (World Population Prospects Report, 2022). India has the highest number of post offices in the world.
Java is the most densely populated island in Asia. The major rivers of Asia flowing into the Pacific Ocean are
A landlocked country is surrounded by land and does not Huang Ho, Yangtze (Chang River) and the Mekong.
have an opening to ocean or sea. There are currently 45 The plains of Asia's rivers are known as the Cradle of
landlocked countries in the world. Civilization.
Landlocked countries of Asia are- Nepal, Bhutan, The countries with the Mediterranean climate in Asia are
Mongolia, Laos, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Cyprus and Lebanon.
Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and China is the largest producer of tobacco, wheat, rice and
Uzbekistan. tea in the world (FAO 2022).
Kazakhstan is the largest landlocked country in Asia. Thailand is the world's most natural rubber producing
Laos is the only landlocked country in south-east Asia. country (FAO 2022).
The average depth of the Dead Sea in Asia is 120 metres. India is the largest sugarcane producing country in Asia
It is the deepest lake in the world. (FAO : 2022).
The world's deepest oceanic trench with a depth of 11033 The most arable land in Asia is in India.
mtrs, the Mariana trench, is located in Asia, near the According to the International Sericulture Commission,
Philippines Island. China was the largest producer of silk in the world in
The Asian part of Russia is called Siberia where Lake 2022(P) followed by India.
Baikal is located. China is the world's largest shipbuilder in terms of gross
The longest river in Asia is the Yangtze. tonnage. (UNCTAD 2022)
Bangladesh has around 700 rivers and tributaries, which The Nagasaki City in Japan is located on the island of
cover a total length of over 24000 km. Kyushu.
The Baikal Lake in Asia is the world's oldest and deepest The Trans Siberian Railroad from St. Petersburg
(depth 1620 m) lake. (Leningrad) to Vladivostok is the largest (9332 km) rail
The Caspian Sea (374000 square kilometres) is the world's route in Asia. (NCERT, 2023-24)
largest lake (the inland water body) located in Asia. Japan's Seikan Rail Tunnel Length (53.85km) is Asia's
longest and deepest rail tunnel in the world.
Note : The Caspian Sea is a landlocked body of water The longest platform in the world is in Gorakhpur (UP)
between Europe and Asia. Baikal Lake is the largest lake in India.
in Asia after the Caspian Sea. China is the largest tin producing country in Asia.
In Ladakh and Tibet, Pangong Lake is situated at the height (International Tin Association).
of almost 4,350m, is the world’s highest salt water lake. The Suez Canal connects the Red Sea and the
In Asia, 90% of the rainfall comes from summer monsoon. Mediterranean Sea.
India’s Mawsynram in Meghalaya has the highest average Verkhoyansk in Siberia is Asia's coldest (- 67.8°C) place.
rainfall per year which is the highest in the world. Mitribah, Kuwait is the hottest place in Asia (WMO - 21
Aden (Yemen) in Asia is the driest place on the Earth. July, 2016).
In Asia, the Qinghai-Tibet (Lhasa) Rail Track of China The Bering Strait is located in the middle of Alaska and
is the highest (height 5072 m) railway track in the world. the Kamchatka Peninsula.
Indian Railway is building the world's highest railway line The strait connecting the Arctic Ocean and the Pacific
at a height of 5,360 meters above sea level, the 465 km Ocean is the Bering Strait.
Bilaspur - Kullu Manali - Leh broad-gauge line. The Bering Strait is located parallel to the International
Rivers Mekong, Irrawaddy, Salween, Indus, Brahmaputra Date Line.
and Ganges, etc. flow into the Indian Ocean. Myanmar is famous for its beautiful Buddhist temples.
Syr Darya-Amu Darya flows into the Aral Sea and forms Laos - Thailand - Myanmar are known as the Golden
Aral Sea Basin. Triangle.
Yenisei, Lena and the Ob are the main rivers of Asia flowing Pakistan has the highest number of canals in the world
into the Arctic Ocean. under irrigation.
The Mekong River is called the Danube and the Ganges Russia and Turkey are two countries each of whom shares
of Southeast Asia. two continents, Asia and Europe.
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Bhutan is known as the Land of Thunderbolt. 33. Turkmenistan Manat Ashgabat

Myanmar is called the country of the Golden Pagoda.
34. Tajikistan Somoni Dushanbe
Japan is called the country of sunrise.
35. Bangladesh Taka Dhaka
China is called the world's rice bowl.
36. Bhutan Ngultrum Thimphu
Lebanon is called Switzerland of the East or the Middle
East. 37. Myanmar Kyat Naypyidaw
38. Malaysia Ringgit Kuala Lumpur
Currency and Capital of Major Countries or Regions
39. Mongolia Togrog Ulaanbaatar
of the Continent of Asia.
40. Laos Lao kip Vientiane
Country Currency Capital
41. Vietnam Dong Hanoi
1. Singapore Dollar Singapore
42. UAE Dirham Abu Dhabi
2. Hong Kong Dollar Victoria
43. Macau Pataca Macau
3. Brunei Dollar Bandar Seri Begawan
44. Philippines Peso Manila
4. Guam Dollar Hagatna
5. Taiwan Dollar Taipei Currencies and Capitals of Major Countries
6. Syria Pound Damascus of Oceania
7. Cyprus Euro Nicosia Country Currency Capital
8. Iraq Iraqi Dinar Baghdad 1. Fiji Dollar Suva
9. Kuwait Kuwaiti Dinar Kuwait City 2. New Zealand Dollar Wellington
10. Jordan Jordanian Dinar Amman
3. Nauru Dollar Yaren
11. Bahrain Bahrainin Dinar Manama
4. Australia Dollar Canberra
12. Oman Omani Riyal Muscat
5. Tuvalu Dollar Funafuti
13. Qatar Qatari Riyal Doha
6. Micronesia Dollar Palikir
14. Cambodia Combodian Riel Phnom Penh
7. Solomon Islands Dollar Honiara
15. Yemen Yemenin Rial Sana'a
16. Saudi Arabia Saudi Riyal Riyadh 8. Marshall Islands Dollar Majuro
17. India Indian Rupee New Delhi 9. Kiribati Dollar Tarawa
18. Nepal Nepali Rupee Kathmandu 10. Palau Dollar Ngerulmud
19. Pakistan Pakistani Rupee Islamabad 11. Tonga Pa’anga Nuku'alofa
Colombo (Sri Jayawar- 12. Vanuatu Vatu Port Vila
20. Sri Lanka Sri Lankan Rupee denepura as legislative
13. Papua New Guinea Kina Port Moresby
capital)
14. Samoa Tala Apia
21. Maldives Maldivian Rufiyaa Male
European Continent :
22. Indonesia Indonesian Rupiah Jakarta
Europe is the sixth among the seven continents in terms of
23. North Korea North Korean Won Pyongyang area.
24. South Korea South Korean Won Seoul The total area of this continent is about 9948000 (6.68%
25. Kyrgyzstan Kyrgystani Som Bishkek of the world's area) sq. km.
26. Uzbekistan Uzbekistani Som Tashkent
The Caucasus and the Ural Mountains separate Asia and
the Europe.
27. Israel New Shekel Jerusalem
Europe is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea, the
28. Afghanistan Afghani Kabul Black Sea in the south, the Arctic Sea in the north and the
29. Kazakhstan Tenge Nur-Sultan Atlantic Ocean in the west.
30. China Yuan Beijing
Europe is the most urbanised continent in the world.
There are 49 countries in Europe. Traditionally there are
31. Japan Yen Tokyo
44 countries in Europe because some of the countries are
32. Turkiye Lira Ankara spread in both Europe and Asia. e.g. Azerbaijan, Russia.
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Europe is known as a peninsula among peninsulas. Finland is called the country of lakes.(UPPCS, Mains 2012)
Scandinavia, Iberian, Balkans and Apennine are among Denmark is the largest centre of dairy products in the world.
the largest peninsulas in Europe. Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, is known as the key
The British Isles and Iceland are the largest among the to the Baltic Sea.
islands in Europe. The Harz Mountains and the Black Forest are the rift
Europe is smaller than all other continents except Australia mountains of Europe.
in terms of area. The Oriental rail route from Paris in France to Constantinople
Paris, the capital of France, is located on the banks of the in Turkiye is the most crucial in Europe.
Seine river. The lowest natural depression of Europe is the Caspian Sea.
Paris is also known as the city of fashion. In Europe, Russia is the largest country in the world in
Paris is considered a beautiful city in the world. terms of area.
Northern Ireland and the Irish Republic are known as Norway is called the country of the midnight sun.
Emerald Islands, because of the abundance of grass here. (UPPCS Pre, 1990)
London is the largest city in Europe. The world's champagne wine is produced on large scale in
The largest museum in the world is the British Museum France.
(London). France is called the Country of the Peasants and the
London is located on the banks of the River Thames. Queen of the Seas.
The longest river in Europe is the Volga (3645 km).
Italy is called as India of Europe.
The Volga and Ural rivers flow into the Caspian Sea.
The landlocked countries in Europe are Hungary, Austria,
The Danube (2888 Km) is the most important river in
Switzerland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Luxemburg,
Europe.
Serbia, Andorra, Macedonia, Moldova, San Marino,
It flows through Germany, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia,
Belarus, Liechtenstein and Kosovo.
Moldova, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, Austria and
Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg are countries
Ukraine.
included in the Benelux Nations.
The capitals falling on the banks of the Danube are Vienna
The European Union (EU) has 27 member countries.
(Austria), Bratislava (Slovakia), Belgrade (Serbia) and
Geothermal energy is the primary source of power in
Budapest (Hungary).
Iceland.
The Danube falls into the Black Sea near the Ukraine
The temperate grasslands of Europe are also called Pustaz
border.
in Hungary and Steppe in Ukraine.
Alps (France) and the Caucasus are prominent among the
The combined territory of Europe and Asia is called
new fold mountains in Europe.
Elbrus (5633 m) is the highest mountain peak in Europe. Eurasia.
Mount Blanc (France) is the highest peak in the Alps Great Saint Bernard Pass connects the route between Italy
Mountains. and Switzerland.
Mount Blanc is located on the border of France and Italy. Brenner Pass connects route between Italy and Austria.
The Seine River (France) falls into the English Channel London first opened an underground railway in 1863, which
(Le Havre). is now the world's fourth longest underground railway.
Po River is known as the Ganges of Italy. Antwerp (Belgium) is the world's largest diamond trading
Venice (Italy) is known as the Queen of the Adriatic. centre.
Etna and Stromboli in Italy are active volcanoes. The countries belonging to the Caucasus State are Russia,
Vesuvius is an active volcano located in Naples, Italy. Azerbaijan, Georgia and Armenia.
Earlier, it was a dormant volcano. The port of the five seas is called Moscow (Caspian Sea,
Rome is known as the Eternal City. Black Sea, Baltic Sea, White Sea and Ladoga Lake).
Ukraine shares the border with seven other countries: Eastern Europe is called Green Europe or farmer's Europe.
Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Moldova, Russia, The primary food crop in Europe is wheat.
and Belarus. Hungary is called the storehouse of wheat.
Ukraine is called the world's granary or breadbasket. Beetroot is the major source of sugar in Europe.
The Rhine River waterway is Europe's busiest interstate Almost 70% of the world's beetroot is produced in Europe.
waterway. France is called mini Europe in terms of climate and land.
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Norway is known as the country of the fjords coasts and Slovenia Euro Ljubljana
France as the wine yard.
Sarajevo
The English Channel separates the United Kingdom and Bosnia-Herzegovina Convertible
Mark (BAM)
France.
Switzerland is called the Playground of Europe. Croatia Kuna Zagreb
The largest expanse of the Alps mountain is in Switzerland. Denmark Krone Copenhagen
The Gulf Stream is called the Warm Blanket of Europe. Norway Krone Oslo
The international border between Poland and Germany is
Sweden Krona Stockholm
called Hindenburg Line.
Iceland Krona Reykjavik
The international border between Germany and France is
called the Maginot Line. San Marino Euro San Marino
The channel tunnel connecting France and the United Italy Euro Rome
Kingdom passes through the Dover Strait. Spain Euro Madrid
The International Seed Reserve is located in the Svalbard
Portugal Euro Lisbon
Island of Norway.
France is the only self-reliant country in Europe regarding Germany Euro Berlin
food grain production. Greece Euro Athens
England, Wales and Scotland are collectively called Great Lithuania Euro Vilnius
Britain.
Finland Euro Helsinki
The United Kingdom includes Great Britain and
Netherlands Euro Amsterdam
Northern Ireland.
A beach built along the coast of the North Sea in the Austria Euro Vienna
Netherlands is called Dykes. Bulgaria Lev Sofia
The Meseta plateau is shared by Spain and Portugal. Poland Zloty Warsaw
Madrid, capital of Spain, is located on the Meseta Plateau.
Hungary Forint Budapest
Portugal and Spain together form the Iberian Peninsula.
Land reclaimed from the sea in Netherlands by building Ukraine Hryvnia Kiev
embankment in the Netherlands is called Polder. Czech Republic Koruna Prague

Currencies and the Capitals of Major Romania Leu Bucharest

Countries of Europe Azerbaijan Manat Baku
Country Currency Capital Georgia Lari Tbilisi
Luxembourg Euro Luxembourg Albania Lek Tirana
Belgium Euro Brussels Slovak Republic Euro Bratislava
France Euro Paris Livre was a unit of currency in France, discontinued in
Switzerland Franc Bern 1794. From 1781 to 1794, the livre served as France’s
money unit.
Ireland Euro Dublin
North American Continent
Malta Euro Valletta In terms of size, North America is the third largest continent
United Kingdom Pound London (area 24,473,000 Sq. km) of the world.
Latvia Euro Riga Greenland is the largest island in North America.
North America comprises 16.44% of the world's territorial
Russia Ruble Moscow
area.
Armenia Armenian Dram Yerevan The earliest landmass of North America is the Canadian
Belarus Ruble Minsk (Laurentian) shield.
There are a total of 23 countries in North America.
North Macedonia Denar Skopje
100 degrees west longitude passes through the middle of
Serbia Dinar Belgrade North America.
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America (1507 AD) is named after Amerigo, the Italian The Great Salt Lake in the State of Utah, United States is
explorer who travelled after Christopher Columbus. the largest saltwater lake in the western hemisphere.
Amerigo called it 'New World'. There are 5 largest natural lakes in North America -
Red Indian, Eskimo and Inuit are natives of North America. Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie and Ontario.
Mount Denali (Mount McKinley) (height 6190 meters) in Superior Lake is the largest of the world's freshwater
Alaska is the highest mountain peak in North America. lakes by surface area and by volume it is third, next to
The cyclone which occurs in the Gulf of Mexico is called Baikal and Tanganyika Lake.
Hurricane and Tornado. Niagara Falls is located on the border of Canada and the
Akron, the world's largest synthetic rubber and tyre United States.
manufacturing centre is located in the United States. Philadelphia is famous as Quaker City.
Detroit is the major centre of automobiles in the United The Great Lakes St. Lawrence River waterway is the longest
States. inland deep-draft navigation system in the world.
Montreal (Canada) is famous in the world for its paper The Mexico and Colorado plateaus are the two inter-
industry. mountain plateaus in North America.
Canada ranks first in newsprint production in the world San Diego is also known as the City of Evergreen Spring
(FAO: 2022). Season.
Canada is the third largest uranium producer from mines Los Angeles (California) is noted for the film industry.
in the world. The major mountain ranges of Rocky mountain are
Hudson Bay (Canada) is the largest Bay in the world. Cascade, Sierra Nevada, Coast Range and the Sierra Madre.
The city of Uranium is located on the shores of Lake
The world's first park is Yellow Stone Park, located in the
Athabasca, Canada.
United States.
The Sullivan mine in British Columbia (Canada) is the
Ontario is the world's largest gold mine located in Canada.
world's largest lead and zinc mine.
The Homestake Mine is a famous gold mine in the United
The United States is the world's largest maize producing
States.
country (FAO: 2022).
Mesabi Mine is the famous iron ore mine in the United
Winnipeg (Canada) is a world-famous city also known as
States.
the wheat market.
Panama and Colon are the two ports located on the Panama
The world-famous corn market is located in the city of St.
Canal.
Louis, United States.
The hills located in the United States are Blue Hill, Black
The city of Arizona in the United States is famous for
Hill and Green Hill.
copper production.
Quebec in Canada is called a Country within the
Silicon Valley (San Francisco) is famous for the software
Country.
and computer industry.
The United States is the world's largest producer of Mexico City is the largest city in North America by
soybean. population.
Cuba is called the sugar bowl of the world being the major The Death Valley of Southern California is a rift or graben
producer of sugarcane. valley.
Jamaica is famous for banana production. Its temperature varies from 55°-57°C in summer.
Coca-Cola was invented in the city of Atlanta (Georgia, Currencies and Capitals of North America
U.S.).
and Caribbean Countries
New York is called the City of Cities.
Country Currency Capital
Mexico coast is the most ideal place for coffee cultivation.
Butte Mine, the largest copper mine in the world, is located Canada Dollar Ottawa
in the State of Montana, United States. Saint Vincent and
Dollar Kingstown
Mexico is the largest silver producing country in the the Grenadines
world. Bermuda Dollar Hamilton
Wood Buffalo National Park is located in Canada. Bahamas Dollar Nassau
The world's largest railway station (based on the number
Jamaica Dollar Kingston
of platforms) Grand Central Terminal is located in New
York City, USA. Barbados Dollar Bridgetown
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Belize Dollar Belmopan The Amazon River is also the largest river in South
America.
Grenada Dollar Saint George
The Amazon River is called the World's Widest and
Cuba Peso Havana largest river by water volume.
Dominion Republic Peso Santo Domingo The Amazon is the world’s largest and best known tropical
Mexico Peso Mexico City rainforest.
The world's highest active volcano, Ojos del Salado (6893
Costa Rica Colon San Jose
m) (Chile), falls on the Argentina Chile border.
El Salvadore Dollar San Salvador South American rainforests are locally known as 'Selvas'.
Guatemala Quetzal Guatemala City Temperate grasslands of South America are called Pampas.
Nicaragua Cardoba Managua They extended mainly to Argentina and Uruguay.
Valsa is the lightest timber in the world found in the forests
Honduras Lempira Tegucigalpa
of the Amazon basin.
Antigua and Bermuda Dollar St. John's Toucan is a bird found in the Amazon basin.
Panama Balboa Panama City The world's largest predator bird Condor is found in South
Haiti Gourde Port-au-Prince America.
The Rheas are flightless birds that have their origin in South
USA Dollar Washington, DC
America.
South American Continent South America is called the continent of birds.
South America (area 1,78,19,000 square km) is the fourth The rubber tree is found in Brazil.
largest continent in the world. The Heart of Argentina is called Pampas.
The shape of this continent is triangular. The nutrient-rich grass called Alpha-Alpha is found in the
Cape Horn is the southernmost part of South America. Pampas.
The Strait of Magellan separates Tierra del Fuego Island Puma and Jaguar are hunter animals of South America.
and the mainland of South America. Llama, a pack animal is found in the higher reaches of the
South America lies in the middle of the Atlantic and the Andes mountains.
Pacific Ocean.
Guanaco is a type of wild Llama found in the Patagonia
The Tropic of Capricorn passes through the middle of
plateau.
this continent.
The Crescent belt of wheat is located in Argentina.
The Panama Canal connects the Atlantic and the Pacific
Argentina is one of the biggest producers of sunflower seeds
Ocean.
in world.
South America, Central America, Western Islands and
Brazil ranks Seventh in the world in the production of cocoa
Maxico are collectively called Latin America.
(beans) (FAO: 2022).
The countries of South America, Colombia, Brazil and
Brazil is the largest (in population and area) country in
Ecuador are located on the Equator.
South America.
Uruguay is the most urbanized country in South America.
Brazil is the world's largest producer of coffee. (FAO, 2022)
Except for Chile and Ecuador, all other South American
countries share the border with Brazil. Brazilian coffee plantations are called Fazenda.
Quito (Ecuador) is the second highest capital city in the Globally as well as continentally, Brazil is the top producer
world after La Paz (Bolivia) and also the city which is of soybean (FAO : 2022).
closest to the equator. Brazil and Sao Paulo are called World's coffee pot and
Ecuador is the most densely populated country in this market respectively.
continent. Brazil is the largest maize producing country in South
The world's highest waterfall is Salto Angel Falls (979 America while third in the world (FAO : 2022).
m.). It is located in South America. (Source- World Sao Paulo is called the 'world's coffee market' while Brazil
Waterfall Database) is called the 'world's coffee pot'.
The world's highest navigable Lake Titicaca (height 3810 Santos Port is the port of South America for exporting
m) is located on the Peru-Bolivia border. coffee to the world.
The Amazon River is the world's largest river in terms The world's highest capital city is La Paz (the capital of
of drainage basin. Bolivia).
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Rio-de-Janeiro (Brazil) is the largest city in South Chile Peso Santiago

America.
The plateaus of Brazil and Patagonia are located in Guyana Uruguay Peso Montevideo
and South America respectively. Suriname Dollar Paramaribo
The world's longest mountain range is the Andes (about Peru Nuevo Sol Lima
7200 km).
Brazil Real Brasília
Aconcagua (6960 m) is the highest mountain peak of the
Andes mountain range. Bolivia Boliviano La Paz
The forests of the eastern slopes of the Andes mountains Paraguay Guarani Asuncion
are called Montana.
Ecuador Dollar Quito
Brazil is the largest producer of manganese in South
America. Argentina Peso Buenos Aires
Amapa mine in Brazil is famous for large manganese Venezuela Bolivar Caracas
mines.
African Continent:
Brazil's major iron ore mining centre is at Itabira.
The African continent is called the future continent.
Brazil is the largest crude petroleum-producing country in
It is the second-largest continent in the world in terms of
South America.
area. (Area, 30,065,000 Sq. km.)
The tropical Savanna grasslands of Venezuela are called
Negrito are natives of this continent.
Llanos.
Chile is the largest copper producing country in South The Atlantic Ocean lies to the west of Africa while to its
America. east, lies the Indian Ocean.
Chuquicamata, in Chile and known for its copper mines, The Gibraltar Strait separates the African continent
is called the world's copper capital. (Morocco) from the European continent (Spain).
The world's driest place Arica (outside the polar region) The largest lake in the continent is Lake Victoria.
is located in north Chile. The Equator passes through Lake Victoria.
In Argentina, breeder cattle are called Gauchos and a large Africa is the only continent through which all three
private plot used for cattle raising is called Estancia. latitudinal lines - the Equator, Tropic of Cancer and
Nitrate reserves are located in the Atacama desert. Tropic of Capricorn, passes.
The Chaco plain is Argentina's main cotton-producing The origin of the world's longest river Nile is Lake
area. Victoria.
Argentina is one of the world's largest meat exporting The Nile flows into the Mediterranean Sea.
countries. The Aswan Dam is built on the Nile.
The Patagonia desert is the temperate desert of South The Victoria Falls is located on the Zambezi river.
America. World’s largest tropical lake and the largest lake in the
The largest landlocked country in South America is Bolivia. African Great Lakes region · Shared by Kenya, Uganda,
Bolivia and Paraguay are two landlocked countries in and Tanzania.
South America. Stanley Falls is located on the Lualaba, a tributary of Congo
Central Chile receives winter rainfall (Mediterranean river.
climate) in winter. The Kariba Dam is built on the Zambezi river on the
Phosphorus rich guano is manure derived from sea birds
borders of Zambia and Zimbabwe.
inhabiting the western coastal areas of South America.
Most of the hydropower in Africa is produced by the Kariba
The natural site of Olive Ridley turtle is Galapagos Island
Dam.
(Ecuador).
The Niger River in Africa is called the river of palm oil.
Currencies and Capitals of Major Countries Cairo is the largest city on the banks of the Nile.
of South America Chad Lake is located in the Sahara Desert.
Country Currency Capital The primitive tribes of Africa are the Pygmy (Congo Basin),
Bushman (Kalahari Desert) and Bedouin (Sahara Desert).
Guyana Dollar George Town
The Tuareg tribe which serves as a guide for foreign tourists
Colombia Peso Bogota is found in the Sahara desert.
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Both Egyptian farmers and the agricultural labourers are Africa has the highest population growth in the world.
known as Fellah. Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa.
Nigeria is called the country of palm oil. The Democratic Republic of Congo is called the country
Johannesburg (South Africa) is known as the City of Gold. of forests.
The Limpopo river crosses the Tropic of Capricorn Ghana is also known as the Gold Coast.
twice. Kenya is known the Big Safari Center.
Congo is the only river that crosses the equator twice. Malawi is called as the Switzerland of the African
The temperate grasslands of Africa are called Veld. Continent.
The tropical grasslands of Africa are called Savanna. The African continent is called 'Dark Continent'.
Jute is produced in Africa from a plant called sisal. Somali peninsula in the northeast of the continent is
Egypt is the major palm producing country in Africa. popularly known as the Horn of Africa. Horn of Africa
The Transvaal region in Africa is famous for zebra and comprises- Somalia, Ethiopia, Eretria and Djibouti.
giraffe animals. Africa straddles the equator which passes through 8
A bird called Ostrich is found in the Kalahari desert. countries: Uganda, Republic of Congo, Somalia, Congo,
Nigeria is the largest Cassava producing country in the Saotome, Principe, Kenya and Gabon.
world (FAO : 2022). Coffee is cultivated on the eastern slopes of Kilimanjaro
Ivory Coast is the largest cocoa beans producing country by the Chaga tribe.
in the world (FAO : 2022). South Sudan is the latest nation of Africa which came into
Morocco and Kenya are the largest producers of olive and existence on 9th July, 2011.
tea respectively in their continent (FAO : 2022). The capital of southern Sudan is Juba.
Kenya ranks third in the world in tea production while South Sudan is the 193rd member of the United Nations.
Morocco ranks fourth in olive production (FAO : 2022).
Note : In March 2022, Tanzania got it's first female
The largest Sorghum producing country in Africa is Nigeria
president.
(FAO : 2022).
The Suez Canal, connecting the Red Sea to the Currencies and Capitals of Major Countries
Mediterranean Sea is located in Egypt. of Africa
Port Said Harbor is located at the northern end of the Suez
Country Currency Capital
Canal and Port Suez Harbor at the southern end.
Madagascar Malagasy Ariary Antananarivo
The Coastal plain in Mozambique is the largest in Africa.
The Cape-Cairo rail route from Cape Town (South Africa) Guinea Franc Conakry
to Cairo (Egypt) is the longest in Africa. Cote d'Ivoire Franc Yamoussoukro
The world's largest diamond mine is located in Comoros Franc Moroni
Kimberley, South Africa. Burkina Faso Franc Ouagadougou
Kimberley is also known as the city of diamonds. Togo Franc Lome
Bloemfontein is the judicial capital of South Africa.
Niger Franc Niamey
Sahara Desert (93 lakh square kilometres), the world's
Central African
largest desert, is located in Africa. Franc Bangui
Republic
Chad Lake is located in the Sahara Desert.
The Kalahari Desert is located in Africa. Burundi Franc Gitega
The Plateau of Abyssinia is in Africa. Cameroon Franc Yaounde
Tafilalt Desert (approx. 65000 hectares) is in Morocco. Djibouti Franc Djibouti
52.52% of the world's Chromium is produced in South Rwanda Franc Kigali
Africa (WMP : 2017-21). Congo Franc Brazzaville
The River Zaire is also called Congo in its lower course.
Senegal Franc Dakar
The junction of the continent of Asia and Europe is called
Benin Franc Porto-Novo
the country of Egypt.
According to the World Bank's WDI data, Egypt in Africa Gabon Franc Libreville
is the most urbanized country in the continent. Chad Franc N'Djamena
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Liberia Dollar Monrovia The Bass Strait is located between the islands of Australia
and Tasmania.
Mali Franc Bamako
Aborigines are natives of Australia.
Kenya Shilling Nairobi
Somalia Shilling Mogadishu
States of The Continent of Australia and
Their Capitals
Tanzania Shilling Dodoma
State Capital
Algeria Dinar Algiers
Western Australia Perth
Tunisia Dinar Tunis
Egypt Pound Cairo North Australia Darwin
Sudan Pound Khartoum Southern Australia Adelaide
Mauritius Rupee Port Louis Queensland Brisbane
Seychelles Rupee Victoria New South Wales Sydney
Sao Tome and Victoria Melbourne
Dobra Sao Tome
Principe
Canberra* Canberra
Angola Kwanza Luanda
Tasmania Hobart
Ghana Cedi Accra
Malawi Kwacha Lilongwe *Union Territory
Kosciuszko (elevation 2228 m) is the highest mountain
Ethiopia Birr Addis Ababa
peak in the continent of Australia.
Morocco Dirham Rabat
The largest lake in Australia is 'Lake Eyre'.
Democratic Republic The Great Dividing Range is the main mountain range of
Franc Kinshasa
of Congo Australia.
Nigeria Naira Abuja Australia's most prominent agricultural region is the
South Africa Rand Pretoria / Cape Town Murray Darling Valley.
Uganda Shilling Kampala The fertile land of the Murray Darling valley is called
Riverina.
Gambia Dalasi Banjul
The Murray Darling River System is Australia's largest
Lesotho Loti Maseru river system.
Mauritania Ouguiya Nouakchott Victoria and New South Wales are the major wheat-
Eritrea Nakfa Asmara growing regions of Australia.
Sierra Leone Leone Freetown The city of Darwin (Northern Province) is called the
Gateway of Australia.
Eswatini (Swaziland) Lilangeni Mbabane
Australia is the major producer of world-famous merino
Australia Continent: wool.
The Continent of Australia is also known as the Island Jackaroos are said to be labourers working in sheep
continent. farming centres in Australia.
Australia is the smallest continent by area in the southern
Wheat is Australia's principal food crop.
hemisphere.
Artesian Wells are found in the intermediate lowlands of
It is the least populous continent.
Australia.
The Tropic of Capricorn passes through the middle of the
Water from the artesian well continues to precipitate above
continent.
itself.
The continent of Australia is also called The Land of
Golden Fleece. Water emerges naturally from the basin through cracks in
Abel Tasman (1642 AD) and Captain Cook (1770 AD) the rock encasing the water, into springs, lakes, creeks and
discovered Tasmania and Australia respectively. rivers, creating a permanent water source even during dry
Nauru is the smallest country in Australia (Oceania). season. These wells are called the Great Artesian Basin.
The Torres Strait is located between the Melanesian island The Great Barrier Reef is located on the northeastern coast
of New Guinea and Australia. of the State of Queensland.
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The temperate tropical grasslands of Victoria and Vanuatu, a group of about 82 Volcanic Islands, is also
Tasmania are called Downs. known as New Hebrides.
The Carpentaria Plains are located in northern Australia. Micronesia includes four islands groups-Caroline,
Sydney is the oldest and largest city in Australia. Marshall, Mariana and Gilbert.
Australia is the largest bauxite producing country in the The main islands of Polynesia are Tonga, Samoa, Hawaii,
world (WMP : 2017-21). Tuvalu and Cook, etc.
Australia ranks third among the world's zinc ore producing Canberra, the capital of Australia is situated on the banks
countries (IMY: 2021). of the Molonglo River.
Australia has the world's largest lead reserves of lead ore The Murray Darling River System is Australia's largest
(IMYB: 2021). river system.
Broken Hill is famous for the production of lead, zinc and
The Continent of Antarctica:
silver.
Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie are the world's renowned gold Antarctica is a part of the ancient Gondwana Land.
mines in Australia. Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent in the world in
The Trans-Continental Railroad connecting Sydney to terms of area.
Perth is Australia's longest railroad. The continent of Antarctica is located in the Southern
Gibson, Simpson, Great, Sandy, and Great Victoria are Hemisphere.
deserts of Australia. The British navigator James Cook discovered the continent
The continent of Australia is also known as the Continent of Antarctica but could not reach its mainland.
of Thirsty Lands and the Land of Kangaroos. Fabian Gottlieb von Belling Shausen discovered the
Australia and New Zealand are also known as Unknowable mainland of Antarctica.
countries. The continent of Antarctica is called the White Continent,
New Zealand is located in the south-east of Australia. as 98% of its area is always covered with snow.
New Zealand is called Britain of the South. It is the coldest continent in the world.
The South Island is the largest in New Zealand. It is known as the largest cold desert in the world due to
Huka Falls - a set of waterfalls is located on the Waikato snowfall as precipitation.
River in New Zealand. The continent of Antarctica is surrounded by the Pacific
Kiwi is the national bird of New Zealand. Ocean, the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean.
Birds called Kookaburra and Emu are found in New Roald Amundsen of Norway was the first to reach (1911
Zealand. AD) the South Pole.
Kookaburra is also called Laughing Jackass. The Antarctica continent is called a Continent Dedicated
Cook Strait separates the north and the south Islands of to Science.
New Zealand.
The shape of the Antarctica continent changes in summer
The mountain range of New Zealand is known as the
and winter, due to which it is also called a Dynamic or
Southern Alps.
Active Continent.
Mount Cook (3724 m) is the highest peak in New Zealand.
The Queen Maud Mountain Range divides the continent
New Zealand's longest river Waikato flows through the
of Antarctica into two equal parts.
North Island.
The highest mountain peak of the continent of Antarctica
Maori are natives of New Zealand.
The Maori name of Mt. Cook peak is Aorangi. is Vinson Massif (4897 m).
Platypus is a bizarre four-legged creature of Australia that The world's largest glacier Lambert is located on the
lays eggs. continent of Antarctica.
The Lyrebird of Australia mimics different kinds of sounds The krill fish of Antarctica lives in the school.
including those of animals and birds. The main flora of Antarctica is Mosses and Lichens.
The Islands Group, located in the westernmost part of the In Antarctica, there is 6 month of day during South Solstice
Pacific Ocean, is called Melanesia. and 6 month of night during North Solstice.
Melanesia is located in the east of Australia, between The world's lowest annual temperature is found in the Pole
Australia and Indonesia, in the Pacific Ocean. of Cold in Antarctica.
The islands included in Melanesia are Irian Jaya Vostock in Antarctica recorded the world's lowest
(Indonesia), Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, temperature (-89.2 ° C).
New Caledonia and Fiji. The Rock Sea is located in Antarctica Continent.
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WORLD
W E
RIVERS AND LAKES
A R C T I C O C E A N
S

Kol
Yen

ym
Great Bear Lake Angara

Len
Yokon

a
i
sey
Great Slave Lake

a
Baltic Lake
Hudson
Bay Sea Baikal Sea of
Winnipeg Am
ur Okhotek
Snake L.Superior St. Lawrence NORTH Black
EUROPE
Aral Sea
ASIA
L. Huron Sea Yellow River
Great Salt Lake NORTH
L. Ontario
ATLANTIC
Coloado AMERICA OCEAN

us
L.Erie Caspian Sea G Brahmputra Yangtze
Rio Grande Mediterranean Sea

Ind
Mississippi an
Gulf of Red g e

Nile
s
Mexico Caribbean Sea AFRICA SeaArbian
Bay
Xun Jiang
PACIFIC OCEAN Amazon L.Chad Sea of Mekong PACIFIC OCEAN
Congo Bengal
L. Tanganyikca L. Victoria
SOUTH
L. Titicaca AMERICA
Sao Francisco L. Nyasa INDIAN
Paraguay Zambezi OCEAN
Uruguay AUSTRALIA
Parana SOUTH
ATLANCTIC
OCEAN Orange
Not to Scale
S O U T H E R N O C E A N

Area-wise Temperature and Precipitation Data

Lowest
Area Highest Temperature Highest Rainfall Lower Rainfall
Temperature

Asia Mitribah, Kuwait (53.9°C Verkhoyansk, Rus- Mawsynram, India (11872) Aden, Yemen (45.7)
± 0.1°C) sia (–67.8°C) (highest in world)

Africa Kebili, Tunisia (55°C) Ifrane, Morocco Debundscha, Cameroon Wadi Halfa, Sudan (Less
(–23.9°C) (10287) than 2.54 mm)

North America Furnance Creek Ranch, Snag, Yukon, Can- Henderson Lake, British, Co- Batagues, Mexico (30.5)
Death Valley, USA (56.7°C) ada (–63°C) lumbia, Canada (7000)
(highest in the world)

South America Rivadavia, Argentina Sarmiento, Argenti- Quibdo, Colombia (8990) Arica, Chile (0.76) (Low-
(48.9°C) na (–32.8°C) est in World)

Europe Ethence Unan (48°C) Ust'Schugor, Rus- Crkvice, Montenegro (4593) Astrakhan, Russia (162.6)
sia (–58.1°C)

Antarctica Esperanza Research Sta- Vostok (–89.2°C) Eastern and Western Coast of Amundsen-Scott South
tion (Mainland of Argenti- (Lowest in World) Antartica (>800 mm above Pole Station (2)
na) (18.3°C) water equlibrium)

South-Western Odpadatta, Australia Ranfurly, New Zea- Mt. Waialeale, Hawaii, USA Truganina, Australia
Pacific Ocean (50.7°C) land (–25.6°C) (11640) (102.9)

* Average annual figures for highest and lowest precipitation are in mm.
* The most precipitation in Australia occurs in the Blandander Kerr in Queensland province.

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World's Major Mountain Peaks and Their 15. Pamir Plateau Roof of the World (RAS/RTS, 1997)
Elevations 16. Prairies of North Never Never Land
Mountain Peaks Height ( in meters) 17. Laos Country of Thousand Elephants
1. Mount Everest (Nepal) 8848.86 18. Thailand Country of White Elephants
2. Kanchenjunga (Nepal-India) 8598 19. Switzerland Playground of Europe
3. Lhotse Nepal 8516 20. Bhutan Land of Thunderbolt
4. Makalu (Nepal-China) 8481 21. Japan The Country of Sunrise
5. Dhaulagiri (Nepal) 8172 22. Egypt Gift of the Nile
6. Annapurna (Nepal) 8078 23. Venice (Italy) Queen of the Adriatic
7. K-2 [Godwin Austin (India)] 8611 24. New York Empire City, City of Skyscrapers
8. Nanga Parbat (India) 8126 25. Gibraltar Gateway of the Mediterranean
9. Nanda Devi (India) 7817 26. Jerusalem Holy Land
10. Kamet (India-China) 7756 27. Finland Country of Thousand Lakes
11. Gasherbrum (Pakistan) 8068 28. Norway The Country of Midnight Sun
12. Rakaposhi (Pakistan) 7788 29. Rome (Italy) Eternal City (Holy City) Blood
13. Tirich Mir 7708 Color Woman, City of Pope, City
of Seven Hills, Em press of the
14. Gosainthan (Shishapangma) (China) 8014
Ancient World, Babylon of the
15. Namcha Barwa (China) 7756 West
30. Hwang Ho River China's Sorrow
Geographical Surnames of Major Countries (Yellow River)
of The World
31. Chicago Windy City / Garden City
Country Surname
32. Singapore Pearl of the Orient
1. Australia Land of the Golden Fleece, Land
33. Philadelphia Quaker City
of Kangaroos, Land of Golden
Wool 34. Japan Great Britain of the East, Country
of Tender Flower
2. Ireland Emerald Island
35. Stockholm Venice of the World
3. Africa Blind Continent (RAS/RTS, 1997)
36. Sri Lanka Pearl of the East, Pearl of Indian
4. Oxford (England) City of Dreaming Spires
Ocean
5. Aberdeen (Scotland) Granite City 37. Guinea Coast Whiteman's Grave
6. Atlantic Ocean Herring Pound 38. Netherlands The Land of Windmills
7. Osaka (Japan) Manchester of the East 39. Thailand Paris of Asia
8. Kerala (India) India's Spices Garden 40. Strait of Gibraltar Pillars of Hercules
9. Kent (England) Garden of England 41. Zanzibar (Tanzania) Island of Fabrics
10. Canada Lily Country 42. Natal (South Africa) Garden Province of South Africa
11. Kochi (India) Queen of the Arabian Sea, Venice 43. Belgium Cockpit of Europe
of the East
44. Scotland Land of Cakes
12. Korea Hermit Kingdom, Land of
45. New Zealand Britain of South
Morning Calm
46. Myanmar Country of Golden Pagoda
13. Quito (Ecuador) City of Constant Flowing
Waterfalls 47. San Francisco City of Golden Gate

14. Cuba Pearl of the Antilles, the world's 48. Mumbai City of Seven Islands
Sugar Bowl 49. Prairies of North World Bread Basket, USA
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50. Lhasa (Tibet) Forbidden City Deepest Point Continent

51. Tristan da Cunha The Uninhabited Island of the 1. Eyre Lake Australia
World 2. Dead Sea Asia
52. Bengaluru The Garden City of India 3. Assal Lake Africa
53. The Strait of Bab-at The Entrance of Tears 4. Caspian Sea Europe
Mandeb 5. Death Valley North America
54. Balkan The Powder Keg of Europe 6. Denman Glacier Antarctica
55. Bahrain The Island of Pearl
56. Norway The Country of Sunset Major Vegetation Zones of The World and Its
57. Belgrade White City Associated Floras
58. Vienna City of Monuments Vegetation Zone Vegetation

59. Paris (France) Paradise of the World 1. Vegetation of Tundra and Cold Countries Cryophytes
2. Vegetation of Tropical Desert Zones Xerophytes
Important Facts Related to the Continents 3. Grass and Vegetation withTropical Climate Tropophytes
Continent Largest Country( In area) 4. Vegetation of Temperate Zones Mesophytes
1. Asia Russia (39th BPSC, 1994) 5. Vegetation Growing in Hard Rocks Lithophytes
2. Africa Algeria 6. Vegetation of Marshy and Equatorial
Hygrophytes
3. North America Canada Warm Humid Zone
4. South America Brazil 7. Vegetation found in high Salty Regions Halophytes
5. Australia Australia 8. Vegetation of Water-logged Areas Hydrophytes
6. Europe Russia
Smallest Country Continent Major Tribes of The World and related
1. Nauru Australia & Oceania Countries
2. Maldives Asia Country/Region Tribes
3. St. Kitts and Nevis North America 1. Arabian (UPPCS, 2009, 2016) Bedouin/ Bedu

4. Vatican City Europe 2. Congo Basin Pygmies

5. Suriname South America 3. North America Red Indian

6. Seychelles Africa 4. Kalahari Desert (Botswana) Bushman

Continent Highest Peak 5. Greenland and Canada Eskimos
1. Asia Mt. Everest 6. North America Yukon
2. Africa Mt. Kilimanjaro 7. Japan Ainu
3. Europe Mt. Elbrus 8. East Africa (Kenya) (UPPCS, 2009) Masai
4. South America Mt. Aconcagua 9. Brazil Boro
5. Australia Mt. Kosciuszko 10. New Guinea Papuans
6. Antarctica Vinson Massif 11. Malaysia Semang
7. North America Mount Mc Kinley (Denali) 12. New Zealand Maori
Longest River Continent 13. Siberia Yukaghir
1. Amazon South America 14. Central Asia (UPPCS, 2016) Kirgiz/Kyrgyz
2. Volga Europe 15. Central Africa Negro
3. Yangtze Asia 16. Sri Lanka Vedda
4. Missouri North America 17. South Africa Zulu
5. Murray Australia 18. Siberia Tatar / Tartar
6. Onyx Antarctica 19. Southern Africa Inkatha

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In 2020, as the first Indigenous woman to hold ministership, 5. Kobe Iron & Steel
Nania Mahuto was appointed as Foreign Affairs Minister of
6. Wellington Dairy Industry
New Zealand.
7. Belfast (Ireland) Ship-building
Prominent Places of The World 8. Aachen (Germany) Iron & Steel
1. Jerusalem (Israel) Al Aqsa, Wailing Wall, Temple
9. Los Angeles Entertainment, Petroleum
Mount
10. Lyons ( France) Silk Industry
2. Moscow Kremlin, Red Square
11. Venice Glass Industry
3. Sydney Opera House
12. Birmingham Iron & Steel
4. Yangon (Myanmar) Shwedagon Pagoda
13. Milan (Italy) Silk Textiles Industry
5. Lhasa (Tibet) Potala
14. Plymouth (USA) Ship-building
6. Washington DC (USA) Pentagon, White House
15. Detroit Automobiles
7. London (England) 10-Downing Street, Buckingham
Palace, Billings Gate 16. Munich Lens Making
8. Jakarta (Indonesia) Mardeka Palace 17. Chelyabinsk (Russia) Iron & Steel, Machine Tools
9. Egypt Pyramids, Sphinx 18. Kansas Meat Industry
10. Mecca (Saudi Arab) Kaaba 19. Multan Clay Pottery
11. New York Statue of Liberty, Empire State 20. Seattle Aircraft Construction
Building, Broadway Street 21. Vladivostok Ship-building
12. Paris (France) Eiffel Tower, Louvre 22. Glasgow Ship-building, Iron & Steel
13. Rome (Italy) Colosseum 23. Kiev Engineering Industry
14. Berlin (Germany) Brown Sauce, Brandenburg Gate 24. Pittsburg Iron & Steel
15. Nanjing (China) Porcelain (Tower) 25. Philadelphia Locomotive
16. Pisa (Italy) Leaning Tower 26. Manchester Cotton Textile Industry
17. Constantinople (Istanbul) St. Sophia 27. Hollywood Film Industry
18. Arizona (USA) Grand Canyon (Los Angeles)

Major Tribes and Their Habitats Major Islands of The World and Their
1. YURT- Temporary houses are built from the skins of Locations
animals by Kirghiz, Kalmuk and Kazakhs. Name Area Location
2. TIPI-Houses are made by Red Indians. (in Sq. Km)
3. KRAAL-Houses are built by Masai, Kafirs and Zulu by 1. Greenland 2166086 Arctic Ocean
the grass.
2. Baffin Island 507451 North Arctic Ocean
4. IGLOO-Houses are built by Eskimos by ice.
(Canada)
5. IZBA-Human made triangular houses constructed in
3. United Kingdom 242514 North Atlantic Ocean
Northern Russia.
4. Iceland 103000 North Atlantic Ocean
Major Industrial Cities of The World and 5. Ireland 70273 North Atlantic Ocean
Their Industries
6. New Guinea 785753 South West Pacific
City Industry Ocean
1. Osaka Iron & Steel, Engineering Indus- 7. Luzon Island 109965 West Pacific Ocean
tries
8. Honshu (Japan) 22,7963 North-West Pacific
2. Nagoya Cotton Textiles, Ship-building Ocean
3. Havana Cigar 9. South Island 150,416 South-West Pacific
4. Dhaka Carpet Industry, Muslin (New Zealand) Ocean
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10. North Island 114154 South-West Pacific Changed Names of Countries and Cities of the
(New Zealand) Ocean World
11. Tasmania 68401 South-West Pacific Present Name Old Name
Ocean
1. Varanasi Banares or Kashi
12. Borneo 751929 South-West Pacific
2. Prayagraj Allahabad
Ocean
3. Iran Persia
13. Madagascar 587713 Indian Ocean
4. Iraq Mesopotamia
14. Sumatra 472784 Indian Ocean
(Indonesia) 5. Istanbul Constantinople, Kostantiniyye
15. Sulawesi 180681 Western Pacific Ocean 6. Republic of Congo Zaire
(Indonesia) 7. Madagascar Malagasy
16. Java Island 139000 Indian Ocean 8. Myanmar Burma
(Indonesia)
9. Malawi Nyasaland
17. Sri Lanka 65610 Indian Ocean
10. Lesotho Basutoland
18. Victoria Island 217291 Arctic Sea
11. Suriname Dutch Guyana
(Canada)
12. Hawaiian Islands Sandwich Island
19. Ellesmere 196236 Arctic Sea
Island (Canada) 13. Japan Nippon
20. Cuba 110860 Caribbean Sea 14. Ho Chi Minh City Saigon
15. Netherlands Holland
Major Deserts of The World and Their Areas 16. Harare Salisbury
Area (in
Desert Expansion Area 17. Kinshasa Leopoldville
sq. km)
18. Thailand Siam
1. Sahara Chad, Mali, Niger, Sudan, 92,00,000
Egypt Western Sahara, 19. Ethiopia Abyssinia
Morocco, Libya, Algeria, 20. Java Swarnadvipa & Yavadvipa
Tunisia, Mauritania 21. Patna Pataliputra
2. Australian Great Victoria, Great Sandy, 13,71,000 22. Botswana Bechuanaland
Gibson, Simpson and Sturt
23. Chennai Madras
Stony Deserts
24. Cambodia Kampuchea, Khmer
3. Arabian Saudi Arab, Yemen, Jordan, 23,30,000
Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, 25. Djibouti French Somaliland
UAE, Bahrain 26. Bangladesh East Pakistan
4. Gobi Mongolia and China 12,95,000 27. Malaysia Malaya
5. Kalahari Botswana (Africa) 9, 00,000 28. Zambia Northern Rhodesia
6. Taklamakan Xinjiang (China) 3, 20, 000 29. Zimbabwe Southern Rhodesia
7. Sonoran USA and Mexico 3, 10,800 30. Taiwan Formosa
8. Namib Namibia 8, 06,000 31. Ghana Gold Coast
9. Karakum Turkmenistan 3, 50,000 Calicut
32. Kozhikode
10. Thar North-West India and Pakistan 2, 00,000
33. St. Petersburg Leningrad
11. Atacama Northern Chile 128,000
34. Benin Dahomey
12. Kyzylkum Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan 3, 00,000
35. Belize British Honduras
13. Dasht-e Lut Eastern Iran 22,780
36. Nur-Sultan Astana
14. Desierto de North- West Peru 188735
Sechura 37. Swaziland Eswatini

15. Patagonia Argentina 6, 73,000 38. Sri Lanka Ceylon

16. Mojave Desert South California 77248 39. Burkina Faso Upper Volta

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Major Manufacturing Industries of the World 7. Red Square Russia

Industry Country 8. Auroville India
1. Silk Textiles Industry China, India, Japan, Russia, France 9. Statue of Unity Gujarat (India)
2. Cotton Textiles Industry China, India, UK, Russia
Major Plateaus of the World and their Locations
3. Woollen Textiles Industry USA, Britain, Japan
Names of the Plateau Location
4. Iron Steel Industry Japan, USA, Russia, Ukraine
1. Columbia Plateau USA
5. Aircraft Manufacturing France, UK, Russia, USA
Industry 2. Deccan Plateau South India
6. Automotive Industry Japan, USA, Russia, Italy, France, 3. Madagascar Plateau Madagascar Central Highland
Germany Plateau
7. Shipbuilding Industry USA, Sweden, Japan, Germany, 4. Iranian Plateau Iran (Asia Minor Plateau)
China 5. Tibetan Plateau North of Himalayas and to the
8. Potash Fertilizer Industry USA, Germany South of QinLing Mountains
9. Phosphate Fertilizer Australia, USA 6. Mexico Plateau Mexico
Industry 7. Brazilian Plateau Middle Eastern Part of South
10. Nitrogen Fertilizer Japan, India, USA America
Industry 8. Greenland Plateau North Atlantic Ocean
9. Colorado Plateau Arizona and the Plateau of the
Landlocked Countries of the World State of Utah, USA
Continents Landlocked Countries
10. Australia Plateau Western Part of Australia
1. Africa (16) Mali, Malawi, Chad, Burundi, 11. Meseta Plateau Iberian Peninsula of Spain
Lesotho, Botswana, Niger, Swaziland,
12. Plateau of Mongolia Republic of Mongolia
Zimbabwe, Rwanda, Uganda, Zambia,
Burkina Faso, South Sudan, Ethiopia, 13. Plateau of Alaska Alaska, Canada (Yukon Plateau)
Central African Republic. 14. Plateau of Great Basin In between Columbia and
2. Asia (12) Bhutan, Nepal, Laos, Mongolia, Colorado Rivers
Azerbaijan, Armenia, Afghanistan, 15. Plateau of Bolivia Andes Mountains Region of
Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Bolivia
Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan 16. Chiapass Plateau South Mexico
3. South America (2) Paraguay, Bolivia. 17. Indo-China Plateau Eastern Peninsula of Southern
4. Europe (15) Andorra, Austria, Serbia, Hungary, Asia
Moldova, Macedonia, Lichtenstein, 18. Plateau of Abyssinia Ethiopia and Somalia (East
Belarus, Slovakia, Switzerland, Africa)
Luxembourg, Czech Republic 19. Arabian Plateau Southwest Asia
,Vatican City, San Marino, Kosovo. 20. Plate of Anatolia Su Turkiye
Note : Kazakhstan, located in Asia, is the largest landlocked
country in the world. 6. Atmosphere
Note : World's two doubly landlocked countries are Uzbekistan The atmosphere is the expansion of air that surrounds the
and Liechtenstein.
Earth.
World-famous Landmarks and Countries The atmosphere is a mixture of various gases.
Famous Landmarks Country/Place Gases in the Atmosphere
1. Statue of Liberty New York (USA) Gas Mass (in %)
2. Disney Land California (USA) Nitrogen (N2) 78.08%
3. White Sands USA Oxygen (O2) 20.95%
4. Billings Gate London (England) Argon (Ar) 0.93%
5. Cannes France Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.04 %
6. Elysee Palace France Neon (Ne) 0.002 %
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Krypton (Kr) 0.0001% A. Troposphere

The lowermost layer of the atmosphere is the troposphere.
Helium (He) 0.000 5%
According to NASA, the height of the troposphere is 8-15
Hydrogen (H2) 0.000055%
km, while its average height is considered 12 km.
Xenon (Xe) 0.000009%
Leon Teisserenc de Bort named this layer.
Source – NASA
The height of the Troposphere increases in summer and
Carbon dioxide is being the heaviest gas, found in the decreases in winter.
lower layer of the atmosphere.
There is a decrease of 6.5 °C in temperature per kilometre
Carbon dioxide and water vapours are primarily permeable
elevation in Troposphere. This fall in temperature is called
to the sun's rays and inaccessible to the rays reflected from
the earth. a lapse rate.
Carbon dioxide is responsible for the greenhouse effect on Various atmospheric phenomena like hail, fog, frost,
the Earth. thunderstorms, rain and thunder, etc. are generated by
In a little amount, Ozone gas is found in the atmosphere at Troposphere.
high altitudes. The jet stream flows in troposphere.
Ozone gas is found in the lower part of the stratosphere at Convection currents are found in troposphere.
an altitude of 15 to 35 kilometres above the Earth's surface. The troposphere is also called Convective Region.
Ozone gas absorbs some amount of ultraviolet rays coming The upper boundary of troposphere is called Tropopause.
from the Sun. B. Stratosphere
Water Vapours, Ozone, Oxygen and Carbon dioxide,
The average expansion of stratosphere in the atmosphere
etc. absorb solar heat and solar radiation.
ranges from 12 to 50 km above the Earth's surface.
Water vapours and Carbon dioxide maintain the Earth's
The stratosphere is thicker at the poles than at the equator
temperature.
The sky appears blue due to the scattering of light from and that is why the Antarctic stratosphere is thinner than
dust particles. the Arctic because the stratospheric wind system in the
Atmospheric Structure: southern hemisphere is not sufficient in transporting Ozone
The atmosphere is divided into five parts: Troposphere, towards the south pole.
Stratosphere, Mesospheres, Ionosphere and Exosphere. Initially, the temperature on the stratosphere remains
constant but there is a sudden increase in temperature at
an altitude of 20 kms.
EXOSPHERE The stratosphere is extremely dry.
400
70
An extremely dry stratosphere results in weather-related
110 events like scant rainfall. Therefore, it is ideal for flying
100 60 aircraft.
THERMOSPHERE Cirrus clouds are sometimes found in stratosphere and are
90
known as the Mother of Pearl Clouds.
Altitude (km)

The upper limit of stratosphere is called the stratopause.

Altitude (mi)

80 50

70 The ozonosphere is a part of stratosphere.

MESOSPHERE 40
The ozonosphere extends from 15 to 35 kilometres above
60
the Earth's level.
50 STRATOPAUSE 30
Note : The Dobson unit is used to measure the thickness
40
of the ozone layer.
20
STRATOSPHERE
30 Ozone gas is present in the ozonosphere. It absorbs
OZONE
20 MAXIMUM ultraviolet rays emitted from the Sun.
10
10 TROPOPAUSE
The ozonosphere is also known as the Protective Shield
TROPOSPHERE of the Earth.
0
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 -20 0 20 40 60 °C C. Mesosphere
140 °F
-148 -112 -72 -40 -4 -4 32 68 104
The mesosphere extends upto a height of 50-80 km above
Temperature
the Earth.
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The top of the mesosphere is the coldest area of the Earth’s

Atmospheric Structure
atmosphere because temperature may locally decrease to
Layer Height Temperature Specific Facts
as low as 100 K (-173°C).
Noctilucent clouds appear above the poles in mid-summer. Troposphere 15 km (8 km Decreases with atmospheric
at poles) increasing height phenomena such
Mesosphere is the region where 'Noctilucent clouds' are as thunder-storms,
formed through the ice crystals which are created by fine etc.
dust particles from meteors. Stratosphere 15 to 50 km In the beginning Ozone gas is found
There is a drop in temperature with the increasing height (Thickness temperature from 15 to 35 km.
in Mesosphere. at pole remains constant,
highest) grows when goes
The upper boundary of the mesosphere is called mesopause. up above 20 km.
D. Ionosphere Mesosphere 50-80 km Decreases in Upper limit is
The ionosphere extends upto an altitude of 80–640 km temperature with called Mesopause.
above the earth. increasing height.
There is an excess of electrically charged particles in Ionosphere 80-640 km Rise in temperature Communication
with increasing satellites are placed
ionosphere. These are called ions.
height. in ionosphere,
Temperature increases with height in the ionosphere. events like aurora
The ionosphere is divided into the following layers- australis and
D-layer, E-layer, F-layer, G-layer aurora borealis
occur here.
In D-layer, low-frequency radio waves, i.e. long-
wavelength waves, are reflected. Exosphere above
— —
640kms
The E-layer is also called the Kennelly Heaviside layer.
The E-layer reflects high-frequency radio waves and Insolation
sends them to Earth. The solar radiation that reaches the earth is called
The F-layer is also known as the Appleton Layer. insolation.
The F-layer also reflects the mid and high-frequency Only 51 per cent of the heat emitted from the sun reaches
radio waves, having short wavelength. the top surface of the Earth.
The G-layer reflects waves of all frequencies. Only about 2 per cent of the insolation is reflected from
Mobile, radio, television and radar, etc. operate through the ground.
long frequency in the D-layer of the ionosphere. The atmosphere absorbs only 14 per cent of the solar
Communication satellites are installed in the ionospheres. radiation.
The fundamental phenomena of ionosphere are the aurora Albedo is the ratio between the amount of insolation the
australis (south polar light) and aurora borealis (north surface receives and the amount of insolation reflected from
polar light). the same surface.
Aurora is a cosmic shining light. Approximately 27 per cent part of the total solar radiation
The aurora is formed by electron waves emitting from the reflected to space from the top of clouds.
sun's surface.
Short Wave Solar Radiation
Auroras usually appear at midnight.
Total Solar Radiation= 100%
F. Exosphere –6% Scattered in space
-27%
The topmost layer of the atmosphere above ionosphere
uds

is called exosphere.
Clo

Earth
Scattered radiation

The exosphere is the outermost layer of the earth's

By

y the

atmosphere. It starts at an altitude at about 640 kms. Clouds

The exosphere has no upper boundary.
cted b

+14
The exosphere is dominated by electrically charged
Refle

Absorbed
particles, temperature gradually increase through the layer. by atmosphere
The exosphere has gases like hydrogen and Helium but in
Earth
a trace amount. +17% Absorbed by +34% Absorbed by
There is an absence of air to breathe in ionosphere. the Earth the Earth

159
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In January and July, the northern hemisphere receives

Long Wave Terrestrial Radiation minimum and maximum temperature respectively in most
of the world.
–17 Space –48
The difference between the minimum and the maximum
temperature is called the temperature difference.

Radiation to space
Radiation from the Earth to space

by atmosphere
The difference between the maximum and the minimum
+6
temperature on a day at a particular place is called daily
+9 +19% temperature difference.
Turbulance The difference in the mean temperature of the hottest and
Condensation the coldest months of a particular place is called annual
Convection temperature difference.
The difference between the average temperature of a
Earth
–23 –9 –19 particular place and the average temperature of its latitude
is called a thermal anomaly.
Temperature
Atmospheric Pressure :
The Earth receives heat from the sun by radiation.
Direct heating of a substance by the transmission of heat A barometer measures air pressure.
waves is called radiation. Radiation does not require any Bar is the unit of atmospheric pressure.
physical medium. One bar is equal to 105 N/m2.
The Earth receives heat from the sun in the form of short Standard sea-level pressure equals 760 mm (76 cm) of
waves radiation. mercury.
Heat reflected from the earth's surface is called terrestrial Isobars are lines that connect points of equal pressure,
radiation. generated from mean sea-level pressure.
Terrestrial radiation is in the form of long waves. The difference in pressure between any two places is called
The radiation coming from the sun is short wave radiation pressure gradient.
that crosses the atmosphere and reaches the earth. The pressure gradient is low when the isobar lines are away
Radiation from the Earth's surface is in the form of from each other.
long-wave radiation which heats the lower layers of the The pressure gradient is higher if the isobars are close to
atmosphere. each other.
The atmosphere gets warmer due to the terrestrial radiation Horizontal and Latitudinal Distribution
from the Earth than the solar radiation received from the There are a total of 7 pressure belts on the globe. These
sun. 7 air pressure belts include- Polar High Pressure, Sub-
The imaginary line joining places of equal temperature is polar Low Pressure, Subtropical High Pressure and
called isotherm. Equatorial Low Pressure.
Isothermal lines are drawn parallel to latitudes in the east- 1. Polar High Pressure
west direction.
The polar high pressure is extended around the poles
The isotherms automatically turn due to the temperature
between 80°-90° in both the Northern and the Southern
variation on land and water.
Hemisphere.
The differences in temperature in the Southern Hemisphere
The cold (heavy) air on reaching poles subsides, which then
is less frequent due to the greater presence of water body.
creates a high-pressure belt at the surface of the Earth.
The lack of water body area and high temperature disparity
is found in the Northern Hemisphere. 2. Sub-polar Low Pressure
The distance between isotherms estimates the temperature The extension of the sub-polar low-pressure belt is found
gradient (temperature change rate). between 60 ° and 65° latitude in both hemispheres.
When the isotherms are apart from one another, the heat Despite low temperature throughout the year in this belt, it
gradient is low. gets low air pressure. In fact, due to the rotational motion
The heat gradient is higher when the isotherms are close of the earth, the air is transferred in these latitudes resulting
to one another. in kinetic low air pressure.
In polar regions, due to extremely low temperature, the 3. Subtropical High-Pressure Belt
isotherms are found with low values. The subtropical high-pressure belts lie between latitudes
In tropical regions, high values of the isotherms are found 30 ° to 35 ° in the northern and southern hemispheres.
when the temperature is high. This belt is also called the horse latitudes.
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4. Equatorial low B. Westerlies wind

Equatorial low air pressure belts are generally found In the northern and the southern hemispheres, the permanent
between 5° north and 5° south latitude of the equator but air blowing from the subtropical high-pressure tropics to
this equatorial low pressure belt moves due to the movement the sub-polar low pressure tropics is called westerlies.
of the sun in the northern and the southern hemispheres. The west sides of the continents (45° to 65°) receive rain
This region gets the vertical rays of the sun throughout the due to westerlies.
year which leads to the expansion of the air. Westerlies between the latitudes of 40° to 65° are best
The surface winds do not flow in the equatorial low-pressure developed in the Southern Hemisphere due to the absence
of surface barriers.
zone.
The sailors have named winds that are blowing between
The air becomes light and moves up because of the high
40° and 60° in southern hemisphere as the roaring forties,
temperature in this pressure belt, causing convection
furious fifties and shrieking sixties.
currents.
C. Polar Winds
The equatorial low-pressure belt is called doldrums or the
The winds that flow from polar high-pressure belts to sub-
zone of calm. polar low-pressure belts are called polar winds.
Wind Polar winds have a low water vapour holding capacity.
The wind is the air that moves from high-pressure areas to The westerlies in the sub-polar low-pressure tropics collide
low-pressure areas. with the polar winds to form polar air fronts that produce
The vertical or nearly vertical movement of the air is the extra-tropical or temperate cyclone.
referred to as air current.
High
Due to the rotation of the Earth on its axis and axis being
Low Low
titled, the winds change their direction. Low
Polar easteries 60°
The gradient of air pressure determines the wind speed. Prevailing
westerlies
The higher the gradient of air pressure at two places, the Hi gh High High High 30 High
Horse latitudes
faster the air moves.
When the gradient of air pressure between two places Ne Trade winds
Sun’s
is low, the speed of the wind is slow. Low Low Low Equatorial doldrums (ITCZ) 0° Low
Rays
The deflection of winds from their original direction is due Low

to the rotation of the Earth is called Coriolis Force. SE Trade winds

Due to the effect of Coriolis Force, the wind is deflected High High Ho rse latitudes High 30°
towards the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left High Prevailing
westerlies
High

in the southern hemisphere. Low Low 60°

Polar easterlies
The effect of the Coriolis Force at the Equator is zero.
The effect of the Coriolis Force at the poles is maximum. Low Low
High
The wind direction change due to the Coriolis effect,
pressure gradient force, ground friction and centripetal 2. Seasonal Winds - These winds change their direction in
force. different seasons.
Land and sea breezes and monsoon winds are examples of
Types of Winds :
seasonal winds.
Winds are of three types - planetary winds, seasonal
a. Land and Sea Breezes
winds, local winds.
During the day, the land gets warmer than the sea, which is
1. Planetary winds - planetary winds constantly blow
relatively cold; therefore, zone of low pressure is developed
throughout the year in a particular direction. on the land and high pressure above the sea; hence the air
The trade winds (easterlies), westerlies and polar winds flows from sea to land which is called a sea breeze.
are the permanent winds. b. Monsoon Winds: All those winds which change according
A. The Trade Winds- These are extremely steady winds to the seasons are called monsoon winds.
blowing from the sub-tropical high-pressure areas (30°N Monsoon winds move from the sea to the land in summer
and S) towards the equatorial low-pressure belt. and from the land to the sea in winter.
They flow as the north-eastern trade in the northern 3. Local Winds
hemisphere and the south-eastern trade in the southern Local winds are produced due to regional variability in
hemisphere. Trade winds from both the hemispheres meet temperature and pressure conditions.
at the Equator and they rise and cause a heavy rainfall due Local winds are confined to the lower layers of the
to convergence. troposphere.
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i. Chinook through north-west or south-west region in the Great Plains

Chinook is the warm, dry wind, descending from the of the USA.
eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, primarily in vii. Simoom
winter. Simoom is a warm, dry and dusty wind of the Arabian
The Chinook wind flows from the eastern slope of Rocky desert.
Mountains from Colorado (USA) in the south to British viii. Yoma
Columbia (Canada) in the north. Yoma is a warm and dry wind blowing in Japan.
Chinook wind melts snow for much of the winter keeping ix. Harmattan
the pastures open for animals. Harmattan is a wind blowing from the east and the
ii. Sirocco northeast towards the west in the Sahara desert.
It is a hot, dry and sandy wind flowing from the Sahara Harmattan is also known as Doctor wind because it makes
desert in the north through the Mediterranean Sea. the weather healthier by bringing dryness in the humid and
It crosses the Mediterranean Sea and enters Italy and Spain. warm air of the west coast of Africa.
Sirocco wind has different names at different places, such x. Norwester
as Gibli in Libya, Khamasin in Egypt, etc. Norwester is a hot and dry wind descending from high
These winds pass through the Mediterranean Sea, retain mountains in northern New Zealand.
moisture and occasionally rain in southern Italy called xi. Karaburan
blood rain. Karaburan (Black storm) is the hot and dusty wind of
iii. Foehn Central Asia – Tarim Basin, Mongolia.
Foehn is a warm and dry wind that flows through the xii. Blizzard
northern slope of the Alps mountains. Blizzard is a snow-laden wind of Canada, the USA and
Dryness and heat of Foehn cause the ice to melt, leading Siberian region.
to the development of pastures. xiii. Koimbang
Under the influence of Foehn, the weather becomes pleasant Koimbang is a hot and dry wind blowing in Java.
and the grape crop ripens quickly. Koimbang is harmful to tobacco crops.
Foehn has the most significant effect in Switzerland. xiv. Papagayo
iv. Samun Papagayo is a cold and dry wind blowing from the northeast
Samun wind has the same characteristics as Foehn. It moves of the coast of Mexico.
across Kurdistan in Iran and Iraq. x. Gregale
v. Shamal Gregale is a strong and cold wind that blows from the
Shamal is the dry and sandy wind in the desert region of northeast in the western and central Mediterranean region,
Iraq, Iran and Arabia. mainly in winter.
vi. Black Roller The Local wind blows over a limited area.
Black Roller is the hot and dry sandy wind blowing Local winds are found in hot and cold.

Bu ran N
Chino ok
Helm Karaburan W E
NORT H Bora
Nor’easter
AMERICA Blizzards Mistral EUROPE S
Norther Levant Etesians ASIA
Norte Fohn

Siro cco
Khamsin
Harmattan
Haboob
(non-Directional)
SOUT H
AFRICA
AMERICA
Berg
Pampero
AUSTRALIA
Brickfielder
Southerly

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Local Winds and their Different Names Jet Streams :

Jet streams are relatively narrow bands of strong winds in
Major Local Cold Winds
the upper levels of the atmosphere.
Wind Place
The winds blow from west to east in jet streams but the
1. Northern USA flow often shifts to the north and the south.
2. Norte USA Jet streams follow the boundaries between hot and cold air.
3. Williwaw Alaska Propagation of the jet streams is between 20° latitudes in
4. Pampero Argentina, Uruguay both the hemispheres at an altitude ranging from 7.5 to 14
5. Papagayo Mexico km between poles.
6. Purga Tundra Region Jet streams generally have a speed of 150 to 200 km per
7. Bise Eastern France, Switzerland hour.
8. Mistral Spain & France Jet streams become stronger during winter and their velocity
9. Buran Russia is twice as much as in summer.
The difference in temperature resulting in air pressure
10. Bora Adriatic Coast
fluctuations on the surface of the earth is the prime cause
11. Cape Doctor (Table Block) South African Republican
of developing Jet streams.
12. Haboob Sudan
It is related to the difference in temperature from the
13. Seistan Eastern Iran Equator towards the poles and the high pressure on the
14. Tramontane Central Europe poles and the lower pressure in the troposphere above it.
15. Levanter Spain Jet streams play an important role in balancing the
temperature variation on the earth.
Major Local Hot Winds Tropical monsoonal rainfall is affected by Jet streams.
Wind Place Jet streams produce storms, rainfall, atmospheric
1. Sirocco Sahara Desert, Italy disturbances, cyclones and anti-cyclones.
2. Harmattan (Doctor Wind) Guinea Coast Air Masses
3. Chinook Rocky Mountains (USA) Air masses are the largest part of the atmosphere where
4. Foehn Alps Mountains (Switzerland) humidity and temperature show a uniform pattern of
5. Brickfielder Australia physical characteristics across multiple layers horizontally.
6. Simoom Arabian Desert Air masses play an essential role in the study of weather
7. Black Roller Plains of North America and climate.
Fronts
8. Ghibli / Gibli Libya
The boundary zones of convergence separating two air
9. Khamasin Egypt
masses are called fronts.
10. Leste Madeira and Canary Islands
Along a warm front, a warm air mass slides over a cold
11. Chili Tunisia air mass.
12. Koimbang Java (Indonesia) A front in which cold air is replacing warm air at the surface
13. Shamal Iraq is called a cold front.
14. Norwester New Zealand Humidity
15. Santa Ana Southern California Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the air.
16. Samun Iran Absolute humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapour
17. Loo Northern India and the mass of dry air in a particular volume of air at a
18. Ayala France specific temperature.
The absolute humidity as measured is a unit of a given
19. Garmsil South-east Iran
grams of water vapour per cubic meter of the air.
20. Solano South-east Spain
The total mass of water vapour present in a certain mass
21. Poniente North-Eastern Mediterranean
of air is called specific humidity.
Sea
Specific humidity is expressed in grams/kilogram unit.
22. Berg South Africa
Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapour
23. Baguio Philippines actually present in the air to the greatest amount possible
24. Sukhove Russia & Kazakhstan at the same temperature. The formula to measure relative
25. Haboob Sudan humidity is-
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Specific Humidity (ii) Cirrostratus Clouds:

Relative Humidity = × 100 They are mainly found at an altitude of more than 18000
Absolute Humidity
feet. On their arrival, a halo is formed around the sun and
Relative humidity is expressed in percentage.
the moon, anticipating the cyclone.
The temperature of the air and the amount of water vapour
depends on relative humidity. (iii) Cirrocumulus Clouds: These clouds are found in white
Relative humidity decreases when the air temperature and small circular forms.
increases. (iv) Altostratus Clouds: Altostratus clouds are mid-level, grey
Relative humidity increases when air temperature decreases. or blue-grey clouds having a fibrous or uniform appearance
Approximately 45% relative humidity in the air is most that usually covers the whole sky. They cause extensive
comfortable for humans. and continuous rain.
The relative humidity of saturated air is 100%. (v) Altocumulus Clouds: It is a medium-level cloud found
Dew Point : at low altitudes similar to cirrocumulus clouds. They have
Dew point is the temperature at which water is converted wavy layers of globular form. High globular groups of
from its gaseous state to a liquid or solid state. altocumulus clouds are sometimes called sheep clouds or
Condensation : woolpack clouds.
The change of water vapour into the liquid is known as (vi) Stratocumulus clouds: They are whitish, found in round
condensation. patches between the height of 2600 m to 3000 m.
The condensation depends on the relative humidity of the (vii) Stratus Clouds: Stratus clouds are low and uniformly grey
air and the fall in the temperature. in colour and can cover most or all the sky. Stratus clouds
Dew: can look like fog that never reach the ground.
When the air temperature is below the dew point, the water (viii) Nimbostratus Clouds: They are found much closer to
vapour in the air condenses and accumulates on the surface the ground. They are dark, grey, featureless layers of cloud,
in the form of small drops of water which is called dew. thick enough to block out the sun and produce persistent
Frost : rain.
The frost occurs when the dew point is below freezing point (ix) Cumulus Clouds: Cumulus clouds are puffy clouds that
and the excess water vapour freezes into ice particles. sometimes look like pieces of floating cotton. The base of
Fog : each cloud is often flat and may be only 1000 meters (3300
A cloud of smoke formed near the lower surface of the feet) above the ground. The top of the cloud has a shape
atmosphere due to dust particles and concentrated water of rounded towers.
particles is called fog. (x) Cumulonimbus Clouds: Cumulonimbus clouds are
Fog is formed when the air temperature is below the dew extremely wide and deep. This is the only type of cloud
point. The visibility during fog is less than a kilometre. that can produce hail, thunder and lightning. The base of
Mist : the cloud is often flat.
Mist is a smaller form of fog. Rainfall:
The mist contains more moisture than fog. The water vapour condenses into clouds and converts into
Mist is less dense and quicker to dissipate. drops of water and heavy droplets on the earth are called
Visibility in the mist is more than 1 kilometre and less than rain.
2 kilometres. Rainfall has been classified into three main types based on
Clouds : the origin – convectional rainfall, orographic (relief) rainfall
Clouds are formed primarily as a result of condensation of and cyclonic rainfall.
water vapour in the atmosphere into a large collection of 1. Convectional Rainfall:
very tiny droplets of water or ice crystals. Convection currents are created by the rise of hot winds
Clouds float due to low density in the atmosphere. above the surface of the earth. After reaching a higher
Clouds are of different kinds based on shape, vertical altitude, the convection currents become fully saturated
expansion and height from the ground. They are as follows- and form the black cumulus clouds which cause excessive
(i) Cirrus Clouds : rainfall known as convectional rainfall.
These clouds are found at the highest altitude. They are 2. Orographic Rainfall:
formed by small ice particles and because of this they It occurs when hot and humid air rises along the slope of a
appear silky. When the rays of the sun pass through them, mountain. It cools down due to the adiabatic process and
they become white. Cirrus clouds appear in the sky before becomes saturated, as a result of which it condenses and
the arrival of cyclones. causes rainfall.
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Most of the rainfall in the world is in the form of orographic The saline water of the oceans is 97% of the total water
rain. present on Earth, while clean water or soft water is only
3. Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall: remaining 3%.
Rain occurring due to cyclones is called cyclonic or frontal The oceans constitute the largest component of the
rainfall. hydrosphere and have no fixed boundary.
Cyclonic rainfall is caused due to Western disturbance, The oceanic crust mainly consists of silica and magnesium;
Nor’westers, and mango showers. it is therefore called sima (si-silica and ma-magnesium)
The place of origin of western disturbances active in
The Pacific Ocean is the largest in the world.
northwest India during the winter season is the Mediterranean
Salinity and high average temperatures are two important
Sea, particularly the eastern Mediterranean region.
characteristics of ocean water.
Cyclones :
Hypsographic fathoms the depth of the oceans and the
A cyclone is a large scale air mass that rotates around a
strong centre of low atmospheric pressure. altitude of the landmass.
In the northern hemisphere, the cyclone moves anti- The average depth of the oceans is 12100 feet (3688 meters).
clockwise, and in the Southern Hemisphere, it moves Ocean water has an average temperature of about 27 degrees
clockwise. celsius.
There are two types of cyclones: (i) temperate and (ii) The Atlantic Ocean records a relatively higher annual range
tropical. of temperature than the Pacific Ocean due to morphological
variation.
Note : A cyclone helps in getting rain.
The temperature difference is more in the northern
Anticyclone: hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere.
In an anticyclone, the air system is opposite to the cyclone. The salinity of ocean water is expressed in its ratio per
There is high pressure in the centre and low pressure in the
thousand.
outer area.
The average salinity of seawater is 35 per thousand (‰).
Note : In the opposite direction of a cyclone, an anti- The line connecting ocean waters of equal salinity is called
cyclone is produced. Isohaline.
In the northern hemisphere, the anticyclone moves Southern latitude between 10° to 30° and northern latitude
clockwise, while in the southern hemisphere, it moves between 20° to 40° northern latitude have the highest
anti-clockwise. salinity.
The highest salinity in the world is found in Assal Lake
Note : The weather in the cyclone is clear and the winds
(348‰) Djibouti and Van Lake Turkiye (330‰).
are mild.
The third place in the world as regards the highest salinity
Tornados: (238‰) is the Dead Sea.
A tornado is a short-lived and catastrophic tropical cyclone.
It has a funnel shape and originates mainly in the United Oceans and Trenches
States. Depth
Hurricanes: Position Trench
(in meters)
Hurricanes are massive storm systems that form over warm
1. Pacific Ocean Mariana 11033
ocean waters and move toward land.
Hurricanes originate in the Atlantic basin which includes 2. Pacific Ocean Mindanao 10540
the Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, 3. Pacific Ocean Tonga 10882
the Eastern North Pacific Ocean, and, less frequently, the
4. Atlantic Ocean (Western Puerto Rico 8385
Central North Pacific Ocean.
Islands)
Typhoon:
The typhoon is a cyclone rising from the Pacific Ocean, 5. Eastern Indian Ocean Sunda 8152
mainly affecting the China Sea, the Philippines Islands and 6. Southern Atlantic Ocean Romanche 7631
the Southern Japan region.
Mariana Trench is also known as Challenger Trench.
7. Hydrosphere It is located in the Pacific Ocean near Guam Island.
The hydrosphere covers about 70.9% of the entire Earth. Its depth is 11033 meters.
80.9% of the Southern Hemisphere and 60.7% of the The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef.
Northern Hemisphere are surrounded by oceans. It is located near Queensland, Australia.
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The shallowest part of submerged uplift water is called Atlantic Ocean :

Shoal. The Atlantic Ocean has an area of 85.1 million square km.
The principal divisions (in descending order of area) are The area of the Atlantic Ocean is 23.5% of the area of global
the: Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern ocean.
(Antarctic) Ocean, and Arctic Ocean. The shape of the Atlantic Ocean is similar to the English
Pacific Ocean : letter 'S'.
The area of the Pacific Ocean is 168.7 million square kms. Europe and Africa are located on the east coast of the
It covers around 46% of the Earth's water surface. Atlantic Ocean while North America and South America
It has a triangular shape. The Pacific Ocean stretches from the are on the west.
shores of Antarctica to the Bering Strait over 135° of latitude. The North Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Hudson Bay and
The prominent feature of the Pacific Ocean is the coral Greenland are located to the north of the Atlantic Ocean
reefs. while it faces Antarctica in the south.
North and South America lie to the east of the Pacific Ocean The Central Atlantic Ridge is an important feature of the
while Asia and Australia to the west and Antarctica to the Atlantic Ocean.
south. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge extends from Iceland in the north
The main seas of the Pacific Ocean are the East China Sea, to Bouvet Island in the south.
the Yellow Sea, the Sea of Japan, the Bering Sea and the Mid-Atlantic ridge has a length of about 16000 kilometres
Okhotsk Sea. and a height of 3000 mtrs. above sea-level.
Most of the coastline is in the western part of the Pacific Mid-Atlantic ridge is a submerged ridge.
Ocean. Many peaks of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge have risen above
The Gulf of California is located in the eastern part of the the water and look like islands.
Pacific Ocean. The main islands of Mid-Atlantic Ridge are Cape Verde
Island and Pico Island.
Major Countries of The World With Large
The peak of the St. Paul Archipelago, located near the
Coastlines
Equator, is the smallest of the Mid-Atlantic ridges.
Country Length of Coastline St. Helena, Gough, Bouvet Island, Tristan da Cunha and
1. Canada 202080 km Ascension Island are the major volcanic islands of the
2. Indonesia 54716 km southern Atlantic Ocean.
The Bermuda Atoll is located in the North Atlantic Ocean.
3. Greenland 44087 km
The highest width of the Atlantic Ocean is near the latitude
4. Russia 37653 km
of 55 degrees north.
5. Philippines 36289 km The Atlantic Ocean separates into two parts near the
6. Japan 29751 km Equator.
7. Australia 25760 km The Northern Atlantic ridge is known as Dolphin Rise and
the Southern part is named as Challenger Rise.
8. Norway 25148 km
The Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of Hudson, the Bay of Baffin,
9. United States 19924 km the Baltic Sea, the North Sea, and the Caribbean Sea are
10. New Zealand 15134 km all located in the Atlantic Ocean.
Indian Ocean:
Major Countries of The World With Large The area of the Indian Ocean is 70.5 million square km.
Water Areas The Indian Ocean is a semi-ocean.
1. Canada 891163 sq km On all its sides, east, west, north and south it has the
2. Russia 720500 sq km continents of Australia, Africa, Asia and the Antarctica
3. United States 685924 sq km located respectively.
4. India 314070 sq km The Indian Ocean has the Atlantic Ocean on one side and
the Pacific Ocean on the other.
5. China 270550 sq km
The northern boundary of the Indian Ocean is the Tropic
6. Iran 116600 sq km of Cancer.
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The islands of Reunion and Mauritius are volcanic islands Warm currents often flow from the Equator to the Pole.
of the Indian Ocean. The cold water flows from higher latitudes to lower
Madagascar is the largest island in the Indian Ocean. latitudes.
Diago Garcia is an island in the Indian Ocean. Cold streams often flow from the poles towards the sub-
90° East Ridge is located in the Indian Ocean. polar regions.
Due to the influence of Coriolis Force, ocean currents turn
Exam Oriented Facts
to their right in the Northern Hemisphere and to their left
The Arctic ocean basin is the smallest ocean basin. It
in the Southern Hemisphere.
includes the waters north of the North American and
The direction of the flow of water currents in the northern
Eurasian continents.
part of the Indian Ocean changes with the direction of
The Arctic Ocean covers an area of 5.427 Million square
monsoon winds.
miles and the structure of basin is circular.
The Gulf streams and the Labrador streams intersect near
The continental slope connects the continental shelf and
New Foundland.
the ocean basins.
An important marine fishing site in the North Atlantic
A continental shelf typically extends from the coast to
Ocean is located on Grand Bank New Foundland.
depths of 100–200 metres (330–660 feet). It is gently
The grass called Plankton is found at the junction of the
inclined seaward at an average slope of about 0.1°.
hot and cold streams.
A continental shelf is the edge of a continent that lies
The combination of hot Kuroshio streams and cold Oyashio
under the ocean. Continents are the seven main divisions
streams creates a thick, foggy environment in Japan.
of land on Earth. A continental shelf extends from the
The Sargasso Sea is a tranquil water zone between the Gulf
coastline of a continent to a drop-off point called the
Streams, the Canary and the North Equatorial streams in
shelf break.
the North Atlantic Ocean.
Ocean currents : The rootless grass is found in the Sargasso Sea because of
The flow of a large amount of ocean water in a particular this it was named Sargasso.
direction is called ocean currents. The sailors of Spain first saw the Sargasso Sea.
Ocean currents consist of hot and cold streams. The Atlantic Ocean has the highest salinity (37‰) in the
The flow of hot water is from the lower latitudes of the Sargasso Sea.
tropics to the high temperate and sub-polar regions. The Sargasso Sea is known as the ocean desert.

1500 1200 900 600 300 00 300 600 900 1200 1500
800 800
N

W E
600 600
Berling
St. Johns London S

400 New York 400

North North
Atlantic
200 Gyre 200
N. EquatorialC. or
N. Equatorial C.
0
0 00
S.Equatorial C. S.Equatorial C.

200 Walvis Bay 200

South
South Indian
Durban
Atlantic Ocean Gyre
400 Gyre 400

West Wind Drift West Wind

600 East Wind Drift 600

East Wind Drift

800 800
1500 1200 900 600 300 00 300 600 900 1200 1500

Cold Current Warm Current

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The summer monsoon stream is hot and unstable in the

Warm Currents of the Pacific Ocean
Indian Ocean and the winter monsoon stream is cold and
1. Kuroshio Current
unstable.
2. Alaska Current Tide and Ebb:
3. Tsushima Current Tide and ebb is the process of rise and fall of ocean water
4. El Nino Current due to the gravitational force of the Sun and the Moon.
The 'tide' is the process of rising above seawater.
5. North Equatorial Current
Ebb is the receding or outgoing tide.
6. South Equatorial Current The Moon is much closer to the Earth; therefore, its tide
7. North Pacific Current generating power is twice as much as that of the Sun.
8. East Australian Current The moon, the Sun and the Earth are in one line on a full
moon and new moon due to which high tides are generated
9. Counter Equatorial Current
on earth on this day.
On the seventh or the eighth day of both the full moon phase
Cold Currents of the Pacific Ocean
and the new moon phase, the moon and the Sun, form a
1. Humboldt or Peruvian Current
right angle with the centre of the earth, causing a low tidal
2. California Current situation on the earth.
3. Antarctica Current Tides come twice a day at any place, one of which is due
4. Kurile Current/ Oyashio Current to the gravitational force of the moon and the other due to
the centrifugal force of the earth.
5. Okhotsk Current
Southampton, on the southern coast of England, receives
Warm Currents of the Atlantic Ocean four tides every day.
The tides come twice each from the North Sea and the
1. Gulf Streams
English Channel.
2. Brazil Current
The lowest and highest annual temperatures are recorded
3. Florida Current in February and August respectively.
4. Irminger Current The average daily warming of the ocean surface is
5. Northern Equatorial Current negligible (i.e, about 1° C).
6. Southern Equatorial Current Oceans of The World and Trenches
7. Equatorial Counter (Guinea) Current Ocean Trench

Cold Streams of the Atlantic Ocean 1. Pacific Ocean (168.7 million sq. km) Mariana Trench

1. Canary Current 2. Atlantic Ocean (85.1 million sq. km) Puerto Rico Trench
2. Benguela Current 3. Indian Ocean (70.5 million sq. km) Sunda Trench
3. Labrador Current 4. Arctic Ocean (15.5 million sq. km) Eurasian Basin
4. Falkland Current 5. Antarctic Ocean South Sandwich
Trench
5. East Greenland Current
6. Antarctica Current Major Canals and the Countries of The World
Canal Country Location in between
Permanent and Hot Currents of The Indian Ocean
1. Mozambique Current 1. Suez Canal Egypt Red Sea and the Mediterranean
Sea
2. Agulhas Current
2. Panama Canal Panama Pacific Ocean and Atlantic
3. Southern Equatorial Current
Ocean
Permanent and Cold Currents of the Indian Ocean 3. Welland Canal Canada Erie and Ontario
1. West wind drift 4. Erie Canal USA Hudson river and Erie Lake
2. West Australian Current 5. Soo Canal USA Lake Superior and Huron Lake

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6. New Water Way Netherlands North Sea and Rotterdam 23. Ural 2428 Southern Ural Caspian Sea
Mountains (Russia)
7. Kiel Canal Germany Baltic Sea and the North Sea
24. Ganga 2525 Gomukh Gangotri Bay of Bengal
8. North Sea Canal Netherlands Amsterdam and the North Sea
Glacier
9. Gota Canal Sweden Gutenberg and the Stockholm 25. Amu-Darya 2620 Pamir Plateau Aral Sea
10. Manchester Canal UK Liverpool and Manchester 26. Salween 2400 Tibet Plateau Andaman Sea
11.Volga Don Canal Russia Stalingrad and Rostov 27. Arkansas 2348 Rocky Mountains Mississippi
12. Albert Canal Belgium Antwerp and Liege River
28. Colorado 2333 Rocky Mountains Gulf of
13. K.P. Canal India Tamil Nadu and Andhra
California
Pradesh
29. Dnieper 2287 Valdai Hills (Russia) Black Sea
(Russia)
World's Major Rivers, The Place of Origin and
30. Ohio 2102 Allegheny River Mississippi
Drainage
Pennsylvania River
River Length (Km) Origin Drainage
31. Irrawaddy 2809 Mali and Nmai Rivers Andaman Sea
1. Nile 6650 Victoria Lake Mediterranean 32. Orange 2200 Drakensburg Atlantic Ocean
Sea Mountains
2. Amazon 6436 Laggo Wilfero Atlantic Ocean 33. Orinoco 2410 Sierra Parima Atlantic Ocean
3. Yangtze 6300 Tibet's Plateau East China Sea Mountains
4. Mississippi 6275 Lake Itasca Gulf of Mexico. 34. Columbia 2250 Rocky Mountains Pacific Ocean
Missouri 35. Don 1870 Tula (Russia) Azov Sea
5. Ob Irtysh 5410 Altai Mountains Gulf of Ob 36. Tigris 1850 Taurus Mountains Euphrates
6. Huang Ho 5464 Kunlun Mountains Gulf of Chihli. (Turkiye)
7. Yenisei - 5539 Large and small Kara Sea Note : After confluence of Tigris and Euphrates river, it
Angara Yenisei confluence is called Shatt al- Arab.
8. Congo Ocean 4700 North-East Zambia Atlantic * Length 1738 Km without headstream, 4245 Km with
Highlands headstream
9. Amur 4444 Shilka and Argun Sakhalin Gulf,
rivers Okhotsk Sea
Major Straits of the World and Related Seas
Strait Related Sea Separates to
10. Lena 4400 Baikal Mountains Laptev Sea
(Russia) 1. Palk Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal and Sri Lanka India and
11. MacKenzie* 4241 Great Slave Lake Beaufort Sea 2. Malacca of Bengal Java Sea and Bay Sumatra Malaya and
12. Niger 4184 Guinea (Africa) Gulf of Guinea 3. Bering (USA) Arctic Sea and Bering Sea Russia and
13. Mekong 4909 Tibet Plateau South China Sea Alaska

14. Volga 3645 Valdai Plateau Caspian Sea 4. Florida (USA) Atlantic Ocean & Gulf of Quba & Florida
(Russia) Mexico

15. St. Lawrence 3058 Lake Ontario Bay of St. 5. Dover North Sea Atlantic Ocean & France & UK
Lawrence 6. Gibraltar Atlantic Ocean and Mediter- Morocco (Afri-
16. Brahmaputra 2900 Near Mansarovar Lake Bay of Bengal ranean Sea (Europe) ca) & Spain

17. Indus 2880 Near Mansarovar Lake Arabian Sea

Major Straits of The World
18. Danube 2888 Black Forest Black Sea
(Germany) Geographical
Strait Connects
location
19. Euphrates 3000 From the confluence Shatt al-Arab
1. Dover France-England North Sea and English Chan-
of Karasu and Murat
nel
rivers
2. Davis Baffin Canada-Greenland Atlantic Ocean and Bay
20. Darling 1545 Great Dividing Range Murray River
3. Denmark Greenland-Iceland Greenland Sea and North
Australia
Atlantic Sea
21. Murray 2508 Australian Alps South Sea
4. Palk Strait Sri Lanka-India Bay of Bengal and Gulf of
22. Paraguay 2695 Mato Grosso (Brazil) Parana River Mannar
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5. Malacca Malaysia-Indonesia South China Sea and Anda- Major Cities of the World Located on the
man Sea
Banks of Rivers
6. Hudson Canada Atlantic Ocean and Hudson
Bay City River
7. Bering Russia-Alaska Chukchi Sea and Bering Sea 1. Chicago (America) Chicago
8. Luzon Taiwan-Luzon Is- Philippines Sea and South 2. Berlin (Germany) Spree
land (Philippines) China Sea
3. Ottawa (Canada) Ottawa
9. Magellan Chile Atlantic Ocean and Pacific
Ocean 4. Quebec City (Canada) St. Lawrence
10. Gibraltar Morocco-Spain Atlantic Ocean and Mediter- 5. Montreal (Canada) St. Lawrence
ranean Sea 6. Aswan (Egypt) Nile
11. Korea South Korea-Japan East China Sea and Sea of 7. Khartoum (Sudan) Nile
Japan
8. Cairo (Egypt) Nile
12. Torres A u s t r a l i a - N e w Bay of Papua and Arafura
Guinea Sea 9. New York Hudson
13. Florida Cuba-USA Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of 10. Saint-Luis (America) Mississippi
Mexico
11. Washington DC Potomac
1 4 . B a b - A l - Djibouti-Yemen Arabian Sea and Red Sea
Mandab 12. Warsaw (Poland) Vistula
15. Dardanelles Turkiye Aegean Sea and Sea Mar- 13. Rome (Italy) Tiber
mara 14. London (England) Thames
16. Bass Australia South Sea and Tasman Sea 15. Paris (France) Seine
17. Tsushima Japan and South East China Sea and Sea of
16. Moscow (Russia) Moskva
Korea Japan
18. Bosporus Turkiye Black Sea and Sea of Mar- 17. Belgrade (Yugoslavia) Danube
mara 18. Budapest (Hungary) Danube
19. Cook New Zealand Tasman Sea & Southern 19. Madrid (Spain) Manzanares
(Northern and Pacific Ocean
Southern Islands) 20. Lisbon (Portugal) Tagus
20. Tsugaru Japan Pacific Ocean and Sea of 21. Dublin (Ireland) Liffey
Japan 22. Prague (Czech Republic) Vitava
21. Sunda Indonesia Indian Ocean and Java Sea 23. Bonn (Germany) Rhine
22. Belle Isle Canada Atlantic Ocean & Gulf of St.
24. Ankara (Turkiye) Ankara
Lawrence
23. Tatar Russia Sea of Japan and Okhotsk 25. Dundee (Scotland) Tay
Sea 26. Liverpool (England) Mersey
24. Yucatan Mexico-Cuba Caribbean Sea and Gulf of 27. Cologne (Germany) Rhine
Mexico
28. Hamburg (Germany) Elbe
25. North Chan- England-Ireland Atlantic Ocean & Irish Sea
nel 29. Baghdad (Iraq) Tigris
26. Otranto Albania-Italy Ionian Sea and Adriatic Sea 30. Bristol (England) Avon
27. Foveaux New Zealand Pacific Ocean and Tasman 31. Kiev (Ukraine) Dnieper
Sea
32. Leningrad (Russia) Neva
28. Makassar Indonesia Celebes Sea and Java Sea
33. Perth (Australia) Swan
29. Hudson Canada Hudson Bay and Atlantic
Ocean 34. Vienna (Austria) Danube
3 0 . H o r m u z Iran-Oman Gulf of Oman and Gulf of 35. Tokyo (Japan) Sumida
straight Persia 36. Shanghai (China) Yangtze Kiang and Huangpu
Note- The Torres, Bosporus, Gibraltar, Bering and Bab-Al- River
Mandeb straits divide the continents. 37. Caracas (Venezuela) Rio Guaire
Note- Rail tunnels connecting the land areas have been built
38. Dresden (Germany) Elbe
through the Dover and Tsugaru Straits.
Note- The Gibraltar Strait is called the Key to the Mediterranean 39. Lahore (Pakistan) Ravi
Sea. 40. Karachi (Pakistan) Indus
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41. Volgograd / Stalingrad Volga (Russia) 20. Malawi Lake 29604 Tanzania, Mozambique and
42. Rangoon (Myanmar) Irrawaddy Malawi
43. Chittagong (Bangladesh) Karnaphuli 21. Lake Titicaca 8300 Bolivia & Peru
44. Basra (Iraq) Shatt-al-Arab 22. Nicaragua Lake 8150 Nicaragua
23. Chad Lake 1600 Niger, Nigeria Cameroon
Note : The Hoover Dam is located on the bank of the
and Chad
Colorado river.
24. Eyre Lake 9690 Australia
Note : Delta of Hwang-ho River is an example of the
abandoned delta. Note : The Aswan Dam and Nassir Lake are built on the
Note : The Missouri Mississippi river forms the birdsfoot Nile River.
delta. Note : The deepest lake in the world is Lake Baikal (1620
Note : Kariba Dam and Victoria Falls are situated on the m) of Russia.
Zambezi River. Note : Tanganyika Lake (of Africa) (1470 m) is the second
Note : The river that passes through the Equator twice is deepest lake in the world.
Congo (Zaire). Note : Tanganyika (660 km) is the world's longest
Note : Limpopo River (South Africa) crosses the Tropic freshwater lake.
of Capricorn twice. Note : The Caspian Sea is the largest lake (saltwater) in
Note : The Mahi river (India) crosses the Tropic of Cancer the world.
twice. Note : Lake Superior is the largest freshwater lake in the
Note : The Amur River forms the boundary between world in surface area and the third largest by volume.
Russia and China. Note : Lake Victoria constitutes the international
boundary between Uganda and Tanzania.
Major Lakes of the World and their
Respective Countries Major Waterfalls of the World and their
Name Area (in Related Country Respective Countries
sq km) Height
Waterfall Country
1. Caspian Sea 374000 Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, (metre)
Russia, Iran & Azerbaijan 1. Salto Angel 979 Venezuela
2. Superior Lake 82100 Canada & USA 2. Kukenan 674 Venezuela
3. Huron Lake 59600 Canada & USA 3. Mardalsfossen 645 Norway
4. Erie 25655 Canada & USA
4. Yosemite 739 California, USA
5. Ontario Lake 19009 Canada & USA
5. Della 440 British Columbia (Canada)
6. Michigan Lake 57750 USA
6. Gavarnie 422 France
7. Great Slave Lake 28568 Canada
On Zambia and Zimbabwe
8. Lake Winnipeg 24387 Canada 7. Victoria 105
Border
9. Lake Athabasca 7935 Canada
8. Sutherland 580 New Zealand
10. Reindeer Lake 6650 Canada
9. Ribbon 491 California, USA
11. Lake Baikal 31500 Russia
10. Jog (Garsoppa) 253 India
12. Ladoga Lake 18130 Russia
On the order of USA and
13. Onega Lake 9720 Russia 11. Niagara 55-57
Canada
14. Lake Balkhas 22000 Kazakhstan
12. Tagela 948 South Africa
15. Issyk Kul Lake 6236 Kyrgyzstan
13. Reichenbach Fall — Switzerland
16. Rudolf / 6500 Kenya, Ethiopia Turkana
Lake 14. Wollomombi — Australia
17. Lake Victoria 62940 Kenya Uganda and Tanzania Note : The Niagara fall is located on the St. Lawrence
18. Aral Sea 17158 Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan River.
19. Lake 32000 Burundi, Zambia, Congo Note : 'Jog fall' (Mahatma Gandhi fall) is located on the
Tanganyika and Tanzania Sharavati River.
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The state with the longest coastline in India is Gujarat

B Geography of India (1214.70 km), while the Union Territory with the longest
coastline is the Andaman Nicobar Islands (1962 km). The
1. General Introduction coastline of Goa (among States) is the shortest in length
The mainland of India extends from 8° 4' North latitude (101 km).
to 37° 6' North latitude and from 68 ° 7' East longitude to Nine States of India viz. Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa,
97° 25' East longitude in the northeastern hemisphere. Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
The total geographical area of India is spread over Odisha and West Bengal have coastal borders.
32,87,263 square kilometres. (UPPCS, 2006) Due to the vast longitudinal distance, there is a difference
According to the 2011 census, there were 6, 40, 932 villages of 2 hours in local time between the farthest points in the
in India. (BPSC, 1994) east and west regions of India.
The territory of India is spread over 2.4% of the landmass The Standard Meridian of India or Indian Standard Time
and is home to 17.5% of the world’s population. (IST) is calculated on the basis of 82° 30' east longitude.
(UPPCS, 2006, 2022) The 82°30' east-longitude passes through Prayagraj,
It is the seventh-largest country by area and second- Mirzapur, etc.
largest country by population. (Jharkhand PCS, 2016) The standard meridian of Indian Standard Time passes
India lies across both tropical and subtropical regions. through Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
The whole territory of India lies in areas with a monsoon Odisha, Andhra Pradesh.
climate. (MPPCS, 2010) The standard time of India is five and a half hours ahead
The Tropic of Cancer passes through India. of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
It passes through 8 states- Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, 2. Neighbouring Countries of India
Tripura and Mizoram. (IAS, 2010; RAS, 2010;
India's neighbour's are Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal,
UPPCS, 1990, 2017; MPPCS, 2014; UK PSC, 2010; Jharkhand
Bhutan, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Maldives and Sri Lanka.
PCS, 2011; UPRO, 2016; UP GIC, 2010; UPPCS, 1999)
The number of neighbouring countries sharing borders with
The Easternmost state in India is Arunachal Pradesh, the
India is seven.
westernmost state is Gujarat, the northernmost state is
A total of 16 States and two Union Territories of India share
Himachal Pradesh and the southernmost is Tamil Nadu
their territorial boundaries with neighbouring countries.
since 31st of October, 2019.
The boundaries of India are both natural and artificial.
Ladakh is in the northernmost part and the Andaman
In artificial boundaries, some limitations have been
and Nicobar Islands southernmost part among the Union
Territories of the country. imposed.
The southernmost point of India is Indira Point (Great The imposed border is the boundary that is determined by third
Nicobar Island), and the southernmost point on the power interest and thrust upon neighbours sharing a border.
mainland is Kanya Kumari, Tamil Nadu. India shares its land borders with Pakistan and Afghanistan
(UP Lower Sub, 2002; UK PCS, 2003; UPPCS, 1990) in the northwest.
The former name of Indira Point was Pygmalion Point. India’s territorial border meets China and Nepal in
The northernmost point of India is Indira Col (Ladakh) the north, Afghanistan and Pakistan in the west,
near Siachen Glacier. Bangladesh and Myanmar in the east and Bhutan in
The far eastern point of India is called Kibithu and it is the northeast.
located in Arunachal Pradesh. India shares its longest international territorial border with
The far western point of India is known as Guhar Moti Bangladesh. Its length is 4096.7 km, while the shortest
(Gujarat). (MPPCS, 2008) international territorial border (106.0 km) shares with
The Indian territory measures 2933 km from East to West Afghanistan.
and 3214 km from North to South. The States/Union Territories that share its borders with
The length of India’s terrestrial range is 15106.7 km, and Pakistan are Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Jammu and
the length of the mainland coastline is 5422.6 km. Kashmir and Ladakh. (Since 31st of October, 2019)
(UP RO/ARO, 2016) The states that share their borders with Bhutan are West
The total coastline length of the country, including the Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Assam.
islands, is 7516.6 km. (MPPCS, 2012)
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Ladakh, the Union Territory shares its border with Because the Indian Plate is moving northward as well as
Afghanistan. anticlockwise hence around 64 million years ago the present
The border sharing states with China are Himachal when the Oceanic part of Indian plate converged with the
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. continental plate of the Eurasian Plate. It led to the oceanic
Ladakh, the Union Territory shares its border with China. continental convergence Forming the Trans Himalayas on
(Since 31st October 2019). the Eurasian continental Boundaries.
The states that share their borders with Bangladesh Around 55 million years ago the present as this convergence
are- Mizoram, Tripura, Assam, Meghalaya and West turned into continental - continental convergence. It led to
the rise of greater himalayas just south of Trans Himalayas
Bengal. (IAS, 2006; UPSC, 2003)
which continued till 24 million years before present.
Tripura is surrounded by Bangladesh on three sides.
Himalayan region still rising as Young fold Mountains.
The states that share their borders with Myanmar are
The oldest formation is - Trans Himalaya > Greater
Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram.
Himalaya > Middle Himalaya > Outer Himalaya.
(IAS, 2006)
(i) The North South division of the Himalayas
Arunachal Pradesh is the longest border-sharing state The Himalayan ranges can be divided into four parallel
with Myanmar. mountain regions –
The states that share their borders with Nepal are (i) Trans Himalaya (Territory of Tibet)
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and (ii) Great or Inner Himalayas
Sikkim. (iii) Lesser Himalayas or Middle Himalayas
Sri Lanka is the closest country to India across the sea, (iv) Outer / Sub Himalayas (Shivalik) (UK PCS, 2016)
which is separated from the Indian mainland, Tamil Nadu (I) Trans-Himalaya :
by the Palk Strait. All categories of the Himalayas have risen at different
Sikkim shares its border with three countries Nepal, periods of the Tertiary Period.
Bhutan and China. The Karakoram, Ladakh and Zaskar Ranges of the
Pakistan is separated from India by the Radcliffe Line. mountain fall under the Trans-Himalayan Region.
China is separated from India by the Mac Mahon line. (SSC MTS, 2021)
Afghanistan is separated from Pakistan by the Durand The highest peak of Karakoram is called K2 or Godwin
Line. Austin (8611 m) which is the highest peak in India.
The Karakoram Range is also called the backbone of
3. The Physical Characteristics of India Upper Asia. (CGPSC, 2022, 2019, 2016)
According to its physical characteristics, India is divided The Indo-Tsangpo Shuture-Zone separates the Trans-
mainly into four parts. Himalayas from the Greater Himalayas.
(A) Northern Mountain Regions (II) Great Himalaya :
(B) Peninsular Plateaus The Great Himalaya or Himadri is the highest range of
(C) The Great Plains the Himalayas.
(D) Island Regions and Coastal Plains (RAS, 1996) The Great or Inner Himalayas or Himadri is the
In India, high mountain ranges account for 10.6%, hills northernmost range and is also known as ‘Himadri’.
18.5%, plateaus 27.7% and plains 43.2% of its total land Mount Everest (8848 m) is officially the world’s highest
area. (UPPCS, 2006)
peak. (Bihar PCS, 2001; JKPSC, 2011)

A. Northern Mountain Region : China and Nepal jointly announced the new height of Mt.
Everest which is 8,848.86 meters in the Himalayan range,
The formation of the Himalayan mountains is believed to
located in Nepal.
be due to the rise of debris of the Tethys Sea, while the
The Mount Everest is called the Sagarmatha in Nepal.
geologists believe that the Himalayas were formed by plate
Kanchenjunga (8598 m), Nanga Parbat, Nanda Devi,
tectonics.
Kamet and Namcha Barwa are important peaks of the
The Himalayan mountain range and Tibetan plateau formed Greater Himalayas.
as a result of the collision between the Indian Plate and The Main Central Thrust separates the Great Himalayas
Eurasian Plate which began 50 million years ago and from the Middle Himalayas.
continues to this day. (III) Middle (Lesser) Himalaya :
The Himalayas protect us from the cold blizzard winds The Middle Himalaya is a Lesser Himachal Range,
that are generated by the continental winter high pressure consisting of Pirpanjal, Mahabharata, Mussoorie,
system of north-eastern and central Asia. Dhauladhar and Nag Tibba Ranges.
173
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Pirpanjal (Kashmir) is the longest chain of the Middle Differences Between Eastern and western Himalayas
Himalayas.
Atal Tunnel (also known as Rohtang Tunnel) is a highway
Western Himalayas Eastern Himalayas
tunnel built under the Rohtang Pass in the eastern Pir Panjal 1. From Indus river to Kali 1. From Kali river to
range of the Himalayas. (UPPCS, 2007, UP RO/ARO, 2016) river Brahmaputra river
The valleys of Lahaul Spiti, Kashmir Valley, Kullu and 2. Lower and Gradual slope 2. Higher and steep sudden
Kangra, join the great and Middle Himalayas. hence the higher peaks in slope that is why two
There is alpine pasture located at the central Himalayas this part are farther from of highest peaks of
called Marg (Gulmarg, Sonmarg) in Kashmir valley and plains and number of Himalayas mt. Everest (in
Bugyals or Pyar in Uttarakhand.
ranges line between the Nepal) and Kanchenjunga
Mussoorie, Shimla, Kullu, Manali and Darjeeling, are
plains and high peak. are nor very far from the
in the central Himalayas.
plains.
The Main Boundary Fault separates the miniature
Himalayas from the Shivalik. 3. Located on higher 3. Located on lower
(IV) Outer Himalayas : latitude, therefore colder. lattitude, therefore
Outer Himalayas are also called Shivalik or Lower As a result, the snow line warmer. Therefore snow
Himalayas. in the western himalayas line is at higher altitude.
It is the latest part of the Himalayas. is at lower altitude than in
There are many valleys between the lesser Himalayas and Eastern Himalaya.
the Shivalik. 4. Peaks : Nanga Parvat, 4. Peaks : mt. Everest
The valleys are called Doon in the west and Duar or Dooars
Nanda devi Badrinath. Makalu, Annapurna,
in the east, Like Dehradun, Haridwar. (43th BPSC, 1999)
Dhaulagiri.
The lower part of the Shivalik is called the Terai. The Terai
is a swampy and forest area. Fault lines in Himalayas :
Himalayan Frontal Fault : It is major thrust Fault at the front
Regional Division of the Himalayas of Himalayas, Separating the Indian Subcontinent from the
Territorial Part Extension Between Length Eurasian Plate.
Punjab Himalaya Indus and Sutlej Rivers 560 km Main Boundary thrust : It is significant fault in the
Kumaon Himalaya Sutlej and Kali Rivers 320 km Himalayas, marking the Boudary between the lesser
Nepal Himalaya Kali and Teesta Rivers 800 km Himalayas and sub Himalayas.
Main Central Thrust : This Fault separates the Lesser
Assam Himalaya Teesta and Brahmaputra 720 km
Himalayas from the Greater Himalayas and is responsible
Rivers (UPPCS, 2009)
for upliftment of the Greater Himalayas.
Note : The Punjab State is divided into three regions : B. Peninsular Plateaus :
Majha, Doaba and Malwa. This is the oldest and first region to be formed. It was formed
in the Pre-cambrian period.
(ii) The West-East division of Himalayas
The peninsular plateau has been formed by old crystalline,
Himalayas pancreatic and metamorphic rocks.
Western Himalayas (from Indus to Kali river) The peninsular plateau is mainly composed of two parts -
the Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau.
Punjab Himalayas Kumaon Himalayas Different types of rock regions in the Peninsula.
(Between Indus and Satluj) (Between Satluj and Kali) (i) Archean region
It is the oldest rock region.
Eastern Himalayas (From Kali to Brahmaputra
No Biotic sources such as carbon rich and calcium
river)
rich minerals.
Nepal Himalayas Sikkim Himalayas Regions - Bengal Bundelkhand and Nilgiri.
(Between Kali (Between Kosi and Metallic minerals and Uranium mines.
and Kosi) Teesta) (ii) Dharwar Region
Also developed Biotic minerals. Regions- Bellari,
Assam Himalayas (UK PSC, 2015, 2013)
Aravali, Balaghat, Rewa and Chhota Nagpur metallic
(Btween Teesta and Brahmaputra)
and Uranium.
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(iii) Cudappa region. Dhupgarh is the highest peak (1350 m) of Satpura which
Regions - Krishna Valley, Nallamalla hills, Jodhpur is situated on the Mahadev Hills.
region (west of Aravalis). The Tapti River originates from the southern part of
Metallic Minerals and limestones, Sand stones, Shale Satpura.
etc. The Western Ghats extend approximately 1500 km from
(iv) Vindhya Rock regions Gujrat to Tamil Nadu parallel to the Arab sea coast. The
Along Vindhyan Mountains. Limestone, slate and length of the river is found from the mouth of the Tapti
precious stones. river in the north to Kanyakumari in the south.
Regions - Extends from Chittorgarh in Rajasthan to The origin of the river Narmada is in the northern part of
Sasaram in Bihar. Satpura.
(v) Gondvana Rocks (Upper and Middle Carboniferous) The Western Ghats are also called Sahyadri.
Regions - 4 river valleys : starting from Damodar, Due to altitude, the temperatures in the hills of Western
Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna. Ghats remain below 25°C.
The Aravalli Hills extend up to Gujarat, Rajasthan, The 16° North latitude line (based on structural features)
Haryana and Delhi. (UK RO/ARO, 2014)
divides the Sahyadri into two parts, the Northern Sahyadri
It was built during the Precambrian Period. and the Southern Sahyadri.
Aravalli is one of the oldest mountain range in the world. The highest peaks of Northern Sahyadri and Southern
(MPPCS, 1993; RAS/RTS, 2003; UPPCS, 2017)
Sahyadri are Kalsubai (1646 m) and Kudremukh (1892 m)
The highest peak of the Aravalli hill is Guru Shikhar
respectively.
(1722 m), located on Mount Abu in Aravalli.
The Deccan Plateau is located across Madhya Pradesh
The Banas River originates from the Khamnor Hills, the
and Maharashtra.
eastern part of Aravalli.
The Deccan Plateau is formed by volcanic basalt rocks.
The Luni river originates from the western slopes of
The eastern part of the Deccan plateau is called Vidarbha.
Aravalli.
Black soil is found in the Deccan plateau.
The Luni River disappears in the Rann of Kutch.
The Cave of Ajanta is located in Aurangabad district in
The plateau of Malwa is located in the State of Madhya
Maharashtra.
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
Balaghat, Harishchandra and Satmala ranges are located
The Chambal and Betwa Rivers originate from the Malwa
in Maharashtra.
Plateau.
Dharwad plateau is located in Karnataka.
Vindhya Mountain range separates North India from South
The hills of Baba Budan and the Brahmagiri are in the
India.
The Maikal Plateau is located in Chhattisgarh. western part of the Dharwad Plateau.
The Son river originates near Amarkantak region at The Nilgiri hills are spread across Tamil Nadu, Kerala
Sonbachawar Gaurela-Pendra-Marwahi district of and Karnataka.
Chattisgarh. The highest peak of Nilgiri is Doddabetta (2637 m).
The Narmada River originates from the western part of Doddabetta is the second highest peak in South India.
the Maikal Plateau. The Anaimalai range is located on the border of Kerala
The Chota Nagpur plateau is known as the 'Ruhr of India' and Tamil Nadu.
for its abundant mineral resources. Anamudi (2,695 m) is the highest peak of South India on
Parasnath Hills are a range of hills located in Giridih district the Anaimalai Hills.
of Jharkhand. In Meghalaya, the Khasi, Garo, and Jaintia hills are located.
The highest peak is 1350 metres. It is one of the most The Mizo Hills, located in the southeastern Mizoram state,
important pilgrimage centre for Jains. were formerly called Lushai Hills.
The Chota Nagpur Plateau is the most important region of The Kangchenjunga Himal is located in eastern Nepal
India in terms of mineral deposits. and Sikkim, India. Kangchenjunga is the highest peak in
Japfu Peak is the second highest peak in Nagaland and India, and the easternmost of the peaks higher than 8,000m
stands 3048 metres above sea level. It is about 15 kms south (26,247 ft).
of Kohima. The Anaimalai or Anamala Hills, also known as the
The Satpura Range is a range of hills in Madhya Pradesh Elephant mountains, are the range of mountains that form
and Maharashtra and Gujrat, Chhattisgarh. the southern portion of the Western Ghats.
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It spans the border of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in southern (iv) The Terai :
India. Anai Peak (8,842 feet [2,695 metres]) lies at the Humidity is very high in the terai region because Terai
extreme southwestern end of the range and is the highest plains are marshy.
peak in southern India. The underground rivers of the Bhabar belt re-emerge in
Shevaroy Hills are located in Tamil Nadu. this belt.
Dhinodhar Hills are located near Nani Aral village, in The Terai region consists of dense forests.
Gujarat. There are biodiversity reserves in the terai region.
The name Kuduremukha literally means “horse-faced” in D. Island Region :
Kannada and refers to a particular picturesque view of a Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep are the two
side of the mountain that resembles a horse’s face. islands of India.
Mahadeo Hills are sandstone hills, located in the northern In the Andaman and Nicobar archipelago, there are 572
part of the Satpura Range, in southern Madhya Pradesh islands out of which 550 islands are in Andaman island
state, central India. group and 22 islands are in the Nicobar archipelago.
Western Ghats are locally known by different names such Saddle Peak is the highest peak (732 m) of the Andaman
as Sahyadri in Maharashtra, Nilgiri hills in Karnataka and and Nicobar archipelago.
Tamil Nadu, Anaimalai hills and Cardamom hills in Kerala. The largest port of the Andaman archipelago is Port Blair
Kamet is the second-highest mountain in the Garhwal (South Andaman).
The Lakshadweep, archipelago is located in the Arabian
region of Uttarakhand, after Nanda Devi.
Sea.
If one goes from Rajasthan in the west to Orissa in the
The Lakshadweep is a group of 36 Islands.
east, the correct order of Peninsulas one will come across
Only 11 islands of Lakshadweep are inhabited.
is- Marwar Plateau, Malwa Plateau, Chhattisgarh Plateau
The largest island of Lakshadweep is Andrott / Androth
and Chhota Nagpur Plateau.
Island.
Mahendragiri is the highest peak in the Eastern Ghats of
Pamban Island is located in the Gulf of Mannar.
India.
There are two famous volcanic islands in India called
C. The Great Plains of North India :
Narcondam and Barren.
The Great Plain of North India is also known as the Indus-
Narcondam Island is a dormant volcano.
Ganges and Brahmaputra Plains.
Barren Island is an active volcano.
The vast plains of north India are divided into four parts
The 8-degree channel separates Maldives and Minicoy.
based on the typical terrestrial regions - the Bhabar, the
The 9-degree channel is located between Lakshadweep
Bhangar, the Khadar and the Terai. and Minicoy.
(i) The Bhabar : The 10-degree channel separates the Little Andaman from
The Bhabar region extends from the river Indus (west) to the Car Nicobar.
the river Teesta (east) at the foothills of the Shivalik. E. Sea Coastal Plains :
Pebbles, stones are abundant in the Bhabar region. In the east and west of peninsular platen, two narrow
Porosity is a unique feature of the Bhabar. coastal plains are found which are called Eastern coastal
Due to porosity, the streams disappear once they reach the and western coastal plains respectively.
Bhabar region. These coastal plains are originated in Eocene period due to
(ii) The Bhangar : submergence of terrestrial Blocks of Arabian sea and Bay
The Bhangar is the higher region of the plains where of Bengal regions.
floodwaters do not reach usually. The western coastal plain is narrower than Eastern coastal
The Bhangar plain consists of old alluvial soil which is plains.
rich in pebbles and sand. These coastal plains have been formed by erosion and direct
The Bhangar is called Bhur in the local language. deposition by ocean waves and by deposition of sediments
(iii)The Khadar : Brought by plateau rivers.
The Khadar region is formed by new alluvial soil brought The Eastern and Western Coastal Plains are separated by
by flooding of rivers in the Khadar region every year. Nagercoli and Kanyakumari ridges, of Tamilnadu.
The Khadar region is also known as an alluvial region or (1) Eastern Coastal Plains
flood plain. This plain is situated Between Eastern Ghat and Bau of
The Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers form the Khadar Bengal. It extends from the mouth of Ganges in the north
region (delta). (MPPCS, 2014) to Kanyakumari in south.
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It is mainly made up of recent and tertiary alluvium. 4. Drainage System

Eastern Coastal Plains are wider than the western coastal
plains. The main reason in for this is the formation of delta The flow of water through well-defined channels is known
By rivers like krishna, Godavari and Kaveri. as 'drainage' and such channels network is called a
'A part from the mouth of the Ganges and Gulf of mannar, 'drainage system'.
the submerged coast of Bay of Bengal is narrower than that A river drains the water collected from a specific area,
of Arabian Sea'. which is called its 'catchment area'.
Their width is more than that of Maharashtra and Gujrat An area drained by a river and its tributaries is called a
Coasts. drainage basin.
Coastal Plain is divided into three minor geological units. The boundary line separating one drainage basin from the
1. Plains of Utkal (Odisha) other is known as the watershed.
2. Plains of Kakinada (Andhra) The catchments of large rivers are called river basins while
3. Plains of Coromandel (Tamilnadu) those of small rivulets and rills are often referred to as
The eastern coast of India, the coastal region from Kanya watersheds. There is, however, a slight difference between
Kumari to the Krishna Delta is known as the Coromandel a river basin and a watershed. Watersheds are small in area
Coast. while the basins cover larger areas.
The Krishna Delta to the North Coast is called the Northern The drainage pattern of an area is the outcome of the
Circars. geological time period, nature and structure of rocks,
Paradeep (Odisha), Haldia (West Bengal), Visakhapatnam topography, slope, amount of water flowing and the
(Andhra Pradesh), Chennai, V.O. Chidambaranar periodicity of the flow.
(Tuticorin) and Kamarajar (Ennore) (Tamil Nadu) are the Drainage Pattern : A geometric arrangement of streams
major ports on the eastern coast of India. in a region; determined by slope, differing rock resistance
Gopalpur port is a deep sea port of Gopalpur near Brahmpur to weathering erosion, climate, hydrological variability
city in Ganjam district Odisha, India. and structural controls of the landscape known as drainage
Pulicat (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu), Chilika (Odisha)
pattern.
and Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh) are the main lagoons on the
The following are the major drainage pattern –
eastern coast of India.
Dendritic Radial
(2) Western coastal Plains :
Centripetal Trellis
Deendayal (Kandla, Gujarat), Mumbai (Maharashtra), New
A drainage pattern which looks like tree branches with
Mangaluru (Goa), New Mangaluru (Karnataka), Cochin
lots of twigs is known as Dendritic drainage pattern. For
(Kerala) and Nhava Sheva (Maharashtra) are the major
example, the rivers of the northern plain.
ports on the western coast of India.
Radial drainage patterns form when rivers originate from
On the western coast of India, the coastal region from
a hill and flow in all directions. For example, the rivers
Gujarat to Goa is known as the Konkan, the coastal area
from Goa to Mangaluru in Karnataka is known as Canara originating from the Amarkantak.
(Kanara) and the coastal region from Mangaluru to Kanya The Centripetal drainage pattern is formed when rivers
Kumari is known as Malabar Coast. discharge their waters from all directions into a lake or a
The lagoons found on the Malabar Coast are called depression. For example, Loktak lake in manipur.
"Kayals" in local language. Trellis drainage pattern is formed when the primary
tributaries of main rivers flow parallel to each other and
Exam Oriented Fact secondary tributaries join them at right angles. For example,
The Himalayas shield the subcontinent from the rivers in the upper part of the Himalayan region.
northern winds by acting as a wall of mountains. Thus, Evolution of Himalayan Drainage System :
the tropical climate of Northern India is made possible There was a mighty river called Shiwalik or Indo
by these mountains. The Himalayas thus serve as a Brahma that traversed the entire longitudinal extent of the
effective climatic divide. Himalayas from Assam to Punjan and onwards to Sind, and
The Northern Plains are densely populated because the finally discharged into the Gulf of Sind near lower Punjab
plains are formed by deposits of alluvial soils. during the Miocene period some million years ago.
Rohtang pass connects the link between Kullu valley The remarkable continuity of the Shiwalik and its lacustrine
with the Lahaul and Spiti valleys of Himachal Pradesh. origin and alluvial deposits consisting of sands, silt, clay,
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boulders and conglomerates support this viewpoint. Catchment area Very large basin. Relatively smaller
Himalayan rivers later got dismembered into three major basin.
systems.
Age of the river Young and youthful, Old rivers with
This dismembered was probably due to the Pleistocene
active and deepening in graded profile, and
upheaval in the western Himalayas, including the uplift of
the valleys have almost reached
the Potwar Plateau (Delhi Ridge), which acted as the water their base levels.
divide between the Indus and Ganga drainage systems.
Likewise, the down-thrusting of the Malda gap (Garo- Based on drainage and aquatic characteristics, the rivers
Rajmahal Gap) area between the Rajmahal hills and the of India are divided into two categories - (A) Himalayan
Rivers and (B) Peninsular Rivers.
Meghalaya plateau during the mid-Pleistocene period,
(A) The Himalayan Rivers :
diverted the Ganga and the Brahmaputra systems to flow
The Ganges, the Indus and the Brahmaputra are the
towards the Bay of Bengal.
Himalayan Rivers. [UDA (Pre), 2013]
Evolution of Peninsular Drainage
The source of the Indus river is the Bokhar-Chu Glacier.
Geologists believe that the Sahyadri-Aravali axis was the
It is located near Mansarovar lake, situated in the Great
main water divide in the past.
Himalayas.
According to one hypothesis, the existing peninsula is the
The Indus river enters Indian territory through union
remaining half of a bigger landmass.
territory Ladakh.
The Western Ghats were located in the middle of this
The tributaries of the Indus river are the Jhelum, the Chenab,
landmass.
the Ravi, the Beas and the Sutlej.
So one drainage was towards east flowing into Bay of
The largest tributary of the Indus river is the Chenab.
Bengal and the other towards west draining into Arabian
Indus Water Agreement was signed in 1960 to share Indus
Sea.
river water between India and Pakistan.
The western part of the Peninsula cracked and submerged
Based on the 1960 Indus Water Treaty, India can use only
in the Arabian Sear during the early Tertiary period 20% of the entire water of the Indus river.
(coinciding with the formation of Himalayas). The Chenab is called Chandrabhaga in Himachal Pradesh.
During the collision of the Indian plate, the Peninsular The Sutlej originates from the Rakshastal near the
block was subjected to subsidence in few regions creating Mansarovar Lake, south of Mount Kailash in Tibet.
a series of rifts (trough, faults). Bhakra Nangal Dam is built on the Sutlej River.
The following table illustrates the significant differences The Ganges originates from the Gangotri glacier near
between the Himalayan and the Peninsular Rivers Gomukh in Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand.
system. The Ganges at the point of origin is called the Bhagirathi.
Characteristics Himalayan River Peninsular River (UK PCS, 2006)
Mandakini river meets Alaknanda at Rudraprayag.
Place of origin Himalayan mountains Peninsular plateau
Alaknanda meets Bhagirathi at Devprayag.
(covered with glaciers). and central highland.
The Ganges gets its name after Devprayag.
Nature of flow Perennial; receive Seasonal; dependent The Ganges enters the plains near Haridwar.
water from glaciers and on monsoon rainfall. Ganga is called the Padma in Bangladesh. (UK PCS, 2005)
rainfall.
Before falling into the Bay of Bengal, Ganga forms a delta
Type of drainage Antecedent and Superimposed called Sunderban. (UPPCS, 2016, 2010)
consequent leading rejuvenated resulting
to dendritic pattern in in trellis, radial, and Place of
Rivers
plains. rectangular patterns. Confluence
Vishnu Prayag Dhauli Ganga meets Alaknanda
Nature of river Long course, flowing Smaller, fixed course
through the rugged with well adjusted Nand Prayag mandakini meets Alaknanda
mountains experiencing valleys. Karn Prayag Pindar meets Alaknanda
headward erosion and
river capturing; In Rudra Prayag Kali ganga or Mandakini meets Alaknanda
plains, meandering and
Dev Prayag Bhagirathi meets Alaknanda and Forms
shifting off course.
Ganga
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The Brahmaputra river is known as the Yarlung Tsangpo The famous Chulia Fall is located on this river. It forms
in China (Tibet). (MPPCS, 2014) the deep ravine (Chambal Ravine).
This river originates at the Angsi glacier in western Tibet. Gandhi Sagar (Madhya Pradesh), Rana Pratap Sagar
The Brahmaputra river is called Tsangpo in China (Tibet) and Jawahar Sagar (Rajasthan) are dams Located on the
and Jamuna in Bangladesh. (UDA, 2013) Chambal River.
The Tributries of Brahmaputra river are, Dibang, Lohit Mahakaleshwar Temple in Ujjain is located on the banks
Subansiri, Kameng, Manas, Sankosh and Teesta etc. of the Shipra river. Kumbha Mela is organized here at the
The Lohit river originates from Zayul Chu mountain glacier interval of 12 years.
of eastern Tibbet. It flows in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. Kumbh Mela is also organized at Prayagraj, at the
Dibang originates from mishmi hills of Tibbet. confluence of Ganges and Yamuna and the invisible
Subansiri is the largest Tributry of Brahmaputra. Saraswati.
Dhansiri originates from Laisang mountain peak of The basin consisting of Brahmani river (Flowing in the east)
Nagaland. extends over states of Odisha, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh
Turning south near Namcha Barwa, the Brahmaputra enters having an area of 39053 Sq.km.
Arunachal Pradesh with its changed name Dihang. The Periyar 244 km. in length is the longest river of Kerala
Majuli Island, the largest river island, is located on the and drains an area of 5,398 sq km.
Brahmaputra river in Assam. (UDA, 2016)
Narmada, Tapi, Mahanadi, Krishna, Kaveri and Godavari
The Kosi River is called the ''Sorrow of Bihar''. are the major basins of peninsular India.
The Ghaggar River of Haryana is an example of inland Eskers are ridges made of sands and gravels, deposited
drainage. by glacial meltwater flowing through tunnels within and
(B) Peninsular Rivers :
underneath glaciers, or through meltwater channels on top
The gradient slope of the peninsular rivers is shallow.
of glaciers. (UKPSC,2012, MPPCS 2003, RO/ARO 2017)
The Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri
Shimsha River originates in the southern part of the
rivers flow eastward. (UPPCS, 2020)
Devarayanadurga hill in the Tumkur District of Karnataka
The Narmada and the Tapti (Tapi) rivers flow westward.
and flows for about 221 km (137 mi) before joining the
Both rivers form estuaries. (MPPCS, 2014, 2016)
River Cauvery at Karnataka State.
The Narmada and the Tapi are the major rivers in India that
Subansiri River, a major tributary of the Brahmaputra River
flow through rift valleys. (IAS, 2013)
in the northeastern part of India, has been analyzed in detail
The River Tapti flows from the East to the West and is
for various studies. (SSC MTS, 2009, 2012)
second largest inter-state rivers, spread across the areas of
The Ghaghara originates in the glaciers of Mapchachungo.
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. (MPPCS, 2014)
After collecting the waters of its tributaries – Tila, Seti and
The Narmada originates at the Amarkantak peak of Maikal
Beri, it comes out of the mountain, cutting a deep gorge at
Mountain. (UPPCS, 2012, 2005)
Shishapani.
It is the largest river in peninsular India and falls into the
Arabian Sea. (BPSC, 2000; UPPCS, 2010)
The Gautami, a tributary of River Godavari, passes along
Jabalpur city of Madhya Pradesh is situated on the banks Yanam enclave of Union territory of Puducherry and
of the Narmada River. empties itself into sea at Point Godavery.
Dhuandhar and Bhedaghat falls are located on the Manjira, Purna, Pravara, Penganga, Wardha, Pranhita etc
Narmada River in Jabalpur district. are tributaries of Godavari.
The Godavari river originates from (Trimbakeshwar) Nasik River Ravi one of the five rivers of Indus system is 720 km
district in Maharashtra. long, out of which 320 km is in India, of which 158 km lies
The Godavari is the largest river in peninsular India. within Himachal Pradesh and 162 km within Punjab. It is
The Godavari is called the Vridha Ganges (Dakshin a perennial river that flows in a north-westerly direction.
Ganga, Source-NCERT). The Ravi River forms the biggest sub-micro region of
There is a dispute among Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala Chamba district. It flows along the Indo–Pak border for 80
and Puducherry over the sharing of Kaveri river water. km before entering Pakistan and joining the Chenab River.
The Chambal River originates near Mhow in Madhya On the right bank 4 tributaries namely, the Vaki, the Gomai,
Pradesh. the Arunavati and the Aner join the Tapi. (CAPF, 2015, 2017)
Chambal is the only river in Rajasthan that flows throughout On the left bank, 10 important tributaries namely the Nesu,
the year. the Arunavati, the Buray, the Panjhra, the Bori, the Girna,
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the Vaghur, the Purna, the Mona and the Sipna drain into Nagarjuna Sagar dam is located, on the Krishna River in
the main channel. Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and Nizam Sagar Dam on
Bharathapuzha, Pamba and Periyar flow in kerala . the Manjira river in Telangana.
The Pennar river originates from Kolar in Karnataka and The peninsular rivers from north to south are- Mahanadi,
joins the Bay of Bengal in Andhra Pradesh. Godavari, Krishna, Pennar, Kaveri and Vaigai in that order.
Jabalpur, formerly Jubbulpore, is a city situated on the banks In descending order, the lengthwise peninsular rivers are-
of Narmada River in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India. Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Mahanadi, Kaveri and Tapti
Chambal, Ken and Betwa are rivers of Malwa plateau. in that order.
Also termed as Escher, Eskers are sand and gravel ridges Rajasthan has the smallest river system.
formed by glacial meltwater flowing through tunnels The River Cauvery (Kaveri) originates at Talakaveri in
within and beneath glaciers or meltwater channels on top Coorg District of Karnataka in Brahmagiri Range of hills in
of glaciers. the Western ghats at an elevation of 1341 m. (above MSL).
The principal tributaries joining the Ganga river from right Some Important River and Their Tributaries
are the Yamuna and the Son.
A meander is when water flows in a curvy, bendy path, like Name of
Sources Important Tributries
a snake. As a river makes its way through a relatively flat river
area, it often develops bends as it erodes its way through Godavari Trimbak Plateu Manjira, Penganga, Wardha,
the path of least resistance. Near Nashik Wainganga, Indravati, Sabari,
The Tawa River is a tributary of the Narmada River of Pranhita
Central India. Krishna Mahabaleshwar Koyna, Ghat prabha, Mal-
Tons, Giri, Hindon Chambal, Banas, Kali Sindh, Parbati, in Maharashtra aprabha, bhima, Tungbhadara,
Sind, Betwa, Dashan and Ken are tributaries of Yamuna Musi, Muneru
river. Kaveri Tall Kaveri in Herangi, Hemavati, Lakpavani,
The Indus basin extends over China (Tibet), India, Western Ghats Shimsha, Arkavati, Laksh-
Afghanistan and Pakistan draining an area of 11,65,500 manatirtha, Kabani, Suvarnava-
Sq.km. In India, the basin spreads over states of Jammu ti, Bhavani, Amaravati
& Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Narmada Amarkantak Hiran, Orsang, Barna, Kolar
Haryana and Union Territory of Chandigarh having an Plateau Burhner, Banjar, Shar Shakhar,
Tawa, Kundi
area of 3,21,289 Sq.km which is nearly 9.8% of the total
(IAS, 2013; MPPCS, 2014)
geographical area.
The length of Indus River in India is 1114 km. Tapi Multai in Betul Purna, Girna, Panjhra, Ganjal
district of MP
Watershed is a land area that channels rainfall and snowmelt
to creeks, streams, and rivers, and eventually to outflow Subarnarekha Chhota Nagpur Kharkai, Kanchi, Dumra,
points such as reservoirs, bays, and the ocean. Plateu Harmu Nadi.
The Luni drains an area of 32879 sq.km. in Rajasthan state
Rivers in India
only. The catchment area of the basin upto Chittalwana is
Confluence/
32661 sq.km. Rivers Origin Length
Estuary
The Godavari is India’s second longest river after the Ganga
Indus From a glacier near 2880 km The Arabian
river and is called Lifelines of South India. Bokhar Chu near (1114 km Sea
Krishna river originates at a waterfall near Mahabaleshwar Kailash Mountain in in India) (UPPCS, 2014)
in the Western Ghats. Tibet
It falls into the Bay of Bengal through Maharashtra, Chenab Near Bada Lacha Pass 1180 km Sutlej River
Telangana, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Lahaul District (Him- (H.P. PCS, 2014)
achal Pradesh)
Koyna, Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, Bhima, Tungabhadra,
etc. are the tributaries of Krishna river. Ravi Near Rohtang Pass in 725 km Chenab River
Kangra District (Near Sarai
The Kaveri River is also known as the Ganges of South Sindhu)
India.
Jhelum From Verinag (Jammu 724 km Chenab River
The presence of the Sivasamudram Waterfall and the and Kashmir) (near Jhang in
presence of Srirangapatnam and Sivasamudram islands waterfall situated on Pakistan)
raise the importance of the Kaveri. Pirpanjal Mountain

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Beas At at altitude of 4000 470 km Sutlej River Mahanadi Near Sihawa in 851 km The Bay of
m from Beas Pond (Kapurthala) Dhamtari District of Bengal (near
near Rohtang Pass near Harike Chhattisgarh Cuttack)
Sutlej From the Rakshastal 1500 km Indus River Shipra Kakri Bardi Hills 210 km Chambal River
located near Kailash (1050 km (H.P. PSC, (Indore)
Mountain (Height in India) 2008, 10)
Sabarmati Aravalli Mountains 371 km The Bay of
4555m above sea-level) (Udaipur) Khambhat
Ganges Gomukh glacier near 2525km The Bay of Banas Khamnor Hills 512 km Chambal
Gangotri (at an altitude Bengal Aravalli Mountains (IAS, 1998;
of more than 3900 (SSC MTS, (Rajsamand District UPPSC, 2008)
meters above sea-level) 2008)
Rajasthan)
Ramganga From Dudha Toli 596 km River Ganges Krishna From the Western 1400 km The Bay of
Range located in (near Kannauj) Ghats near Mahaba- Bengal
Garhwal near Nainital leshwar (Maharashtra) (IAS, 1996;
UPPCS, 2011)
Sharda Milam Glacier of 596 km River
(Kali Kumaon Himalaya Ghaghara near Kaveri Brahmagiri Hills (in 800 km The Bay of
Sarayu) Ghaghara Bahram Ghat the Coorg District of Bengal
Karnataka)
Gandak Nepal 425 km River Ganges
(Sonpur near Godavari Trimbakeshwar of 1465 km The Bay of
Patna) Nasik (Maharashtra) Bengal

Kosi North of Gosainathan 730 km River Ganges Tunga- Tunga and nearby 531 km Krishna River
Peak (BPSC, 2001, 03) bhadra origin of Bhadra river
at Kadur, from
Yamuna Lies in the western 1376 km River Ganges
Gangamoola Peak of
side of Banderpooch (at Prayagraj)
Western Ghat Moun-
Yamunotri Glacier
tains in Karnataka
Chambal Near Mhow in 965 km Yamuna River Pennar From Chenna Kesava 597 km The Bay of
Malwa Plateau, (Etawah) Hills (Karnataka) of Bengal
Madhya Pradesh (600 Nandi Range
m above sea-level)
Periyar From the forest area of 244 km The Arabian
Betwa Vindhyachal Moun- 590 km River Yamuna Sivagiri Peak of Sund- Sea
tain in Raisen District (Hamirpur) aramala
of Madhya Pradesh
Hooghly It is a tributary of river 260 km The Bay of
Son Amarkantak Hills 881 km River Ganges Ganges which sepa- Bengal
(Patna) rates from Ganges and
Brahmaputra Angsi Glacier near 2900 km ( River Padma) flows south from
Lake Mansarovar in (916 km in The Bay of Dhulia (West Bengal)
Tibet India) Bengal
Narmada From Amarkantak 1312 km The Gulf of Major Cities and River Banks
Plateau located in Khambhat City River
Vindhyachal (IAS, 2013;
MPPCS, 2014) Delhi Yamuna
Mountain Ranges
Agra Yamuna
Tapti From Multai in 724 km The Gulf of
Betuldistrict (M.P.) Khambhat near Bareilly Ramganga
Surat Mathura Yamuna
Mahi Dhar district (Madhya 583 km The Gulf of Kanpur (44th BPSC, 2000) Ganges (BPSC, 2011)
Pradesh) in the Vind- Khambhat Prayagraj Ganges-Yamuna confluence
hya Mountain Region
Varanasi Ganges
Luni Ajmer (Rajasthan) 511 km Rann of Kutch
Western Aravalli
Kannauj Ganges
Mountains Lucknow Gomti (UPGIC, 2010)

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Ayodhya Sarayu Surnames of Important Cities in India

Jaunpur Gomti Surname Place
Badrinath Alaknanda 1. Abode of God Prayagraj
Firozpur Sutlej 2. City of Golden Temple Amritsar
Kolkata Hooghly 3. City of Temples and Ghats Varanasi
Dibrugarh Brahmaputra 4. Queen of Arabian Sea Kochi
Kota (UP RO/ARO, 2016; Chambal 5. Venice of East Kochi
UPPCS, 2009)
6. City of Festivals Madurai
Ujjain Shipra [IAS (Pre), 2007] 7. Gem of Karnataka Mysore
Jabalpur Narmada 8. Pink City Jaipur
Guwahati Brahmaputra 9. Paris of East Jaipur
Pandharpur Bhima 10. Paris of India Jaipur
Ahmedabad Sabarmati 11. Switzerland of India Kashmir
Jamshedpur Subarnarekha 12. Mini Switzerland of India Khajjiar
Hyderabad Musi 13. Scotland of East Shillong
(UP RO/ARO, 2016)
14. Kashmir of South Kerala
Surat (UPPCS, 2019) Tapti (Tapi)
15. Rajasthan Pride Chittorgarh
Srinagar Jhelum
16. Gateway of Rajasthan Bharatpur
Kurnool Tungabhadra
17. Thermopylae of Rajasthan Haldighati
Cuttack Mahanadi
18. Hollywood of India Mumbai
Nasik (UP RO/ARO, 2016) Godavari 19. Gateway of India Mumbai
Srirangapatnam Kaveri 20. City of Seven Isles Mumbai
Tiruchirappalli Kaveri 21. Steel City Jamshedpur
Orchha Betwa 22. Pittsburgh of India Jamshedpur
Ludhiana Sutlej (UK PSC, 2002) 23. Heart of India Delhi
Vijayawada Krishna 24. The Ganges of the South Kaveri River
25. Fruit Bucket Himachal Pradesh
Geographical Surnames of Regions of India
26. Manchester of India Ahmedabad
1. City of Rallies New Delhi
27. Garden of India Bangaluru
2. Paddy Bowl Chhattisgarh 28. City of Palaces Kolkata
3. City of Clouds Meghalaya 29. Spice Garden of India Kerala
4. City of Gardens Kapurthala 30. Queen of Chota Nagpur Netarhat Jharkhand
5. Paradise of Fruit Orchards Sikkim 31. Queen of Mountains Mussoorie
6. City of Space Bengaluru 32. Land of Five Rivers Punjab
7. City of Joy Kolkata 33. Blue Mountains Nilgiri Hills Phawngpui
8. Soya City Madhya Pradesh 34. Sorrow of Bengal Damodar River
9. Salt City Gujarat 35. Manchester of North India Kanpur
36. Samudra Putra Lakshadweep
10. Golden City Amritsar
37. Diamond Harbour Kolkata
11. Queen of Chhota Nagpur Netarhat
38. Twin Cities Hyderabad-Sikandrabad
12. Queen of Deccan Pune
39. City of Lakes Srinagar
13. City of Mountains Dungarpur
40. City of Nawabs Lucknow
14. Earth’s Paradise Srinagar 41. The Spine of Economy of River Ganges North India
15. City of Temples and Ghats Varanasi 42. Sorrow of Bihar River Kosi
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5. Major Lakes and Waterfalls in India India’s second-largest lagoon located on the east coast is
Pulicat Lake.
The natural crater filled with water is called a lake. Pulicat Lake is located on the border of Andhra Pradesh
The shallow saltwater lakes formed in the coastal areas and Tamil Nadu on the Coromandel Coast. It is the second-
separated from the sea are called lagoon. largest brackish water lagoon in India.
The largest coastal lake in India is Chilika Lake (Odisha), is Barrier Island named Sriharikota separates Pulicat Lake
a saltwater lagoons.(MPPCS, 2014; UPPCS, 2021; UP Lower, 2008) from the Bay of Bengal.
Important tributaries of Kaveri river are- Arkavathy, Satish Dhawan Space Centre is situated in Sriharikota.
Shimsha, Hemavati, Kapila, Shimsha, Honnuhole, The Buckingham Canal is located on the west bank of
Amaravati, Lakshmana Kabini, Lokapavani, Bhavani, Pulicat Lake.
Noyyal, and Tirtha.
The height of the Kunchikal Falls, located in Karnataka, is
Chilika Lake spread across the districts of Puri, Khurda
reported to be at least 400 feet and a maximum of 800 feet
and Ganjam in the state of Odisha.(RAS, 1999; UPPCS, 2021)
(about 183 meters).
Periyar Lake is an artificial lake. It receives water from
Nohkalikai (340 m), Meghalaya is the highest waterfall
the Periyar river. (UPPCS, 2009, 2011, 2013)
in India, as per the current status of the world waterfall
Ashtamudi lake is the backwater lagoon of Kerala which
database.
opens to the sea.
The major waterfall of India is Garsoppa (Jog) or
Vembanad is the largest lake in Kerala and the longest Lake
Mahatma Gandhi Falls.
in India.
Jog Falls is situated on the River Sharavati.
Loktak Lake, located in Manipur, is the largest freshwater
(UPPCS, 2017; IAS, 2008)
lake in northeast India. (CG PSC, 2008)
Hundru Falls (Ranchi) is on the River Swaranarekha
Loktak Lake is home to Keibul Lamjao National Park,
(Subarnarekha).
the world’s only floating wildlife sanctuary. (UPPCS, 2005)
Didwana and Udayasagar lakes are located in Rajasthan. Shivasamudram Falls is located on the River Kaveri.
Kolleru lake is located in Andhra Pradesh. Punasa Falls is located on the River Chambal.
Fulhar Lake is located near Madhotanda in Pilibhit district Major Waterfalls in India
(Uttar Pradesh). (RAS, 2023)
Height
The Gomti River originates from Fulhar Lake. Waterfalls Rivers Location
(m)
Sambhar Lake is the largest saltwater lake (inland) in
Jog/Garsoppa 253 Sharavati Karnataka
India, located in Rajasthan. Mahatma Gandhi (UPPCS, 2008, 09, 05)
Wular Lake, the largest freshwater lake, in India, is
Chitrakoot 29 Indravati Chhattisgarh
located in Jammu and Kashmir.
The Tulbul project is located on the Jhelum river. Shivasamudram 98 Kaveri Karnataka
Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar is the largest artificial lake Gautam Dhara/Jonha 45 Ranu Jharkhand
in India. Hundru 98 Subarnarekha Jharkhand
Govind Ballabh Pant Lake is formed by a dam built upon Lodh Budhaghagh 143 Budha Jharkhand
the Rihand River, a tributary of the Son river.
Gokak 52 Gokak Karnataka
Gurudongmar Lake (5154 m) in Sikkim is located at the
highest altitude in India. Dasham 44 Kanchi Jharkhand
The Teesta river originates from Cholamu Lake (Tsho Pykara 61 Pykara Tamil Nadu
Lhamo). Kapil Dhara 30 Narmada Madhya Pradesh
Lonar Lake is located in Buldhana district of Maharashtra. Chulia 15 Chambal Rajasthan
Lonar Lake was created by the impact of an asteroid
Dhuandhar 30 Narmada Madhya Pradesh
collision with earth during the Pleistocene epoch.
Ukai Lake is a man-made lake located on the Tapti River 6. Climate of India
in Gujarat.
Tungabhadra Lake is a man-made lake located on the The total weather conditions in a large area for a long period
Tungabhadra River. is called the climate of that region.
Hussain Sagar Lake is located between Hyderabad and The Wular lake, the Dal lake, Bhimtal, Nainital, Loktak
Sikandrabad. and Barapani are examples of Fresh Water lake. (IAS, 2008)
Vembanad Lake is located on the west coast and is a The climate of India is Tropical Monsoon Climate.
lagoon in Kerala. (MPPCS, 2013)

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A monsoon is a seasonal change in the direction of the It is also known as coffee rain because it is congenial for
prevailing, or strongest, winds of a region. coffee farming.
(UPPCS, 1996, 98; UP Lower, 1998) The mango shower in south India (Kerala) is known for
The state of the atmosphere for a short time (1 day or 1 having strong humid winds being congenial for the mango
week) at a particular place is called the weather. crop in Kerala.
The meteorological service in India was started in 1875. The hot and dry winds blowing in the dry parts of
Initially, the headquarter of the Meteorological northwestern India during the summer are called "loo".
Department was located at Kolkata, later was brought Due to the peninsular shape of India, the southwest
to Shimla and thereafter Pune and finally to New Delhi. monsoon divides into two directions, one towards the
Now meteorological maps of India have been published Arabian Sea and the other towards the Bay of Bengal.
from New Delhi. (Jharkhand PCS, 2003) The monsoon of the Arabian Sea direction showers in
Factors affecting the Indian climate are - latitudinal Kerala in the first week of June.
position, relief, monsoon winds and distance from the sea. In Kerala, this monsoon collides with the Western Ghat
South India is closer to the Equator, there is a hot climate Mountains and rains on the coasts of Kerala. This is called
throughout the year. monsoon burst.
North India is located in the north of the Tropic of Cancer Monsoon passing through Kerala affects the entire Indian
resulting in the cold in winter and hot in summer. subcontinent till 15th July Via Mumbai by 10th of June.
Cold winds coming from Central Asia can't enter India The winds that come from the Bay of Bengal (The West
because of the presence of the Himalayan Mountains in Monsoon) bring more rainfall to the Garo, Khasi and
Jaintia hills.
the north.
Mawsynram (Meghalaya) is the highest rainfall receiving
The temperature decreases by 1°C at every 165 meters of
a place in the world.
altitude. That is why there is a difference in the temperature
(52nd BPSC, 2008; MPPCS, 2010; JK PSC, 2011; UPPCS, 2001)
of the mountainous and plains even when located on the
Koeppen has classified of climate — A-Tropical, B-Dry
same latitude.
Climates, C-Warm Temperate, D-Cold Snow forest, E-Cold
The Himalayas create the barrier for the monsoon winds
Climates, H-Highlands.
which causes rain in the country and changes the climate.
Leh (Union Territory of Ladakh, 41.7 mm) receives the
In summer, the monsoon winds travel from southwest to
lowest annual rainfall in India. (UPPCS, 2008, 2009, 2010)
northeast, and during winter, northeast to southwest.
The southwest monsoon is more powerful than the
The surrounding areas of the sea have an Equable climate
monsoon of the Arabian Sea.
and are thus found to have an anomalous climate.
Mawsynram in the southern ranges of the Khasi hills.
The change in the direction of monsoon winds causes a
Aw (tropical climate with winter dry season e.g large part of
change in the season. Based on this, there are four seasons peninsular India south of Tropic of Cancer) represents a two
in India- alphabet combination.It represents most of the Peninsular
1. Winter Season (16th December to 15th March) plateau, south of the Tropic of Cancer.
2. Summer (16th March to 15th June) The direction of the southeast trade winds in India during
3. Rainy Season (16th June to 15th September) the southwest monsoon season is South-westerly.
4. Autumn (16th September to 15th December) Tamil Nadu receives very little rainfall during the southwest
Rainfall in winter occurs due to western disturbance in monsoon as its location is in the mountain rain shadow
the plains of northern India. region of the Western Ghats.
Rainfall occurs during the winter months (January- The retreating monsoon season is called the autumn
February) on the coasts of Tamil Nadu due to the returning season.
monsoon. Tropical cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal in autumn.
North eastern monsoon is also called the returning Tropical cyclones cause more damage in Andhra Pradesh,
monsoon. Tamil Nadu, Odisha, West Bengal and Puducherry which
During the summer, intense humid winds are generated are in the east coastal region and Gujarat in the west coastal
causing thunderstorms in Assam and West Bengal. region.
The intense humid winds are called Kalbaisakhi in West A ‘break’ in the monsoon refers to a period of reduced
Bengal and Norwesters in eastern India. rainfall or a dry spell during the monsoon season. It’s a time
The intense and humid winds in Karnataka and South India when the usual heavy rains pause for several days to weeks,
are called Cherry Blossom Rain. even though it’s still technically the monsoon season.
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The ‘Arabian Sea Branch’ and ‘Bay of Bengal Branch of Black soil is formed by regular weathering and erosion
Indian monsoon merge together over Punjab and adjoining of basalt lava.
Himalayas. The Black soil is mainly found in Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Blossom shower is a weather phenomenon that occurs in Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
Karnataka during the months of February and March, which (44th BPSC, 2000)
helps the coffee flowers to blossom. Black soil is highly suitable for cotton cultivation.
Tamilnadu is divided in the 7 sub agro climatic Zones. Black soil has the maximum water holding capacity.
ie.,Cauvery delta, North Eastern, Western, North Western, Black soil is rich in iron, calcium, aluminium, lime and
High Altitude, Southern and High rainfall. Most of Tamil
magnesium carbonate. (UPPCS, 1999)
Nadu state falls broadly into 4 major categories of soil viz.
The soil swells and becomes sticky when wet and shrinks
There is hardly any difference in day and night temperatures
when dry.
in the Andaman and Nicobar islands or in coastal area of
During dry season, the soil develops wide cracks and there
Kerala. It means that water takes more time to get hot or
cold then land. occurs a kind of 'self-ploughing'.
The black colour of the soil is due to the presence of
7. Soil of India
titaniferous magnetite and fossils.
The soil on the surface of the Earth is a layer of unorganized (iii) Red Soil :
materials made up of rocks and biomass through the process Red soil is formed due to the disintegration and dissolution
of degradation and decomposition. of metamorphic rocks as a result of climatic changes.
The science of soil studies is called soil science. This soil is rich in silica and iron.
The Central Soil Conservation Board was set up in 1953
It is mainly found in western Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
to check soil erosion and its adverse consequences.
southern Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Odisha
The Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) was
and Chota Nagpur regions.
established in Jodhpur, Rajasthan to study the desert
It is red due to the presence of oxide of iron, ferric oxide.
problem.
Territorial variation is found in the soils of India due to Red soil lacks lime, magnesium phosphate, nitrogen and
variations in relief and climatic conditions. humus.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research has divided Millet cultivation in red soil is suitable for high places while
India’s soils into 8 categories. rice, ragi, tobacco, groundnut, potatoes and vegetables
(i) Alluvial Soil : are cultivated on this soil in low-lying areas.
The soil brought by rivers is called alluvial soil. Red soil is also often found as infertile wasteland.
In India, the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf of Kachchh, and (iv) Laterite Soil :
the Gangetic delta provide ideal conditions for utilizing Laterite soil is formed by the breaking of limestone and
Tidal energy. silica deposits in high rainfall regions.
Alluvial soil is rich in potash, phosphoric acid, lime and Laterite soil is rich in iron oxide and aluminium oxide.
organic matter but lacks nitrogen and humus. Laterite soil is found in Kerala, Odisha, Chota Nagpur
There are two types of alluvial soil - Bhangar and Khadar Plateau, Meghalaya and mountainous regions of the
Bhangar is called old alluvial soil and Khadar is called Western Ghats.
new alluvial soil. Laterite soil is categorized as deep Red Laterite, White
Bhangar consists of pebbles and calcium carbonate. Laterite and Underground Laterite.
The deposition of salt is due to saline and alkaline eruptions
Laterite soil is most suitable for the cultivation of cocoa,
on Bhangar soil.
cashew, tea and cardamom.
This soil is less fertile than Khadar, hence it requires regular
Deep red Laterite soil is rich in iron oxide and potash.
use of fertilizers.
(v) Forest Soil :
Khadar is formed by deposits brought by floods annually.
The layers of this soil are thin as it develops in the
Khadar soil has a high water holding capacity.
Paddy, wheat, maize, oilseeds, pulses, potatoes, are mountainous regions.
produced on alluvial soil. The soil is deficient in bacteria and its fertility is low.
(ii) Black Soil : The forest soil is more suitable for horticulture crops, tea,
Black soil is also known as Regur soil, Black Cotton soil, coffee, spices and fruits, etc.
Tropical Black Earth and Tropical Chernozem. The colour of the alluvial soils varies from the light grey
(44th BPSC 2000, 1998) to ash grey.
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(vi) Desert Soil : Wheat, gram, pea, mustard, potato, etc. are the main crops
Desert soil is sandy soil with less than a normal amount of of the Rabi season.
phosphorus. B. Kharif Crop :
Desert soil is deficient in Nitrogen and humus.
It is a rain-fed crop that is sown in June – July and
In desert soil coarse grains are mainly cultivated.
harvested in October – November. (UPPCS, 2011, 2004)
(vii) Saline and Alkaline Soil :
Paddy, sugarcane, oilseeds, jowar, millet, maize, pigeon
These soils are also known as Reh, Usar or Kallar.
pea, etc. are the main Kharif crops.
The alkaline soil is developed in areas lacking proper
C. Zaid Crop :
drainage system.
In alkaline soil, there is an excess of sodium chloride and Zaid crops are grown in summer, i.e. between Rabi and
free sodium in saline soils. Kharif seasons. It is sown in March and harvested in June.
Gypsum is used to remove the alkalinity of the soil. Watermelon, melon, cucumber, ladyfinger and urad are the
(viii) Wet and Marshy Soil : main crops of Zaid season.
Wet soil is formed due to the accumulation of a large Arid soils are characteristically developed in western
amount of organic matter in highly humid conditions. Rajasthan, which exhibit characteristic arid topography.
The wet soil contains sufficient amount of soluble salts. Coarse cereals include maize (Zea mays), sorghum
The wet soil lacks phosphorus and potash. (Jowar; Sorghum vulgare), oats (Jai; Avena sativa), barley
The wet soil is suitable for paddy cultivation. (Jow; Hordeum vulgare), pearl millet (Bajra; Pennisetum
The marshy soil is formed in waterlogged areas. glaucum) and other minor millets such as Finger millet
The marshy soil is rich in organic matter. (Ragi; Eleusine coracana), Kodo millet (Arikalu; Paspalum
It is unsuitable for farming. setaceum), Proso millet etc.
India is second in the world in Wheat and Rice production
8. Agriculture in India
after China (FAO 2022).
According to the Economic Survey of 2023-24, the Indian As per Economic Survey 2023-24, Uttar Pradesh ranks first
agriculture sector provides livelihood support to about 42.3 in the production of wheat in India while Telangana ranks
percent of the population and has a share of 18.2 percent first in rice production.
in the country's GDP at current price.
About 45.64% of the total area of India is under cultivation. Note : AGMARK is a central government sponsored
[2019-20(P)] scheme for grading and standardization of agricultural
Grassland constitutes 3.42% of the total landmass of India products.
[2019-20(P)]. Cultivation of crops and animal husbandry are called mixed
Forest cover is 21.71% of the total area of India (ISFR :
farming.
2021). [IAS (Pre), 2010]
Coarse grains refer to cereal grains other than wheat and
5.4% [2019-20 (P)] of the total physical area of India is
rice or those used primarily for animal feed or brewing.
barren and uncultivated. (BPSC, 1999)
The term “Green Revolution” was first used by William S.
India’s first agricultural university was established on
Gaud, the administrator of the U.S. Agency for International
17th November 1960 in Pantnagar, Uttarakhand (erstwhile
Development (USAID), in a speech on 8 March 1968.
UP). (UPPCS, 2013, 2014; UPPCS, 2013)
Norman Borlaug is often called “the father of the Green
Later, this agricultural university was named Govind
Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology. Revolution”.
The Planning Commission has divided India into fifteen The credit for introducing the Green Revolution in India
regions based on agro-climatic conditions. goes to Dr. M.S. Swaminathan.
Based on soil, natural climate and geographical conditions, (MPPCS, 1999; CGPSC 2003)

the National Bureau of Soil Survey has divided India into The first phase of the Green Revolution lasted from 1966
20 agro-ecological regions and 60 agro-ecological sub- to 1981. (UPPCS, 2015)
regions. (UP RO/ARO, 2013, 2010; UPPCS, 2016, 2017, 2010) The second phase of the Green Revolution was from 1981
Classification of Crops : to 1995 and the third phase started in 1995.
A. Rabi Crop : (UPPCS, 2017, 2015)
It is generally sown in October-November and harvested The crop that benefitted most from the green revolution
in March-April. (MPPCS, 2000, 1994, 2013; UPPCS,2016) was wheat.
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The second most beneficial impact of the Green Revolution 8. Yellow Revolution Oilseed Production
was on paddy crop.
9. Pink Revolution Lobster/Meat Export/Onion
The Mission on Oilseeds Technology was established in
Production
1986 which was later converted into the National Mission
10. Amrit Revolution River Link Project
on Oilseeds and Palm Oil (NMOOP) in 2014.
India ranks first in the production of mango, banana, ginger, 11. Silver Revolution Egg Production
papaya. (FAO, 2022). 12. Almond Revolution Spices Production
India is the second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables 13. Round Revolution Potato Production
in the world after China. (FAO : 2022).
India ranks second in the world tobacco production (FAO: Major Methods of Agriculture
2022). 1. Hydroponics Growing of Plants in Water (Soil-free
Krishna-Godavari Delta region is known as the Rice Bowl Agriculture)
of India. 2. Pomo Culture Fruit Production
Cotton is known as white gold in Maharashtra. 3. Olericulture Vegetables Production
Crop rotation is the practice of planting different crops
4. Horticulture Gardening
sequentially on the same plot of land to improve soil health,
optimize nutrients in the soil, and combat pest and weed 5. Viticulture Grapes Cultivation
pressure. 6. Pisciculture Fishing
Jute is considered as the golden fiber. 7. Sericulture Silkworm Rearing
Uttar Pradesh is called the sugar bowl of India. 8. Apiculture Beekeeping
Shakkarnagar of the Telangana is a major sugar producing 9. Floriculture Flower Production
centre.
10. Vermiculture Earthworm Production
The sugar industry is the largest agro-based industry in
India after cotton textiles. Important Crops Producing States (Economic
Note : The author of the book, 'A History of Agriculture Survey 2023-24) Third Advance Estimates.
in India' is M.S Randhawa. Crops/Crop
States
groups
Rapeseed, mustard sesame, linseed, soybean, sunflower,
castor and cottonseed are the major oilseed crops of India. 1. Food
First Second Third
Grains
Peanut is the most suitable crop for dry land farming.
Rice Telangana Uttar Pradesh West Bengal
Pulses, gram, pea and moong can fix atmospheric nitrogen,
whereas the rajma plant does not fix the atmospheric Uttar
Wheat Madhya Pradesh Punjab
Pradesh
nitrogen.
It is a kharif crop which requires high temperature, (above Madhya
Maize Karnataka Bihar
Pradesh
25°C) and high humidity with annual rainfall above 100
Total coarse Madhya
cm. In the areas of less rainfall, it grows with the help of Rajasthan Karnataka
Cereals Pradesh
irrigation.
Madhya
Gram Maharashtra Rajasthan
Major Agricultural Revolutions Pradesh
Revolution Related Field Tur (Arhar) Karnataka Maharashtra Uttar Pradesh

1. Green Revolution Food Grain Production Madhya

Total Pulses Maharashtra Rajasthan
Pradesh
2. Golden Revolution Fruit and Vegetables Production
(UPPCS, 2022, 2016) Total Food Uttar
Madhya Pradesh Punjab
Grains Pradesh
3. White Revolution Milk Production
2. Oil Seeds First Second Third
4. Grey Revolution Fertilizer Production
(UPPCS, 2022, 2016)
Madhya
Groundnut Gujarat Rajasthan
Pradesh
5. Blue Revolution Fishery Production
(UPPCS, 2016; MPPCS, 2016)
Rapeseed and Madhya
Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh
Musturd Pradesh
6. Red Revolution Tomato, Meat Production
Madhya
Soyabean Maharashtra Rajasthan
7. Black Revolution Petroleum Production Pradesh
187
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Sunflower Karnataka Haryana Odisha List of Kharif Crops

Total Oil seeds Rajasthan Madhya Pradesh Gujarat
S.No. Common Name Scientific Name
Third
3. Vegetables First Second (Economic 1. Paddy Oryza sativa, L
Survey 2022-23) 2. Guar (F) Cymopsis tetragonaloba, Taub
Potato Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Bihar 3. Castor Ricinus communis
Onion Maharashtra Madhya Pradesh Karnataka 4. Nagali Eleusine coracana, G
Madhya 5. Hy Cotton Gossypium hirsutum, L
Tomato Andhra Pradesh Karnataka
Pradesh
6. Chilly Capsicum frutescens, L
Sugar cane Uttar Pradesh Maharashtra Karnataka
7. Cotton Gossypium herbaceum, L
3. Fibre Crops First Second Third
8. Jowar Sorghum vulgare, Pers
Cotton Gujarat Maharashtra Telangana
9. Sesamum Sesamum orientale
Jute & Mesta West Bengal Bihar Assam
10. Soyabean Glycine hispida, Merr
Leading States in Production 2021-22 (3rd A.E.)
11. Maize Zea mays, L
First Second Third
12. Urid Vigna mungo, L
Coconut Karnataka Tamil Nadu Kerala
13. Bajri Pennisetum typhoideum, L
Cashew Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh Odisha
14. Arhar Cajanus cajan, Milsp
Tobacco Gujarat Andhra Pradesh Uttar Pradesh
15. Ground Nut Arachis hypogaea, L
Madhya 16. Fennel Foeniculum vulgare, Miller
Milk Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh
Pradesh
Fish
Andhra 9. Irrigation and Multipurpose Projects
Production West Bengal Gujarat
Pradesh
(over all) There are three types of irrigation projects in India - A.
Fish Production Andhra Minor Irrigation Project, B. Medium Irrigation Project and
Gujarat Tamil Nadu
(Marine) Pradesh C. Major Irrigation Project.
Fish Product Andhra A. Minor Irrigation Projects :
West Bengal Uttar Pradesh
(Inland) Pradesh Minor irrigation projects are projects for arable land less
Tea Assam West Bengal Tamil Nadu than 2000 hectares.
In India, most of the irrigation is done by Small irrigation
List of Rabi Crops projects. (BPSC, 2008; UPPCS, 2017)
S.No. Common Name Scientific Name The small irrigation projects include wells, tube wells,
1. Maize Zea mays, L diesel pumps, ponds, drip irrigation, etc.
B. Medium Irrigation Project :
2. Lucerne Hedicage sativa
The Medium Irrigation Project is for irrigation of more than
3. Cumin Cuminum cyminum, L
2000 and up to 10,000 hectares of arable land.
4. coriender coriandrum sativum, L Canals are the primary means of medium irrigation.
5. Wheat Triticum vulgare, Vill C. Major Irrigation Project :
6. Fenugreek Trigonella foenumgraecum, L The major irrigation projects are those used for irrigating
7. Gram Cicer arientinum more than 10,000 hectares of arable land.
About 38% of irrigation in India is covered by major and
8. Onion Allium cepa, L
medium projects. Major irrigation projects include dams.
9. Mustard Brassica juncea, L Uttar Pradesh has the highest net area under irrigation.
10. Tomato Lycopersicum esculentum, Mill According to the Statistical Year Book 2018, the major
11. Fennel Foeniculum vulgare, Miller means of irrigation in the country is tubewell.
12. Potato Solanum tuberosum In Uttar Pradesh, irrigation by tube wells covers the largest
arable area.
13. Isabgol Plantago ovata. Fors
The Garland Canal System in India was proposed by
14. Oat Avena sativa Captain Dinshaw J. Dastur.
188
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In peninsular India, the primary means of irrigation are Malprabha Malprabha Karnataka
ponds. Pochampadu Shri Godavari Telangana
48.1% Share of the Net Irrigated Area in India is related to Ram Sagar
Tubewells while the share of canals is 23.3%. (2019-20). Baglihar Chenab Jammu and Kashmir
In Tamil Nadu, ponds are a major source of water for Sardar Sarovar Narmada Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
cultivation. (UPPCS, 1999, 82) (UP Lower, 2004) Rajasthan & Maharashtra
The Tehri Hydroelectric Project is upstream of the Tilaiya Barakar Jharkhand
confluence of the Bhagirathi and Bhilangana rivers in the Dulhasti Chenab Jammu and Kashmir
Tehri district of Uttarakhand. Tulbul Jhelum Jammu and Kashmir
Ancient Bamboo Drip Irrigation System is commonly used
Sirhind Canal Sutlej Punjab
in Meghalaya.
Jawahar Sagar Chambal Rajasthan
The Bhupen Hazarika Setu, also referred to as the Dhola–
Rana Pratap Sagar Chambal Rajasthan
Sadiya Bridge, at 9.15 kilometres (5.69 mi) in length, is
Gandhi Sagar Chambal Madhya Pradesh
the longest bridge in India over water.
It is a beam bridge in India, connecting the northeast states Shivasamudram Kaveri Karnataka (UPPCS, 2003, 99)
of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. The bridge spans the Bansagar Son Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh
Lohit River, a major tributary of the Brahmaputra River.
Dharoi Dam is a gravity dam on the Sabarmati river near Panchet Dam Damodar Jharkhand, West Bengal
Dharoi, Mehsana district of northern Gujarat in India. Sharavati Sharavati Karnataka
Constructed in 1978, the dam is meant for irrigation, power Hasdeo Bango Hasdeo Chhattisgarh
generation and flood control. Sharda Sahayak Sharda, Gomti, Uttar Pradesh
The famous Hirakud Captive Thermal Power plant is Sai
located near the Hirakud Dam, Odisha. Machhakund Machhakund Odisha, Andhra Pradesh
Kangsabati Kangsabati West Bengal
Major Multipurpose Projects of India and
Jayakwadi Godavari Maharashtra
Their Respective States
Bhadra Bhadra Karnataka
Project Name River/Dam Related State/Union
Territories Bhima Pavana and Maharashtra
Krishna
Bhakra Nangal Sutlej Punjab, Haryana,
Ghatprabha Ghatprabha Karnataka
(UPPCS, 1994) Rajasthan, Himachal
Pradesh (BPSC, 1997) Rihand Rihand Uttar Pradesh
Beas (Pong-Dam) Beas Rajasthan, Punjab, Matatila Betwa Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh Pradesh
Indira Gandhi Confluence of Rajasthan, Haryana and Ramganga Ramganga Uttar Pradesh
Canal Beas and Sutlej Punjab (UPPCS, 1999) Tehri Dam Bhagirathi Uttarakhand
Chambal Chambal Madhya Pradesh and Idukki Periyar Kerala
Rajasthan
Damodar Valley Damodar West Bengal and Jharkhand Note : Tehri dam is constructed in Uttarakhand on
Hirakud Dam Mahanadi Odisha (MPPCS, 2005) Bhagirathi river. [UPPCS, 2002; UK PSC, 2012; IAS, 2009;
MPPCS, 2010; IAS (Pre), 1999]
Mayurakshi Mayurakshi West Bengal, Jharkhand
Kosi Kosi Bihar and Nepal Major Hill Cities of India
Tungabhadra Tungabhadra Karnataka and Telangana City Altitude (m) State/Union territory
Nagarjuna Sagar Krishna Telangana and Andhra Ranchi 652 Jharkhand
(UK PSC, 2006) Pradesh [UPPRS (Pre), 1993;
Ranikhet 1869 Uttarakhand
UPPCS, 2008, 2004, 1991;
UK PSC, 2012; BPSC, 2015] Lansdowne 1706 Uttarakhand
Farakka Ganges West Bengal Bhagirathi Dalhousie 2036 Himachal Pradesh
Kakrapar Tapi Gujarat Mussoorie 2005 Uttarakhand
Tawa Tawa Madhya Pradesh Garh Mukteshwar 2171 Uttarakhand
Ukai Tapi Gujarat Nainital 2084 Uttarakhand
189
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Kasauli 1951 Himachal Pradesh The remaining resources are spread in the states of
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan
Coonoor 1858 Tamil Nadu
etc.
Gangtok 1650 Sikkim (B) Non Ferrous Minerals - Those minerals which do not
Manali 2050 Himachal Pradesh contain iron are known as non ferrous minerals. Copper
Gulmarg 2653 Jammu and Kashmir Bauxite etc.
Ooty 2240 Tamil Nadu India is poorly endowed with Non ferrous metallic
Pahalgam 2130 Jammu and Kashmir minerals except bauxite.
2. Non Metallic Minerals - Non metallic minerals are
Darjeeling 2045 West Bengal
either organic or inorganic in origin and do not contain
Kodaikanal 2133 Tamil Nadu extractable metals in their chemical composition. Examples
Srinagar 1730 Jammu and Kashmir - limestone, dolomite, mica, kyanite, sillimanite, gypsum
Bhowali 1706 Uttarakhand and phosphate.
Almora 1650 Uttarakhand These minerals are used in Variety of industries such
Shillong 1491 Meghalaya as cement. fertilizers, refractories etc. Non metallic
minerals are classified into two Basic categories.
Nandi Hills 1478 Karnataka
(A) Fuel minerals - Coal, Lignite, Crude oil and Natural gas
Yercaud 1515 Tamil Nadu etc.
Mahabaleshwar 1371 Maharashtra (B) Other Non-Metallic Minerals - Mica Asbestos, Pyrite Salt
Kalimpong 1250 West Bengal Gypsum, Diamond, Timber Limestone, Baryte, Apatite,
Panchgani 1305 Maharashtra and alusite etc.
Atomic Power minerals are the Part of Non metallic
Munnar 1600 Kerala
minerals. Examples - Uranium, Thorium, Beryllium etc.
Panchmarhi 1100 Madhya Pradesh
Characteristics of minerals :
Kemmanagundi 1434 Karnataka Formed by inorganic process.
Mandi 1044 Himachal Pradesh Occurrence in solid form.
Lonavala 622 Maharashtra Definite chemical composition.
Khandala 622 Maharashtra Definite crystalline structure.
Distribution of Minerals :
10. Mineral Resources in India 'Dharwar and Cuddaph System' contain resources of
major metallic minerals like copper, Lead, Zinc etc.
Mineral resources are formed from rocks buried under the 'Vindhyan System' contains major non-metallic
crust for billions of years. minerals like limestone, dolomite, gypsum, calcium
The region of the south-east of India like Chota Nagpur sulphate etc.
Plateau, Dandakaranya and Odisha Plateau, etc. have the Major Mineral Regions in India :
largest reserve of mineral resources. (UP RO, 2017) 1. North Eastern Plateau Region
The Mettur Dam is located across the river Kaveri (or It covers the Chhotanagpur Plateau, Odisha Plateau and the
Cauvery) in Salem district in the state of Tamil Nadu. eastern Andhra Plateau.
Mineral refers to a natural substance obtained from mining The belt contains
and has economic significance. (MPPCS, 2020) North Eastern Plateau contains rich variety of minerals
Minerals can be grouped under two main categories of specially used for metallurgical industries such as 'iron
metallic and non metallic on the basis of chemical and are, manganese, mica, bauxite limestone, dolomite' etc.
Physical Properties. This region also has rich deposits of coal, along the river
1. Metallic Minerals – Metallic minerals are the source of Valleys of Damodar, Mahanadi and Son etc.
of metals and provide a strong Base for development of This region also has substantial amount deposit of copper
metallurgical Industry. Examples - Iron arc, Bauxite etc. uranium, Thorium Phosphate etc.
metallic Minerals can be Further divided into ferrous and 2. South Western Plateau Region
non ferrous metallic minerals. This region extends over the Karnataka Plateau and
(A) Ferrous Minerals - Around 96% of hematite resources are adjoining Tamil Nadu plateau and is rich in metallic
confined in the states of Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, minerals, particularly iron arc, manganese and Bauxite non
Karnataka and Goa. metallic minerals.
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All three gold mines of India are found in this region. Iron ore :
3. North Western Region Most of the Iron ore found in the country is of three
This belt extends from the Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat to types : Haematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite (Fe4O4), Limonite
the Aravali range in Rajasthan. (2Fe2O3.3H2O) and Siderite (Fe3CO3).
Copper Zinc has been major minerals in this belt. State
The 'Ministry of Mines' is responsible for survey, Iron ore
First Second Third
exploration, and mining of all mineral, other than natural Haematite Odisha Jharkhand Chhattisgarh
gas, Petroleum, atomic minerals and coal.
Andhra
The Ministry is responsible for administration of the Mines Magnetite Karnataka Rajasthan
Pradesh
and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (67
of 1957) States Regions Important Mines
Public sector Undertakings under the Ministry of Mines, Gurumahisani, Salaipet,
Mayurbhanj
namely - Badampahar
National Aluminium Company limited (NALCO), Odisha
Sundergarh Bonai
Bhubaneshwar. Jhar Kiruburu
Hindustan Copper Limited. (HCL), Kolkata.
Durg Dalli Rajhara
Mineral Exploration and Consultancy Limited (MECL), Chhatisgarh
Bastar Dantewara, Bailadila
Nagpur.
Research Institutions under the Ministry of Mines namely: Bellari Sandur-Hospet
Jawaharlal Nehru Aluminium Research Development Karnataka Chikkamagaluru, Baba Budan hills and
and Design Centre (JNARDDC), Nagpur. Chitradurg Kudre mukh
National Insitute of Rock Mechanics (NIRM), Poorbi
Noamudi
Bengaluru. Singhbhum
Jharkhand
'Critical Minerals' are the building blocks of essential Paschimi
Gua
modern - day technologies and are at risk of supply chain Singhbhum
disruptions. Iron ore :
These minerals are now used every where from making First - Odisha
mobile phones, computers to batteries, electric vehicles Second - Chhattisgarh
and green technologies like solar panels and wind turbines. Third - Karnataka
Minerals such as antimony, Cobalt gallium, graphite, Fourth - Jharkhand (IMYB, 2022)
lithium, nickel, niobium, and strontium are among the 22 Coal :
assessed to be critical for India. Coal Reserves - Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West
'Strategic minerals' have a substantial role to play in the Bengal etc.
development and security of the nation and play a crucial Coal Production - Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh,
role in the development of the national economy. Jharkhand etc.
'KABIL' World Reserves - USA, Russia, Australia etc.
It is a joint venture company set up with the participation World Production - China, India etc.
of three central public sector Enterprises namely. National Manganese ore :
Aluminium Company Ltd. (NALCO). Hindustan Copper Manganese in Alloy form is an essential Input in steel
Ltd. (HCL) and Mineral Exploration Company Ltd. making and steel is one of the most important indicators
(MECL), Under the 'Ministry of Mines'. of growth in industrial economy of any country.
Out of 1391 reporting mines, most of the mines reported Manganese is used in dry battery industry.
are in Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat, Karnataka, Odisha, India Reserve - Odisha, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh
Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, India Production - Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha.
Maharashtra, Jharkhand and Telangana. World Reserve - South Africa Chaina (16% each), Brazil
The order was from Odisha with share of 44.11% followed and Australia.
by Chhattisgarh (17.34%) Rajasthan (14.10%), Karnataka World Production - South Africa, Gabon (IMYB 2022).
(13.24%), Jharkhand (4.36%), Madhya Pradesh (2.44%) The important mining areas are Sundargarh, Rayagada,
and Maharashtra (1.45%) in the total value of mineral Bolangir, Keonjhar - Jaipur, Mayurbhanj, Koraput,
production. Kalahandi and Bolangir.
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Telangana, Goa and Jharkhand are other minor producers World Reserves - Australia, Russia, South Africa.
of manganese. World Production - China, Russia, Australia, (IMYB 2022).
Manganese is an important raw material of iron for smelting Silver :
of iron ore and also for manufacturing ferro Alloys. Silver is typically used in making ornaments, making paste
Bauxite : for solar cells. The photovoltaic cell (PV), has become one
Bauxite is basically an aluminous Rock that contains of the most important areas of silver demand.
hydrated aluminium oxides as main constituent and iron India Reserves - Rajasthan, Karnataka, Jharkhand (IMYB
oxide silica. 2022).
India's Reserves - Odisha, Chhatisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, India Production - Rajasthan, Karnataka
Gujarat (IMYB 2022). World Reserves - Peru, Australia
India's Production - Odisha, Gujarat, Jharkhand (IMYB 2022). World Production - Mexico, China (IMYB 2022).
World's Reserves - Guinea, Vietnam, Australia. Lead & Zinc :
World's Production - Australia, Bosnia & Herzegovina. Both Lead and Zinc are found to occur together in ore along
According to IMYB 2022, Odisha accounted for the highest with other metals like silver and cadmium. It is mainly used
production of 73% of India's overall Bauxite production. in manufacturing of lead acid storage Batteries.
[2021-22(P)] India Reserves - Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
Bauxite is used to make alumina and aluminium. (UPPCS, Pradesh
India Production - Rajasthan
1997)
World Reserves - Australia, China
States Region World Production - China, Australia
Palamu, Ranchi and Lohardanga Nickel :
Jharkhand, Gujarat
districts Madla, Shahdole and It has a melting Point of 1453°C relatively low thermal
Madhya Pradesh
Balaghat and Katni district and electrical conductivities, high resistance to corrosion
Sarguja, Raigarh and Bilaspur in & toughness at high temperatures.
Chhattisgarh
Amarkantak Plateau It is used in stainless steel making, catalyst chemical
Kolhapur, Raigarh, Thana, Satara and industries as an electroplating material, heat resistant alloys,
Maharashtra
Patnagiri districts alloying element for non ferrous metals, space defence and
Karnataka North West Parts of Belagum district rocket industries, and nickel cadmium batteries.
India Reserves - Odisha, Jharkhand, Nagaland.
Copper :
India Production - Jharkhand.
Copper is an important metal in the electrical industry for
World Reserves - Indonesia, Australia.
making wires, electric motors, transformer and generators.
World Production - Indonesia, Phillippines.
It is an important non-ferrous Base metal having wide
Lithium :
industrial applications, ranging from defence, Space The discovery of 5.9 million metric tonnes of lithium has
programme, Railways, Power Cables, Telecommunication been made in J & K. This is the first major lithium reserve
Cables etc. that has been found in India.
India Reserves - Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand Earlier, a survey led by the Atomic Minerals Directorate
India Production - Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan (IMYB 2022) for Exploration and Research showed the presence of 1600
World Reserves - Chile, Australia, Peru. tonnes (inferred category) of lithium resources in marlagalla
World Production - Chile, Peru, China (IMYB 2022). area of Karnataka's Mandya district.
Gold : World Reserves - Bolivia, Argentina, Chile, Australia,
Gold is a precious metal and it occurs in auriferrous China.
lodes. It is used for making ornaments and is also used in World Production - Australia, Chile, China.
International currency. Asbestos :
There are three gold fields in the country, namely Kolar Asbestos is a group of six naturally occurring fibrous silicate
gold field, Kolar district, Hutti gold field in Raichur district minerals.
(both in Karnataka) and Ram giri gold field in Anantpur India's asbestos requirement is met through imports from
district (Andhra Pradesh). Russia, Kazakhstan, Brazil and China.
India Reserves - Bihar, Rajasthan, Karnataka (IMYB 2022). It is used in Asbestos fabrics, cement sheets, pipes and other
India Production - Karnataka, Jharkhand. products.
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It is also used in brake linings, insulation and fireproof electrodes, fuse-wires, ammunitions, tinned iron sheets to
clothing. protect victuals, sweets, tobacco etc.
India Reserves - Rajasthan, Karnataka. India Reserves - Chhattisgarh, Haryana (IMYB 2022).
World Reserves - Kazakhstan, Zimbabwe, Russia (IMYB India Production - Chhattisgarh.
2022). World Reserves - China, Indonesia.
Limestone : World Production - Indonesia, China (IMYB 2022).
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of Chromite :
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the form of the mineral It is Chemically known as iron chromium oxide (FeCr204).
calcite. About 10% of sedimentary rocks are limestone and The properties of chromium that make it most versatile and
most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. indispensable are its resistance to corrosion, oxidation, wear
India Reserves - Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan. & galling and enhancement of harden-ability.
India Production - Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh (IMYB Odisha has a monopoly on reserves and production of
2022), Andhra Pradesh. Chromite. (IMYB, 2022)
World Production - China, USA, India. Stainless steel, high-speed tool steel and corrosion &
Crude Oil and Natural Gas in India : heat-resistant steel are some of the important varieties of
India Reserves - Assam, Gujarat, Rajasthan. chromium steel.
India Production - Rajasthan, Assam (Nat. Gas), Gujarat India's Reserves - Odisha.
(Raj NG). India's Production - Odisha.
World Reserves - Venezuela, Russia (NG), Saudi Arabia, Most of the deposits of Chromite are found in the Jaipur
Iran (NG). Canada, Qatar (NG). Kendujhar and Dhenkanal districs of Odisha.
World Production - USA, USA (NG), Saudi Arabia, Russia
World Reserves - USA, South Africa (IMYB 2022).
(NG).
World Production - South Africa, Kazakhstan.
Cobalt :
Cadmium :
Cobalt is associated mostly with copper, nickel and arsenic
It has low melting points which is present generally in zinco
ores.
ore deposites as greenockite (CdS).
Rechargeable Battery Industry.
Sphalerite, the most economically significant.
Manufacture powerful magnets.
Zinc ore mineral, commonly contains minor amounts of
India Reserves - Odisha, Jharkhand and Nagaland (IMYB
cadmium.
2022).
Aerospace, electrical, defence, mining,nuclear fission,
India Production - Imports - Netherlands, USA.
television and offshore industries.
World Reserves - Congo (Kinshasa), Australia.
Imports of cadmium was mainly from China.
World Production - DRC Democratic Rep. of Congo,
India Reserves - Rajasthan.
Russia.
Tungsten : India Production - Rajasthan.
Tungsten, also known as 'wolfram' is a very dense lustrous World Production - China (IMYB 2022).
greyish white to steel-grey metal. Antimony :
It has good corrosion resistance, good thermal & electrical It is found in Lahaul & Spiti district, Himachal Pradesh.
conductivity. USES,
India Reserves - Karnataka, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh. Electronic, space defence,
India Production - Rajasthan. Photographic materials, electroplating, basides,
World Reserves - China, Russia. Cosmetic, paint, plastics and textile industries,
World Production - China, Vietnam. Traditionally, it it used in type metal in printing,
Tin : Battery Industry,
Its unique combination of properties like nontoxic nature, It is used in solar panels to improve stability of the solar
high malleability, chemical inertness etc. performance.
In India, tin ore is found to be associated with granite. India Reserves - Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh
Versatile packaging substrate used in edible oils, (IMYB 2022).
paints, pesticides, processed foods, beverages and other India Production - Imports - Russia.
industries. As a pure metal, it can be used in storage tanks World Reserves - China, Russia.
for pharmaceutical chemical solutions, in capacitors, World Production - China, Tajikistan.
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Crude Assam Gujarat Gujarat

Oil*****
Natural Assam Andhra Pradesh Gujarat
Major Iron Ore Gas*****
Regions of India
Copper Ore* Rajasthan Madhya Jharkhand
Garhwal
Pradesh
Gold (Metal)** Karnataka Rajasthan Andhra
Jaipur Pradesh

Palamu Hazaribag Silver (Ore)** Rajasthan Karnataka Jharkhand

Rachi
Jabalpur
Sinhgbhum Guru Mahisani Diamond*** Madhya Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Chhattisgarh
Balaghat Sundargarh Mayur Bhanj
Bhandara Raipur Kyonjhar
Chandrapur
Durg Katak
Note : *; 1 April, 2015, **; 1 April, 2020(P), ***; 1 April, 2020,
Arabian Bailadila Koraput Bay of Bengal ****; 1 April, 2022, *****; 1 April, 2021(P), P; Provisional.
Sea Ratnagiri
Sindhu Durg Dharwad Guntur Iron Ore Regions

Top Mineral Producing States of India

Kurnul
Uttar Kannad Bellari
Shimoga
Chitradurg
Kudremukh
Kemmangundi 2021-22(P)
Lakshadweep Salem Andaman and
(India) Tiruchirapalli Nicobar Group Minerals First Second Third
Madurai of Islands
Rock Phosphate Rajasthan Madhya Pradesh —
Sri (2020-21 P)
Lanka

Bauxite Odisha Gujarat Chhattisgarh

According to the Annual Report, 2023-24 of the Ministry Chromite Odisha — —
of Mines, India has a total of 95 minerals including 4 fuel Coal Odisha Chhattisgarh Jharkhand
mineruls, 10 metallic minerals, 23 non metallic, 55 minor
Copper Ore Madhya Pradesh Rajasthan Jharkhand
and 3 nuclear minerals.
Diamond Madhya Pradesh — —
Major Mineral Reserves: Top States IMYB 2022 Gold Karnataka Jharkhand —
Minerals First Second Third Graphite Odisha Tamil Nadu Jharkhand
Apatite*** West Bengal Jharkhand Meghalaya Iron ore Odisha Chhattisgarh Karnataka
Rock Jharkhand Rajasthan Madhya Magnesite Tamil Nadu Uttarakhand Karnataka
Phosphate*** Pradesh Manganese Ore Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Odisha
Asbestos*** Rajasthan Karnataka Andhra Crude Oil Rajasthan Gujarat Assam
Pradesh (2021-22 P)

Bauxite*** Odisha Chhattisgarh Andhra Natural Gas Assam Rajasthan Tripura

(2020-22 P)
Pradesh
Silver Rajasthan Karnataka —
Chromite*** Odisha Manipur Nagaland (2020-21 P)
Coal**** Odisha Jharkhand Chhattisgarh Chotanagpur plateau has a huge concentration of steel and
Dolomite* Madhya Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Chhattisgarh Iron industries.
Dunite* Tamil Nadu Karnataka Jharkhand Exam Oriented Facts
Felspar* Rajasthan Telangana Andhra Bailadila is famous for producing iron which is used for
Pradesh steel making.
Graphite** Arunachal Jammu and Odisha Odisha ranks first in steel production in India (IMYB).
Pradesh Kashmir According to Indian Minerals Year Book, 2022,
Rajasthan has the highest share of limestone production
Iron Ore Odisha Jharkhand Chhattisgarh
in India.
(Hematite)***
Noonmati, Digboi Numaligarh, Ankleshwar, Navgram,
Magnesite*** Uttarakhand Tamil Nadu Rajasthan Lunej (Guajarat) etc are famous for petroleum refineries.
Manganese Odisha Karnataka Madhya Petroleum is called liquid gold due to its high commercial
Ore** Pradesh value.
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construction and maintenance of national highways fall in

11. Transportation in India
the area of responsibility of the centre.
Transport is an imortant infrastructural Service which The national highways fall under the control of union body-
facilitates agriculture and industry to grow to their fullest National Highway Authority of India (NHAI).
potential. According to the annual report of 2023-24, the total length
Transport carries people and goods from one place to of the national highway in the country is 1,46,145 km. till
another. it helps the production, distribution as well as 31 March, 2024.
consumption processes. Government of India started National Highway Development
A dense and efficient network of transport is essential to programme (NHDP) Under NHAI.
promote social cohesion, accelerate economic properity (UPPCS, 1999; MPPCS, 2019)
and ensure security and territorial integrity. NHDP :
Transport consists of three different modes - Land Water (i) It was Launched in 1998 with the objective of developing
and air. They complement each other and in the process
roads of international standards which facilitate Smooth
constitute a single integrated netowork.
Flow of traffic.
Transport (ii) It includes components like Golden Quadrilateral is 5846 km.
long 4/6 lane, high density traffic corridor that connects India's
Land Water Air four big metro cities : Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai.
(iii) With 4076 km. long Road, North South Corridor aims
Road Rail Inland Sea way
Water way at connecting Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir with
KanyaKumari in Tamil Nadu.
Road Transportation (iv) With 3640 km. of road length, the East West corridor has
Road construction can be traced to the time of the Indus been planned to connect Silchar in Assam with the port
Valley Civilization. town of Porbandar in Gujarat.
In the medieval period, Sher Shah Suri and the Mughal
Associated Organizations
emperors took a keen interest in road construction.
In modern period, special attention was paid to the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) :
construction and development of roads by the British rulers, It was set up through an act of Parliament, namely the
especially by Lord Dalhousie. National High ways Authority of India act, 1988.
The ministry of Road Transport and Highways is the The NHAI is responsible for the development, maintenance
apex body for formulation and administration of Rules, and management of the National Highways entrusted to it.
regulation and laws relating to road transport and transport It became operational in 1995.
research. National Highways & Infrastructure Development
It encompasses construction and maintenance of National Corporation Ltd. (NHIDCL).
High Ways (NHs), administration of Motor Vehicle Act, It was set up to exclusively carry out the task of
1988 and Central Motor Vehicle Rules 1989, National High construction/up-grading/dening of National High ways in
ways act 1956 and National High ways Fee Determination part of the country which share international boundaries
of Rates and collection Rules, 2008, formulation of broad with neighboring countries in order to promote regional
policies in relation to road transport, environmental issue, connectivity on sustainable basis.
automotive norms etc. Indian Academy of High way Engineers (IAHE). IAHE
Currently, India has the second-largest road network (63.45 is a registered society under the administrative control
lakh km.) in the world. The road network includes state of Ministry of Road Transport and High way. It is a
roads, district roads, rural roads and national highways. collaborative body which was set up in year 1983 with
Classification of Roads in India the objective of fulfilling the long felt need for training of
Highway engineers in the country.
(1) National Highways :
These roads are the primary roads of the country and Indian Road Congress (IRC) :
connects large cities and major Industrial centries. The Indian Road congress (IRC) is the Apex Body of
It is the responsibility of the Government of India for The High way Engineers in the country. The IRC was set
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up in December, 1934 on the recommendations of the Delhi Chennai

Indian Road development committee best known as the 2182 km.
Delhi Howrah
Major stations
Jaykar committee set up by the Government of India with Agra,Jhansi, 1454 km.
Delhi-Mumbai Itarsi, Warangal Major stations
the objective of Road Development in India. It decides 1384 km. Kanpur, Mughal
Sarai, Dhanbad,
the Minimum requirements for roads, keeping in mind Major stations
Durgapur
Kota, Ratlam,
geography speed volume of traffice and safety. Vadodra, Surat

According to the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways,

NH 27 EW (Porbandar to Silchar) (4112.62 km), is India’s
longest national highway.
The five Indian states with the highest length of national
Mumbai Howrah
highway (according to the report of 2023-24) are 1967 km.
Major stations
Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh Igatpuri, bhusaval,
Nagpur, Tatanagar
and Andhra Pradesh.
National Highway No. 1A runs from Jalandhar to Uri via
Howrah-Chennai
undivided Jammu and Kashmir. Mumbai-Chennai
1662 km.
1284 km.
The Jawahar Tunnel is on the Banihal Pass of National Major stations Major stations
Pune, Raichur, Balasore, Cuttack,
Highway No. 1A. Cuddapah, Visakhapatnam,
Renigunta Vijayawada
The Jawahar Tunnel passes through the Banihal Pass in the
Pir Panjal range in the former Jammu and Kashmir State.
NH 327B (1.20 km) runs in West Bengal, is the shortest
national highway in India. It runs from Mechi Bridge in (2) State Highways :
West Bengal up to the Indo-Nepal border. The roads connecting the state capital to the district
headquarters are called the state highways.
Bharatmala Pariyojana :
The state government is responsible for the construction
In 2017, an umbrella programme for the National Highways and maintenance of state highways.
"Bharatmala Pariyojana Phase-I" was approved for According to Basic Road Statistics of India 2018-19,
construction/up- gradation of NHS of 34,800 km over a states with the highest state borders are- 1. Maharashtra
period of 5 years (2017-18 to 2021-22). (32005 km), 2. (Karnataka (19473 km), 3. Gujarat
Bharatmala Pariyojana program focuses on optimizing (16746 km), 4. Rajasthan (15061 km), 5. Andhra
efficiency of freight and passenger movement across the Pradesh (13500 km).
country by bridging critical infrastructure gaps through The length of state highways in Uttar Pradesh totals 7427
effective interventions like development of Economic kms.
Corridors, Inter Corridors and Feeder Routes, National The roads connecting major sites of the district are called
Corridor Efficiency Improvement, Border and International district roads.
connectivity roads, Coastal and Port connectivity roads and It is the responsibility of the district administration to
Green-field expressways. maintain these roads.
According to the report of 2023-24 of Ministry of Road Rural roads are constructed and maintained by the Gram
Transport and Highways, the status of Bharatmala Panchayats in the country.
Pariyojan phase I entails a total length of 34,800 km in Currently, 87% of the total passenger traffic and 60% of the
31 states and UTs, 550 + Districts. The length awarded freight traffic in the country is carried by road transport.
is 26,425 km. and the length constructed i is 17,411 km The Border Road Organization (BRO) was established in
so far. 1960 to promote the construction of roads in areas bordering
Multi-modal integration is also built into this program. neighbouring countries.
Special attention has been paid to fulfilling the connectivity The headquarter of the Border Roads Organization is
needs of backward and tribal areas, areas of economic located in New Delhi.
activity, places of religious and tourist interests, border Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (25 December 2000)
areas, coastal areas and trade routes with neighboring was launched to connect all villages in the country with
countries. paved all weather roads.
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The National Green Highway Policy 2015, has specified At present, GT Road extends from Amritsar to Kolkata. It
1% of the total cost of road construction as plantation is bifurcated into two segments :
funds. (a) National Highway (NH)-1 from Delhi to Amritsar.
Major District Roads :
(b) NH-2 from Delhi to Kolkata.
They connect areas of production, main markets and the
Now the numbering has been changed by National Highway
State and National Highways crossing the state.
It is constructed and maintained by Zilla Parishad. (Amendment) Act 2010.
Village Roads : International Roads :
These connect villages to each other or to the nearest These connect India with its neighboring countries.
District Roads. Some of the current projects are-
These are the responsibility of Village Panchayats. The India-Myanmar-Thailand (IMT) trilateral highway
In the year 2000, government launched Pradhan Mantri (1) It will connect Moreh in Manipur to Mae Sot in
Gram Sadak Yojna (PMGSY) to provide rural connectivity Thailand.
to unconnected habitations. (2) India is undertaking construction of two sections of
Expressways : the Trilateral Highway in Myanmar.
These are the best quality roads. Construction of Kalewa-Yagyi road section
Generally they have six lanes and controlled access.
Construction of Tamu-Kyigone-Kalewa (TKK)
Lucknow Agra Expressway is the longest expressway with
302 km. road section (3) The highway will facilitate easy
Mumbai Pune Expressway was the first 6-lane expressway movement of goods and people among the three
to be constructed. countries.
Border Roads : (4) The National Highways Authority of India has been
These are constructed and maintained by Border Road appointed as the technical executing agency and
Organization (BRO) which comes under Ministry of project management consultant
Defense. Zaranj Delaram Road
E-tolling and FASTag : (5) It is being built in Afghanistan by the Border Road
National Electronic Toll Collection (NETC) programme, Organization. (BRO).
the flagship initiative of the Ministry of Road Transport (6) It provides access to Indian goods from Chabahar port
and Highways, has been implemented on pan-India basis of Iran to Afghanistan and Central Asia.
in order to ensure seamless movement of traffic through International North - South Corridor (INSTC)
fee plazas and increase transparency in collection of user INSTC is a Multi modal connectivity Project that
fee using FASTag which is based on Radio Frequency establishes transport Networks (ship, rail and road route)
Identification (RFID) Technology. for moving freight between India, Russia, Europe, Iran and
The National Payment Corporation of India (NPCI) is the
Central Asia.
Central Clearing House (CCH).
INSTC project was initiated by Russia, India and Iran in
Towards the objective of achieving 100% collection
September 2000 in St. Petersburg.
through electronic payment, the Government has mandated
The agreement was signed on 16th May 2002.
to declare all lanes, except one lane in each direction as
INSTC would enhance accessibility to the land locked
FASTag lane w.e.f. December 2019.
This one lane in each direction will accept all other modes central Asian nations.
of payment including FASTag. It links Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf to the Caspian
Grand Trunk (GT) Road : Sea via Iran, and then onwards to northern Europe via St.
Sher Shah Suri built the Shahi (Royal) road to strengthen Petersburg in Russia.
and consolidate his empire from the Indus Valley to the The route primarily involves moving freight from India,
Sonar Valley in Bengal. Iran, Azerbaijan and Russia.
It was called Uttarapatha and was the key feature of many The objective of the corridor is to increase trade connectivity
empires in Ancient Indian history. between major cities such as Mumbai, Moscow, Tehran,
The road was later renamed as the Grand Trunk (GT) Baku, Bandar Abbas and Astrakhan etc.
road during the British period, connecting Calcutta and India has recently proposed to include Chabahar port in
Peshawar. INSTC.
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Rail Transport Indian Railway Finance Corporation (IRFC) is mobilizing

Railway Transport in India resources with sufficient moratorium period and projects
The Indian railway system is the largest in Asia and the are being targeted to be completed well before expiry of
fourth largest in the world. It is the biggest departmental moratorium period.
public undertaking in the country. Dedicated Freight Corridors :
Total railway network in the world Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC) project is a broad gauge
1st- USA 3rd-Russia freight corridor being constructed by the Indian Railways.
2nd-China 4th-India It aims to provide an efficient and reliable transportation
The first train in India ran between Mumbai to Thane on system through construction of freight corridors traversing
16th April 1853 during the Governor-General's ship of Lord the entire country.
Dalhousie. Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India Limited
The first rail track in India between Mumbai VT and (DFCCIL) is a special purpose vehicle of the railways
Kurla Harbour was electrified in 1925 under Lord which has been entrusted with the job to develop DFCS in
Reading. the country.
The first train to run on CNG in India was launched in Western DFC :
January 2015 on the Rewari-Rohtak section. It runs from Dadri (Uttar Pradesh) near Delhi to Jawahar
According to World Bank Data, 2021, Indian Railways Lal Nehru Port Trust (JNPT) in Mumbai.
has the longest rail network in the world after the United It covers the States of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi,
States, China and Russia in that order. Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
The Railway Board was established in March 1905. It is funded by World Bank.
The Railway budget was separated from the general Budget Along WDFC, Delhi Mumbai Industrial corridor (DMIC)
in 1921 at the suggestion of the Acworth Committee. In is being developed.
2017, it was again merged in the general budget. Its length is 1506 Km.
Indian Railways was nationalized in 1944. Eastern DFC :
The railway coach factory is located at Kapurthala, Banaras It spans from Ludhiana in Punjab to Dankuni in West
Locomotive Works (BLW) at Varanasi and Integral Coach Bengal.
Factory at Perambur. It covers the States of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and
The Indian railways, for administrative purposes, is divided Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal.
into 17 railway zones. 18th railway zone is Southern Coastal It is funded by Japan International Cooperation Agency
(JICA).
Railway whose headquarter is located at Vishakhapatnam
Along EDFC, Amritsar-Kolkata Industrial corridor (AKIC)
in Andhra Pradesh, being the last, announced to constitute
is being developed. The distance of EDFC is more than
in February 2019.
WDFC.
The second train ran between Howrah and Hooghly in 1854.
Dadri (WDFC) and Khurja (EDFC) will link at Uttar
The headquarters of Indian Railway is in New Delhi.
Pradesh.
The first electric train in India was 'Deccan Queen'. It was
There are three types of railway lines in India.
introduced in 1929 between Bombay and Poona.
Indian Railways has the second biggest electrified system Types of Rail Gauges
in the world after Russia. Rail Line Width of the Track
The first Metro Rail was introduced in Kolkata (West Broad Gauge 1.676 m
Bengal) on October 24, 1984.
Meter Gauge 1.00 m
National Rail Plan (NRP) 2030 : Narrow Gauge 0.762 m and 0.610 m
A National Rail Plan (NRP) 2030 has been developed with
a view to develop infrastructure by 2030 to cater to the Railway Zones and Their Headquarters
traffic requirements up to 2050. Zone Headquarters
Based on the NRP, a Vision 2024 document has been
1. Central Railway (CR) Mumbai (CST)
prepared to develop infrastructure by 2024 to enhance
2. Eastern Railway (ER) Kolkata
modal share of Railways in freight transportation to more
than 40 per cent and to cater to the traffic requirements up 3. Northern Railway (NR) New Delhi
to 2030. 4. North Eastern Railway (NER) Gorakhpur
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5. North East Frontier Railway Maligaon Guwahati India’s first underground metro ran from Kolkata’s
(NEFR) Dum-Dum to Tollygunge Corridor.
The Delhi Metro Rail Project was prepared in collaboration
6. Southern Railway (SR) Chennai
with the companies of Japan and Korea.
7. South Central Railway (SCR) Secunderabad
On 25th December 2002, the first metro rail ran between
8. South Eastern Railway (SER) Kolkata (MPPCS, 2016) Tis Hazari and Shahdara in Delhi.
9. Western Railway (WR) Mumbai (Churchgate) Air Transport :
The first air flight in India was started in 1911 between
10. East Central Railway (ECR) Hajipur
Allahabad (Prayagraj) and Naini.
11. North Western Railway (NWR) Jaipur Two airlines were set up to provide air services in India -
12. East Coast Railway (ECR) Bhubaneswar Air India and Indian Airlines.
13. North Central Railway (NCR) Prayagraj (Allahabad) Air India was to run International flights Indian Airlines
was restricted to domestic routes and immediate neighbours.
14. South Western Railway (SWR) Hubli
The Indian National Aviation Company Limited came into
15. Western Central Railway (WCR) Jabalpur existence on 27th August 2007 after the merge of Air India
16. South East Central Railway Bilaspur and Indian Airlines.
(SECR) The merged company retained its name Air India and thins
17. Kolkata Metro Railway (KMR) Kolkata public sector airline is now on the block for privatization.
In 1981, a new domestic airline, Vayudoot, with the specific
18. Southern Coast Railway (SCR) Visakhapatnam
purpose of providing air service to fara way north-east area
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus), of the country, was launched which was later emerged with
designed by the British architect F. W. Stevens, became Indian airline.
the symbol of Bombay as the ‘Gothic City’ and the major Pawan Hans Limited was also established in 1985 to meet
international mercantile port of India. the air traffic requirements of the petroleum sector. It also
Rohtak - Rewari DEMU train was India's first CNG served the north-eastern states.
train to run on CNG. The Airport Authority of India was formed on 1st April
The Vivek Express (4205 km, from Dibrugarh to 1995.
Kanyakumari) covers the longest distance in the country. It manages India's airports designated both for international
The Konkan Railway runs from Maharashtra to Roha via and domestic traffic.
Madgaon in Goa to connect Mangalore in Karnataka. The first greenfield airport in India is Cochin Airport on
In collaboration with Japan work has started on the project a public-private partnership basis.
to run a bullet train from Mumbai to Ahmedabad.
Major International Airports in The Country
The oldest steam locomotive in the country was named
Indira Gandhi International Airport New Delhi
Fairy Queen.
India’s first semi high-speed train is Gatimaan (5th April Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport Mumbai
2016), equipped with WAP-5 engine. The first engineless Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Kolkata
semi high-speed train in India is Vande Bharat (Train-18). Airport
Currently, the fastest running train in India is Vande Bharat. Babasaheb Ambedkar International Airport Nagpur
During the trial, this train recorded a speed of 180 kms per
hour. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Ahmedabad
The maximum speed of both the Gatimaan and the Vande Airport
Bharat trains to operate is 160 km/hour. Lal Bahadur Shastri International Airport Varanasi
The Vande Bharat Express was launched on 15th February, Tiruchirapalli International Airport Tiruchirapalli
2019. It covers the journey from New Delhi to Varanasi in Coimbatore International Airport Coimbatore
eight hours. Jaipur International Airport Jaipur
Gatimaan Express had an inaugural run from Hazrat
Mangaluru International Airport Mangaluru
Nizamuddin station in Delhi to Agra Cantt station on 5th
Kempegowda International Airport Bengaluru
April 2016.
In India, Metro rail was first introduced in Kolkata. Veer Savarkar International Airport Port Blair
Kolkata Metro Rail Scheme was launched in 1972. Cochin International Airport Kochi
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makes Indian goods uncompetitive in the international

Rajiv Gandhi International Airport Hyderabad
market.
Calicut International Airport Kozhikode The vision of the Programme is to reduce logistics cost
(Kerala)
of EXIM and domestic trade with minimal infrastructure
Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Guwahati investment.
Airport Objectives of the project :
Anna International Airport Chennai Augmenting operational efficiency of ports (more terminals
for loading and unloading cargo).
Devi Ahilyabai Holkar International Airport Indore
Activate Wedows
Chaudhary Charan Singh International Lucknow Optimizing logistics (rails, roads and inland waterways).
Airport Western coast-6 :
Sheikh-ul-Alam International Airport Srinagar 1. Kandla Port - Gulf of Kutch (Gujarat)-It is a tidal port
Water Transport : of India. It is known for handling much of the crude oil
There are two types of water transport. imports of India.
1. Internal or Inland Water Transport 2. Mumbai Port - Maharashtra-It is one of the oldest modern
natural ports of India
2. Shipping Transport
3. JNPT/Nhava sheva port - Maharashtra - It is the largest
To promote internal water transport, the government has
container port of India. It was built to reduce the burden on
selected 111 waterways and accorded them the status of
Mumbai port. It is one of the high tech and busiest ports.
national waterways.
4. Marmugao - Goa - It is a natural port famous for iron ore
Major National Waterways of India exports,
Waterway Distance 5. New Mangalore - Karnataka-It is famous for iron ore
Range Establishment
Sl. N. (Kilometer) exports.
NW-1 Prayagraj-Haldia 1620 1986 6. Kochi port - Kerala-It is located on the Willingdon Island
NW-2 Sadia-Dhubri 891 1988 on the South West coast of India. It is located on the cross
Brahmaputra River roads of the East-West Ocean Trade. It is a natural port. It
NW-3 Kollam to Kottapuram 205 1993 is called as queen of Arabian Sea.
(Kerala) East Coast-6 :
NW-4 Kakinada-Marakkanam 1078 2008 Eastern coast has shallow water. Therefor requires dredging
(Godavari-Krishna- to remove silt.
River Region)
1. Chennai - It is in Tamil Nadu. It is the oldest artificial port.
NW-5 Geonkhali-Talcher- 623 2008 2. Ennore - Tamil Nadu. It is latest port. It is first major private
Paradip (West Bengal
and Odisha) port. To reduce pressure of chennai port.
3. V. O. Chidambarnar or Tuticorin port - This port has
NW-16 Lakhimpur-Bhanga 121 2016
been now renamed as V. O. Chidambaranar Port. It is
Uttar Pradesh has the longest inland waterways. located in the Gulf of Mannar. Tuticorin is the only port
Sagarmala Project : in South India to provide a direct weekly container service
Sagarmala project is a port-led development programme to the United States.
of Ministry of Shipping A Shipping ministry study has 4. Visakhapatnam - It is in Andhra Pradesh. It is an artificial
claimed that the project could lead to an annual saving of port and deepest port of India.
Rs 40,000 Crore by optimizing logistics. 5. Paradip - It is located at the confluence of river Mahanadi
Currently 95% of India's trade by value and 70% by volume in Bay of Bengal in Odisha. It was the first major port on
take place through maritime transport. East Coast commissioned in Independent India.
India is lacking the high quantity of international trade via 6. Kolkata (including Haldia) - It is situated on the river
coastal line due to the lack of infrastructure facilities and Hooghly. It is the only riverine major port of India. It is
advanced coastal technologies. known for twin dock systems i.e. Kolkata Dock System
The cost of shipping/evacuating goods through Indian (KDS) on the eastern bank and Haldia Dock Complex
maritime transport is quite high compared to that of China, (HDC) on the western bank of river Hooghly. Kolkata Port
South Korea, Japan and other developed countries. This Trust is renamed as Syama Prasad Mookerjee Port in 2020.
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Shipping Transport : India’s Largest Ship Cycling Yard is located at Alang,

The country’s 7516.6 km long coastline has 12 major ports Gujarat.
and approximately 205 non-major ports located on it. Cochin Shipyard Limited was established in 1972. It is the
Mumbai, Nhava Sheva (JNPT), Deendayal (Kandla), biggest shipbuilding and repairing shipyard in the country.
Mormugao, New Mangalore and Cochin are the ports on
the west coast, while the major ports on the east coast are 12. Industries in India
Kolkata-Haldia, Paradip, Visakhapatnam, Kamarajar Port A. Iron Steel Industry :
(Ennore) and V.O. Chidambarnar (Tuticorin). Iron production on an industrial scale began in India in 1870
13th major part of India will be established in Maharashtra. with the establishment of a company, Bengal Iron works,
This port has approved the setting up at Vadhavan at Kulti in West Bengal.
(Maharashtra). In 1907, Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) was
Port Blair Port (private sector) was included in the founded at Sakchi (now Jamshedpur) in Bihar (now
category of major ports by the government in 2010. Later, Jharkhand).
it was given the status of a major port. But now, it has been The Tata Iron and Steel Plant lies near to Mumbai-Kolkata
demoted to the status of a small port. railway line and about 240 km away from Kolkata which
A natural harbour is located on the west coast of Mumbai. is nearest port for the export of steel. This industry gets
It is the largest container port in India. its raw materials from different source regions like: Water
Kandla is a tidal container port located in the Gulf of supply from Subamarekha and Kharkai rivers. Iron-ore
Kutch in Gujarat on the west coast and has been declared from Noamundi and Badam Pahar.
a free trade zone. TISCO started pig iron production in 1911 and began
Chennai is the largest artificial port in India located in Tamil producing steel in 1912 as a branch of Jamshetji’s Tata
Nadu coast. Group.
Chennai is an open sea port. Maximum concentration of iron and steel industries can be
Cochin (Kerala) harbour is located on a lagoon. Cochin found in the Chota Nagpur Plateau.
Shipyard Limited is the largest shipyard in India. The site was selected by Jamsetji Nusserwanji Tata.
In 1918, the Indian Iron and Steel Company was formed
Major Ports of India
at Hirapur (Burnpur), now West Bengal.
Name River/Sea/Bay State/Union Territory The Mysore Iron and Steel Company (MISCO) was
Kolkata, Haldia Hooghly River West Bengal established in 1923 at Bhadravati on the banks of the
Chennai Bay of Bengal Tamil Nadu Bhadravati River in Karnataka.
It was founded by Dewan M. Visvesvaraya of Mysore.
Mumbai Arabian Sea Maharashtra
It was renamed as Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Limited
Visakhapatnam Bay of Bengal Andhra Pradesh VISL on 16th February, 1976.
Kochi Arabian Sea Kerala The Mysore Iron and Steel Company is situated far away
Paradip Bay of Bengal Odisha from the coal mining site.
The Mysore Iron and Steel Company, being in the public
Tuticorin Bay of Bengal Tamil Nadu
sector, is jointly run by Govt. of India and the Karnataka
Mormugao Arabian Sea Goa state govt.
Kandla Arabian Sea Gujarat It was the first alloy steel plant in India.
Nhava Sheva Arabian Sea Maharashtra To give impetus to the iron and steel industry, the
New Mangalore Arabian Sea Karnataka government established Hindustan Steel Limited in 1954.
It helped establis three factories with foreign cooperation
Ennore Bay of Bengal Tamil Nadu
at Bhilai, Rourkela and Durgapur.
Ennore (Kamarajar Port) is the country’s first largest The Durgapur steel plant was established in collaboration
computerized and corporate port, developed with the with Britain.
assistance of the Asian Development Bank. The Rourkela factory was established in collaboration with
Port Dahej, Gujarat, is the first port in the country built Germany while Bhilai and the Bokaro Steel Plants were
for the disposal of chemical waste. set up in collaboration with the erstwhile Soviet Union.
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Under the fourth Five Year Plan, three steel factories were Tata Iron and Steel 1907 Sakchi (Jharkhand)
set up at Salem (Tamil Nadu), Visakhapatnam (Andhra Company (TISCO)
Pradesh) and Vijayanagar, (Karnataka).
Indian Iron and Steel 1918 Burnpur (West Bengal)
These plants are located far- away from the sites of raw
Company (IISCO)
materials.
Vizag Steel Plant at Visakhapatnam is the first port- based Visvesvaraya Iron & Steel 1923 Bhadravati (Karnataka)
plant. Limited (VISL)
On 24th January 1973, the Steel Authority of India Rourkela Steel Plant 1959 Rourkela (Odisha)
Limited (SAIL) was given the responsibility of operating
Bhilai Steel Plant 1955 Bhilai (Chhattisgarh)
the Durgapur, Rourkela, Burnpur, Bhilai, Bokaro, Salem
and Visvesvaraya ipron steel factories simultaneously. Durgapur Steel Plant 1959 Durgapur (West Bengal)
Bokaro Steel Plant 1964 Bokaro (Jharkhand)
Major Units of Iron Steel Industry
Establishment Salem Steel Plant 1972 Salem (Tamil Nadu)

Name Year Place Visakhapatnam Steel Plant 1971 Visakhapatnam

(Andhra Pradesh)
Bengal Iron Works 1870 Kulti (West Bengal)
Company Vijayanagar Steel Plant 1994 Hospet (Karnataka)

Location of Iron Steel Factories Along With Source of Raw Materials of India
Location Iron Ore Coal Limestone Water Market
1. Jamshedpur From Noumundi From the Jharia mines Mines of Jharkhand From Dimma Nala Kolkata
(Under Tata Mines of Gurusimhani and Odisha Dam, Rivers of
manage-ment in and Mayurbhanj in Subarnalekha and
private sector) Odisha Kharkai
2. Burnpur From Plateau of From the mines of From the mines of From the rivers Kolkata
Chota-nagar also from Raniganj and Jharia Odisha (Virmitrapur) of Damodar and
Odisha's Keonjhar Barakar
3. Bhadravati From Baba-Budan Wood from forests from Gangur River Bhadra South India
(First Public Sector Mountain (wood Gangur coal) and
Factory, Small hydro electric obtained
Manufacturer) from Western Ghat
4. Durgapur From the Plateau of From Barakar Jharia — River Damodar Kolkata
Chotanagpur and areas of DVC Thermal
Odisha Station
5. Rourkela From Odisha From the mines of Virmitrapur of from the dam built Chennai, Mumbai,
(Sundargarh or Jharia & Talohar also Odisha and from on Shankh river and Vishakhapatnam
Kendujhargarh hydroelectric from Hathibari from Shankh river
Keonjhar area) Hirakund
6. Bhilai From Dalli-Rajhara Best coal from Jharia & Raipur, Durg, Tandula Canal and South India,
Area Bokaro Korba, Thermal Bilaspur and Nandini Gondli Reservoir Mumbai, Kolkata,
Station Chennai & Delhi
7. Bokaro From Odisha (by Local coal, Jharia and Odisha area Damodar river Kolkata
return-ing empty Karanpura are nearby
vagons)
8. Vishakhapatnam From Bailadila Mines Import from Australia from Chattishgarh — Internal and
Area International
market
9. Paradip From Odisha From the mines of Jharia Odisha Area — Internal and
(Keonjhar Bonai and Talcher International
Area) market

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India's Leading Aluminum Companies

Major Iron and Steel Coordinating
Company Main Centre
Country
Industries in India
BALCO Korba (Chhattisgarh) and USSR
Koyana (Maharashtra)
NALCO Damanjodi (Odisha) France
HINDALCO Renukoot (UP) USA
Bokaro INDALCO JK Nagar (W. Bengal) Muri Canada
Durgapur (Jharkhand), Alwaye (Kerala)
Jamshedpur Burnpur
MALCO Mettur, Salem (Tamil Nadu) Italy
Bhilai Rourkela
Vedanta Jharsuguda (Odisha) Germany
Vishkhapatnam

Vijaynagar NALCO unit at Bhubaneswar (Odisha) is the largest

Bhadrawati integrated aluminium industry in India.
Salem In 2004, INDALCO was merged with HINDALCO.
C. Cotton Textiles Industry :
The cotton textiles industry is the largest in India.
The first cotton textiles mill in India was established in
1818 at Port Gloaster near Kolkata which soon closed.
India’s first successful cotton textiles factory was
B. Aluminium Industry :
established in 1854 by Cowasji Nanabhai Davar Mumbai.
India’s first aluminium industry was established in 1937 at
JK Nagar in West Bengal. The first cotton mill in India was established in 1818 at Fort
In 1965, the first public sector Aluminium producing Gloster near Kolkata but was a commercial failure.
company, Bharat Aluminum Company Limited (BALCO) The second cotton mill in India was established by KGN
was established. Daber in 1854 and was named Bombay Spinning and
The Korba, Chhattisgarh unit is being operated by Weaving Company.
BALCO. The cotton textiles industries are concentrated in
National Aluminium Company Limited (NALCO) was set Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat.
up in 1981.
Mumbai is known as the Cotton Textiles Capital of India.
Hindustan Aluminium Corporation (HINDALCO) was
Coimbatore is known as the Manchester of South India.
established at Renukoot (Sonbhadra, Uttar Pradesh).
Kanpur is known as the Manchester of North India.
Ahmedabad in India is called Boston of the East.
The textiles industry is the second largest employment
Major Aluminium
generator after agriculture.
Plants in India
The National Textiles Corporation was formed by
the Government of India for the development and
modernization of the cotton textiles industry.
Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Coimbatore, Kanpur, Kolkata,
Renukut (HINDALCO) Bangaluru, Jaipur, Amritsar, etc. are major centres of the
(BALCO) Korba cotton textiles industry.
Angul (NALCO)
Hirakud Geo-economic factors on which the localization of cotton
Koraput (NALCO) textile industry depends are as follows: Climate , Power,
Ratnagiri (Varron Alumium Pvt. Ltd.) Raw Material, Labour , Transport, Markets.
Belgam (HINDALCO)
D. Cement Industry :
(MALCO) Mettur
The first cement manufacturing factory in India was
Alupuram established in Chennai in 1904, but it was soon closed.
The Porbandar plant of the Indian Cement Company was
established in 1914.
Most of the cement factories of the country have been set up
at places where limestone and coal are available in plenty.
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Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, The first factory for the manufacture of newsprint was
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, etc. are the major centres of the established in Nepanagar, Madhya Pradesh.
cement industry. The production of paper by the Nepanagar Paper Factory
India holds the second position in cement production only began in April 1956.
after China. Nepanagar is the first indigenous factory for newsprint.
E. Jute Industry : Mysore Paper Mill was established in 1937 in Mysore
Jute is a cash crop of the hot and humid environment and (Karnataka).
delta alluvial soil. Most of the paper producing factories in India are located
The jute fibre is mainly produced in the Hooghly River in West Bengal.
valley region of West Bengal. Titagarh, Raniganj, Naihati, Triveni, Kolkata, Bansberia
Jute is known as the Golden Fibre of Bengal. (West Bengal); Tirupati, Kakinada, Rajahmundry (Andhra
Jute Corporation of India is responsible for the development Pradesh); Sirpur (Telangana); Meerut, Saharanpur,
and modernization of jute industry. Modinagar, Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh); Dumka (Jharkhand);
The first jute factory in India was established in 1855 at Samastipur, Patna, Barauni (Bihar). Charanmahadevi,
Rishra, near Kolkata. Chennai, Pattipalayam (Tamil Nadu); Chinchwad Roha
The Jute Corporation of India was established in 1971 to Kamptee, Jalgaon, Kalyan (Maharashtra); Gondal, Khadki,
look after import-export and internal market. Valsad, Vapi, Surat (Gujarat), etc. are the major paper
The International Jute Organization (IJO) was established industries.
in 1984. H. Glass Industry :
The headquarter of International Jute Organization is Sand, soda ash, limestone, sodium sulphate, salt, borax,
located in Dhaka (Bangladesh). lead, antimony, are ram materials required for the
On 27th April 2002, the International Jute Study Group was manufacture of glass.
established in place of IJO. Its headquarter is also located The glass industry in India is developed both at the cottage
in Dhaka, Bangladesh. as well as modern factory level.
West Bengal (Titagarh, Rishra, Bali, Serampore, Shyam Shikohabad and Firozabad are major centres of the glass
Nagar, Holi Nagar, etc.), Andhra Pradesh (Angol, Guntur), industry.
Uttar Pradesh (Kanpur, Sahajanwa), Bihar (Purnia, Katihar, As a cottage industry, Firozabad has more than 100
Saharsa, Kishanganj), are the states with the concentration factories. Bangles are made on a large scale in Firozabad.
of jute producing centres. Firozabad is also known as Suhag Nagari.
F. Sugar Industry : The glass factories in West Bengal are concentrated
Sugar is produced mainly from sugarcane but now, in Kolkata, Rishra, Dum Dum, Howrah, Raniganj and
sugarbeet and sweet potato also produce sugar. Asansol.
In India, the sugar industry has the concentration in In Uttar Pradesh, this industry is concentrated at Firozabad,
sugarcane producing areas. Meerut and Bahjoi.
The Sugar industry is a seasonal industry and sugarcane In Bahjoi, sheets of glass are manufactured.
bagasse is mainly used as fuel to run a factory. Mumbai, Pune, Nagpur, Dhaulpur, Amritsar, Faridabad,
The highest sugar producing state is Uttar Pradesh. are major glass producing centres.
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Punjab, I. Rail Equipment Industry :
Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan are The first railway equipment factory in India was established
the major sugar producing states. in 1921, named Peninsular Locomotive Company located
G. Paper Industry : at Singhbhum, Jharkhand.
Paper is made from fibres and cellulose. Later, it was renamed Tata Engineering and Locomotive
Esparto grass, bamboo, cotton fibre and flax are used in the Company (TELCO).
manufacture of high quality paper. A railway locomotive factory named Chittaranjan
The first modern paper mill in India was established at Locomotive Works was established at Chittaranjan, West
Serampore (West Bengal) which was soon closed. Bengal. The production started at this factory from 26th
Later, a factory was established in Bali (West Bengal) in January, 1950.
1867. The diesel-locomotive is manufactured at Maduadih in
Titagarh Paper Mills, Titagarh (West Bengal) was Varanasi (U.P.).
established in 1882. Locomotives are also manufactured at Jamshedpur
Titagarh is India’s largest paper producing centre. (Jharkhand).
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Railway wheels are manufactured at Bela, Saran, (Bihar). Karnataka produces (2021-22) more than 32% of the raw
Two factories for making electrical and diesel loco parts silk produced in the country.
were set up at Dankuni, Hooghly in West Bengal. In Karnataka, mulberry is used to manufacture silk.
The Integral Coach Factory was established on 2nd October The largest quantity of silk thread in the country is
1955 by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. The main centre for manufactured in Karnataka.
making railway coaches is located at Perambur, Chennai. Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, West
The Rail Coach Factory was established in 1985 at Bengal, Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland and Madhya
Kapurthala, Punjab. Pradesh produce non-mulberry (tussar, eri, muga) silk.
A modern coach factory was set up in Raebareli, Uttar In silk production, India ranks second after China in 2022.
Pradesh. The highest coral silk production in India occurs only in
Diesel locomotives are being manufactured at Madhaura in Assam.
Saran district and electric locomotives are being produced The Central Sericulture Research Training Institute is
in Madhepura district both in Bihar. located in Mysore.
In 2018, the Diesel Locomotive Works at Varanasi, in a The Central Tasar Research Training Institute is located at
rare case, converted the operation from Diesel locomotive Ranchi, Jharkhand.
manufacturing into electric manufacturing one. The headquarter of the Central Silk Board is located in
The country’s first 12000 horsepower electric locomotive Bengaluru.
was developed using state of the art technology at the M. Woollen Textiles Industry :
electric locomotive factory at Madhepura, Bihar. India’s first woollen textiles mill was established at Kanpur
J. Aircraft Manufacturing Industry : in 1876.
The first Indian aircraft manufacturing factory named
The actual development of the woollen industry took place
Hindustan Aircraft Limited was established in Bengaluru
after 1950.
in 1940.
Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Dhariwal and Amritsar are major
Hindustan Aircraft Limited is now known as Hindustan
centres of the woollen textiles industry in Punjab.
Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
The endangered animal Chiru or Tibetan antelope is hunted
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited has 5 units in Bengaluru
for getting raw wool.
and one unit each at Koraput, Korba, Kanpur, Lucknow,
The wool extracted from this animal called mulberry which
Hyderabad, and Nashik for the manufacture of aircraft.
is light in weight and extremely hot.
The Barrackpore (West Bengal) unit of Hindustan
Bengaluru, Bellary (Karnataka), Srinagar (Jammu
Aeronautics Limited carries out assembly maintenance and
and Kashmir); Amritsar, Dhariwal, (Punjab); Kanpur,
repair work of Cheetah and Chetak Helicopters.
Modinagar, Shahjahanpur (Uttar Pradesh) are major centres
K. Shipbuilding Industry :
of woollen textiles.
Scindia Steam Navigation Company, the first Indian factory
for shipbuilding, was established in 1941 at Visakhapatnam. N. Engineering Industries :
The Hindustan Shipyard was formed on 21st January Heavy Engineering Corporation Limited (HEC) was
1952 by the Government of India after acquiring the first established in Ranchi in 1958.
shipbuilding factory in 1952. Hindustan Machine Tools Limited was established by the
The following public sector units manufacture ships Government of India at Bengaluru in 1953.
(1) Mazgaon Dock Limited, Mumbai (Maharashtra), Ajmer, Jadavpur, Hatia, Durgapur, Naini, Visakhapatnam
(2) Garden Reach Shipbuilders Limited, Kolkata (West and Bangaluru are major centres of the engineering
Bengal), (3) Goa Shipyard Limited, (Goa), (4) Hindustan industry.
Shipyard Limited (Visakhapatnam), (5) Cochin Shipyard O. Automobile Industry :
Limited (Kochi), (6) Hooghly Dock and Port Engineers The automobile industry currently manufactures all types
Limited (Kolkata). of small and large vehicles in India.
The first four of the above-mentioned factories fall under Ashok Leyland (Chennai), Mahindra & Mahindra Limited
the administrative control of the Ministry of Defence while (Pune), Maruti Udyog Limited, Gurugram (Haryana),
the latter two are under the control of Ministry of Shipping Sunrise Industry (Bengaluru), Hindustan Motors (Kolkata),
under the administrative control of the Ministry of Defence etc. are the major centres of the auto industry.
and 5 to 6 are in control of the Ministry of Shipping. P. Leather industry :
L. Silk Industry : Kanpur is known for manufacturing leather shoes.
Mulberry, Eri, Tasar and Muga, all 4 varieties of silk is Kanpur, Agra, Mumbai, Kolkata, Patna and Bengaluru are
produced in India. the major centres of the leather industry in India.
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Q. Chemical Fertilizer Industry : Sanctuaries are created for protecting and preserving
The first factory for producing superphosphate fertilizer particular species of animals or birds.
was established at Ranipet in Tamil Nadu in 1906. National parks are established to conserve the habitat of a
In 1937, a factory for producing ammonia fertilizer was particular animal.
established, named, Mysore Chemical and Fertilizer at Jim Corbett National Park (Uttarakhand) is the first
Balegula in Karnataka. national park in India.
In 1943, Fertilizers and Chemicals Travancore Limited was It was established in 1936. Its former name was Hailey
established at Udyogamandal in Kerala. The production of National Park.
Ammonium Sulfate started here in 1947. The first tiger project in Jim Corbett National Park in India
A fertilizer plant was established at Sindri (Jharkhand) in was launched in 1973.
1951 by the Fertilizer Corporation of India. In, 2021 the National Tiger Conservation Authority
India is entirely dependent on imports for potash fertilizer. (NTCA) designated 53rd Tiger Reserve of the country in
Nitrogen fertilizer consumption is highest in India. Chhattisgarh. The new tiger reserve is constituted by the
The factories at Shahjahanpur and Jagdishpur in Uttar combined area of Guru Ghasidas National Park and Tamor
Pradesh, are gas-based. Pingla Wildlife Sanctuary.
Krishak Bharati Cooperative Limited (KRIBHCO) has a Ramganga and Kosi rivers flow through Jim Corbett Park.
gas-based urea ammonia plant at Hazira, Gujarat. The largest tiger reserve in India is Nagarjuna Sagar in
The Fertilizer Corporation of India Ltd. has its units at Srisailam (Andhra Pradesh and Telangana). In Telangana,
Sindri (Jharkhand), Talcher (Odisha), Ramagundam it is called Amrabad Tiger Reserve now.
(Telangana), Gorakhpur (U.P.) and Korba (Chhattisgarh). Hemis, India’s largest national park is located in Ladakh.
Punjab tops India in fertilizer consumption (kg. per hectare Project Tiger 1973 was launched by the efforts of Mr.
2020-21), followed by Haryana and Andhra Pradesh in that Kailash Sankhala from Rajasthan.
order. Mr. Sankhala is known as the Tiger Man of India.
R. Industrial Clusters : The smallest tiger reserve in terms of area is Bor
There are three types of industrial clusters in India. (Maharashtra).
1. Large Industrial Areas In 1963, Sir Peter Scott first envisaged an International Red
2. Small Industrial Areas Data Book (IRBD).
3. Industrial Districts The Red Data Book provides information about endangered
There are 8 major industrial regions in large industrial areas- species of flora and fauna.
1. Kolkata - Hooghly Industrial Zone The Red Data Book and rate list are issued by the
2. Mumbai-Pune Industrial Area International Union for Conservation of Nature.
3. Ahmedabad-Vadodara (Gujarat) Industrial Area The first International Red Data Book was published in
4. Gurugram - Delhi - Meerut Industrial Area 1964.
5. Chhotanagpur Industrial Area Salim Ali was an eminent nature lover and ornithologist
6. Bengaluru-Tamil Nadu Industrial Area of India.
7. Visakhapatnam-Guntur Industrial Area Salim Ali National Bird Park was established at Srinagar,
8. Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Industrial Area in memory of Salim Ali.
There are 13 major small industrial regionps – Ambala- The maximum number of wildlife sanctuaries in India
Amritsar, Brahmaputra Valley, Saharanpur-Muzaffarpur- (96) is located in Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the
Bijnor, Indore-Dewas-Ujjain, Jaipur-Ajmer, Prayagraj- maximum number of national parks (11) is in Madhya
Varanasi-Mirzapur, Bhojpur-Munger, Durg-Raipur, Pradesh.
Bilaspur-Korba, Kolhapur-Dakshina Kannada, North National Chambal Sanctuary, also called the National
Malabar, Central Malabar, Adilabad-Nizamabad. Chambal Gharial Wildlife Sanctuary, is a 5,400 sq. km
There are 15 industry districts - Kanpur, Agra, Lucknow, tri-state protected area in northern India home to critically
Gorakhpur, Aligarh, Bareilly, Purnia, Jabalpur, Jalpaiguri, endangered gharial (small crocodiles), the red-crowned
roof turtle and the endangered Ganges river dolphin.
Hyderabad, Nagpur, Gwalior, Bhopal, Cuttack and Kota.
Located on the Chambal River near the tri-point of
13. Major Wildlife Sanctuaries in India Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, it was first
declared as a PAs in Madhya Pradesh in 1978 and now
The Wildlife Act was passed by the Government of India constitutes a long narrow eco-reserve co-administered by
in 1972 to create wildlife sanctuaries and national parks. the three states.
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Within the sanctuary the pristine Chambal River cuts Sundarban National Park West Bengal
through mazes of ravines and hills with many sandy beaches
West Sundarban Wildlife Sanctuary West Bengal
along its banks.
Abohar Wildlife Sanctuary Punjab
National Park/ Wildlife Sanctuary Namdapha National Park Arunachal
State/Union Territory Pradesh
Dudhwa National Park Uttar Pradesh In 1991, the Wildlife Protection Amendment Act was
Chandraprabha Sanctuary Uttar Pradesh passed.
Gir National Park Gujarat The Indian Wildlife Research Institute is located at
Dehradun.
Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary Gujarat
Fossil National Park is located in Madhya Pradesh.
Corbett National Park Uttarakhand
Bhadra Sanctuary Karnataka 14. Tribes in India
Bandipur National Park Karnataka Those people who remain untouched by civilization and
Someshwar Sanctuary Karnataka outside of the mainstream life of the society, lead life
Palamu Sanctuary Jharkhand according to their natural environment and protect and
Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary Jharkhand preserve their way of life, language and culture are called
"Tribes".
Hazaribagh Wildlife Sanctuary Jharkhand
They are listed under Article 342 in the Indian Constitution.
Manas National Park Assam
The President of India has the right to notify a tribal
Kaziranga National Park Assam community.
Keoladeo Ghana National Park Rajasthan Thakkar Bapa first used the word 'Adivasi' for them. He
Ranthambore National Park Rajasthan was thus given the name, 'Adivasi Messiah'.
Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary Rajasthan According to the 15th Census 2011, Scheduled Tribes
accounted for 8.6% of the total population of the country.
Sariska National Park Rajasthan
Madhya Pradesh has the highest number of Scheduled
Pench National Park Maharashtra/
Tribes' population in India.
Madhya Pradesh
The Bhils are the largest tribal group in India.
Borivali (Sanjay Gandhi) National Maharashtra Gond and Santhal are the second and the third largest
Park
tribes of India, respectively.
Bhitarkanika National Park Odisha The Jarawa Tribes has origins in the Andaman and
Simlipal Wildlife Sanctuary & Odisha Nicobar Islands.
National Park Tharu Tribes mourn on the occasion of Deepavali.
Nandan Kanan Zoological Park Odisha The Munda Tribes celebrate the Sirhul Festival.
Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary Tamil Nadu Jaunsari and Toda tribes practice polyandry.
Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary Kerala Gaddis is the dominant tribe of the Dhauladhar Range
(Himachal Pradesh).
Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary Kerala
Bhutias migrate during seasons.
Dampa Sanctuary Mizoram
Shompen Tribes is found in the Nicobar Group of Islands.
Kanha National Park Madhya Pradesh Tharparkar is a tribe belonging to the border region of
Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve Madhya Pradesh Rajasthan.
Dachigam National Park Jammu and Kashmir The practice of visiting husband is prevalent among Nayar
Kishtwar National Park Jammu and Kashmir Tribes.
Bandhavgarh National Park Madhya Pradesh Major Tribes in India
Nagarhole (Rajiv Gandhi) National Karnataka State/UT Tribes
Park
Andaman Nicobar Sentinelese, Onges, Jarawa, Shompen,
Keibul Lamjao National Park Manipur Nicobarese
Bhagwan Mahaveer Wildlife Sanctuary Goa Tamil Nadu Kurumba, Karikaran, Toda, Kota
Great Himalayan National Park Himachal Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Chenchu, Koya, Gadaba, Lambada,
Sultanpur National Park Haryana Savara, Yenadi
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Telangana Koya, Kondh Chenchu, Koulia, Gadaba India’s first research centre in Antarctica was established
at Dakshin Gangotri (1983-84). It does not exist now.
Punjab Sansi
India established Maitri, the second research centre in
Kerala Malayan, Puliyan, Kuruman Urali,
Antarctica in 1988-89.
Kadar, Paliyan
India’s third research centre Bharti is located at Larsemann
Karnataka Pardhi, Yereva, Naikda Hills.
Gujarat Bhil, Charan, Koli
Maharashtra Bhil, Dhanwar, Koli, Worli,Gond 16. The Census of India
Rajasthan Meena, Bhil, Garasia, Saharia, Koli, The census was also mentioned in Kautilya’s Arthashastra
Damor and Ain-i-Akbari (1595 AD) authored by Abul Fazl.
Himachal Pradesh Gaddi, Kanaura, Jad, Bhot, Gujjar The first census was conducted in 1872 by Lord Mayo
Jammu & Kashmir Bakarwal, Gujjar,( Muslim) Gaddi, during British Rule.
(Undivided) Chang Pa In 1881, a systematic enumeration of the population started
Ladakh Balti, Beda, Bot, Boto, Changpa, Brokpa, every ten years from the time of Lord Ripon and that
Drokpa, Dard, Shin Garra, Mon, Purigpa continues to this day.
Since then, Fifteen censuses in India have been conducted
Uttarakhand Tharu, Bhutia, Buxa, Jaunsari, Raji
so far.
Odisha Munda, Kharia, Bhumij, Santhal, Ho,
The first census of independent India was held in 1951,
Kol, Oraon, Saora
under the Census Commissioner, R A Gopalaswamy.
Jharkhand Santhal, Munda, Ho, Birhor, Kol, Baiga, The population density of India in 2001 was 324 persons
Asur per square kilometre and in 1951 it was 117.
Madhya Pradesh Bhil, Gond, Paharimaria, Muria, Baiga, The Census 2011 was the 15 th and the seventh of
Kol, Kamar Independent India.
Chhattisgarh Muria, Kabar Sahariya, Khond, Gond The Census 2011 is the second of 21st century.
Abhujmaria The slogan of the 15th Census 2011 was "Our Census Our
Meghalaya Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Kuki Mikir Future".
Manipur Kuki, Medhi The mascot of the 15th Census 2011, was the Female
Nagaland Naga, Kachari teacher (enumerator).
The census of the country is the subject of the Union List,
Mizoram Hajong, Pawi, Mizo
i.e. the census work is undertaken under the direction of
Tripura Halam, Riang, Tripuri
the Central Government.
Arunachal Pradesh Momba, Kamba, Apatani, Mishmi, The census organization functions under the Union
Singpho, Abor Ministry of Home Affairs.
Assam Garo, Khasi Jaintia, Karbi, Kuki, Bodo Its higher authority is called Registrar General and
West Bengal Lodha, Bhumij, Santhal, Lepcha Census Commissioner of India.
Sikkim Lepcha, Bhutia The Census Commissioner directs census related operations
The Khasi, Jaintia, Bhoi, and War are collectively known across the country and releases census data.
as the Hynniewtrep. Currently, Vivek Joshi is the Registrar General and Census
These people predominantly inhabit the districts of East Commissioner of India.
Meghalaya, also known to be one of the earliest ethnic The Union Cabinet accepted in principle the caste-based
group of settlers in the Indian sub-continent, belonging to census for the first time in September 2010 (after 1931) and
the Proto Austroloid Monkhmer race. accordingly a census was conducted separately from June
Nongkrem dance festival is an annual festival of the Khasi 2011 to September 2011.
tribe of Meghalaya. In the demographic history of India, the year 1921 is called
the Great Division Year because the decadal growth
15. India and Antarctica of population in India from 1911 to 1921 was negative
The first Indian to reach the South Pole was Dr. Giriraj (-0.31%).
Sirohi (Bulandshahar, Uttar Pradesh). India possesses 2.4 per cent of the complete land region of
Dr. Saeed Zahoor Qasim led India’s first Antarctica the world while India’s population is 17.5% of the total
expedition team (9th January 1982). population living on this planet.
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India is home to second-largest world population close The top 4 States in terms of population are Uttar Pradesh
behind China which tops the world population chart. It is (16.50 per cent), Maharashtra (9.28 per cent), Bihar (8.6
also the seventh in descending order in terms of area. per cent), West Bengal (7.54 per cent).
Key Facts of Census 2011 : The 4 states with the lowest population are - Sikkim
Census 2011 covered 35 states / union territories, 640 (0.05%), Mizoram (0.09%), Arunachal Pradesh (0.11%),
districts, 5924 sub-districts, 7933 towns and 6,40,932 Goa (0.12%).
villages. The population inhabiting per square km is called
population density.
The data of Census 2011 gives the figures of Telangana
Population density =Total population of a place / Total area
in undivided Andhra Pradesh and the figures of Union
of that place
Territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh in undivided
The four states with the highest population density in
Jammu and Kashmir State ( from 31st October 2019). descending order are Bihar (1106), West Bengal (1028),
The total population of India as per Census 2011, is Kerala (860), Uttar Pradesh (829).
1,21,08,54,977 of which 62, 32, 70,258 (51.47%) are males The 4 states with lowest population density are Arunachal
and 58, 75, 84,719 (48.53%) females. Pradesh (17), Mizoram (52), Sikkim (86), Nagaland (119).
The annual growth rate of the population has decreased The decadal growth rate is the increase in the population
from 1.97% to 1.64% while the decadal growth rate has every 10 years.
come down from 21.54% to 17.7%. Decadal Population Growth (DGR)
The Crude Birth Rate (CBR) at the National level during 2011 Present Population − Previous Population
= × 100
stands at 21.8 exhibiting a decline of 0.3 points over 2010. Previous Population
The decadal growth rate in Nagaland remained negative The four states with the highest decadal growth are
(-0.6%). Meghalaya (27.9%), Arunachal Pradesh (26%), Bihar
India’s population density has increased from 325 persons (25.4%), Manipur (24.5%).
per sq km to 382 persons per sq km. Four states with the lowest decadal growth are Nagaland
The sex ratio has improved from 933 to 943. (- 0.6%), Kerala (4.9%), Goa (8.2%) and Andhra Pradesh
The child sex ratio (0-6 years) has declined from 927 to 919. (11%).
The number of literate people has increased from 64.8% The number of females per 1000 males is called Sex Ratio
to 73% of the total population of India. Number of females
Sex ration = ×1000
Male Literacy has improved from 75.26% to 80.9% and Number of males
female literacy from 53.67% to 64.6%. The 4 states with the highest sex ratio are Kerala (1084),
According to the Census 2011, Scheduled Castes in the Tamil Nadu (996), Andhra Pradesh (993) and Chhattisgarh
country account for 16.6% of the total population of the (991).
country. In absolute numbers, they are 20.14 crores. The four states with the lowest sex ratio are Haryana (879),
The decadal growth rate of Scheduled Castes in the country Jammu and Kashmir (889), Sikkim (890) and Punjab (895).
from 2001 to 2011 was 20.8%. The number of girls in the age group of 0-6 years as
The sex ratio of the Scheduled Castes in 2011 was 945. compared to per 1000 boys in the age group of 0-6 is called
According to the Census 2011, the absolute number of Child Sex Ratio.
Number of Girls (0 − 6 years)
Scheduled Tribes in the country is about 10.43 crores Child Sex Ratio = × 10000
accounting for 8.6% of the total population of the country. Number of Boys (0 − 6 years)
The sex ratio of Scheduled Tribes in the census 2011 was The four states with the highest child sex ratio are
990. Arunachal Pradesh (972), Mizoram (970), Meghalaya (970)
and Chhattisgarh (969).
The decadal growth rate of Scheduled Tribes in the country
The four states with the lowest sex ratio are Haryana (834),
from 2001 to 2011 was 23.7%.
Punjab (846), Jammu and Kashmir (862) and Rajasthan
According to the Census 2011, the urban population
(888).
was 31.1%, the rural population is 68.9% of the total
Literacy :
population of the country. Those in the age group of 7 years or more can read and
Rajasthan is the largest state in terms of area, while Goa write are called literates.
is the smallest. The literacy rate of the population is the percentage of
The largest State in terms of population is Uttar Pradesh literate persons out of the total population in the age group
while the smallest state by population is Sikkim. of 7 years or more.
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Number of Literates Maharashtra (1,05,10,213), Odisha (95,90,756) and

Literacy Rate = × 100 Rajasthan (92,38,534).
7 + age population
The four states with the highest literacy rates are Kerala Jharkhand ranks sixth in terms of Scheduled Tribes'
(94%), Mizoram (91.3%), Goa (88.7%) and Tripura population. Its Scheduled Tribes population is 86,45,042.
The four states with the highest Scheduled Tribes'
(87.2%).
population in relative numbers are Mizoram (94.4%),
The four states with the lowest literacy rates are Bihar
Nagaland (86.5%), Meghalaya (86.1%) and Arunachal
(61.8%), Arunachal Pradesh (65.4%), Rajasthan (66.1%)
Pradesh (68.8%).
(4) Jharkhand (66.4%).
The Scheduled Tribes' population is 30.6% in Chhattisgarh;
The four states with the highest male literacy are Kerala
26.2% in Jharkhand and 21.1% in Madhya Pradesh.
(96.1%), Mizoram (93.3%), Goa (92.6%) (4) Tripura
There is no Scheduled Tribes' population in Haryana and
(91.5%).
Punjab.
The four states with the lowest male literacy are Bihar
Population 2011- (Union Territories) :
(71.2%), Arunachal Pradesh (72.6%), Andhra Pradesh
Delhi is the most populous Union Territory followed by
(74.9%) and Meghalaya (76%). Puducherry and Chandigarh in that order. Lakshadweep is
The four states with the highest female literacy are Kerala a Union Territory with a minimum population.
(92.1%), Mizoram (89.3%), Goa (84.7%) and Tripura The largest Union Territory in terms of area is Andaman
(82.7%). and Nicobar Islands while the smallest is Lakshadweep.
The four states with lowest female literacy are Bihar Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Lakshadweep are the Union
(51.5%), Rajasthan (52.1%), Jharkhand (55.4%) and Territories with the highest decadal growth rate (55.9%) and
Jammu and Kashmir (56.4%). with the lowest decadal growth rate (6.3%), respectively.
Rural Population / Urban Population : The union territory of Delhi (11320) has the highest density
The four states with the highest rural population (in while Andaman & Nicobar (46) has the lowest density.
descending order) are Himachal Pradesh (90%), Bihar Puducherry is a Union Territory with the highest sex ratio
(88.7%), Assam (85.9%) and Odisha (83.3%). (1037) and Daman and Diu is a Union Territory with the
The four states with the highest urban population in lowest sex ratio (618).
relative numbers are Goa (62.2%), Mizoram (52.1), Tamil Andaman and Nicobar Islands is a Union Territory with
Nadu (48.4%) and Kerala (47.7%). the highest child sex ratio (0–6 years) (968) and Delhi is a
The four states with the highest urban population in Union Territory with the lowest child sex ratio (871).
absolute numbers (in descending order) are Maharashtra Lakshadweep is a Union Territory with the highest literacy
(5,08,18,259), Uttar Pradesh (4,44,95,063), Tamil Nadu (91.8%) and Dadra and Nagar Haveli is a Union Territory
(3,49,17,440) and West Bengal (2,90,93,002). with the lowest literacy (76.2%).
The four states with the lowest urban population in Lakshadweep is a Union Territory with the highest male
absolute numbers (in descending order) are Sikkim literacy (95.6%) and Dadra Nagar Haveli is a Union
(1,53,578), Arunachal Pradesh (3,17,369), Nagaland Territory with the lowest male literacy (85.2%).
Lakshadweep is a Union Territory with the highest female
(5,70,966) and Mizoram (5,71,771).
literacy (87.9%) and Dadra and Nagar Haveli is a Union
Scheduled Castes/ Scheduled Tribes :
Territory with the lowest female literacy (64.3%).
The four states with the highest Scheduled Castes' Chandigarh (18.9%) is a Union Territory with the highest
population in relative numbers are Punjab (31.9%), population of Scheduled Castes in terms of percentage
Himachal Pradesh (25.2%), West Bengal (23.5%) and Uttar while Delhi is a Union Territory with highest population
Pradesh (20.7%). of Scheduled Castes (28.12 lakh) in terms of numbers.
The four states with the highest Scheduled Castes' No Scheduled Castes reside in Lakshadweep and
population in absolute numbers are Uttar Pradesh Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
(4,13,57,608), West Bengal (2,14,63,270), Bihar Lakshadweep (94.8%) is a Union Territory with the highest
(1,65,67,325) and Tamil Nadu (1,44,38,445) Scheduled Tribes' population and Dadra and Nagar
There is no Scheduled Castes population in Nagaland and Haveli is a Union Territory with the highest Scheduled
Arunachal Pradesh. Castes' population (1, 78, 564).
The four states with the highest Scheduled Tribes' number No Scheduled Tribes reside in Delhi, Chandigarh and
in absolute numbers are Madhya Pradesh (1,53,16,784), Puducherry.
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Economics &
Indian Economy
Economics : An Introduction Market Classification of Economies Economic Growth and Economic Development
Planning in India Planning Commission Poverty in India Poverty Prevention and Welfare Schemes Indian
Agriculture Indian Industries Indian Public Finance UNION BUDGET, 2024-25 Fiscal Policy Major Taxes
In India Miscellaneous

1 Major Books of Economics and Its Authors

Economics : An Introduction
Books Authors
Economics is the study of activities like production,
Das Kapital (1867) Karl Marx
consumption and distribution of goods and services.
The study of achieving maximum welfare from limited The Wealth of Nations (1776) Adam Smith
resources is the main theme of this subject. Foundations of Economic Analysis
Paul A. Samuelson
In ancient India, Chandragupta Maurya’s Prime Minister, (1947)
Kautilya (Chanakya) wrote a book named ‘Arthashastra’, The General Theory of Employment,
although the theme of Arthashstra is based on polity. J.M. Keynes
Interest and Money (1936)
Aristotle, in his treatise 'Economics' (originally Latin word-
Nature and Significance of Economic
Oeconomica) defined economics by linking it to ‘House L. Robbins
Science (1932)
Management’.
How to Pay for the War (1940) J.M. Keynes
Adam Smith is called the ‘Father of Economics’. He
Principles of Economics (1890) Alfred Marshall
was the first to present economic ideas in a sequential
manner. Market
In his book ‘An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes There are four forms of the market in economics :
of the Wealth of Nations’ (1776), he defines economics 1. Perfect Competition
as ‘Science of Wealth’. 2. Monopoly
According to Adam Smith, 'Economics is to investigate 3.Monopolistic Competition
the nature and causes of the wealth of nations'. 4. Oligopoly and Duopoly
1. Perfect Competition: Perfect competition is the market
Definitions of Economics situation where the buyer and the seller exist in large
numbers and buy or sell a small part of the total production.
The commodities produced in it are completely homo-
Wealth Related Definitions of ‘Want lessness’
Scarcity or limited
geneous.
Definitions Definitions
resources The same price of a similar item prevails in the market.
2. Monopoly: It is a market situation in which there is one
Adam Smith, J.K. Mehta seller and many buyers. There is no substitute for the
J.S. Mill, etc. L. Robbins
Modern or
commodity in the market. In this market, the price can be
Welfare related Growth affected by changes in the supply.
Definitions focused 3. Monopolistic Competition: It is a market situation in
definitions
which the properties of both monopolistic and Perfect
Marshall,
Henry , Smith, competition exist. There are many sellers of goods produced
Cannon,
Pigoo etc. Samuelson in this form of the market, but each seller’s produce has
and Benham etc. specific characteristics that make it monopolistic. In this
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market, the price can be affected to some extent, but it

Principle of Supply : There is a proportional relationship
depends on the extent to which consumers consider that between the price of the commodity and the quantity
item to be exclusive and to some extent, there is competition supplied. If the price of the commodity increases, the
with the substitute goods of that item. supply of the commodity also increases. On the contrary,
when the price of the commodity decreases, the supply
Important Economic Terminologies
of the item also decreases.
Price : The price of a commodity in the market is
Equilibrium Price : The equilibrium price of a
determined by the interaction of the forces of demand
commodity is the price at which demand and supply are
and supply.
equal. The same quantity is demanded at this price, as it
Market : It refers to the entire area in which buyers and is supplied.
sellers are in contact with each other for the purchase
4. Oligopoly : This is the position between Monopoly and
and sale of goods. In this view, there is a local, regional,
Monopolistic Competition. In this type of market, there
national and international market of the commodity. are only a few selected sellers level and they also compete
Commodity : Any item that is produced for sale. among themselves. If the number of sellers is only two, it
Vegetables are not a commodity grown by the consumer is called Duopoly.
for his own consumption, but the vegetables sold by Note :
the farmers in the market come under the category of According to Gresham's Law "Bad money drives out
commodity. good money".
Demand : It is the quantity of a commodity that the In any economy, the income velocity of accumulated
buyer is ready and able to purchase at a particular price money (in active) by public is equal to zero.
at a specific time. In the simple model of circular flow of the economy
aggregate consumption exceeds aggregate expenditure.
Supply : It is the quantity of an item that the seller is
willing to sell at a particular price at a specific time.
2 Classification of Economies
Law of Demand : There is an inverse relationship
between the price of a commodity and the quantity An economy is a set of activities such as production,
demanded. If other things remain the same, when there consumption, distribution, allocation, etc.
is an increase in the price, there will be a decrease in the From the point of view of economic development level,
demand and if there is a decrease in the price, there will the economy is divided into three parts - 1. Developed
be an increase in the demand. economy, 2. Less developed economy and 3. Developing
Economy. (UPPCS, 2017, Chhattisgarh 2017)
Giffen Goods : There is a direct relationship between
1. Developed Economy : Developed countries are those
the price of Giffen Goods and the quantity demanded,
sustained with high per capita income. GDP of the country,
i.e; as the price increases, the demand for Giffen Goods
technique and standard of living of the people is high
increases and as the price decreases, the demand for and structural development is very good, but the level of
Giffen Goods also decreases. Giffen Goods are inferior population and unemployment is low.
goods. The Law of demand does not apply to Giffen Characteristics of a Developed Economy :
Goods. Socially and economically advanced,
The Price Elasticity of Demand : The change in the High level of production and consumption,
quantity demanded of a product as an outcome of a High level of national income and per capita income,
change in price is called the price elasticity of demand. High level of savings and investments,
Proportional change in demand High rate of capital formation and
Elasticity of demand = Low population growth rate.
Proportional change in price
Ex - America, Japan, Britain, Germany and France are
Demand for normal goods is Less elastic and the demand considered as developed economies.
for luxury goods is highly elastic, while demand for 2. Less developed Economy :
essential goods is inelastic. Countries with Less developed economies are those in which
In the case of alternative use of a commodity, the demand the living standard, production level and per capita income of
is elastic. the people are very low, whereas the population level is high.
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Characteristics of a Less developed Economy: 3. Mixed Economy :

Socio-economic backwardness, (UPPCS, 1995) In a Mixed Economy, the ownership of the public and
Low level of production and consumption, (UPPCS, 1998) private sector exists simultaneously. (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
Low level of national income and per capita income, Mixed Economy is a combined form of capitalist and state
Low rate of capital formation, (SSC MTS, 2018) economy. (UP RO, 2016; UPPCS, 2013; 15)
High population growth rate and The Mixed Economy was suggested by the economist John
Dependence on agriculture, illiteracy and unemployment Maynard Keynes. (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
are considered as underdeveloped countries. Indian Economy is an example of Mixed Economy.
E.g. Uganda, Burundi, Namibia (African countries) etc. are (UPPCS, 2013; 2015; 2007, B.P.S.C. 2011)
considered as underdeveloped economies. Sectors of Economy
3. Developing Economy On the basis of economic activities, the economy is divided
Economies having the characteristics of less developed into three sectors (1) Primary Sector, (2) Secondary Sector
economy, but immense possibilities of being a developed and (3) Tertiary Sector.
country also exist there. E.g. India, China, Brazil, etc. 1. Primary Sector : It includes those production units which
(UPPCS, 2017; Chhattisgarh, 2017)
are derived from the exploitation of natural resources
The World Bank classifies economies on the basis of Gross
such as Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Fisheries, Mining,
National Income Per Capita (GNI Per Capita).
Forestry, etc. It ensures the availability of raw materials for
(UPPCS, 2017; Chhattisgarh 2017)
the secondary sector. (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
Classification of Economy on the basis of production
2. Secondary Sector : The sector of the economy which uses
Economy is divided into three categories on the basis of
primary sector products as a raw material in its activities
control over production.
is called Secondary Sector. For example, Factories,
1. Capitalist Economy, 2. Socialist Economy and 3. Mixed
Construction, Electricity Generation, Water Supply, are
Economy (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
examples of the secondary sector. (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
1. Capitalist Economy
It is also known as “Industrial Sector”. (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
Under Capitalist Economy, the objective of profit is
predominant and production is under private ownership. 3. Tertiary Sector : Tertiary sector is also known as
(UPPCS, 2013; 15)
‘Service Sector’. It consists of units providing various
In a capitalist economy, the market determines the quantity services. Examples are Transport, Education, Banking,
produced, the quantity to be produced and the price of the Insurance, Hotel Industry, Medical, Tourism, Government
commodity. (UPPCS, 2013; 15) Administration, Finance, etc. (UPPCS, 2013; 15)

Capitalist Economy is also called Market Economy or Economic Growth and Economic
Unplanned Economy. (UPPCS, 2013; 15) Development
Government has no economic role in Capitalist Economy. Economic Growth :
This type of economy exists in America, U.K., Switzerland, Economic growth refers to the quantitatively sustained
Hong Kong and Singapore. (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
growth in country's per capita income or production,
2. Socialist Economy : which is associated with the distribution to its labour force,
In a Socialist Economy, the government controls over
consumption, capital and trade volume. If Gross National
demand, supply, price and production. (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
Product (GNP), Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and
Socialist Economy is also called ‘Planned Economy’.
per capita income are increasing, it is called 'Economic
(UPPCS, 2013; 15)
Growth'.
In a Socialist Economy, ownership of the means of
Economic Development :
production is collective. Large industries are under state
The concept of economic development is more
ownership whereas agriculture, trade and small industries
comprehensive than the concept of economic growth.
are under cooperative ownership.
(UPPCS, 2021; UPPCS, 2013; 15)
The concept of a socialist economy appeared in Russia
Economic growth is objective, while economic development
(the then Soviet Union) after the (Bolshevik) Revolution
of 1917. is subjective. (RAS, 2013; UPPCS, 2013; 15)
Economic development is related to both qualitative and
Note : The concept of Socialist Economy was formulated quantitative changes in social, cultural and economic
by the German philosopher Karl Marx. variables. (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
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While economic growth is related to only quantitative

Note : According to the World Bank data, in the year
changes, economic development is related to both
(2021) India is the third-largest economy in the world
quantitative and qualitative changes. (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
on the basis of Gross National Income (GNI) purchasing
Determining Factors of Economic Development power parity. China and America are in first and second
Economic Non-Economic position respectively. (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
Factors Factors According to World Bank data, the United States (USA)
Natural Resources Social Factor has the world's largest economy in 2021 based on GDP.
India ranks 5th after the United States, China, Japan and
Labour Force and Population Religious Factor
Germany respectively. (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
Capital Formation Political Factor Human Development Index, HDI:
Technology & Innovation International Factor The concept of the Human Development Index was
Capital-Output Ratio Scientific Factor formulated in 1990 by the economist Mahboob-ul-Haq and
his colleagues.
Organisation Human Resource The following three variables included under the Human
Economic development can be achieved only when the Development Index are (A) Life Expectancy Index, (B)
quality of life improves. (UPPCS, 2013; 15) Education Index and (C) Income Index. (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
Economic development has a broad concept. This includes (A) Life Expectancy Index :
economic growth, social sector development, inclusive Life Expectancy Index measures the life expectancy of a
growth, etc. (UPPCS, 2013; 15) country's people at birth. (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
Pakistani Economist Mehboob-ul-Haq, defining economic (B) Education Index :
development, has said - "Regardless of the form of poverty, Two figures are included in Education Index
economic development is the fight against poverty". 1. Average years of schooling
(UPPCS, 2013; 15) 2. Estimated years of schooling (UPPCS, 2013; 15)

Nobel Laureate Economist Prof. Amartya Sen has said (C) Income Index :
"empowerment and capacity expansion is the economic Standard of living is the amount of goods and services
development". (UPPCS, 2013; 15) available to purchase in a country. Real GDP per capita
He says, "Economic development refers to sustenance, and Gross National Income per capita are the two most
self-respect and independence. (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
common ways to measure the standard of living.
(UPPCS, 2013; 15)
Amartya Sen says, "Economic development consists of the
The Human Development Index, has a value between 0
removal of various types of unfreedoms that leave people
and 1, with worse performance leading to zero (0), while
with little choice and little opportunity of exercising their
moving towards 1 indicates better performance.
reasoned agency". (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
(UPPCS, 2013; 15)
Measurement of Economic Development :
The higher the value of a country (closer to 1), the better it
The following are the methods for measuring economic
is considered to be in the category of Human Development
growth and comparative state of economic development.
Index. (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
1. Basic Needs Approach was rendered by the World Bank
Countries with very high human development (0.800
in 1970.
and above).
2. PQLI : Physical Quality Of Life Index Approach was Countries with high human development (0.700–0.799).
rendered by Morris D Morris. (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
Countries with moderate human development (0.550–
In this method, the average value of infant mortality, adult 0.699).
literacy rate and life expectancy index of a country is used Countries with low human development (0.0-0.550).
to measure economic development. (UPPCS, 2013; 15)
3. Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) Method was presented Since 1990, 'Human Development Index' is released every
by Gustav Castle. (UPPCS, 2013; 15) year by UNDP under the Human Development Report.
This method was first used by the International Monetary In Human Development Index (HDI), 2023-24. India ranks
Fund (IMF) in 1993. (UPPCS, 2013; 15) 134th out of 193 countries.
The PPP method is currently being used by the World Bank Switzerland is the country with the highest Human
to compare the standard of living of different countries. Development Index in the Human Development Report
(UPPCS, 2013; 15) 2023-24, and the lowest is Somalia.
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citizens of a nation is called the National Income of the

Top 5 Countries with Highest HDI 2023-24
country. (IAS, 2013)
Rank HDI Nobel laureate Simon Kuznets is considered the originator
Country
(HDI) Value of national income accounting. (IAS, 2013)
1. Switzerland 0.967 In India, Dadabhai Naoroji calculated first time India's
2. Norway 0.966 national income and per capita income. (BPSC, 2016)
Concept of Economic (Domestic) Boundry :
3. Iceland 0.959
National Income Accounting is a part of macro economics.
4. Hong Kong, China (SAR) 0.956 Estimation of National Income and related sets is a part of it.
5. Denmark, Sweden 0.952 National Income and any set related to it, is a measure of
134th India 0.644 production activity in the country.
Economic Boundry :
Happiness According to United Nations, Economic Boundry of a
country is the geographical boundry administered by the
Happiness is the desire of human beings, which can be
its government in which people, goods and capital can
used as a measure of social progress. Whether the total
move freely without any barrier. Basis of this definition is
population of the world is happy or not, the key to its
freedom of flow of people, goods and capital.
correct measurement lies in the meaning of the word
Areas of Economic Boundry :
'happiness'. The publication of the World Happiness
I. Political boundary of the country (including sea boundary
Report was started Since 2012 by the United Nations
and space area.)
Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN).
II. Embassies, commercial consulates and military
The World Happiness Report measures the well-being establishment of the country in foreign.
of various nations of the world. Its main objective is to III. Shops and aircraft run by citizens of the country between
guide the 'public policy' of nations. two or more countries.
Well-being is measured on the basis of the following six IV. Fishing boats, oil and natural gas exploration ships which
factors - are being operated in those areas in international sea
boundaries over which country has absolute authority.
1. GDP per capita (based on Purchasing Power Parity)
There are two series of sets of National Income – Domestic
2. Healthy Life Expectancy and National. i.e. Domestic Product and National Product.
3. Generosity Production by production units based within economic
4. Social Support boundry of the country, is known as Domestic product.
Concept of Resident :
5. Perception of corruption and
Resident and Citizen are two different concepts.
6. Freedom of Choice of Life A person can be a citizen of one country but resident of
World Happiness Report, 2024 another.
Indian who lives in foreign are the citizens of India but
World Happiness Report, 2024 was published in March,
resident of the country in which they live in.
2023.
Definition of Resident :
Finland was declared the happiest in a survey amongst 143
Any person or institution, is known as a resident of that
countries while Afghanistan was found to be the saddest
country in which he lives or is based in and their economic
country.
interest is centred within its economic boundary.
India ranks 126th in the World Happiness Report, 2024.
Two factors are included in the 'centre of economic
The rank of India's neighbouring countries is as follows -
interests'.
Pakistan (108st), Nepal (93rd), Bangladesh (129th), Sri Lanka That resident (person are institution) is living (or based
(128th). in) within the economic boundary of that country.
National Income : and their earning, spending and saving related economic
Income is an important means for meeting human needs activities are carried out within this.
which a person receives as a result of his contribution to The production carried out by the residents of a country is
the production process. The sum of the total value of the known as National product, irrespectived production was
final goods and services produced in a financial year by the done within the economic boundary or outside of it.
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On the other hand, production done by all the Production V.K.R.V. Rao and R. Gadgil were the other members of
Unit which are based within the economic boundry of this committee. (UPPCS, 2015)
the country is known as Domestic Product, whether Before May, 2019 the calculation of national income
production was carried out by resident or non-resident. was being done by the Central Statistics Office (CSO),
Relationship between National Product and Domestic established in May 1951. At present this work is being done
Product : by National Statistical Office (NSO). (BPSC, 2020)
National Product = Domestic Product + Production by The financial year for calculating India's national income
residents of the country outside the economic boundry is from 1st April to 31st March. (BPSC, 2020)
– Production done by non-residents within the economic
Calculation of National Income:
boundary of the country.
National income is calculated by three methods - 1. Factor
Or
Cost or Income Method, 2. Production Method and 3.
National Product = Domestic Product + Factor income
Expenditure Method.
received from abroad – Factor income given to foreign
1. Factor Cost or Income Method: When the national
Or
income is calculated by the sum of income earned by the
National Product = Domestic Product + Net factor income
from Abroad (NFIA). citizens of the nation in the form of rent, wages, interest,
Net National Product (NP) at market price is the total value raw material, rent and profit in a financial year, it is called
of Net National Product at the consumer point. ‘Factor Cost' or 'Income Method'. (BPSC, 2020)

If factor income received from abroad is more than the National income in India was calculated on 'Factor Cost',
factor income paid to abroad, then net factor income from but since January 2015, the Central Statistics Office (CSO)
abroad (NFIA) will be positive. has started calculating the national income at the market
Net National Product at Net factor cost refers to the net price. (BPSC, 2020)
money value of all final goods and services produced by 2. Production Method: When the national income is
ordinary residents. calculated by the sum of the net monetary value of all final
But if factor income received from abroad is less than the goods and services produced by a country in a financial
factor income paid to abroad, then the net factor income year, it is called 'Production Method'. (BPSC, 2020)
from abroad (NFIA) will be negative. 3. Expenditure Method: When the national income is
Industrial Classification : calculated by the sum of all the Final expenditure
Grouping of production units in different production groups incurred by the citizens of a nation in a year, it is called
or sectors is known as industrial classification. the 'Expenditure Method'. (BPSC, 2020)
Primary Sector :
Both the income method and production method are used
In this sector those production units are included which
to calculate national income in India.
produce by exploitation of natural resources. For example
National income is generally calculated at current and
– Agriculture, husbandary, fishing, mining, forestry etc.
constant prices.
This sector supply raw materials for secondary sector.
Secondary Sector : Note : Income from illegal activites such as income
In this sector, those production units are included which from lottery and gambling, are not included when
transformed one type of goods into another. For Example – using the income method to calculate national
Factories, manufacturing, power generation, water supply etc. income.
Tertiary Sector :
National Income at Constant Prices :
This sector is also called the service sector. Under this,
To study the real progress of a country, National Income
Service provider units are included. For example –
is calculated at constant prices and national income for
Transport, trade, Education Government Administration,
different years is calculated relatively to a particular base
Finance etc.
The per capita income of India was stated as Rs 20 by year. (BPSC, 2020)

Naoroji in 1868. (IAS, 2000; UPPCS 2007)

The base year is the year against which the position of the
For the calculation of national income, in 1949, by the following years is compared.
Government of India, the National Income Committee was Currently, the base year for calculating India's national
formed under the chairmanship of P.C Mahalanobis. income is 2011-12. (UPPCS, 2015)

(UPPCS, 2015) National Income at constant prices

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National Income at current prices whether it is outside the country or within the country, it
= × 100 (UPPCS, 2015) is called 'Gross National Product'.
Price index of current year
Gross National Product is the net income earned from
National Income at Current Prices:
abroad (Income earned by Indian national residents abroad
When national income is measured at prevailing market
- foreign national residents earned in India) added in Gross
prices, it is defined as 'National Income' at Current Prices.
Domestic Product.
National income at Current Prices is also known as
GNP is the most comprehensive concept of all concepts of
Nominal National Income. (RAS/RTS, 2021)
national income in Indian context.
The following items are not included in the calculation of
the national income of any country-value of intermediate GNP = GDP + Net Factor income earned from abroad
goods, the value of old goods, domestic services, financial GDP = GNP – Net income earned from abroad
assets such as share letters, sale of letters of credit etc, Net National Product (NNP): The Net National Product
transfer payments (pension, stipend) and gifts received is Value that is received by reducing the depreciation of
from abroad. (RAS/RTS, 2021) capital goods from the gross national product.
Important Concepts of National Income : NNP = GNP – Depreciation (Chattisgarh PCS, 2010)

National Income is a broad concept, and the following Private Income : Private Income consists of factor incomes
concepts are commonly used to calculate - 1. Gross earned within the domestic territory and abroad by private
Domestic Products and 2. Gross National Products. enterprises and workers (factor owners in the private sector)
(Uttrakhand PCS, 2021)
and current transfer from government and the rest of the
Gross Domestic Product, GDP : The total income earned world. (UPPCS, 2013; UP Lower, 2013; CGPSC, 2015)

from the goods and services produced by all the people Private Income =
(including foreigners) living in a country in a single Net Factor income derived from Net domestic Product
financial year is called 'Gross Domestic Product'. to private sector + Interest on national debt + Factor
(Uttrakhand PCS, 2021) income from abroad + Net Transfer payments received
from government + Net transfer payments from the rest
Note : It is possible to obtain the value of a country's
of the world.
GDP. This is possible with the unit of account of
currency. Personal Income: Income from all sources by individuals
Note : A Steady increase in Gross Domestic Product and family units before payment of direct taxes in a financial
(GDP) leads to economic growth considered as a good year is called 'Personal Income'. For this calculation, the
indicator of development. undistributed profits and corporation taxes of the enterprises
have to be reduced from personal income. Personal income
Gross Domestic Product Per capita (GDP per capita) : It is less than private income.
is a financial metric that breaks down a country's economic Personal Income = Private Income - Undistributed Profit -
output per person and is calculated by dividing the GDP of Corporation Tax, or
a nation by its population. Personal Income = Private Income - (Undistributed Profit
Gross DomesticProduct
Gross Domestic Product per Capita = + Corporation Tax)
Population Disposable Income: Disposable Income is the portion
of personal income that is available for consumption for
Note : If GDP is calculated at base year prices or constant
individuals. In other words, the amount received after
prices then it is called real GDP.
deducting direct taxes from personal income is Disposable
Net Domestic Product, NDP : The Value obtained by Income. This income is less than Personal Income.
deducting the depreciation of capital goods from the Gross Disposable Income = Personal Income - Personal Direct
Domestic Product is the 'Net Domestic Product'. Taxes
Net Domestic Product = Gross Domestic Product (GDP) - Per Capita Income: When the national income of a country
Depreciation is divided by its population, the quotient that is received is
Gross National Product (GNP) : When the production of called 'per capita income'. Per capita income is less than
goods and services is done by the residents of the country personal disposable income. (UPPCS, 2013)

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National Income The beginning of the Five Year Plans in India is inspired
Per Capita Income = by the planning method of the former Soviet Union.
Population
India has completed 12 five-year plans and 6 annual plans
An increase in per capita income is considered to be the
in its development journey since 1951.
best indicator of economic development of a country or an
The sources of planning, goals and social objectives in
increase in living standards of the people. (UPPCS, 2013)
India are determined by the 'Directive Principles of State
Relationship between various forms of National
Policy' mentioned in part IV of the Constitution. Planning
Product:
is also cited in the 'Concurrent List' of the 7th Schedule of
GNPMP
the Constitution. (UP Lower 2002; UP UDA/LDA, 2006)
–
D
IN
T
The first discussion on economic planning in India started
– from 1934 when M. Visvesvaraya wrote a book known as
– NFI

'Planned Economy for India'. That is why Visvesvaraya

NNPMP GDPMP GNPFC is also called the 'Pioneer of modern planning in India'.
– IN

(MPPCS, 2018)
– I

After this, in 1938, then Congress President Subhash

NT

NI
Chandra Bose established the National Planning
– NFI

– NFI

(National Income)
Committee under the chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru.
D

– D

(MPPCS, 2013)
–

In 1944, Sriman Narayan Aggarwal prepared the

NDPMP NNPFC GDPFC Gandhian Plan based on Gandhian principles.
(UP PCS, 2015; IAS, 2016)
– NFI

– In 1944-45, 8 industrialists of Mumbai (JRD Tata,

IN Ghanshyam Das Birla, Ardeshir Dalal, Purushottam Das
T
– D
Thakur Das, Dr. John Mathai, Lala Shri Ram, Kasturi Bhai
NDPFC
Lal Bhai and A.D Shroff) in India, presented a 15-year plan
for the economic development of the country, known as the
Where,
'Bombay Plan/ Tata-Birla Scheme'.
GNP = Gross National Product
(UPPCS 2015, IAS, 2016)
NNP = Net National Product
The British Government also established the 'Planning
GDP = Gross Domestic Product
and Development Department' in 1944, headed by Sir
NDP = Net Domestic Product
Ardeshir Dalal. (UPPCS, 2015; IAS, 2016)
MP = Market Price, D = Depreciation, S = Subsidy INT
On behalf of MN Rai and Bhartiya Shramik Sangh, a
= Net Indirect Tax
scheme called 'The People's Plan' inspired by the Russian
NFI = Net Factor Income derived from abroad
scheme was presented.
IT = Indirect Tax = INT + S, FC = Factor Cost
In 1950, 'Sarvodaya Yojana' was drafted by Jayaprakash
Note : As per the new announcement of CSO, basic Narayan to establish a society without exploitation.
prices are being used instead of factor cost for to estimate (MPPCS, 2013)
Gross Value Added (GVA) for calculating GDP. After the independence, the 'All Indian Congress
Net Income from abroad Figures are prepared and Committee' formed an 'Economic Programme Committee'
published by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). in 1947 under the chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru. On
Gross Primary Deficit is equal to the difference between 25th January 1948, this committee recommended that a
gross fiscal deficit and payments of inforest. permanent Planning Commission should be established
in the country. As a result of the recommendation, the
3 Planning in India Planning Commission was formed by a Cabinet resolution
on 15th March, 1950. First Five year plan came into
Economic Planning is the process of realizing of the pre- existence on 1st of April, 1951 on the recommendation of
determined objective through the optimum use of natural Planning Commission.
resources. (UPPCS, 2015; IAS, 2016; MPPCS, 2013)
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FIVE YEAR PLANS

Growth
Growth Rate
Plan Objectives Rate Other Features
Estimated
Achieved
First Five Year Resettlement of Refugee, Develop- 2.1% 3.6% Based on Harrod-Domar model, Community
Plan 1951-56 ment of Agriculture sector and the development policy was given top priority to
commencement of National Exten- achieve self-sufficiency in Food Grain Sector in
sion Service, Balanced Development minimum time, Renovation of small and cottage
Policy industries.
Second FiveYear With the development of primary and 4.50% 4.3% Based on P.C. Mahalanobis Four regional
Plan (1956-61) heavy industries, the emphasis on models, Setting up of Steel Plants at Rourkela
rapid industrialization, an increase of (Odisha), Bhilai (Chhattisgarh) and Durgapur
25% in national income, large scale (West Bengal)
employment generation, etc.
Third Five Year Making the economy self-reliant 5.6% 2.8% Based on Four Sector Models of Mahalanobis,
Plan (1961-66) and self-sustaining, more emphasis J. Sandy's Demonstration Model and Sukhmay
on agriculture, increase in national Charaborty's input-output Model, to achieve
income by 5% per annum, etc. self-sufficiency in Food Grain Sector, Causes
of failure : Drought of (1965-66), and Indo-
China War (1962) Indo-Pak war (1965). NOTE:
Between 1966-1969, Three Annual Plans were
made, it is called Plan Holiday.
Fourth Five Year E c o n o m i c g r o w t h a n d s e l f - 5.7% 3.3% Based on Gadgil Plan and Leontief input-output
Plan (1969-74) sufficiency, stability Reduction in model, Nationalisation of 14 Banks, MRTP Act,
regional inequality, emphasis on 1969, concept of Buffer stock was introduced.
balanced development, promotion of
industrialization and special emphasis
on heavy industries.
Fifth Five Year Achieving Poverty Elimination and 4.4% 4.8% Slogan of 'Garibi Hatao', Minimum Needs
Plan (1974-79) Economic Self-sufficiency programme started, Food For Work (1977)
program started. Note: Fifth Five Year Plan was
completed one year before in 1978.
Sixth Five Year Direct attack on the problem of 5.2% 5.7% Based on input-output Model, with pecial
Plan (1980-85) poverty by moderization and emphasis on poverty elimination and employment
expansion of the economy, self- creation, schemes related to elimination of rural
reliance and social justice, etc. unemployment such as IRDP, NREP, TRYSEM,
DWACRA, RLEGP, etc was implemented. Five
year plan was made keeping in mind the 15
years period. For this reason, it is also known as
'perspective planning'. The goal of modernisation
of economy is included first time in this plan.
NOTE : Sixth Five Year Plan was implemented
twice. First time by Janta Party Government for
the period of 1978-83, and second time by the
Congress Government for the period of 1980-
85. The plan was named 'Rolling plan' during
1978-80. The credit for Rolling plan goes to
Gunnar Myrdal.

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Seventh Five Emphasis on modernisation, self- 5.0% 6.0% Long-term development method and liberalization
Year Plan reliance and social justice model, Indira Awas Yojana, Jawahar Rozgar
(1985 - 90) Yojana and Nehru Rozgar Yojana were
started. Emphasis on energy conservation
and development of non-conventional energy
sources. Note : Two annual Plan were run from
1st April 1990 to 31st March 1992.
Eighth Five Year Human resource development, full 5.6% 6.8% Based on the John W. Miller model
Plan (1992-97) employment generation by the end Universalization of primary education,
of the century, control on Population eradication of illiteracy in the age group of 15-
Growth, to promote social welfare 35 years.
measures like improved healthcare,
sanitation, communication and
provision for extensive education
facilities at all levels
Ninth Five Year To sustain quality of life, generation 6.5% 5.4% The scheme emphasised seven basic minimum
Plan (1997-002) of productive employment to maintain services including primary education for all,
regional balance and self reliance home for the homeless, nutritious food for
children, roads for all villages and hamlets,
improving public distribution system for the
poor, etc. A policy of fiscal consolidation was
implemented. The Ninth Five Year Plan reduced
the tendency to focus on the public sector, and
the Indicative Planning was started.
Tenth Five To promote inclusive growth and 8.1% 7.6% It emphasised reducing the gender gaps in
Year Plan equetable development the field of education and wage rates by
(2002-07) 2007.
Eleventh Five To increase enrolment in higher 9.0% 8.0% 26 indicators were formed for measuring the
year Plan education and focused on distant performance of works related to poverty, health
(2007 - 12) education. Rapid and more education, women and child development in the
inclusive growth. 11th Plan.
Twelfth Five Faster, more inclusive and 8.0% – Targets –
year (2012-17) sustainable growth 8% growth rates of real DGP.
Plan 4.0% growth rate of agriculture.
The Plan aimed at strengthening infrastructure projects and providing Manufacturing growth rate of 10.0 percent.
electricity supply in All Villages. Head Count ratio of consumption poverty
to be reduced by 10 percent points.
Creation of 50 million Jobs in non agriculture
sector during the plan.
Note : Target for first three plans was in reference to National Income. Fourth Plan was in reference to Net Domestic Product. After that
for all other plan, it was in reference to GDP.

Planning Commission through efficient use of resources and providing employment

On 15th March, 1950, the Government of India constituted opportunities to the people.
the 'Planning Commission' on the recommendation of the Planning Commission held the highest position in the Indian
Niyogi Committee, whose first chairman and vice-chairman planning system. Its task was to formulate Plan and evaluate
are Jawaharlal Nehru and Gulzari Lal Nanda respectively. its progress.
(UPPCS, 1999; UK UDA, 2003; UPPCS, 2003) The Chairman (ex-officio) of the Planning Commission
The objective of this commission was to improve the was the Prime Minister and it had a Deputy Chairman.
standard of living of the people by increasing production The Deputy Chairman of the Commission was at par level
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of a Cabinet Minister who was appointed by the President 3. Special Invited Members : Skilled, experts and working
(for 5 years) on the advice of the Prime Minister. (RAS, 1994) persons having knowledge of the relevant field.
The Vice-President was responsible to the Union Cabinet 4. In full-time organisational structure besides the Prime
and Parliament for its functions. Minister as Chairman, the following will be -
The Planning Commission has no mention in the Indian (i) Vice-Chairman : appointed by the Prime Minister.
Constitution. As a result, it was a non-constitutional and (ii) Members : Full-time
advisory body. It headquartered in New Delhi. (iii) Part-time Members : A maximum of two ex-officio
Currently, the Planning Commission has been replaced by members will be elected from leading universities,
NITI Aayog. (UPPCS, 2020) research institutes and other affiliated institutions.
National Development Council (NDC) : Part-time members will be appointed on a cyclical
On the recommendation of the 'Niyogi Committee', the basis.
'National Development Council' was formed on 6th August, (iv) Ex-officio Members : Maximum four members
1952, with the main objective to create an atmosphere nominated by the Prime Minister from the Union
of cooperation between the States and the Planning Council of Ministers.
Commission for economic planning. (v) Secretariat as per requirement.
(UPPCS, 2004, 08; IAS, 2016; UPPCS, 2001; 03; 08; 14; 16) (vi) Regional councils will be formed to address specific
It was a high-level institution of policy-making related to issues and contingencies impacting more than one
the planning of the country, whose task was to study the state or a region. These will be formed for a specific
Plan prepared by the Planning Commission and give final
tenure. The Prime Minister will be the convenor of
approval after deliberation. The Prime Minister of the
the regional councils and the Chief Minister of all the
country was its Chairman, the Secretary of the Planning
states of that region and the Lieutenant Governor of
Commission as its Secretary and among the members were
the Union Territory will be its members. The Chairman
all the Union Ministers, Chief Ministers / Administrators
of NITI Aayog or their nominee will be its Chairman.
of all the States and Union Territories and all the
5. Chief Executive Officer: A chief executive officer will be
members of the Planning Commission were ex-officio
members of this Council. (IAS, 2013; BPSC, 2022)
appointed by the prime minister for a fixed tenure, in the
Like the Planning Commission, the NDC was also a non- rank of secretary in the central government, while there
constitutional body i.e. an advisory body. It was referred to will be a secretary as deemed necessary.
as the 'Super Cabinet' because its (NDC) membership was Present Structure of NITI Aayog
wide and its views could not be rejected by the Planning
Chairman: Narendra Modi, Prime Minister of India.
Commission and the Union Cabinet. (RAS, 1992)
NITI Aayog: (National Institution for Transforming Vice-Chairman : Suman Bery (Cabinet Minister Status).
India) : (UPPCS, 2020, 2019) (UPPCS, 2018, 2017, 2020; BPSC, 2018)

Establishment of National Institution for Transforming Chief Executive Officer: B.V.R. Subrahmanyam
India in its new form (NITI Aayog) by a government Full-time members.
resolution was made on 1st January 2015. NITI Aayog takes
(a) Prof. Ramesh Chand (Minister of State level status)
the place of Planning Commission that was established on
15th March 1950 through a resolution. (b) Dr. V.K. Saraswat (Minister of State level status)
The NITI Aayog acts as a think tank to advise the (c) Dr. V.K. Paul
Government of India on policy issues, following the (d) Dr. Arvind Virmani
principles of cooperative federalism.
NITI Aayog is more inclusive than Planning Commission. Comparison with Planning Commission:
Constitution of NITI Aayog : NITI Aayog is considered more cooperative and inclusive
By the resolution of 1st January 2015, followed by the than the Planning Commission.
amendment of 16th February 2015, there is a provision for The Planning Commission was working on the principle of
the formation of NITI Aayog in the following ways: Top-down Approach to planning whereas the Bottom-up
1. Chairman : Prime Minister of India. Approach has been adopted by NITI Aayog.
2. Governing Council of NITI Aayog : Chief Ministers of The Planning Commission was originally an institution
all the States and Union Territories with Legislatures and of the Central Government, with no representation of the
Lieutenant Governors (LGs) of other Union Territories. States. In contrast, NITI Aayog is based on the principle of
221
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Cooperative Federalism. It has representation from both The Lorenz Curve was developed in 1905 by Max O
the Centre and the State. Lorenz, and the Gini coefficient was developed in 912 by
Corrado Gini (Italy).
Note : Cooperative Federalism implies the centre and
1. Lorenz Curve :
states share a horizontal relationship, where they "coop-
The Lorenz Curve is the diagrammatic representation of
erate" in the larger public interest. It's visualised as an
income distribution of individuals. Under this, a curve is
important tool to enable states participation in the for-
mulation and implementation of national policies. made between the recipients of income and the cumulative
percentage of total income earned by them. The closer the
Due to the representation of the states, NITI Aayog is also
Lorenz curve to the absolute parity line (when the income
capable of accomplishing the functions of the National
distribution is equal), the lower the skewness of income.
Development Council.
(Chhattisgarh PCS, 2018)
NITI Aayog also has a provision for the constitution of
100

Cumulative portion of income

the Regional Council, in which the Chief Minister / Lt.
Governor of the concerned States / Union Territories will
be its members in the context of specific regional issues y
ualit
which makes it more specific in terms of cooperative f eq
eo
federalism. Lin A
While the Planning Commission used to determine the goals Lorenz
and strategy of economic growth rate, the NITI Aayog will Curve
decide the national development strategy in consultation 0
Cumulative percent of population 100
with the states.
The structure of the NITI Aayog is more efficient and 2. Gini Coefficient (G):
practical. The Gini Coefficient is the most prevalent method of
While the advisory and supervisory functions of the measurement of inequality in the distribution of income.
Planning Commission have been retained in the NITI It is the ratio between the Lorenz curve and the area below
Aayog, but it has not been given the executive work of the full parity line and the total area under the full parity
preparing the plan and allocation of funds for the schemes line. The maximum value of the Gini coefficient is 1.
supported by the Commission. Thus, it is a policy setting (UPPCS, 2018)
and advisory institute, not an executive institution. Nobel Prize awarded economist Prof. Amartya Sen has
developed an inequality-adjusted per capita income concept
4 Poverty in India to measure the level of economic well-being by combining
the level of income and its distribution dimension.
Poverty refers to the situation when a person does not have (IAS, 2019; UPPCS, 2009)
the most basic necessities of life such as food, clothing and B. Absolute Poverty :
housing. When a person is not in a position to fulfil his basic The minimum requirement criteria is used to estimate the
needs, he is counted as poor. (UPPCS, 2017) actual number of the poor. That is, a person who does not
The first global poverty estimate concerning developing meet the minimum requirements is called the poor.
countries is found 'World Development Report' in 1990. This set minimum consumption criteria is called 'Poverty
The World Development Report defines poverty as the Line'.
inability to achieve the lowest standard of living. That Absolute paradigm is used to measure poverty in India.
is, when even the lowest standard of living could not be Major Efforts to Determine Poverty in India:
attained, that condition is called 'Poverty'. (UPPCS, 2017) The concept of measurement of poverty was first introduced
In principle, two measure poverty-Relative and Absolute in Dada Bhai Naoroji's book 'Poverty and Un-British
are used. Rule in India'.
A. Relative Poverty : Relative Poverty explains the extent of Major economists related to the measurement of
disparity between different income groups. Two methods poverty in India are - Dandekar and Rath, B.S.Minhas,
are commonly used to measure it - 1. Lorenz Curve, 2. P.D.Ojha, Pranab Vardhan, S.P.Gupta, Suresh Tendulkar,
Gini Coefficient. (UPPCS, 2018) C.Rangarajan, etc.
Both the Lorenz Curve and the Gini Coefficient are related The first official attempt to determine the poverty line in
to the measurement of inequality of income. India was made by the Planning Commission in July 1962.
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In 1977, the working group set up by the Planning Developed by Oxford Poverty and Human Development
Commission, considering the year 1973-74 as the base year, Initiative (OPHI) with assistance from UNDP, this index, in
first determined poverty on the basis of minimum calorie reference to three dimensions of HDI (education, health and
intake per day. (UPPCS, 2020) standard of life), is based on 10 indicators of deprivations.
According to this, a person from rural area who is unable These 10 indicators are :
to get 2,400 calories per day and a person from urban area Education – (i) Years of schooling (ii) School attendance
who is unable to get 2,100 calories of food per day is poor. (each indicator's weightage - 1/6th).
(UP Lower, 2008; MPPCS, 2006) Health – (iii) Child mortality (iv) Nutrition (each
For the measurement of poverty in the country by the indicator's weightage - 1/6th).
Planning Commission in 1989, a committee was formed under Standard of living – (v) Electricity (vi) Sanitation (vii)
the chairmanship of Prof. D.T. Lakdawala. (RAS, 2016) Drinking water (viii) Housing (ix) Cooking fuel (x)
This Committee determined poverty based on the price Assets (each indicator's weightage – 1/18th)
level of each state. This committee recommended different Global Multi Dimensional Poverty Index, 2023 :
poverty lines for each state. On 11st of July, 2023, Global Multidimensional Poverty
The committee set different price indices for rural and urban Index (MPI), was released by the United Nations
poverty. Development Programme (UNDP) and the Oxford
Lakdawala Committee suggested the Consumer Price Index Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI).
for Agricultural Workers for Rural Area and Consumer As per the Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI),
Price Index for Industrial Workers in Urban Area and 415 million people were lifted out of poverty in India
Consumer Price Index for other workers.
within a 15-year span (2005-2006 to 2019-2021).
Later on, the Planning Commission in India constituted a
According to this report, 25 countries, including India,
Committee headed by Suresh Tendulkar that submitted
successfully halved their global MPI values within 15
its report in 2009. (UPPCS, 2019; 21)
years, showing that rapid progress is attainable. These
Tendulkar committee took broad concepts for estimation
countries include Cambodia, China, Congo, Honduras,
of poverty.
India, Indonesia, Morocco, Serbia, and Vietnam.
He decided the poverty line on the basis of six basic needs in
In 2005/2006, about 645 million people were in
addition to expenditure in consumption, education, health,
multidimensional poverty in India, with this number
infrastructure, clean environment and women's access to
declining to about 370 million in 2015/2016 and 230
work and benefits.
million in 2019/2021.
Using this method, 21.9 per cent of the population in India
The report noted that deprivation in all indicators declined
was found below the poverty line in 2011-12.
in India and “the poorest States and groups, including
25.7 per cent in rural areas, while 13.7 per cent of the
children and people in disadvantaged caste groups, had
population in urban areas were found below the poverty line.
In 2012, the Planning Commission appointed a Committee the fastest absolute progress.” According to the report,
formed under the chairmanship of Rangarajan for poverty people who are multidimensionally poor and deprived
determination. This committee submitted its report in 2014. under the nutrition indicator in India declined from 44.3%
Rangarajan Committee Considered expenditure below in 2005/2006 to 11.8% in 2019/2021, and child mortality
Rs. 972 per person per month for rural areas and Rs. 1407 fell from 4.5% to 1.5%.
per person per month for urban area as the poverty line. In the drinking water indicator, the percentage of people
(Chhattisgarh PCS, 2016) who are multidimensionally poor and deprived fell from
Multi Dimensional Poverty Index (MPI) : 16.4 to 2.7 during the period, electricity (from 29% to
According to UNDP, status of poverty of a person can not 2.1%) and housing from 44.9% to 13.6%.
be measured only with his income. According to the 2023 release, 1.1 billion out of 6.1 billion
Measurement of other dimensions such as education, people (just more than 18%) live in acute multidimensional
health and others are also important for comprehensive poverty across 110 countries. Sub-Saharan Africa (534
measurement of poverty. (IAS, 2010; 12 UPPCS, 2010; 20) million) and South Asia (389 million) are home to
Keeping this in mind, Since 2010 onwards Human approximately five out of every six poor people.
Development Report started publishing Multidimensional Nearly two-thirds of all poor people (730 million people)
Poverty Index (MPI) in place of Human Poverty Index live in middle-income countries, making action in these
(HPI), was published since 1997. countries vital for reducing global poverty. Although low-
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income countries constitute only 10% of the population In pursuance of enabling provisions under section 12 of
included in the MPI, these are where 35% of all poor NFSA for cash transfer, Govt. notified 'Cash Transfer of
people reside. food subsidy Rule 2015' in August, 2015.
Children under the age of 18 account for half of MPI-poor Under Section 39(1) of NFSA, the central Government
people (566 million). The poverty rate among children may, in consultation with the state Governments and by
is 27.7%, while among adults, it is 13.4%. Poverty notification, make rules to carry out the provisions of the
predominantly affects rural areas, with 84% of all poor Act.
people living in rural areas. Rural areas are poorer than Under this Act, Pregnant women and lactating mothers are
urban areas across all regions of the world. further entitled to receive cash maternity benefit of not less
Cambodia, Peru, and Nigeria showed significant reductions than Rs. 6000 to partly, compensate for the wage loss during
in their most recent periods, offering hope that progress the period of pregnancy and also to supplement nutrition.
is still possible. In Cambodia, the most encouraging case (IAS, 2018)
among these, the incidence of poverty fell from 36.7% to Currently, this Act is being implemented in all the States/
16.6%, and the number of poor people halved, from 5.6 Union Territories and out of the targeted coverage of 81.35
million to 2.8 million, all within 7.5 years, including the crore persons, 80.72 crore persons are being covered.
pandemic years (2014–2021/22). Antyodaya Anna Yojana :
What is a Multidimensional Poverty Index? This scheme started on 25th December, 2000. 1 crore poorest
Multidimensional poverty measures allow us to see families were targeted for providing subsidized food grains.
how many households are experiencing deprivations at the It is noteworthy that at the beginning of Antyodaya Anna
same time. At a glance the measure shows an integrated Yojana the family was allocated 25 kg of food grains per
picture of the situation. The MPI can also be used to examine month, but with effect from 1 April 2002, it has been
whole populations, sub-groups or specific deprivations to increased to 35 kg per month per family.
see the impact of poverty on different communities. The Currently, under this scheme, 2.5 crore poor families in
multidimensional measurement is rigorous, easy to use, India get 35 kg of grains per month. The grain is being
flexible, and adapts well to different contexts. made available at concessional rates (rice, wheat and coarse
Poverty Prevention and Welfare Schemes grains at Rs. 3, Rs. 2 and Rs. 1 per kg respectively).
National Food Security Act, 2013 : It is noteworthy that on 3 June, 2009, the norms were revised
The National Food Security Act, 2013 was passed by the to identify families under the Antyodaya Anna Yojana.
government which aims to provide adequate food grains Currently, HIV positive individuals from all BPL families
to every citizen of the country, so that they get food and are also included.
nutritional security and can live a dignified life. Poverty in India (2011-12)
(UPPCS, 2019; IAS 2018)
Comparative Status of Tendulkar Method and Rangarajan
Under this Act, 75 per cent of the rural population and 50
Method in India
per cent of the urban population, that is, about two-thirds
(67 per cent) of the population, have been given the legal Tendulkar Rangarajan
Indicators
Method Method
right to food.
Under the Act, eligible families will be given food grains at Gross 21.9 29.5
subsidized prices through the Public Distribution System. 1. Poverty in India Rural 25.7 30.9
Urban 13.7 26.4
Rs 3 , Rs. 2 and Rs. 1 per kg of rice, wheat and coarse
grains of 5 kgs each will be provided per person per month, Gross 2697.8 3629.9
2. Numbers of poor
respectively. Rural 2166.6 2605.2
(in lakhs)
The Act provides for the nomination of women of the age Urban 531.2 1024.7
of 18 years or above as the head for the issuing ration cards 3. Poverty line
Rural 816 972
to their names, and if not, there is a provision to nominate in India (Rs. per
Urban 1000 1407
the eldest male member of the family as the head. person per month)
National food security Act (2013) provides for reforms 4. Poverty line
Rural 27.20 32.40
in the TPPS including scheme such as cash transfer for in India (Rs. per
Urban 33.33 46.90
provisioning of food entitlement. person per month)
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National Food Security Mission :

Schemes Related to Poverty Alleviation and
The National Development Council, in its 53rd meeting
Unemployment
held on 29 May 2007, had passed a resolution to launch
the Food Safety Mission under which the National Food Launch
Scheme
Year
Security Mission - NFSM, Started in October 2007.
The main objective of this scheme is to increase the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme 2006
production of wheat, rice, coarse grains and pulses and Bharat Nirman Program 2005
commercial crops to ensure food security in the nation. Antyodaya Anna Yojana 2000
(UPPCS, 2008; 10; 13; 15; 19)
Janashree Bima Yojana 2000
Increasing the fertility and productivity of the land at the
Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana 2000
private farm level, increasing the confidence of the farmers
and increasing the profit at the farm level was also its main Annapurna Yojana 2000
objective. Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana 1999
Under this mission, 25 million tonnes of additional food Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana 1999
grains (10 million tonnes of rice, 8 million tonnes of wheat, Swarnjayanti Urban Employment Scheme 1997
4 million tonnes of pulses and 3 million tonnes of coarse
Employment Assurance Yojana 1993
grains) was targeted to be produced during the 12th Five
Year Plan period. Pradhan Mantri Rozgar Yojana 1993
Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana : Indira Awaas Yojana 1985
In May 2017, the Centre Sponsored Scheme sampada Jawahar Rozgar Yojana 1989
(SAMPADA : Scheme for Agro-Marine Processing and DWCRA 1982
Development of Agro-Processing clusters) was approved.
TRYSEM 1979
This scheme was renamed as 'Kisan Sampada' Yojana on
26th May 2017. Currently, the scheme is being known as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
'Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana (PMKSY)'. Scheme (MNREGA) :
After the President's approval on 5 September 2005, The
(UPPCS, 2019; IAS, 2018)
National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGA)
The Ministry of Food Processing Industries implements
was launched on 2 February, 2006 from Anantapur district
the scheme.
of Andhra Pradesh in 200 selected districts of the country.
Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana is a comprehensive
It was expanded to 130 additional districts in 2007-08. It
package that will create modern infrastructure with efficient
was expanded the whole country on 1st April 2008, except
supply chain management from farms to retail outlets.
This will not only accelerate the growth of the food Jammu and Kashmir. (MPPCS, 2008)

processing sector in the country, but it will provide better On 2 October, 2009 it was renamed from NREGA
nd

prices to farmers and double the income of farmers, to Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
especially in rural areas, creating substantial employment Guarantee Scheme (MNREGA).
opportunities in the wastage of agricultural produce. There The goal of MNREGA is to provide a minimum of 100
will be a significant step towards reduction, processing and days of unskilled employment to one adult member of each
increasing the level of export of processed foods. rural family.
The following schemes will be implemented under Pradhan The guarantee of providing employment becomes effective
Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana - Mega Food Park, cold within 15 days from the date of receipt of an application
chain, expansion of food processing and preservation for employment under the Act.
capabilities, agro-processing cluster infrastructure, In the event of not providing employment within 15 days
creation of backward and forward links, food safety and from the date of demand, the State (as per the Act) has to
quality assurance infrastructure and human resources and pay unemployment allowance to that beneficiary.
institutions. The work is provided within the circumference of 5 km.
In February, 2022 PMKSY scheme has been extended till In the event of the employment being provided beyond a
March, 2026 with an allocation of Rs. 4600 crore. distance of more than 5 km, 10 per cent extra salary is paid
In Budget of 2024-25, 729 Crore Rs. is allocated for this to meet additional transport and living expenses.
scheme. (UPPCS, 2008)
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At least one-third of the women beneficiaries are kept DAY-NULM is being implemented by the Ministry of
under this scheme. Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation.
The Government of India notifies its wage rate state-wise DAY-NULM aims to remove the poverty and vulnerability
and it is determined according to the inflation as determined of urban poor families by encouraging them for the
by the Consumer Price Index. (UPPCS, 2008) opportunity of self-employment and skill-based employment
The government of India bears 100 per cent of the cost of in cities so that they can lead a prosperous and respectable
unskilled manual labour, 75 per cent of the cost of material, life.
75 per cent of the salary of skilled and semi-skilled workers DAY-NULM was implemented in all the district
and 6 per cent of the total administrative expenditure. State headquarters cities (regardless of population) and all other
Governments bear the remaining expenditure. cities with a population of 1 lakh or more on the basis
In this Act, it has been mandated that the ratio of expenditure of 2011 census in the 12th Five Year Plan, but now its
to material expenditure should be 60:40 in the total cost of expansion to all cities has been done.
work done from a Gram Panchayat. Financing of DAY-NULM will be shared between the
Workplace facilities like infant home, drinking water and Centre and the States in the ratio of 60:40. For North-
shed should be provided at all workplaces. Eastern States and special category states, this ratio will
It is noteworthy that Rs.86,000 crore has been allocated for be 90:10. (BPSC, 2015; UPPCS, 2018)
MNREGA for the financial year 2024-25. Start-up India :
Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana (Rural) : On 15 August 2015, the Prime Minister announced a
Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) is being very ambitious scheme 'Start-up' to provide employment
implemented since 1999 to promote self-employment opportunities to the youth of the country through incentives
oriented and income-generating activities for the BPL for self-employment and setting up of new enterprises. It
families living in the rural areas of the country. was launched on 16 January, 2016 by Prime Minister,
The Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana was Narendra Modi. (UPPCS, 2016; 17)
formalized on 3rd June, 2011 by restructuring it as a 'Start-up India Campaign' has been named 'Deen Dayal
'National Rural Livelihood Mission'. From November Upadhyay Self Employment Scheme' for rural areas in
2015, the scheme has been renamed Deendayal Antyodaya India.
Yojana - National Rural Livelihood Mission (DAY- The scheme has two major goals :
NRLM). 1. Start-ups expand beyond the digital / technology sector
DAY-NRLM aims to provide gainful self-employment and to broad areas such as agriculture, manufacturing, social
skilled wage employment opportunities to poor families to sector, health, education, etc.
reduce poverty which will lead to continuous improvement 2. Focus on presenting Tier-1 to Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities. This
in the livelihood of villagers. scheme also includes sub-urban and rural areas.
DAY- NRLM, total individual beneficiaries will include 3. As of August 2024, 137332 Start-ups have been operational
50 per cent SC / ST, 15 per cent minority and 3 per cent all over the country.
physically disabled people. (IAS, 2016; UP RO/ARO 2021; Jharkhand 2016)
DAY-NRLM is a centre sponsored scheme. The program Stand-up India :
is funded by the Centre and States in the ratio of 75: 25 To promote entrepreneurship in the country and create
(including Sikkim and North-Eastern states the ratio will employment on a large scale, on 15 August 2015, Prime
be 90 : 10 and fully sponsored by the centre for the Union Minister Narendra Modi had launched an epoch-making
Territories). scheme Stand-up India Scheme.
Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana (Urban) : Stand-up India Scheme was inaugurated on 5 April, 2016
The National Urban Livelihood Mission (NULM) was on the birth anniversary of Babu Jagjivan Ram and 125th
launched on 23 September, 2013 in place of the Swarna birth anniversary Baba Saheb Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar by
Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana with the strategy of self- Prime Minister Narendra Modi from Noida.
employment and skill development. (UPPCS, 2017; 19) The three major objectives of the scheme are :
Currently, the name of NULM has been changed into (i) To facilitate the access to institutional credit structure by SC
Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Urban Livelihood / ST and women entrepreneurs who were hitherto deemed
Mission (DAY- NULM), extending to all urban poor. unfit for it.
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(ii) To make these classes also partners in the economic growth Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana :
of the country. Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana is an accident
(iii) To benefit about 2.5 lakh loan seekers through the scheme insurance scheme supported by the Government of India
via 1.25 lakh bank branches located all over the country. which was announced by the then Finance Minister Arun
The goal of the Stand-up India scheme is to have at least Jaitley in the Annual Budget 2015-16. (UPPCS, 2015)
one application from each branch of all commercial banks It has been launched by Prime Minister, Narendra Modi
of the country. Rs. 10 lakh to 1 crore loan to be provided on 9 May, 2015, from Kolkata for the people who do not
to at least one SC/ST and a woman loanee for any new have any life insurance policy.
venture. This scheme has been linked to Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan
Refinance will be provided by SIDBI for implementation Yojana.
of this scheme. The duration of the scheme is one year, which falls from
National Skill Development and Entrepreneurship Policy, 1st June to 31st May. It can be renewed every year.
2015 : All savings bank account holders aged 18–70 years are
The Union Cabinet chaired by Prime Minister, Narendra eligible to join this scheme.
Modi approved India's first integrated National Skill Aadhaar Card and KYC will be compulsory for Bank
Development and Entrepreneurship Policy on 1 July 2015. Account.
On 15 July, 2015, the Prime Minister had launched the Each beneficiary has to pay a premium of Rs 12 (from 1
National Skill Development Mission in New Delhi, released June 2022, Rs. 20) per year.
the National Skill Development and Entrepreneurship Rs 2 lakh will be provided on accidental death or total
Policy, 2015 and unveiled the logo of Skill India. disability, while in case of partial disability, the beneficiary
(IAS, 2017) will receive Rs 1 lakh.
The main objective of this policy is to empower youth and Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana :
employees and increase their productivity. Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana (PMJJBY) is a
Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana : life insurance policy that can be renewed on annual basis
The Union Cabinet chaired by the Prime Minister approved or for a longer period.
the 'Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana' worth Rs 1500 In case of the death of the insured person, the next eligible
crore on 20 March, 2015 and it was launched on 15 July, beneficiary is provided with a death benefit including a
2015. death coverage of Rs. 2,00,000.
The main objective of this scheme is to train 40 crore people The scheme was launched on 9 May, 2015 by Prime
in different skills by 2022. Minister, Narendra Modi.
The scheme is being implemented by the National Skill The objective of Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana
Development Corporation under the Ministry of Skill is to promote life insurance as well as financial assistance
Development and Entrepreneurship. to the family of the policy holder.
Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana is made available
Phase wise target and beneficieries (in Lakh) to persons in the age group of 18-50 years.
Phase Target Trained To get benefitted from Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima
PMKVY 1.0 (2015-16) 24.0 19.86 Yojana, there should be a bank account of the beneficiary.
PMKVY 2.0 (2016-20) 100.0 109.98 If a person has more than one savings account in the same
bank or other banks, he can join this scheme with only one
PMKVY 3.0 (2020-22) 8.0 4.45
account.
In the Union budget 2023-24, the Finance Minister Under Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana, the
announced that Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikash Yojana beneficiary will have to pay Rs 330 (from 1 June, 2022
4.0 will be launched to skill lakhs of Youth within next Rs. 436) annually.
three years. This amount will be deducted annually from the bank
The scheme will emphasize on-Job training, industry account of the beneficiary.
partnership and alignment of courses with need of industry. This amount will be deducted from the same bank where
Scheme will also cover new age courses for Industry 4.0 this insurance policy will start.
like coding, AI, robotics, mechatronics, IoT, 3D Printing, Risk coverage under Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima
Drones and Soft skills. Yojana is Rs 2 lakh.
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The policy will end on the completion of the policyholder's The Atal Pension Yojana is administered by the Pension
age of 55 years. Fund Regulatory and Development Authority (PFRDA).
National Health Insurance Scheme : In March, 2023 PFRDA raises Ombudsman upper age limit
The National Health Insurance Scheme was launched by to 70 years from 65 years.
the Ministry of Labour and Employment, Government It is noteworthy that in the financial year 2024-25, Rs. 521
of India from 1st April, 2008, to provide health insurance crore has been allocated for this scheme.
cover to families living below the poverty line. National Rural Health Mission :
It is being implemented by the Ministry of Health and National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) was launched on
Family Welfare from 1st April, 2015. 12th April 2005.
(IAS, 2009; UPPCS, 2017) It is especially concerned with ensuring health facilities for
The National Health Insurance Scheme has two major the rural poor and weaker sections.
objectives - The role of trained ASHA (Accredited Social Health
(i) To provide protection from financial liabilities arising out Activist) in National Rural Health Mission service is very
of health injuries. important.
(ii) To meet the hospital expenditures of the families below the National/Urban Health Mission (NUHM) :
poverty line and other weaker sections of the unorganized This mission was started in 2013. Its aim is to provide
sector and improve their access to quality healthcare. comprehensive, affordable and quality healthcare services.
Unorganized sector workers who belong to the BPL
category, their family members (family of five members) Central Schemes / Projects
are eligible for the benefits under the scheme. Sl. Date of
(IAS, 2000; UPPCS, 2017)
Scheme/Projects
No. Implementation
National Health Insurance Scheme is sponsored by the
Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi
Central Government. (IAS 2009; UPPCS, 2017) 1. 24th February, 2019
Yojana
75 per cent of the annual premium of Rs 750 is paid by the
2. KUSUM Yojana 8th March, 2019
Central Government, while 25 per cent is paid by the State
Government. In the context of the North Eastern States and 3. Election Bond Scheme 2nd January, 2018
Jammu and Kashmir, this ratio is 90 : 10. 4. Waterways Development Project 3rd January, 2018
(IAS, 2009; UPPCS, 2017)
5. National Nutrition Mission 8th March, 2018
The total sum assured on a family is Rs 30,000 per year.
6. Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandan Yojana 1st January, 2017
There is a provision of cashless treatment for all the diseases
involved. 7. Migrant Skills Development Scheme 8th January, 2017
Atal Pension Yojana (APY) : 8. Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana 1st April, 2017
Atal Pension Yojana (APY) is a very ambitious social 9. Darwaza Band Campaign 30th May, 2017
security scheme for the unorganized sector workers, was
10. Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandan Yojana 21st July, 2017
announced by the then Finance Minister Arun Jaitley in the
General Budget 2015-16. (IAS, 2016) 11. Startup India 16th January, 2016
The Prime Minister formally announced the scheme on 9 E-National Agriculture Market
12. 14th April, 2016
May, 2015 in Kolkata. (E-NAM)
The Atal Pension Yojana came into force on 1st June, 2015 13. Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana 1st May, 2016
and replaced the earlier Swavalamban Yojana.
14. Pradhan Mantri Yuva Yojana 9th November, 2016
All bank account holders whose age is between 18-40 years
are eligible for Atal Pension Yojana. 15. Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana 22nd January, 2015
Members of any statutory social security scheme and 16. Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana 8th April, 2015
income tax payer are ineligible for this scheme. 17. Atal Pension Yojana 9th May, 2015
The starting age of pension under Atal Pension Yojana is
18. Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana 15th July, 2015
60 years.
Under Atal Pension Yojana, after the death of the Swachh Bharat Mission :
beneficiary, his life partner will get the pension. Thereafter Swachh Bharat Mission was started on 2nd October 2014.
an amount ranging from 1.7 lakh to 8.5 lakh will be The goal of Swachh Bharat Mission is to provide toilet
provided to the nominee by the beneficiary. facilities to all rural families and make India Open Defecation
228
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Free (ODF) by October 2nd, 2019. (UPPCS, 2014; 15) (ii) Deficiencies
On 1st October, 2021 Prime Minister Narendra Modi (iii) Diseases
Launched Swachha Bharat Mission (Urban) 2.0 from Delhi. (iv) Developmental Delays and Disabilities
SBM 2.0 envisages to make all cities "Garbage Free" and Under this, all children (rural and urban) in the age group
ensure grey and black water management. of 0-6 years and all the students enrolled in class 1-12 will
Union Cabinet Chaired by Prime Minister approved the be benefited.
Phase II of Swachh Bharat Mission (Gramean) [SBM (G) Pradhan Mantri Jan Aushadhi Scheme:
2.0] on 19th February, 2020. Pradhan Mantri Jan Aushadhi Scheme was announced on
It will focus on Open Defecation Free Plus (ODF +) which 21 July, 2015 by the Prime Minister, Narendra Modi.
includes ODF sustainability and Solid and Liquid Waste (UPPCS, 2017; 20)
Management (SLWM). Under this scheme, high-quality generic medicines will
Mission Indradhanush : be provided by the government at a price lower than the
On 25 December 2014, the Union Ministry of Health and market price.
Family Welfare has launched 'Mission Indradhanush'to This initiative has been taken by the Department of
vaccinate children and pregnant women. Pharmaceuticals.
It is the national immunization program to ensure high Under the scheme, 10607 (As on 31 January, 2024)
immunization across the country. Government Jan Aushadhi centres are functional across
Special attention will be paid to those districts where the the country.
vaccination rate has decreased. Note : In July 2024, India's first overseas Jan Aushadi
The main objective of this mission is to protect all children Kendra inaugurated in Mauritius.
(up to 2 years) and pregnant women from diseases that are
Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao Scheme :
preventable.
This scheme was launched on 22nd January, 2015 from
The seven vaccines under this mission are: (1) Diphtheria,
Panipat in Harayana by Prime Minister Narendra Modi.
(2) Whooping Cough, (3) Tetanus, (4) Tuberculosis, (5)
(UPPCS, 2015)
Polio, (6) Hepatitis - B and (7) Measles. Additionally,
Objective of the scheme is to eradicate the gender
Japanese encephalitis Haemophilus Influenza Type - B discrimination and sex selection and ensure livelihood and
vaccines will also be introduced in selected states. saftey of girls and promote their participation in education.
The implementation of the first phase of the mission was Important targets in first phase was –
started on 7 April, 2015.Till August 2017, four phases of (i) 10 points increase in the sex-ratio of the 100 districts with
this mission have been organized and more than 2.53 crore low sex-ratio.
children and 68 lakh pregnant women have been vaccinated. (ii) to increase the enrollment ratio of girls in intermediate
6 states Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, education.
West Bengal and Jharkhand were given the top priority for (iii) to improve the nutrition level of girls below age of 5 years
vaccination. suffering from low weight and anemia.
In February, 2022, Union Health and Family Welfare (iv) to ensure availibility of ladies toilet by 2017 in each school
Minister Mansukh Mandaviya launched Intensified Mission of 100 districts with low child sex ratio.
Indradhanush (IMI) 4.0. It will be implemented in 416 (v) to reduce the gender gap in mortality rate of children below
districts of 33 states/UTs in three phases. 5 years of age from 8 points in 2011 to 4 points till 2017.
National Child Health Program : With extension of Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao Scheme, targets
'National Child Health Program' was launched on 6 under it has also been expanded. Presently major targets
February, 2013 from Palghar, a tribal block in Thane under the scheme are as followings –
district, Maharashtra, to address the health problems of (i) to improve the sex-ratio of birth in selected districts by
children. (BPSC, 2019; UPPCS, 2020) two points in one year.
‘National Child Health Program’is an initiative taken by (ii) to decrease the child mortality by 1.5 points every year.
the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare of India under (iii) to increase institution delivery by 1.5 percent every year.
the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM). (iv) to make available toilets in every school.
The National Child Health Program targets four types of (v) to decrease the problem of anemia and low weight in girl
deficiencies. child below age of 5 years by improving their nutrition
(i) Defects at Birth level.
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In the 2024-25 budget, Rs. 3146 crore is allocated under Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh 46.45
mission Shakti including Beti Bachao, Beti Padao and some
Cotton Gujarat 27.86
other schemes.
National Framework for Malaria Elimination : Jute and Mesta West Bengal 80.97
On 11 February 2016, the then Union Health and Source : Economic Survey, 2023-24
Family Welfare Minister, J.P. Nadda has issued 'National
Characteristics of Indian Agriculture :
Framework for Malaria Elimination, 2016-2030 (NFME).
Indian agriculture is in a backward stage. Even today
(UPPCS, 2015; 18)
farmers use unscientific method for agriculture. Productivity
National Framework for the eradication of malaria
(production per hectare) in Indian agriculture is significantly
underlines the strategy of India to eradicate malaria by
low. (UPPCS, 2019)
2030.
Large scale disguised unemployment is prevalent in
The National Framework Scheme for the Elimination of
Malaria has the following objectives: agriculture in India which is the one of the important factors
(i) Elimination of Malaria by 2022 from all the States / UTs for poverty of farmers.
in the Low (Category - 1) and Medium (Category - 2) Even today, Indian agriculture suffers from Uncertainty,
category. due to which there is good harvest if weather is good and
(ii) To bring the level to less than 1 case per 1000 population bad harvest if weather is bad. (UPPCS, 2004; 08; 10)

in all States / Union Territories and districts. Small holdings is a major feature of Indian agriculture.
(iii) Eradication of Malaria by 2024 in 31 States / UTs. Approx 68.45 percent of total holdings is marginal holdings
(iv) To prevent indigenous transmission of malaria by 2027 in (less than one hectare) and 17.62 percent are small holdings
all States / UTs (Category 3). (1-2 hectare).
(v) Maintaining the malaria-free status of the country by 2030. Thus approximately 86.08 percent holdings are smaller
than 2 hectares.
5 Agriculture in India Distributions of Land Holdings in India : 2015-16
India is primarily agrarion economy and about 55% of its 1. Marginal Holdings (0 - 1 Hectares) 68.45%
population (as per census 2011) are engaged in agriculture 2. Small Holdings (1 - 2 Hectares) 17.62%
and allied activities. (MPPCS, 1997; IAS, 2018)
3. Medium Holdings (2 - 10 Hectares) 13.35%
According to the Economic Survey, 2023-24, the Indian
argiculture sector provides livelihood to about 42.3 per 4. Large Holdings (more than 10 Hectares) 0.57%
cent of the population. Notably.It has a share of 18.2 per Crop Pattern in India :
cent in the country's GDP at current price. In India, crops are classified on the nature and seasons of
Production of Important Crops (2023-24) the crops. Depending on the nature of the crops, the crops
Share in All India are divided into food Crops and non-food Crops. Rice,
Crop/Crop Group State Wheat, Millet, Maize, etc. are food crops whereas pulses
Production (%)
as Urad, Moong, Gram, etc. are included. (BPSC, 2016)
Rice Telangana 12.17
Non-food crops include oilseed crops and commercial
Wheat Uttar Pradesh 31.38
crops (Sugarcane, Cotton, Jute, Plantation Crops, etc.).
Maize Karnataka 15.39 On the basis of seasons, crops are classified into three parts
Coarse Cereats Rajasthan 14.66 (1) Rabi Crop (2) Kharif Cop and (3) Zaid Crop.
Pulses Madhya Pradesh 25.23 Rabi Crops are sown in November - December, and
Total food grains Uttar Pradesh 18.03 harvested in March - April. Wheat, Barley, Gram, Peas,
Groundnut Gujarat 45.12 Mustard, Potato, etc. are the major Rabi season crops.
Kharif crops are sown in June-July and harvested in
Rapeseed and
Rajasthan 45.40 October-November. Jowar, Millet, Maize, Rice, Sesame,
Mustard
Groundnut, etc. are the main Kharif crops.
Soybean Madhya Pradesh 41.92
Zaid crops are also called 'summer crops'. These crops
Sunflower Karnataka 40.72 are grown between March and July. These include
Total Oilseeds Rajasthan 24.17 watermelon, cucumber, etc.
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Green Revolution in India : making permanent improvements on land, purchasing

The food crisis that originated in 1960s inspired the tractors and machines, godowns, cattle sheds, wells for the
adoption of scientific agriculture in place of traditional one. collection of food grains on the farm, etc. (UPPCS, 2014)
(UPPCS, 2008; MPPCS, 2006; BPSC 2018)
Sources of Agricultural Credit in India
An array of strategies was created to increase agricultural
production in which a strategic use of improved seeds, The sources of agricultural credit in India are divided
fertilizers and pesticides were adopted to increase into two parts - Institutional Sources and Non-
agricultural production. institutional Sources. Institutional sources include
As a result, a new technological change began in the government, cooperatives, commercial banks and
agricultural sector from 1966-67 which has been termed as regional rural banks, while non-institutional sources
a new aphorism of agricultural development or the Green include moneylenders, traders, landlords, relatives, etc.
Revolution. The loan given by the government to the farmers is
Green Revolution was meant to increase agricultural called 'Takabi'. It is the loan given by the government
production in irrigated and non-irrigated areas of the to the farmers at the time of sowing the crop and at the
country by producing high yielding varieties of seeds. harvesting time, it is taken back.
Nobel Laureate Prof. Norman Borlaug was the propounder Co-operative Credit Societies : These societies are the
of Green Revolution in the world. (UP Lower, 2015) main sources of agricultural credit in India.
The father of the Green Revolution in India is MS
Cooperative Societies in India are expanded after the
Swaminathan.
Indian Cooperative Credit Societies Act, 1904 came
The most positive impact of Green Revolution in India
into existence.
was on the production of Wheat and Rice. Its impact on
the production of coarse grains and pulses was limited. The main objective of establishing cooperative credit
The Green Revolution benefited the farmers of Punjab, societies in India is to nurture the financial needs of
Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh. the farmers and protect them from the debt trap of
India got rid of food problem due to the Green Revolution moneylenders.
and became self-sufficient in food grains. Short-term, middle-term and long-term loans are
provided to the farmers by the cooperative credit
Note : Operation flood is credited with an eight times
societies.
increase in milk prodution in India between 1951-2014.
The cooperative credit structure in India is three-tier.
Agricultural Mechanization :
It consists of State Cooperative Banks at the top level,
When electricity, diesel or petrol is used instead of animal
Central / District Cooperative Banks at the district level
power and manpower in agricultural works , it is known
and Agricultural Credit Societies at the primary level.
as 'mechanization of agriculture'.
Agricultural Loan : The main objective of the formation of Primary
Agricultural loans are taken to fulfil many purposes, but Agricultural Credit Societies is to raise funds to provide
they are generally divided into three categories - 1. Short loans to the members and to instil a sense of self-reliance
term loan 2. Middle term loan and 3. Long term loan. and austerity among the members.
1. Short Term Loan : It is provided to farmers to meet the State Co-operative Bank which is the apex co-operative
seasonal cost. In other words, short-term loans are taken bank of the State is established to direct / coordinate the
for a maximum period of 15 months. Short-term loans are functions of District Cooperative Banks and provide credit
taken for the purchase of seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, etc. facilities. Their members are only central cooperative
(UPPCS, 2011) banks. It does not give loans to common people.
2. Middle Term Loan : It is taken for a period of 15 months Land Development Bank :
to 5 years It is called Middle Term Loan. These loans are The Land Development Bank provides long-term loans to
taken for the creation of temporary assets such as arranging the farmers. (UPPCS, 2016)
tools on the farm, purchasing milch animals, deepening The purpose of establishing the Land Development Bank
wells, land reforms, etc. is to provide loans to the farmers for the land development
3. Long Term Loan : It is taken for a period of 5-20 years works and to get rid of old debts.
and is called Long Term Loan. These loans are taken for The Land Development Bank provides loans by mortgaging
the creation of permanent assets such as purchasing land, the land.
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Kisan Credit Card Scheme : Note that in January 1965, Dantewala Committee had
In the financial year 1998-99, the Kisan Credit Card Scheme suggested the minimum support price in a year.
was introduced by the Central Government to solve the Initially, its tenure was fixed for three years, but later, it was
problems of agricultural credit of the farmers. given the status of a permanent and consultative institution.
(IAS, 2020; UPPCS 2008; 10, UP RO/ARO 2014; 16) In 1985, its name was renamed Commission for Agricultural
The objective of this scheme is to fulfil the short term, Costs and Prices.
middle term and long term financial needs of the farmers. National Agricultural Policy, 2000:
Under the scheme, a credit limit is fixed as per the year- On 28 July 2000, the Central Government had announced
long agricultural financial requirements of the farmers. The the National Agricultural Policy, 2000. In this agricultural
farmer can withdraw money as many times as he wants policy, the top priority had been given to increase the
within the credit limit. Farmers will only have to pay interest profitability of agriculture and to enable Indian agriculture
on withdrawn money. to meet the future challenges arising from globalization.
Agricultural Prices : This agriculture policy aims to achieve a growth rate of 4%
Agricultural prices refer to the prices of agricultural per year in the agriculture sector. (UPPCS, 2010; 17)
products. Major agricultural prices are as follows - Market Priority has been given to promoting privatization of
Price, Normal Price, Maximum Price, Forward Price, agriculture, investing more, conserving soil-water and
Realization Price, Issue Price, Minimum Support Price, biodiversity, etc. in the National Agricultural Policy.
Fair Price, etc. (IAS, 1995) The strategy of adopting the method of contract farming,
Minimum Support Price (MSP) is considered very leasing of land, technical transfer, capital inflow and
important for the farmers. transfer of crops to the new market had also been adopted in
The price of agricultural commodities in any market is the National Agricultural Policy. In this policy, agricultural
called 'Market Price'. Market prices are short-term prices. development had been emphasized to increase profitable,
According to the demand of the goods, the price which sustainable employment opportunities in rural areas.
prevails in the market after enough time has been found National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation
to coordinate the supply is called the 'normal price' of that (NAFED) :
commodity. National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation
Minimum Support Price (MSP) : was established on 2 October, 1958. Its Headquarter is
The minimum support price related to the farmers is a type located in Delhi and has offices in all States.
of crop insurance price. Through this, the government (UPPCS, 1995; 07)
assures the productive farmers that the price of food grains It collects, markets and trades agricultural products at
will not be allowed to fall below the minimum fixed price the national level. International trade of agricultural
and if the prices fall below the minimum support price, the commodities is also done by this. NAFED procures and
government purchases food grains at the declared minimum markets agricultural commodities through cooperative
support price. societies.
The purpose of declaring the minimum support price is to
protect the farmers from the loss due to the fall in the prices 6 Indian Industries
of agricultural commodities and to get fixed income to the
farmers so that the motivation for increasing agricultural Industries are considered the base of any economy.
production remains. They occupy an important place in the Indian economy.
The minimum support price for 23 crops in India is According to the Economic Survey 2023-24, the Economic
announced by the government on the recommendation Growth of 8.2 per cent in FY 24 was supported by an
of the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices, industrial growth of 9.5 per cent.
whereas along with 2 other crops, the Central Government The share of manufacturing in total gross value added at
declares a minimum support price of a total of 25 current prices was 14.3 per cent in FY 23.
Agricultural Crops. Industrial Policy before 1991:
Minimum Support Price is declared twice a year (for Rabi After independence, on 6 April 1948, the then Minister of
and Kharif Crops) by the Central Government. Industry and Commerce, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee had
Commission on Agricultural Costs and Prices: declared India's first industrial policy. (UP UDA/LDA, 2010)
In 1965, the Central Government had constituted the The Industrial Policy, 1948 adopted the concept of a mixed
Agricultural Price Commission to make suggestions economy (public and private sector) for India's economic
regarding the minimum pricing of agricultural products. development.
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Second Industrial Policy was presented on 30 April Restrictive measures were taken under the inflationary
1956. The main objective of this policy was to lay a policy, 1991 for inflationary pressures.
strong foundation for basic and heavy industries, curb The scope of activities reserved for the public sector was
monopolistic trends and progressively develop a growth- limited and the private sector was allowed in the said area.
oriented industrial cooperative sector. On 24 July, 1991, the then Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha
According to the Industrial Policy, 1956, industries were Rao announced the New Industrial Policy, 1991.
classified into three groups. Reducing the industrial licensing system through new
17 industries of social value, social utility, basic industry, industrial policy, a strategy was adopted to eliminate
transport and mineral sector were kept in the first categories. the unnecessary interference of industrial controls and
13 industries fell under the second category in which the bureaucracy.
government was expected to participate more progressive The main objectives of the new industrial policy are as
in future. follows :
All the remaining industries were included in the third (i) Maintaining continuous growth in production.
category which were not included in the first and second (ii) To create more employment opportunities.
category. (iii) To enhance the competitiveness of Indian industries
Industrial Policy, 1956 was practical, progressive and
and enable Indian products to compete internationally.
development-oriented. Through this policy, industrialization
(iv) To provide more autonomy to the private sector.
was not only encouraged in a balanced and rapid manner in
(v) To encourage all industries in the public, private
the country but also large and basic industries got a strong
and cooperative sectors to improve and grow their
foundation in the country for future industrial development.
performances.
Industrial Policy, 1956 is considered to be the cornerstone
To achieve the above objectives, four major policy steps
of all industrial policies in India.
were taken in the Industrial Policy, 1991. 1. Public Sector
India's third industrial policy was presented on 23
Contraction, 2. Liberalization of the Licensing System,
December, 1977 by the then Industry Minister George
3. Promotion of Foreign Investment and 4. Abolition of
Fernandes.
M.R.T.P.Act, 1969.
The main objective of the Industrial Policy, 1977 was
to remove the distortions prevailing in the industrial The Industrial Policy, 1991 has reduced the number of
structure, promote small and cottage industries increasing industries reserved for the public sector to just 8.
employment and production of essential consumer goods. At present, it is noteworthy that only two industries like
According to the Industrial Policy, 1977, the strategy of nuclear power and railway transport are reserved for the
expansion of small and cottage industries was adopted. public sector.
New Industrial Policy of India on 23 July, 1980 was In this policy, the licensing system of the industries was also
presented in Parliament. liberalised except for 18 industries, the remaining licenses
The main objectives of the Industrial Policy, 1980 were to were exempted.
increase the range of investment of industries, protection Currently, there are only 4 industries that are alcoholic
of small scale industries from the competition of large beverages, tobacco and its products, electronic aerospace
industries, to solve the problem of industrial sickness, and defence equipment, industrial explosives and hazardous
increase the efficiency of financial management, etc. chemicals in which license is required.
New Economic Policy: In the new policy, the maximum limit set under the
The new economic policy has three major dimensions - Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Act (MRTP Act) for
Privatization, Liberalization and Globalization. industries was abolished, so that the acquisition or merging
The main areas of the New Economic Reform Policy (1991) of industries could be done. (UPPCS, 2004; 17)
were fiscal policy, monetary policy, pricing policy, foreign MRTP Act is currently replaced by the Competition Act.
trade policy, industrial policy, foreign investment policy Apart from this, several policy steps were also taken to
and public sector policy. (UPPCS 1997; 04; 08; 13) encourage foreign investment in the new Industrial Policy.
Under the Fiscal Policy, 1991, mainly four steps were taken
Note : Small scale industries are seprated on the basis of
- 1. Strict control of public expenditure, 2. Increasing tax
and non-tax revenues, 3. Implementing fiscal discipline input prices of large scale industries.
on Central and State governments, 4. Reduction in grant Note : If both the primary deficit and interest payment
money. are doubled then the fiscal deficit increase by 100%.
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Export Promotion : Loans provided from institutions like World Bank,

Export promotion refers to all such governmental and non- International Monetary Fund (IMF), Asian Development
governmental efforts to increase the country's exports. Bank, etc. are called Multilateral Loans.
(UPPCS, 2015; BPSC, 2011) Bilateral Loans are generally taken or given between two
After independence, the Government of India formed the governments as the loan given by Japan to India.
Gorwala Committee in 1949 to suggest solutions to the Loans given by the foreign governments to public sector
problem of foreign exchange and promotion of exports. undertakings of any other country are also included in this
The Gorwala Committee recommended the establishment category.
of specific organizations for export promotion and the
Commercial lending includes loans from Commercial
adoption of a policy of import substitution in its report.
Banks, India Development Bond, Foreign Currency
Export Processing Zone, EPZ's :
Convertible Bonds, Foreign Investment Institutions, Letters
India is the first country in Asia to establish an Export
of Credit, etc.
Processing Zone. The first EPZ was established in Kandla
Commercial loans are both bilateral / multilateral in nature.
in 1965. (UPPCS, 2011; 17)
Loans received by buyers and suppliers fall under the
The basic objective of setting up of export processing sector
is to promote the export of manufactured goods. FEMA Act category of export credit.
Through the export processing sector, a conducive FEMA, 1999 (FEMA: Foreign Exchange Management
environment is created for world-class production and Act, 1999) was enacted to replace the already existing
export of selected goods. FERA, 1973 (FERA: Foreign Exchange Regulation Act,
Special Economic Zones: 1973) by the Government for Foreign Investment and
The Special Economic Zones (SEZ) policy in India was Trade.
announced in April, 2000. (UPPCS, 2017; 09; 14) Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
Its main objective was to remove the bottlenecks in Foreign Investment in India comes in the form of Foreign
production and export in the country and attract foreign Direct investment and foreign portfolio investment.
investment in India. (UPPCS, 2006; UK PCS, 2016)
In 2005, the SEZ Act, 2005 was enacted, which became Foreign Portfolio Investment:
effective from 10 February, 2006. Foreign Portfolio Investment is done through the stock
SEZ'S are Special Economic Zones where the liberal exchange.
approach is adopted in the provisions of tax, duty, labour, Investor has no role in the management of this investment.
standards, quota, etc. to encourage production and export. Portfolio Investment is volatile in nature and there is a fear
India's first SEZ was developed at Kandla. of capital migration in the event of instability.
As on April, 2024, a total of 356 Special Economic Zones Foreign Direct Investment is made by a company or entity
have been notified in India. Telangana has a maximum of located in another country under which modern technology,
57 Special Economic Zones. advanced management and new methods of production
Import - Export Bank :
methods are obtained.
Import - Export Bank of India was established on 1st January
There are two defined routes of FDI in India-
1982 which aims to provide financial assistance to meet the
[A] Automatic Route : Automatic route is also known as
financial needs of exporters and importers. (BPSC 2015)
'Mumbai Route'. Automatic route type does not require
It has been established under India’s Import- Export Banks
prior permission. But investment has to be registered with
Act, 1981.
RBI.
Note : Term of trade refers to the ratio between manu- [B] Government Route : Under the government route, the
facturer prices and import prices. investor has to apply for it. This application is considered
External Debt: by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs.
External debt is a loan that has been taken from foreign
Note : The sum of net investment and depreciation is
donors (individuals, banks, international financial
called Gross investment.
institutions, governments, etc). (IAS, 2011; MPPCS, 2017)
Eternal debt is usually divided into short and long term Total FDI inflows in the coutry in the FY 2023-24 is 70.95
loans on the basis of duration. Billion dollars and total FDI equity stands at 44.22 Billion
In addition to the period and on the basis of nature, foreign dollars. Mauritius (25%), Singapore (23%), USA (9%),
debt is divided into multilateral, bilateral, export credit and Netherland (7%) and Japan (6%) emerge as top 5 countries
commercial borrowings, etc. for FDI equity inflows into India FY 2023-24.
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Government of India has Made following recent reforms (v) They are listed on the Indian Stock Exchange with
in FDI Policy - minimum prescribed public shareholding under SEBI
(i) In order to prevent opportunistic take over of Indian rules.
companies due to Covid-19, Government changed the FDI Maharatna companies get autonomy for investment
Policy. According to it, Countries which share boundry with proposals up to Rs. 5,000 crores.
India or whose owner beneficiary of investment is based Maharatna status has been accorded to 13 PSUs, on the
in India, Citizen of such countries can only invest through above grounds (As on 18th October, 2023).
government route. Their details are in the following table -
(ii) Companies seeking new industrial licensing, has been Maharatnas of India
allowed to invest 74% (earlier 49%) through the automatic
1. National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC)
route in Defence sector.
2. Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC)
Telecom Sectors : On 6th October, 2021, Government of
India approves 100 per cent FDI through aotomatic route 3. Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL)
in telecom sector. 4. Indian Oil Corporation (IOC)
Insurance Sectors : On 14th June, 2021 approval was 5. Coal India Limited (CIL)
issued for raising the approved limit of FDI in insurance 6. Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd. (BHEL)
sector from 49 per cent to 74 per cent along with foreign 7. Gas Authority of India Ltd. (GAIL)
ownership and controle through automatic routes.
8. Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (BPCL)
Foreign Direct Investment Prohibited Areas:
9. Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd. (PGCIL)
(1) Lottery Trade (government and private lotteries), Online
10. Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd. (HPCL)
Lotteries,
(2) Gambling and Betting including Casinos, 11. Power Finance Corporation
(3) Chit Funds, 12. Rural Electrification Corporation Limited
(4) Fund Companies, 13. Oil India Limited (OIL)
(5) Convertible Development Rights Trading , Navratna Companies
(6) Construction of Real Estate Business or Farmhouse, In 1997, Navratna status was created for nine companies.
As of 18th October, 2023, there are a total of 16 Navratna
(7) Cigars, Cigarillos and Cigarettes, Tobacco and Tobacco
companies.
Manufacture.
Companies with Navratna status can take decisions on
Public Enterprises in India :
investment proposals upto 30% of their net worth or Rs.
First Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru called public
1,000 crore, whichever is less, without prior approval of
enterprises the Temple of Modern India. (UPPCS, 1998)
the central government.
Many public enterprises in India are also given the status
Miniratna Companies :
of gems to provide financial autonomy.
Mini Ratna scheme was launched in October 1977.
At present, companies are given the status of Maharatna,
Currently, as of 18th October, 2023 the number of Mini
Navratna and Mini Ratna. Ratna companies is 68.
Navratna Status is given to companies by the Central Public There are 57 companies in the Mini Ratna category-I, and
Enterprises Department. 11 companies in the Mini Ratna category-II.
Maharatna Companies : Industrial Development and Financial Institutions :
Union Cabinet in December 2009 decided to create Textile industry is the second largest employment
Maharatna status. (UPPCS, 2010; MPPCS, 2020; 21) generating industry in India after agriculture.
The companies get the status of Maharatna are - (UPPCS, 2005; 11)
(i) They have earned an average net profit of Rs.5 thousand India's largest textile industry hub is Mumbai.
crores in the last three years. India is the second largest producer of raw silk in the world
(ii) Their average annual turnover in three years should have after China.
been at least Rs. 25 thousand crores. According to the data released by the Central Silk Board,
(iii) The average net worth of these companies during three Bangaluru in 2018-19, regarding the production of raw
years has also been Rs. 15 thousand crores. mulberry silk, Karnataka ranked first, Andhra Pradesh was
(iv) The company should have Navratna status and the company second, West Bengal is at third and Tamil Nadu at the fourth
should also have business abroad. position.
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Assam is the largest producer of Eri and Muga Silk. National Renewal Fund was established in 1992 to assist
Abdul Hussain Committee is concerned with the and restore displaced workers of sick industrial units.
improvement of small scale industries. Make in India Programme: On 25th September, 2014,
The Small Industries Development Organization falls Prime Minister, Narendra Modi had launched 'Make in
under the Union Ministry of Industry. India' programme to boost up industrial development by
Small Industries Development Organization was making the country world's favourite 'manufacturing hub'.
established in 1954. (UPPCS, 2016)
The Small Industries Development Organization acts as 'Make in India' aims to ensure that the manufacturing
a policy-making and coordinating agency concerning to sector's contribution to GDP is increased to 25% by 2025.
small scale industries. The symbol of 'Make in India' Program is a lion made of
National Small Industries Corporation: It was established instruments.
in 1955. Its main function is to provide machinery to small Under Make in India 2.0 Scheme presently focuses 27
scale industries on hire purchase method. Sectors.
Indian Institute of Entrepreneurship is located in Guwahati. Emergence and Development of Banking Sector in India :
National Institute of Entrepreneurship and Small The modern banking system in India was launched in 1770
Development Business is situated in Noida, U.P. with the establishment of 'Bank of Hindustan'. Bank of
The National Small Industries Extension Training Institute Hindustan was founded by Alexander & Company in
is situated in Hyderabad. collaboration with foreign capital.
In 1806 Bank of Bengal, 1840 Bank of Bombay and in
The state financial corporation has mainly provided
1843 Bank of Madras were established. These banks were
assistance for the development of medium and small scale
called Presidency Banks.
industries.
The Awadh Commercial Bank (founded in 1881), based
Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI) :
on limited liability, was the first bank operated by Indians.
It started functioning from 2 April, 1990.
But absolutely the first bank by any Indian completely is
(UPPCS, 2004; 10; 13)
Punjab National Bank which was established in 1894.
The head-quarter of Small Industries Development Bank
Reserve Bank of India (RBI) :
of India is located in Lucknow.
The Reserve Bank of India was established as the central
It works to coordinate the work of all those institutions
bank on 1st April, 1935 on the recommendation of the
which are engaged in the promotion of small scale
Hilton Young Commission. The bank was nationalized
industries.
on 1st January, 1949. (IAS, 2018; UPPCS, 2011)
Industrial Finance Corporation of India: It was
Its head office is located in Mumbai. In addition, the
established on 1st July, 1948 by the Special Act of the Reserve Bank of India has regional 31 offices at different
Constitution. (UPPCS, 2012)
locations.
IFCI aims to provide long term and mid-term credit to The Reserve Bank of India is called Central Bank of India.
private and cooperative sector enterprises. RBI had given permission to Equitas Holding to start 15
Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India small finance banks in the years 2016.
Limited (ICICI): It was established in 1955 under the In March, 2023, the RBI launched 'Har Payment Digital
Indian Companies Act. (UPPCS, 2004) Mission'.
The function of ICICI is to provide financial assistance The first governor of the Reserve Bank of India was Sir
in the establishment, development and modernization of Osbon Smith (1 April, 1935 to 30 June, 1937).
enterprises set up in the private sector. The first Indian Governor of Reserve Bank of India was
The role of the Industrial Development Bank of India C.D. Deshmukh (11 August, 1943 to 30 June, 1949).
(IDBI) is very crucial in the field of industrial finance. During this period, the Reserve Bank of India was
It was established in 1964. (UP Lower, 1998) nationalized.
The Industrial and Financial Reconstruction Board Function of RBI :
(BIFR) was formed in 1981 for the revival of old industries. The main function of the Reserve Bank of India is to control
Disinvestment means reducing government participation and regulate the spread of currency and credit in the country.
in enterprises. Initially, the Reserve Bank of India used to issue notes on
In 1996, the Disinvestment Commission was constituted the basis of the proportional reserve system, but in 1956 the
to review, suggest and regulate the disinvestment issue, proportional reserve system was abandoned and replaced with
headed by G.V. Ramakrishna. the minimum reservation system. (IAS, 2018; UPPCS 2011)
236
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The Reserve Bank of India regulates and controls all Disinvestment of public sector banks by government is an
commercial banks. example of capital gains.
The Reserve Bank of India accepts deposits from banks Low interest rates would result in uneconomic demand for
and gives loans to them. money.
The Reserve Bank of India provides loans and financial The value of currency is indirectly to the price level.
assistance to commercial banks in emergency. RBI decides the monetary policy of India. The Monetary
The Reserve Bank of India also manages the credit Policy Committee under the chairmanship of Governor of
generation capacity of banks. This affects the liquidity of RBI sets the repo rate in India.
banks and their credit generation capacity by increasing History of Indian Currency :
and lowering the cash reserve ratios. Earlier, in 1861, the paper currency was issued by private
The Reserve Bank of India also regulates branches of banks sector banks like The Bank of Hindustan, The General Bank
(transfer, closure, etc.). of Bengal and Bihar, The Bank of Bengal, etc in India.
All Indian currency notes (2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500) After 1861, the letter currency began to be incorporated
are incorporated by Reserve Bank of India. under the Government of India.
(UPPCS, 2019; UK PSC, 2017) (UPPCS, 1995; 05; 10; UK UPCS, 2005)
Ministry of Finance (Government of India) incorporates Later, the right of incorporation of letter currency
one rupee note and coins. was handed over to the Reserve Bank of India by the
All the coins of 25 paise and below value were ceased to Government of India.
be legal tender from July 2011. After the Independence of India, from 1947, on the Indian
The decimal system currency is in circulation in India since paper currencies, the picture of Ashoka Pillar replaced by
1st April, 1957. the portrait of George VI.
India's retail credit market ranks fourth among emerging From 1996, the portrait of Mahatma Gandhi began to be
economies. It increased from $ 181 billion in December printed on all Indian paper currencies.
2014 to $ 281 billion in December 2017. All paper currencies incorporated by RBI are written the
value of the currency in 15 languages. In addition to the
Bank 15 languages of the panel, it also has currency written in
Hindi and English.
Central Bank Commercial Bank Co-operative The symbol of Indian Currency (`) was created by Dr. Uday
Bank Kumar.
Reserve Bank On 8 November, 2016, the demonetisation of 1000 and
of India (RBI) 500 rupee notes which accounted for about 86 per cent of
the Indian currency, was done by the Government of India.
New notes of 2000 and 500 rupees were issued in place of
Nationalized Private Foreign Regional these notes.
Banks/Public Sector Banks Banks Rural Banks
Sector Banks Major Countries and Their Currencies
Primary Cooperative Banks Country Currency Name
District/Central Cooperative Banks Bangladesh Taka
State Cooperative Banks Nepal Rupiah
Iraq Dinar
Financial stability report is a biannual report released by
Reserve Bank of India. Italy Lira (currently Euro)
Commercial banks are an institutional source of credit in Thailand Baht
India. Vietnam Dong
Iran Rial
Note : RBI is also known as a Lender of last resort (LOR).
China (Reminbi) Yuan
The Regulator of micro financial institution in India is RBI.
Japan Yen
Borrowed funds, recovery of loans, taxes and foreign aid
are not included in capital receipts. India Rupee
Women SHG (Self Help Groups) member appointed as Turkey Turkish Lira
banking agent is known as 'Bank Sakhi'. South Korea Von
237
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Banking in India : (11) United Bank of India, (12) Bank of Maharashtra, (13)
Banks registered under the Indian Companies Act, 1956 Indian Overseas Bank and (14) Punjab National Bank
were designated as Commercial Banks. Second Phase :
(UPPCS, 2019; BPSC, 2016) On 15 April, 1980, 6 commercial banks were nationalized.
Commercial banks are regulated and governed under the Nationalized banks in the second phase are - (1) Andhra
Indian Bank Exchange Act, 1949. Pradesh Bank, (2) New Bank of India, (3) Punjab and Sindh
Commercial banks in India are classified on the basis of Bank, (4) Corporation Bank, (5) Oriental Bank of India and
ownership and constitutionality. (6) Vijaya Bank.
Commercial banks are divided into Scheduled and non- Regional Rural Banks :
scheduled banks on a constitutional basis. Regional bank in India was established by the
Such banks referred to as Scheduled Banks are placed in recommendation of Banking Commission chaired by R.G.
the second schedule of the Reserve Bank of India. Banks Saraiya (constituted in 1972) and Narsimhan Committee
that are not placed in the second schedule are called Non- (constituted in 1975). (UPPCS, 2005; IAS 2013)

Scheduled Banks. The order of establishment of Regional Rural Banks in

Banks are divided into public and private sector banks on India started on 2 October, 1975.
the basis of ownership. The headquarter of first Regional Rural bank of India's
Public Sector Banks fall Government of India undertakings, Pratham Bank is Uttar Pradesh.
while private banks are private banks only. 5 Regional Rural Banks were established on 2 October,
Disinvestment of Public Sector Banks is the example of 1975 - They are : Moradabad and Gorakhpur in Uttar
capital receipts. (UPPCS, 2014; 05; 11; MPPCS, 2016)
Pradesh, Bhiwani in Haryana, Jaipur in Rajasthan, Malda
in Bengal.
State Bank of India :
50% of the capital in the Regional Rural Banks is invested
The first public sector bank in India emerged in 1955 named
by the Central Government, of which 15% of the capital
State Bank of India.
by the State Government and 35% by the Promoter Bank.
State Bank of India is considered to be the largest among
Currently (March 2022) there are a total of 43 Regional
public sector banks.
Rural Banks are operating in India.
State Bank of India is the first commercial bank in the
The merger of Vijaya Bank and Dena Bank with Bank of
country to enter the life insurance sector.
Baroda became effective from 1st April, 2019.
Updated as of December 2020, there are 46 private - foreign
In August 2019, Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman has
banks in India.
announced the merger of 10 public sector banks. According
Punjab National Bank was the first public sector bank to
to this announcement, Oriental Bank of Commerce and
implement the Voluntary Retirement Scheme (VRS).
United Bank of India were merged with Punjab National
The country's first floating ATM was launched by the State
Bank; Syndicate Bank was merged with Canara Bank,
Bank of India on 9th February, 2004, in Kochi.
Andhra Bank and Corporation Bank were merged with
Kotak Mahindra Bank Ltd., the first bank to be merged Union Bank of India and Allahabad Bank was merged with
with a bank from a non-banking financial company which Indian Bank.
was employed as Kotak Mahindra Finance Company. After the merger becomes effective the nationalized banks
Narasimham Committee was formed in 1991 to give remain 12.
suggestions regarding the restructuring of the banking The Malegam Committee had recomended the formation of
system. a new category of micro finance institution that is known
Nationalisation of Banks in India: After the failure of as Non-Banking Financial Company (NBFC).
the policy of social control over banks, the Government NABARD : National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
of India decided to nationalize the banks. Development :
(UPPCS, 2007; MPPCS, 2014; UPSC 2011) On 12 July 1982, the Central Government established
First Phase : National Bank for Agricultural and Rural Development
On 19 July, 1969, 14 banks with paid-up capital of Rs. 50 (NABARD) as a separate bank for agriculture and rural
crores or more were nationalized. development. (UPPCS, 2003; 04; 05 14, MPPCS, 2015; 06)
The nationalized are- (1) Central Bank of India, (2) Bank NABARD Bank was established on recommendation of B.
of Baroda, (3) Bank of India, (4) United Commercial Bank, Sivaraman Committee.
(5) Canara Bank, (6) Dena Bank, (7) Syndicate Bank, (8) NABARD is the apex institution providing finance for
Union Bank of India, (9) Allahabad Bank, (10) India Bank, agriculture and rural development in the country.
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Its headquarter is located in Mumbai. National Housing Bank was established in July 1988.
Project E-Shakti for digitalization of all the member of self Its headquarter is located in New Delhi. (UPPCS, 2007)
help groups was launched by NABARD in 2015. The first In 2023, Axis Bank launches India's first pocket sized swipe
time this project was launched in the state of Jharkhand machine.
and Maharashtra. Monetary Policy
It has played an important role in introducing Kisan Credit Monetary policy refers to the use of instruments (CRR,
Cards and connecting Self Help Groups with banks. SLR, REPO, etc.) under the control of the central bank,
The Kisan Credit Card Scheme was introduced in 1998 by thereby controlling the availability, cost and utilisation of
the then Finance Minister, Yashwant Sinha. money and credit, and keeping inflation stable by banking.
In the year 1987, an action research programme named (IAS, 2014)
MYRADA was started by NABARD. On the basis of which In other words, the policy decided by the central bank of a
25 pilot projects were launched to link 500 SHGs with bank. country to achieve the goals of stability and development
To promote livelihood of poeple in both agricultural and in that country is called monetary policy.
non-agricultural activities LEDP programme was launched The three major goals of monetary policy are :
by NABARD in the year 2015. A. Low and stable inflation (Short-term target)
NABARD has been accredited as a National Implementing B. Financial stability (Mid-term Goals)
Entity for Adaptation fund under United Nations Frame C. Achieve inclusive growth (Long-term target)
work. Convention on climate change (UNFCCC) in India. On 20 February, 2015, there was an agreement between
Banking Ombudsman Scheme : the Government of India and the RBI by which two targets
On 14 June, 1995, the Banking Ombudsman Scheme was were set in terms of inflation.
launched across the country. The objective of this scheme (i) Bringing down the inflation rate to below 6 per cent by
is to resolve complaints against them at a quick and low January 2016.
cost to improve the quality of banking services. (IAS 2010) (ii) To maintain the inflation rate at the level of 4 (+/-2) per
The Reserve Bank - Integrated Ombudsman Scheme, 2021 cent, in financial year 2016-17 and the following years.
was launched on 12th November, 2021 by Prime Minister The Reserve Bank of India announces its monetary and
Narendra Modi. loaning policy 6 times in the financial year (every two months).
When General interest rates reach very low levels, Public debt office is an autonomous government agency,
economists will expect inerest rates to rise in the future. which acts as an investment banker for the government and
Differential Interest Rate Scheme : raises capital from markets for government.
After the nationalization of banks (1969) the Differential Monetary Policy Instruments:
Interest Project was started in the country in 1972. Many direct and indirect instruments are used in the
Under the differential interest rate scheme, it was made implementation of monetary policy. (IAS 1995)
mandatory for public sector banks to pay a certain Direct Instruments include instruments that directly affect
percentage of their deposits and loans given in the previous the amount of money. It includes CRR, SLR and refinances
year to the weaker sections of the society at an interest rate facilities.
of 4 per cent (concessional rate). Instruments that indirectly affect the amount of currency
Other Major Institutions : are called Indirect Instruments of monetary policy.
Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC) was established Through these, credit creation is affected. It includes open
in 1956. market actions, repo rate, reverse repo rate, etc.
The headquarter of the Life Insurance Corporation of India 1. Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR):
(LIC) is located in Mumbai. (IAS 2002) The share of their entire deposit liabilities (Net demand and
General Insurance Corporation of India (GIC) was time liabilities) that scheduled banks are required to hold as
established in 1972. (IAS 2002) cash balances in the Reserve Bank is called CRR. (IAS, 2018)
The headquarter of the Insurance Regulatory and The higher the cash reserve ratio, the lower the credit
Development Authority of India (IRDA) is located in generation capacity. When the Reserve Bank of India wants
Hyderabad. (UPPCS, 2007) the diffusion of currency, it reduces the CRR. Conversely,
Unit Trust of India (UTI) was established in 1964 to the cash reserve ratio for currency contraction is increased.
encourage small savings to invest in mutual funds. Whenever CRR is increased by RBI meaning thereby it
(IAS, 1995) reduces money supply, increases interest rates on home
The headquarter of Unit Trust of India (UTI) is located in loans, car loans etc.
Mumbai. Reserve fund Ratio is used to calculate money multiple.
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2. Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR): (a) Bank Rate

Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) is a minimum percentage (b) Marginal Standing Facility Rate
of deposits that a commercial bank has to maintain in the (c) Open Market Actions
form of liquid cash gold or other securities. Significantly, it (d) Repo / Reverse Repo Rate
is basically the reserve requirement that banks are expected (e) Cash Reserve Ratio
to keep before offering credit to customers. (f) Statutory Liquidity Ratio (UPPCS, 2007)
The inverse relationship is found between SLR and liquidity There is a negative relationship between the above rates
of banks i.e. increase in SLR leads to a decrease in liquidity. and credit generation.
Under SLR, commercial banks keep a certain percentage Recently Axis Bank has launched India's first pocket size
of their total assets in liquid form. swipe Machine 'Micro Pay'.
3. Repo Rate: 2. Qualitative Measure Ration :
Repo rate is the rate at which the central bank of a country Qualitative credit control is also called a selective method.
(RBI) lends money to commercial banks in the event of Under this, the flow of credit is controlled. (IAS, 1995)
any shortfall of funds. (UPPCS, 2017; 14) Under this method, RBI discourages loans given by
RBI under repo rate affects the credit generating capacity commercial banks for undesirable economic actions while
of scheduled banks. encouraging the flow of credit towards desired activities.
Increase in repo rate will adversely affect the ability of The following methods are used under this.
credit creation of banks and conversely low repo rate will (a) Determination of Minimum Limit or Margin
increase the credit generating capacity. (b) Moral pressure
4. Reverse Repo Rate: (c) Determination of Credit Criteria
Reverse Repo Rate is the rate which is given by RBI on Open Market Operations :
short term deposits of commercial banks. It is always lower By RBI when government bills in the money market are
than the repo rate. (UPPCS, 2010) controlled by buying and selling in the money market and
commercial banks in the country, it is called 'Open Market
Note : It is important that CRR and SLR are used to
control the amount of liquidity in the economy, while Actions'. (IAS 2013)

the repo / reverse repo rate is used for credit control. When the Reserve Bank of India has to withdraw or reduce
the currency prevailing in the market, it uses the open
5. Marginal Standing Facility Rate: (MSFR)
market.
Scheduled Commercial Banks to meet their (Over- night)
emergency liquidity requirement, a fixed limit from RBI on Presently Major Rates (September, 2024)
MSFR in lieu of their SLR (net demand and fixed deposits Policy Rates
of banks 2%). (IAS, 1995) (i) Repo Rate - 6.50%
Marginal Standing Facility Rate protects the banking (ii) Reverse Repo Rate -3.35%
system from unexpected liquidity shocks.
(iii) Bank Rate - 6.75%
6. Bank Rate
Bank rate is the rate charged by the central bank for lending (iv) MSF - 6.75%
funds to commercial banks. (IAS, 2011; 95; UPPCS, 2009; 02) (v) SDF - 6.25%
Bank rates is a monetary policy used by RBI. Reserve Rates
It is important to mention here that bank rates influence (vi) CRR - 4.50%
lending rates of commercial banks. Higher bank rates will (vii) SLR - 18%
translate to higher lending rates by the banks. Currency Supply
Bank rate is the MSF rate. Through this rate, the Reserve
M1 = Cash in Treasury + Net Demand Deposits of Banks +
Bank affects the credit availability and cost of credit of
Other Deposits with RBI [C + DD + OD]
Commercial Banks.
M2 = M1 + Post Office Deposits
Credit Control :
There are two methods of credit control. Following is a M3 = M1 + Fixed Deposits of Banks
brief description of them. M4 = M3 + Post Office Deposits
1. Quantitative Measure : Inflation & Money Deflation:
The quantitative credit control method affects the amount Inflation : Inflation refers to the rise in the prices of
of credit creation. It affects all sectors of the economy. The most goods and services of daily or common use, such as
following devices are used under this - clothing, housing, food, recreation, transportation, etc.
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Inflation measures the average price change in a punnet of 7. Public Expenditure Growth Shortage
commodities and services over time.
8. Import Growth Shortage
(IAS, 2013; 1993; UPPCS, 1995; 98; 21)
Inflation is also known as 'Currency Expansion'. 9. Export Shortage Growth
In the situation currency expansion, (due to the excess of 10. Employment Growth Shortage
note incorporation) the amount of currency increases. While 11. Banking and Insurance
the quantity of goods and services is less than that. Development Fall
Companies
In Inflation, generally, the price level rises.
12. Taxation Growth Shortage
Not every increase in the price level leads to inflation.
There are two reasons for the rise in inflation - an increase 13. Production / Merchant / Farmer Profit Loss
in demand (monetary income) and a decrease in supply 14. Pensioner Loss Profit
(production). Reflation: When inertia is created in the economy due
Note : Fiscal deficit is financed through borrowing. to excessive currency contraction, artificial inflation is
resorted to protect the economy from its ill effects.
Increase in monetary income of the government is
Under the monetary movement, the amount of money and
due to Monetary policy, deficit economy, increase in
credit is gradually increased in the economy as a strategic
non-developmental expenditure, increase in currency
step, so that the general price level can be increased.
movements and change in credit policy of commercial
Disinflation: When the amount of currency is intentionally
banks, relaxation in taxes, increase in the value of debt
reduced to overcome the ill effects of inflation, it is called
recovery and payment of old debts, import of foreign
'currency deflation'. (IAS, 2010)
capital, financial dislocation.
In currency deflation, the amount of currency is deliberately
To deal with inflation in the economy, the RBI is most likely
reduced gradually, causing the price level to decrease.
to increase the repo rate.
The main reasons for the decrease in production are industrial Note : Reduction in capital formation causes low
unrest, the indirect trade policy of the government, lack of demand (deflation gap)
raw materials, storage. indirect, production structure, etc. Stagflation: It is a state of inflation in which economic
Note : Macro economics examines economy - phenomena inactivity and unemployment prevail along with price rise.
suchas chages in inflation, price level, economic growth (UPPCS, 2003; 08; 12; IAS 1999; 2011; 19)
rate, national GDP and unemployment. Devaluation:
Currency Contraction or Deflation: Devaluation refers to a country intentionally reducing the
Currency contraction or deflation is the opposite of inflation. external value of its currency relative to the currency of
(IAS, 2010)
another country.
In deflation, the value of the currency increases and the price The purpose of currency devaluation is to improve the
of goods and services falls. It is because of the imbalance situation of adverse balance of payments, encourage exports
in monetary income and production volume. and discourage imports, attract foreign capital, prevent
When the monetary income is less than the amount of black marketing of foreign currencies, etc.
production, the price starts falling down, it is called Due to devaluation, the external value of the country's
'deflation'. currency is reduced which makes the goods of that country
cheaper for foreigners. As the items are cheaper, more can
Impact of Inflation and Currency Contraction be purchased in the same amount than before. Thus, the
on Different Classes / Sectors Class / Sector devaluing country's exports are encouraged.
Effect of Effect of Devaluation makes imports expensive for the devaluing
Class
inflation deflation country, as the external value of its currency has decreased.
1. Consumers Loss Profit Hence, it discourages imports.
2. Debtors Profit Loss The devaluation has no direct effect on the internal price
3. Lender Loss Profit level or inflation.
For the success of devaluation, it is necessary that the
4. Fixed Income Group Loss Profit
country whose currency has been devalued relative to it,
5. Variable Income Group Profit Loss
should not devalue its currency. Otherwise, there will be
6. Public Savings Shortage Growth no benefit from devaluation.
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For the success of devaluation, it is necessary that the The Indian money market is regulated by the RBI.
demand for imports and exports should be elastic and there Any situation of liquidity trap makes the demand for money
should be no restriction on the production and distribution infinitely elastic towards the interest rate.
of goods in the country. Consumption of fix capital is also known as depreciation.
In India, devaluation has been done three times (1949,
Note : Under the currency earning and baruri system,
1966 and 1991). (UPPCS, 2008; 03)
the dues of any work are indebted to it or which are
The major reasons for the devaluation of the Indian currency
owed by others on it.
in July 1991 were adverse payment balances, depletion
Note : When the rate of interest is at its maximum level,
of foreign exchange funds, falling rupee value, export
the inelastic demand for money will be zero.
incentives, etc.
Liberalised Exchange Rate Management System LERM Capital Market
: It was implemented in 1992-93, under which rupee was Funds are collected in the capital market for the medium
converted into a trading account as partially convertible. term and long term. (UPPCS, 2010)

In 1993-94, the rupee was made fully convertible into the Regulation of Indian capital market is done by SEBI.
trading account. The capital market has two forms - primary market and
In 1994, the rupee is made convertible in the current secondary market.
account. When a person buys his shares and debentures directly from
The Tarapore Committee was constituted to give a company or when a company directly receives from the
suggestions on convertibility on the capital account of the public, it is called 'primary market'.
rupee. The report presented in 1997, suggested introducing The secondary market is the stock market or stock exchange
the convertibility of the rupee on the capital account in a where the shares and debentures of various companies
gradual manner. already registered are traded and sold.
Indian Financial System: (IAS, 2000; 05; UPPCS, 2005; 14; 21)
Indian Financial System has two parts - Money Market and The stock exchange is the organization where various types
Capital Market. (IAS 2007; UPPCS, 2007; 18) of securities and loans are traded.
Money Market : The oldest stock exchange in India is the Bombay Stock
According to the Reserve Bank of India, the money market Exchange (BSE). It was established in 1875.
is the market in which short-term (less than one year) SENSEX Index is based on the shares of 30 companies
monetary assets are traded. issued by BSE, SENSEX index whose full name is BSE
Money transactions are not traded in the money market Sensitive Index is based on the shares of 30 companies is
but exchange letters, covenants and short-term government issued by BSE.
securities. These short term bills are known as 'Near After this, the National Stock Exchange (NSE) was
Money' : established in 1992 on the recommendation of the
Indian money market is both organized and unorganized Pherwani Committee.
form. The NIFTY Index was launched by the National Stock
Organized money market consists of Reserve Bank Exchange in April 1996 comprising 50 companies.
of India, State Bank of India, Commercial Banks, The headquarter of National Stock Exchange is located in
Foreign Banks, Insurance Companies, Semi-Government Mumbai.
Institutions and Mixed Capital Companies. Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) :
The Reserve Bank of India has effective control over the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) was
organized money market, while the unorganized segment established on 12 April 1992 under Securities and
is free from RBI control. Exchange Board of India Act, 1992.
Demand in the organized sector of the Indian money market (UPPCS, 2013; UP RO/ARO 2016)
includes call money market, fiscal bill, commercial bill, SEBI has been given the right to control and regulate mutual
commercial money market, mutual funds, etc. funds and stock markets.
The unorganized money market consists of domestic The headquarter of SEBI is located in Mumbai, while
bankers, usurers, traders, etc., who provide finance for short its regional offices have been established in Kolkata,
term requirements. The most prevalent form of unorganized Ahmedabad, Delhi and Chennai.
sector is hundi. SEBI has the right to validate any stock exchange.
Treasury Bills, Ad-Hoc Treasury Bills, Commercial papers, Credit card is not a common product provided by micro
certificates of deposit etc. are money market instruments. finance institutions in India, while personal loans, insurance
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products and saving accounts are provided by micro finance 3. Establishment of Indian Copyhold Printing, Nasik 1925.
institutions. 4. Establishment of Securities Press Hyderabad, 1982.
Under the current regulatory regime, the maximum maturity In addition to the above, there is a subsidiary of the Reserve
period for a microfinance loan in Inda is now 32 month. Bank for printing banknotes.
Bangladeshi economist Mohammad Yunus was awarded The headquarter of Bhartiya Reserve Bank Note Printing
Nobel Peace Prize for founding rural bonds and pioneering Private Limited (BRBNMPL) is located in Bengaluru and
the concepts of micro - credit and microfinance. was established in 1995. The following are 2 Printing
Micro financing was first introduced in the year by 1947 Presses under this company.
by SEWA Bank, a division of the Self-Employed Women's 1. Bank Note Press Mysuru, Karnataka - Establishment 1996
Association in the state of Gujarat. 2. Bank Note Press Salboni, West Bengal - established in
1996.
World's Major Stock Exchanges Index Mint :
Stock Exchange Share Index There are four government mints in India, where coins are
Korea Kospi minted.
China SSE They are located in Mumbai, Hyderabad, Kolkata and
Tokyo Nikki Noida.

Taiwan TAIEX Indian Public Finance

Thailand Set Budget :
James Wilson is considered the founder of the budget
Germany Mid Dex
system in India. (IAS, 2020; UPPCS, 2017)
Brazil Bovespa
In Viceroy Lord Canning's Executive Council, James
USA Nasdaq Wilson presented the first budget in 1860.
Singapore Cimax, Straits Times Under Article 112 of the Indian Constitution, the President
Mexico Bolsa has been entrusted with the duty to submit a statement
England FTSE - 100 of the projected receipts and expenditures of the Central
Government for each financial year which runs from 1st
Hong Kong Hang Seng
April to 31st March before the parliament.
Securities / Banknote Printing in India: This 'Annual Financial Statement' is called the Central
The responsibility of printing securities papers / currencies Government Budget.
/ coins, etc. is on Security Printing and Minting The arrangement is related to the budget of the State
Corporation of India Limited : SPMCIL. Governments is mentioned in Article 202.
(UP PCS, 2008; UP UDA/LDA,2010) The Railway Budget was separated from the General
It was established in January 2006 in New Delhi under the Budget in 1924 on the recommendations of the Ekworth
Ministry of Finance. Committee. On 21 September 2016, the Government of
Under this corporation, nine establishments in India, India has decided that from 2017 onwards the Railway
including four mints, four banknotes / securities press Budget will be included in the General Budget. In this way,
and a security paper mill are functioning. the practice of the railway budget which has been running
Security Paper Mill, Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh: for 92 years, was excluded. On 1st February 2017, the Joint
It was established in 1968. Budget was presented in Parliament.
This mill produces various types of security papers. The first budget of independent India was introduced by
Security Printing Press: the first Finance Minister, R.K. ShanmuKham Chetty
Security printing press includes printing of stamp papers, on 26 November, 1947.
all types of postal stamps, passports, visas, cheques, Budget in India generally expresses the following estimates:
credentials, banknotes, etc. 1. Actual Receipts and Expenditures of the previous years.
There are four banknote security printing presses in India 2. Budget Estimates and Revised Estimates for the current
1. Currency Note Press, Nasik, Maharashtra: This (first) year.
note printing press in India was established in 1928. 3. Proposal of Budget estimates for next year.
2. Bank Note Press, Dewas, Madhya Pradesh: It was A budget consists of actual figures of the preceding year
established in 1974. In addition to banknotes, high-quality and the budgetary estimate for the current year.
inks are also produced in this press. Budget is related to the fiscal policy of the Government.
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On 22nd of July, 2024, the Economic Survey for 2023-24 External Sector
was presented by the Union Minister for Finance in the Exports: Services exports increased by 4.9% to USD
parliament. 341.1 billion in FY24, with notable contributions from IT/
Key Takeaways from the Economic Survey for 2023-24 software and other business services.
Remittances: India remained the top global recipient with
State of the Economy
USD 120 billion in remittances in 2023.
Real GDP Growth- India’s real GDP grew by 8.2% in
External Debt: The external debt to GDP ratio was 18.7%
FY24, exceeding 8% in three out of four quarters.
as of March 2024.
Retail Inflation- Retail inflation dropped from 6.7% in
Logistics Performance: India’s rank in the World Bank
FY23 to 5.4% in FY24.
Logistics Index improved to 38th in 2023 from 44th in
Current Account Deficit (CAD)- The CAD improved to
2014.
0.7% of GDP in FY24, down from 2.0% in FY23.
Tourism:India’s share in world tourism receipts rose from
Tax Revenue-Direct taxes made up 55% of the total tax
1.38% in 2021 to 1.58% in 2022.
revenue, while indirect taxes contributed the remaining
45%. Key aspects of India’s trade
Capital Spending- The government increased capital (Calendar year-wise)
expenditure and provided free food grains to 814 million 2020 2021 2022
people. Export performance (in per cent)
Monetary Policy- The RBI kept the policy repo rate steady Share in World Merchandise
1.6 1.8 1.8
at 6.5% throughout FY24, leading to a 4% decline in core Exports
inflation from April 2022 to June 2024. Share in World Commercial
4.1 4.0 4.4
Credit Growth- Scheduled Commercial Banks (SCBs) Services Exports
disbursed credit worth Rs 164.3 lakh crore, marking a Share in World Merchandise Plus
2.1 2.2 2.4
20.2% increase by March 2024. Services Exports
Banking Sector- Both gross and net non-performing assets Import Performance (in per cent)
hit multi-year lows, with the Gross Non-Performing Assets Share in World Merchandise
2.1 2.5 2.8
(GNPA) ratio falling to 2.8% in March 2024, a 12-year Imports
low. The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code effectively Share in World Commercial
3.3 3.5 4.0
addressed the twin balance sheet problem, disposing of Services Imports
31,394 corporate debtors worth Rs 13.9 lakh crore by Share in World Merchandise Plus
2.3 2.7 3.0
March 2024. Services Imports
Capital Markets- Primary capital markets contributed India’s rank in world trade
Rs 10.9 lakh crore, about 29% of the gross fixed capital Merchandise Exports 21.0 18.0 18.0
formation of private and public corporates in FY23. Merchandise Imports 14.0 10.0 9.0
Insurance and Microfinance- India is set to become one Services Exports 7.0 8.0 7.0
of the fastest-growing insurance markets and holds the Services Imports 10.0 10.0 8.0
second-largest microfinance sector globally. Source: DGFT, Monthly Bulletin on Foreign Trade
Prices and Inflation Statistics, April 2024
Inflation Trends Medium-Term Outlook – A Growth Strategy for New
29 States and Union Territories recorded inflation below India:
6% in FY24. Growth Strategy: To maintain a growth rate above 7%, a
Core services inflation reached a nine-year low in FY24. collaborative effort between the Union Government, State
Food inflation rose from 6.6% in FY23 to 7.5% in FY24. Governments, and the private sector is essential.
Price cuts on LPG, petrol, and diesel kept retail fuel Key Focus Areas: Emphasis on job and skill creation,
inflation relatively low. resolving agriculture and MSME issues, green transition,
Future Projections- The RBI forecasts inflation to decrease and addressing the education-employment gap is vital for
to 4.5% in FY25 and 4.1% in FY26. medium-term growth.
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Climate Change and Energy Transition – Dealing with Electronics Manufacturing: India’s electronics sector
Trade-Offs: accounts for an estimated 3.7% of the global market share.
Renewable Energy: As of May 2024, non-fossil sources Domestic production rose to Rs 8.22 lakh crore, with
accounted for 45.4% of installed electricity generation exports reaching Rs 1.9 lakh crore in FY23.
capacity. Services – Fuelling Growth Opportunities:
Energy Needs: India’s energy requirements are expected Sector Contribution: The services sector accounted for
to increase 2 to 2.5 times by 2047. 55% of the economy in FY24, growing by 7.6% during
Investment in Clean Energy: The clean energy sector the year.
attracted Rs 8.5 lakh crore in investments between 2014 Digital Services: India’s share in global digitally delivered
and 2023. services exports increased to 6% in 2023. In 2022, India’s
Social Sector – Benefits that Empower: services exports made up 4.4% of the world’s commercial
Welfare Expenditure: Grew at a CAGR of 12.8% between services exports and accounted for 44% of India’s total
FY18 and FY24. exports in FY24.
Healthcare: Over 347 million Ayushman Bharat cards Aviation: Total air passengers increased by 15% year-on-
have been issued. year in FY24.
Housing:26.3 million houses were constructed under PM- E-commerce: Expected to surpass USD 350 billion by
AWAS-Gramin in the past nine years. 2030.
Rural Infrastructure:1.514 million km of roads were built Start-ups: Increased from around 2,000 in 2014 to
under the Gram Sadak Yojana since 2014-15. approximately 31,000 in 2023.
Infrastructure – Lifting Potential Growth:
Employment and Skill Development – Towards Quality:
National Highways: Construction pace increased from
Unemployment Rate: Dropped to 3.2% in 2022-23, with
11.7 km per day in FY14 to about 34 km per day by FY24.
net payroll additions under the Employees’ Provident
Railways: Capital expenditure on railways grew by 77%
Fund Organisation (EPFO) more than doubling to 13.15
over the past five years.
million over the past five years.
Aviation: 21 new airport terminal buildings became
Youth Unemployment: Declined from 17.8% in 2017-18
operational in FY24.
to 10% in 2022-23.
Logistics: India’s rank in the International Shipments
Female Labor Force Participation: Has been rising for six
category improved to 22nd in 2023 from 44th in 2014.
consecutive years, currently at 37.0%.
Space: India has 55 active space assets, including
Gig Economy: The workforce is expected to reach 23.5
communication, navigation, scientific, meteorological,
million by 2029-30.
and earth observation satellites.
Agriculture and Food Management: Digital Infrastructure: The DigiLocker platform has
Agricultural Growth: The sector achieved an average over 262.8 million registered users and over 6.74 billion
annual growth rate of 4.18% at constant prices over the issued documents.
last five years. Telecommunication: Teledensity in India increased
Credit and Micro Irrigation: Rs 22.84 lakh crore in credit from 75.2% in March 2014 to 85.7% in March 2024, with
was disbursed to agriculture, with 9 million hectares internet density also rising to 68.2% in March 2024.
covered under micro-irrigation since 2015-16. Climate Change and India:
Kisan Credit Cards: 75 million cards were issued with a Global Strategies: Current global strategies for climate
Rs 9.4 lakh crore limit. change are flawed and not universally applicable, often
Industry – Small and Medium Matters: focusing on substituting means rather than addressing
Industrial Growth: Economic growth of 8.2% in FY24 overconsumption. Developing countries need the freedom
was supported by an industrial growth rate of 9.5%. to choose their own pathways.
Pharmaceutical and Clothing Sectors: India’s Indian Ethos: India’s ethos emphasizes a harmonious
pharmaceutical market, valued at USD 50 billion, is the relationship with nature, advocating for ‘traditional
world’s third-largest by volume. It is also the second- multi-generational households’ and ‘Mission LiFE,’
largest clothing manufacturer globally, with textile and which promotes mindful consumption to combat
apparel exports reaching Rs 2.97 lakh crore in FY24. overconsumption-driven climate change.
245
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Part A Natural Farming: Initiate 1 crore farmers into natural

Important Highlights of the Budget farming.
On 23rd of July, 2024, Finance Minister Nirmala Sitha- Bio-input Resource Centres: Establish 10,000 centres.
raman presented her seventh straight Budget for the fiscal Self-sufficiency in Pulses and Oilseeds: Strengthen
year 2024-25. production, storage, and marketing.
Economic Growth Digital Public Infrastructure in Agriculture: Implement
in partnership with states.
Economic Growth: Despite global uncertainties, India’s
Allocation: `1.52 lakh crore for agriculture and allied
economic growth remains strong.
sectors.
Inflation: Inflation is low, stable, and moving towards a
Priority 2 : Employment & Skilling
4% target, with core inflation at 3.1%.
Employment Linked Incentive Schemes: Implemented
Interim Budget Focus
as part of the Prime Minister’s package.
Focus Areas: The interim budget emphasizes four major
Women’s Workforce Participation: Setting up working
categories: Poor (Garib), Women (Mahilayen), Youth
women hostels and creches.
(Yuva), and Farmers (Annadata).
Skilling Programme: New centrally sponsored scheme
Budget Theme and Priorities
in collaboration with states and industry, aiming to skill
Employment and Skilling: `1.48 lakh crore allocated for 20 lakh youth over 5 years.
education, employment, and skilling. The Prime Minister’s Model Skill Loan Scheme: Revised to facilitate loans up
package includes 5 schemes to facilitate opportunities for to `7.5 lakh.
4.1 crore youth over 5 years, with a central outlay of `2 Higher Education Loans: Financial support for loans up
lakh crore. to `10 lakh with e-vouchers for interest subvention for 1
Nine Priorities for ‘Viksit Bharat’: lakh students annually.
1. Productivity and resilience in Agriculture Priority 3: Inclusive Human Resource Development and
2. Employment & Skilling Social Justice
3. Inclusive Human Resource Development and Social Justice Saturation Approach: Enhance implementation of
4. Manufacturing & Services schemes supporting craftsmen, artisans, self-help groups,
5. Urban Development scheduled caste, scheduled tribe, women entrepreneurs,
6. Energy Security and street vendors.
Purvodaya: Plan for all-round development of the eastern
7. Infrastructure
region, covering Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha,
8. Innovation, Research & Development
and Andhra Pradesh.
9. Next Generation Reforms Pradhan Mantri Janjatiya Unnat Gram Abhiyan:
Improve socio-economic conditions of tribal communities.
India Post Payment Bank Branches: Over 100 new
branches in the North East region.
Rural Development Allocation: `2.66 lakh crore for
rural infrastructure.
Priority 4: Manufacturing & Services
MSME Support: Self-financing guarantee fund for
MSMEs with up to `100 crore cover.
Mudra Loans: Limit increased to `20 lakh.
Food Irradiation Units: Financial support for 50 multi-
product units and 100 food quality and safety testing labs.
Priority 1: Productivity and Resilience in Agriculture E-commerce Export Hubs: Set up in public-private-
Agriculture Review: Comprehensive review to focus partnership mode.
on raising productivity with 109 new high-yielding and Internships: Provide opportunities in 500 top companies
climate-resilient crop varieties. for 1 crore youth over 5 years.
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Priority 5: Urban Development

Direct Tax Proposals
Urban Housing: PM AwasYojana Urban 2.0 to address
To reduce the compliance burden, promote entrepreneurial spirit
housing needs of 1 crore urban poor and middle-class
and provide tax relief to citizens
families with an investment of `10 lakh crore.
Short term gains of financial assets to attract

Rationalisation of
Water Supply and Sanitation: Promote projects for 100

capital gains
large cities. 20% tax rate
PM SVANidhi: Support the development of 100 weekly Long term gains on all financial an non-
‘haats’ or street food hubs annually. financial assets to attract a tax rate of 12.5%
Priority 6: Energy Security Increase in limit of exemption of capital gains
PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana: Rooftop solar plants on financial assets to Rs. 1.25 lakh per year
for 1 crore households. Abolish ANGEL tax for all classes of
Nuclear Energy: Significant part of the energy mix for investors.

Employment and
‘Viksit Bharat’. Simpler tax regime to operate domestic

Investment
Priority 7: Infrastructure cruise
Capital Expenditure: `11,11,111 crore allocated, 3.4% Provide for safe harbour rates for
of GDP. foreign mining companies (Selling raw
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana Phase IV: All- diamonds)
weather connectivity to 25,000 rural habitations. Corporate tax rate on foreign companies
Flood Mitigation in Bihar: Support for projects like the reduced from 40% to 35%
Kosi-Mechi intra-state link.
Savings
Priority 8: Innovation, Research & Development up to 30%
20%
Anusandhan National Research Fund: For basic Rs.
15%
17,500 10%
research and prototype development with `1 lakh crore 5%
financing pool.
Space Economy: Venture capital fund of `1,000 crore to NIL
expand the space economy.
Rs. 0-3 Rs. 3-7 Rs. 7-10 Rs. 10-12 Rs. 12-15 > Rs. 15
Economic Policy Framework Lakh Lakh Lakh Lakh Lakh Lakh
Labour Reforms: Integration of e-shram portal with Standard Deduction for salaried employees increased from
other portals for one-stop solutions. Rs. 50,000 to Rs. 75,000
Climate Finance Taxonomy: Enhance capital availability Deduction on family pension for pensioners increased
for climate adaptation and mitigation.
from Rs. 15,000 to Rs. 25,000
Foreign Direct Investment: Simplified rules and
Tax Reliefs
regulations.
Standard Deduction: Increased from `50,000 to `75,000
Budget Estimates 2024-25
for salaried employees.
Total Receipts: `32.07 lakh crore (excluding borrowings).
Family Pension Deduction: Enhanced from `15,000 to
Total Expenditure: `48.21 lakh crore.
`25,000.
Net Tax Receipts: `25.83 lakh crore.
New Tax Regime Benefits: Revised rates providing
Fiscal Deficit: Estimated at 4.9% of GDP.
benefits up to `17,500.
Market Borrowings: `14.01 lakh crore gross, `11.63
New Tax Regime Rate Structure:
lakh crore net.
Part B: Tax Reforms Income Slabs Tax Rate
0 – 3 Lakh NIL
Direct and Indirect Taxes
Review: Comprehensive review to simplify taxes, reduce 3 – 7 Lakh 5%
tax incidence, and compliance burdens. 7 – 10 Lakh 10%
GST Rationalization: Improve the tax base and support 10 – 12 Lakh 15%
domestic manufacturing.
12 – 15 Lakh 20%
Income Tax Act Review: Aim to reduce disputes and
make the act more concise. Above 15 Lakh 30%
247
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Investment and Start-up Ecosystem Mobile Phones and Accessories: Reduced to 15%.
Angel Tax Abolished: For all classes of investors. Rare Earth Minerals: Custom duties exempted or
Corporate Tax Rate: Reduced to 35% for foreign reduced.
companies. Seafood Exports: BCD reduced to 5%.
Tax for Charities: Simplified with merged exemption Dispute Resolution
regimes. Vivad se Vishwas Scheme 2024: For resolving income
Capital Gains Tax tax disputes.
Short Term Gains: 20% rate on certain financial assets. Appeal Limits: Increased for direct taxes, excise, and
Long Term Gains: 12.5% rate on all financial and non- service tax appeals.
financial assets. The Union Budget 2024-25 reflects a comprehensive
Exemption Limit: Increased to `1.25 lakh per year. approach to sustaining economic growth, improving
Custom Duties infrastructure, enhancing social justice, promoting
Cancer Medicines: Fully exempted for three additional drugs. innovation, and simplifying the tax regime.
Rupee Comes From Rupee Goes To
Centrally
Central Sector
Sponsored
Schemes (excluding
Schemes (8%)
Capital Outlay
Corporation on Defence and
Other Expenditure
Borrowing and Tax (9%) Subsidy)(16%)
Other (17%)
Liabilities (27%) Pensions (4%)
Income Tax
Non-Debt Capital (19%) Interest Payments
Receipts (1%) States share (19%)
Goods & of Taxes and
Non-Tax Receipts (7%) Services Tax Duties (21%)
& Other Taxes Defence
(18%) Customs (4%) (8%)
Union Excise
Duties (5%) Finance Commission and
Subsidies (6%)
Other transfers (9%)

Budget at a Glance
(In Rs. Crore)
2022-23 2023-24 2023-24 2023-24 2024-25
Actuals Budget Revised Provisional Budget
Estimates Estimates Estimates Estimates
1. Revenue Receipts 2383206 2632281 2699713 2728412 3129200
2. Tax Revenue (Net to Centre)1 2097786 2330631 2323918 2326524 2583499
3. Non Tax Revenue 285421 301650 375795 401888 545701
4. Capital Receipts 1809951 1870816 1790773 1714130 1691312
5. Recovery of Loans 26161 23000 26000 27338 28000
6. Other Receipts 46035 61000 30000 33122 50000
7. Borrowings and Other Liabilities2 1737755 1786816 1734773 1653670 1613312
8. Total Receipts (1 + 4) 4193157 4503097 4490486 4442542 4820512
9. Total Expenditure (10 + 13) 4193157 4503097 4490486 4442542 4820512
10. On Revenue Account of which 3453132 3502136 3540239 3494036 3709401
11. Interest Payments 928517 1079971 1055427 1063871 1162940
12. Grants in Aid for Creation of Capital 306264 369988 321190 303787 390778
Assets
13. On Capital Account 740025 1000961 950246 948506 1111111
14. Effective Capital Expenditure 1046289 1370949 1271436 1252293 1501889
(12+13)
248
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15. Revenue Deficit (10 – 1) 1069926 (4.0) 869855 (2.9) 840527 (2.8) 765624 (2.6) 580201 (1.8)
16. Effective Revenue Deficit (15 – 12) 763662 (2.8) 499867 (1.7) 519337 (1.8) 461837 (1.6) 189423 (0.6)
17. Fiscal Deficit (9 – (1 + 5 + 6)] 1737755 (6.4) 1786816 (5.9) 1734773 (5.8) 1653670 (5.6) 1613312 (4.9)
18. Primary Deficit (17 – 11) 809238 (3.0) 706845 (2.3) 679346 (2.3) 589799 (2.0) 450372 (1.4)
1 Provisional Actuals for FY 2023-24 are unaudited and subject to change.
2 RE 2023-24 is reduced by `7151 crore on account of net amount payable by Centre to the States for prior years.
3 Includes draw down of Cash Balance.
Notes:
(i) The GDP for Budget FY 2024-25 (Regular) is estimated at `3,26,36,912 crore which is 10.5% over the Provisional
Estimates of FY 2023-24 at `2,95,35,667 crore.
(ii) Individual items in this document may not sum up to the totals due to rounding off.
(iii) Figures in parentheses are as a percentage of GDP.

Expenditure of Major Items (In Rs. Crore)

Budget Estimates Revised Estimates Budgeted
Actuals 2022-23
2023-24 2023-24 Estimates 2024-25
Pension 241599 234359 238049 243296
Defence Subsidy 399123 432720 455897 454773
Fertiliser 251339 175100 188894 164000
Food 272802 197350 212332 205250
Petroleum 6817 2257 12240 11925
Agriculture and Allied 125875 144214 140533 151851
Activities
Commerce and Industry 44363 48169 47350 47559
Education 98567 116417 108878 125638
Energy 65717 94915 54989 68769
External Affairs 16661 18050 29122 22155
Finance 11551 13574 23982 86339
Health 73551 88956 79221 89287
Interest 928517 1079971 1055427 1162940
IT and Telecom 111629 93478 95781 116342
Rural Development 238396 238204 238984 265808
Transfer to States 273393 324641 273985 322787
Transport 390508 517034 524941 544128
Union Territories 65907 61118 66676 68660
Urban Development 77310 76432 69271 82577
Grand Total 4193157 4503097 4490486 4820512

Outlay on Major Schemes

Budget Revised Budgeted
Actuals
Estimates Estimates Estimates
2022-23
2023-24 2023-24 2024-25
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
90806 60000 86000 86000
Program
National Social Assistance Program 9651 9636 9652 9652
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY)-Urban 28653 25103 22103 30171
Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY)- Rural 44962 54487 32000 54500
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Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM)/National Rural Drinking Water

54700 70000 70000 70163
Mission
National Health Mission 33803 36785 33886 38183
Samagra Shiksha 32515 37453 33000 37500
Saksham Anganwadi and POSHAN 2.0 19876 20554 21523 21200
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna 18783 19000 17000 19000
National Livelihood Mission - Ajeevika 12083 14129 14652 15047
Pradhan Mantri Poshan Shakti Nirman (PM POSHAN) 12681 11600 10000 12467
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojna 5637 8587 7031 9339
AMRUT (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban
6500 8000 5200 8000
Transformation)
Smart Cities Mission 8653 8000 8000 2400
Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojna 5247 7150 6150 7553
Ayushman Bharat- Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PMJAY) 6186 7200 6800 7300
Krishionnati Yojana 4716 7066 6378 7447
Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) - Urban 1926 5000 2550 5000
Swachh Bharat Mission (Gramin) 4925 7192 7000 7192
PM Schools for Rising India (PM SHRI) ... 4000 2800 6050
Mission Shakti 2340 3144 2326 3146
Pradhan Mantri Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (PM-USHA) 361 1500 500 1815
Mission VATSALYA 1043 1472 1272 1472
Vibrant Villages Programme ... ... 300 1050
Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN) 58254 60000 60000 60000
Remission of Duties and Taxes on Exported Products (RoDTEP) 13175 15069 15669 16575
Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY) 1168 2000 1500 2352
Atal Bhujal Yojana 1155 1000 1778 1778
Prime Minister Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP) 2733 2700 2958 2300
PM Vishwakarma ... ... 990 4824
Fiscal Policy (iii) Price Stability and Inflation Control
Fiscal policy is a major component of economic policy, (iv) Employment Generation
which consists of policies related to public expenditure, (v) Balanced Regional Development
taxation, public debt and deficit financing. (vi) Capital Formation
Under the fiscal policy, necessary steps are taken by the Note : Monetary Policy Committee has made Hawkish
government to reduce the tax rate, broaden the tax base, on interest rate. In this context, Hawkish means enhance
control public expenditure and reduce public debt. in interest rates. It is note worthy that in Hawkish Stance
In view of the need for fiscal accountability, the Parliament in the rates are increased while in Dokkish Stance the
passed the 'Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management interest rates are reduced.
Act' (FRBM Act) in 2003 which provides for the legal The concept of Monetary Illusion was first given by Trving
obligation to control the fiscal deficit. Fisher.
Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act provides Fiscal Policy Instruments :
for the responsibility of bringing the government's fiscal There are four instruments of fiscal policy :
deficit to a nutritional limit of 3 per cent of GDP. 1. Taxation
Following are the objectives of fiscal policy : 2 Public Expenditure
(i) Development through the mobility of resources 3. Public Debt
(ii) Efficient Allocation of Resources 4. Issue of New Currency
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1. Taxation Government and 20 per cent for the State Governments.

Tax is a compulsory payment to the government, in return This target is to be achieved by 2022-23.
for which the taxpayer receives no compensation or To achieve the target of debt-GDP ratio, the committee
benefits. (UPPCS, 2012; UK PSC, 2012) suggested setting a lower annual target to reduce the fiscal
Tax is mainly divided into two parts - direct and indirect and revenue deficit (as a percentage of GDP) by 2022-23.
tax. The committee suggested the formation of the fiscal council
Direct tax includes Income Tax, Corporation Tax, Minimum as an independent body to monitor the government's
Alternative Tax (MAT), Wealth Tax, Gift Tax, Estate Duty, revenue announcements.
Capital Gains Tax, Fringe Benefits Tax, Banking Cash The fiscal council comprised of three-member, a chairman
Transaction Tax and Commodity Transaction Tax, etc. and two members, to be appointed by the Central
Currently, only income tax, corporation tax and alternative Government for a term of 4 years.
minimum tax are applicable. At the time of appointment, the members of the council
Indirect Tax includes Central Excise, Customs, Service should not be in any employment under the Central or State
Tax, Value Added Tax, etc. Government.
Gross tax revenue is estimated at around 11.7 per cent The committee has empowered the government to deviate
during 2019-20 (B.E) during which is higher than 10.9 per from the goals set by the fiscal council in the following
cent during 2018-19 (P.A.). circumstances.
2. Public Expenditure: (i) In the event of national security, war, national disaster
An expenditure done by the government is termed as public and severe crisis on farming.
expenditure. (ii) Structural reforms to be done in the economy that have
Public expenditure is mainly divided into two parts, revenue a fiscal impact.
and capital. (iii) There should be a decline in actual production growth
It is noteworthy that before the financial year 2017-18, the by at least 3 per cent of the average of the last four
public expenditure was also divided into plan and non-plan quarters.
expenditure. (UPPCS, 2012; UP RO/ARO, 2014) Deviations in targets should not exceed 0.5 per cent of GDP
But from the financial year 2017-18, the public expenditure in a year.
started being categorized into revenue and capital The draft of the new 'Debt Management and Fiscal
expenditure only. Responsibility Bill, 2017' was also presented by the
3. Public Debt: committee.
Public debt refers to the borrowings taken by the Finance Commission :
government to meet its expenditure. The provision of Finance Commission has been made under
It is mainly of two types - Internal Debt and External Debt. Article 280 in the constitution to decide the framework of
Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act (FRBM the division of financial resources between the Centre and
Act), 2003 : the States. (IAS 2015; JK PSC, 2017)
FRBM Act, 2003 was passed in the Parliament by the Finance Commission shall act as an independent semi-
Central Government for Fiscal Consolidation. (IAS, 2018) judicial expert body in accordance with the provisions
The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act contained in Article 280 and after deliberating the subjects
came into effect since 5 July, 2004. assigned to it by the President.
The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act According to the constitutional provisions in India, there
was aimed to bring the fiscal deficit to 3 per cent of GDP is a provision of the formation of the Finance Commission
and to eliminate the revenue deficit by March 2009. every 5 years. But if it is needful, the President can also
But FRBM Act's goals could not be achieved as a result of appoint it earlier.
the global financial meltdown in 2008-09. First Finance Commission in India was chaired by K.C.
So, in May 2016, FRBM review committee headed by Neogi in 1951 and since then 15 Finance Commissions
NK Singh was formed, whose main recommendations are have been formed.
mentioned below : The formation of the 15 th Finance Commission was
Committee's Key Recommendations- announced by the Government of India on 27 November,
The committee has proposed to bring the debt-GDP ratio to 2017 after the President's assent. Its current chairman is
60 per cent with a loan limit of 40 per cent for the Central N.K. Singh.
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The recommendations of the 15th Finance Commission will Sector Specific Grants :
be in force for a period of 5 years from 1 April, 2020. Sector - Specific grants will be given to states for 8 sectors
15 Finance Commission:
th including health, education, agriculture etc.
The Government of India has announced the formation of State - Specific Grants :
the 15th Finance Commission on 27 November, 2017 after Commission recommended state - specific grants of Rs.
the President's assent. Its chairman is Mr. N.K. Singh. 49,599 crore for the areas of social needs, administration,
The first report of this Commission and the Action Taken infrastructure etc.
Report were laid on the Table of the Parliament on 1st Grants to Local Bodies :
February, 2020. The total grants to local bodies will be Rs. 4.36 lakh crore
In this first report, the Commission has recommended 41% (a partian of grants to be performance linked).
for divisional revenue for the states for the financial year Disaster Risk Management :
2020-21. Commission recommended existing cost-sharing pattern
The Commission has recommended the share of States in between centre and state i.e. 90 : 10 for North - Eastern
the Central taxes for the 2021-26 period is to be 41%, same and Himalayan state's and 75 : 25 for all other states. State
as in the report for 2020-21 in its final report for 2021-26. disaster management funds will have a cropus of Rs. 1.6
This is less than the 42% share recommended by the 14th lakh crore (centre share is Rs. 1.2 lakh crore).
Finance Commission for 2015-20 period. Fiscal Roadmap :
The 15th Finance Commission has used the 2011 Census Fiscal deficit and debt levels - The commission suggested
data for its recommendations. that centre bring down fiscal deficit to 4% of GDP by 2025-
The criteria and the parameters for determining the 24. For states it recommend fiscal deficit limit (as a % of
parameters of horizontal transfer are explained in the GSDP) of (i) 4% in 2021-22 (ii) 3.5% in 2022-23 and (iii)
3% during 2023-24.
following table.
Extra annual barrowing of 0.5% of GSDP will be allowed to
Criteria for Devolution states during first four years (2021-25). Upon undertaking
Weight (in%) power sector reforms.
14th FC
Criteria 15th FC (2020-21
2015-20 Finance Commissions of India
and 2021-26)
Finance Establishment Time
Income Distance 50.0 45.0 Chairman
Commission Year Period
Area 15.0 15.0 First 1951 K.C. Neogi 1952-57
Population (1971) 17.5 - Second 1956 K.Santhanam 1957-62
Population (2011) - 15.0 Third 1960 A.K. Chanda 1962-66
Demographic Fourth 1964 P.V. Rajamannar 1966-69
10.0 12.5
Performance
Fifth 1968 Mahavir Tyagi 1969-74
Forest Cover 7.5 -
K.Brahmananda
Sixth 1972 1974-79
Forest and Ecology - 10.0 Reddy
Tax and Fiscal Efforts - 2.5 Seventh 1977 J.M. Shellat 1979-84
Total 100 100 Eighth 1983 Y.V. Chavhan 1984-89
Share of States in Central taxes : Ninth 1987 N.K.P. Salve 1989-95
The share of states in the central taxes for 2021-26 period Tenth 1992 K.C. Pant 1995-2000
is recommended to be 41%. This is less than 42% share Eleventh 1998 A.M Khusro 2000-2005
recommended by 14th Finance Commission. The 1%
Twelfth 2002 C. Rangarajan 2005-2010
adjustment is to provide for the newely formed Union
territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh from Thirteenth 2007 Vijay Kelkar 2010-2015
the resource of the centre. Fourteenth 2013 Y.V. Reddy 2015-2020
Revenue Deficit Grants : Fifteenth 2017 N. K. Singh 2021-2026
17 States will receive grants worth Rs. 2.9 lakh crore to
eliminate revenue deficit. Sixteenth 2023 Arvind Panagari 2026-2031
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Forward tax is a tax in which the rate of tax increases at first

Central and State Government's Taxes
as income increases, but after a limit, the tax rate becomes
Central Government Direct
State Government Direct Tax constant.
Tax
1. Personal Income Tax 1. Tax on Employment Note : Both estate tax and gift tax are referred to as
paper taxes.
2. Property Tax 2. Business Tax
Note : Dividends received by the government from
3. Gift Tax 3. Tax on Agricultural Income
public sector undertakings (PSUs) are non-tax revenue
4. Capital Gains Tax 4. Land - Revenue receipts.
5. Expenditure Tax 5. Tax on non-urban fixed assets
Major Taxes In India
6. Corporation Tax 6. Tax on hotel receipts
1. Income Tax :
7. Estate Duty 7. Road Tax Income Tax in India is charged and collected by the Central
8. Interest Tax Government. The Central Government distributes the
9. Dividend Tax revenue received from Income Tax on the recommendation
of Finance Commission between the Centre and the States.
10. Securities Transaction
(IAS, 1995; UPPCS, 2008; 08)
Tax (STT), etc.
Note : Income Tax is not levied on income from
Indirect Tax of Central State Government Indirect
Government Tax
agriculture.

1. Central Excise 1. Sales Tax / Business Tax 2. Corporation Tax:

The tax levied on the income of business companies and
2. Central Sales Tax 2. Taxes on Vehicles
corporations is called 'corporation tax'.
3. Custom Duty 3. Taxes on Advertisement It is also called 'company profit tax', but it is different from
4. Service Tax (from 1994-95) 4. Stamp and Registration Duty the tax which the shareholders of the companies pay on
5. GST State Excise 6. Education Cess their income.
It is being levied in India from 1960-61.
7. Entry Tax
It is levied by the Central Government.
8. Sales Tax on Diesel, Petrol 3. Expenditure Tax:
In addition to direct and indirect classification, tax is It is a type of direct tax levied on the amount of consumption
also divided into specific tax and value-based tax, non- expenditure incurred by the people. (UPPCS, 2004)
compliant, regressive, downward and progressive taxes. The suggestion of levying expenditure tax in India was first
Value-Added Tax is a tax that is levied on the value of a given in 1956 by Nicholas Kaldor.
commodity. Expenditure Tax Act was passed on 1 April 1957.
Specific taxes are those taxes that are levied on the unit and Consequently, it was imposed for the first time on 1st April,
quantity of the commodity. 1958 but finally abolished in 1964.
Those taxes are termed Regressive Taxes in which the tax 4. Estate Duty :
rate decreases progressively with the increase in the tax Estate duty is a direct tax levied by the Central Government.
base (income). This type of tax has a heavy burden on the Estate duty is levied on the transfer of property left by a
poor. person after his death. (IAS 1994; MPPCS, 2006)
Regarding regressive taxes, the important fact is that on It was abolished in 1985.
higher income, the total tax volume increases, but the tax 5. Wealth Tax :
rate decreases. Wealth tax is also a direct tax that is meant to be levied
Proportional taxes are those taxes in which the tax rate annually on total value of a person's wealth, capital or
remains unchanged even after the change in the basis of money. (IAS, 2011)
tax. The British economist, Keldar suggested the imposition of
There is no change in the tax rate when income increases wealth tax in India which was resulted in the first taxation
under proportionate taxes. Although the total amount of tax of wealth in 1957.
paid by the taxpayer increases as the income increases. It is levied as an annual tax on the net wealth of individuals,
A progressive tax is a tax in which tax rates increase with undivided families and companies.
the increase in income. It was abolished from the financial year 2015-16.
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6. Service Tax : It is noteworthy that the provision of Goods and Services

Service tax in India was introduced in 1994-95. Tax in India has been made under 101st Constitutional
(UPPCS, 2008; 09; 19) Amendment Act which was enacted on 8th September,
For the first time in 1994-95, service tax was imposed at 2016 and came into effect from 1 July, 2017.
the rate of 5 per cent on telephone, general insurance and Under this Amendment Act of Constitution, Part 11 of the
stock brokerage.
Constitution (Articles 248,249 and 250); Part 12 (Articles
7. Central Excise Duty:
268,269,270,271 and 286); Part 19 (Article 266); Part 20
Excise duty is an indirect tax levied by the Central
(Article 368) and Sixth and Seventh Schedules have been
Government and distributed amongst the states based on
amended.
the formula prescribed by the Finance Commission
Under this amendment, three new Articles (Articles 246A,
It is applied to goods produced in the country.
269A and 279A) were added to the Constitution, and Article
It is a type of commodity tax.
268A was abolished.
It is not levied on the actual sale of goods, but on the
production of goods and the tax is collected at the factory GST has two components in view of the Indian federal
level itself. When the item reaches the consumers, the excise structure - Central GST (CGST) and State GST (SGST).
duty is attached to it. (UPPCS, 2005; UP RO/ARO 2016)
Both the Center and the State will simultaneously impose
8. Customs Duty : the Goods and Services Tax on the value chain.
Customs duty is an indirect tax. It is levied by the Central The Centre will levy CGST and collect tax on all businesses
Government on import and export of goods by the Central across the Indian territory while States will levy and collect
Government. SGST on all businesses within their States.
It is levied both in terms of value and quantity. In addition, the Integrated Goods and Services Tax (IGST)
When Customs duties are levied on value, they are called will be levied under Article 269A (1) on interstate trade of
Ad Valorem Tax and when levied on quantity, it is called goods and services.
Specific Duty. It will be equal to the sum of CGST and SGST.
9. VAT: (Value Added Tax): IGST will be imposed and collected by the Centre and its
VAT is known as Value Added Tax. In fact, it is imposed distribution will be done between the Centre and the States.
on the increase in the price of a commodity. In other words, The effective GST rate on 178 items included in the 28
it can also be said that it is a tax levied on the difference per cent tax slab has been reduced to 18 per cent from
between the final value of an article and the goods (i.e. raw November 15, 2017, as per the recommendations made by
material). (UPPCS, 2006, 12) the GST Council. Thus, now, only 50 such items are left
It is a type of sales tax that falls on the end consumer. which will attract 28 per cent GST. Several other items
France is believed to be the originator of VAT. In 1954, it which had a GST of 18 per cent till now, have been shifted
was introduced in France as an alternative to sales tax. to a 12 per cent slab.
Value Added Tax (VAT) was first introduced in Haryana In the present form, all goods and services under GST are
in 2003 and finally in Uttar Pradesh in 2008. classified into five groups.
10. Inauguration of Goods and Services Tax: Excess essential items like Milk, Egg, Curd, Open Food
On 1 July, 2017 (at midnight of 30th June), Goods and Grains, Health Services, Education Services, etc. are
Services Tax (GST) was launched from the historic Central
exempted from tax.
Hall of the Parliament House by the then President Pranab
The groups of the remaining items are placed in tax slabs of
Mukherjee and Prime Minister Narendra Modi.
(UPPCS, 2009; 17)
5 per cent, 12 per cent, 18 per cent and 28 per cent according
Prime Minister Modi addressed the Goods and Services to their utility.
Tax as Good and Simple Tax. According to official information, 81 per cent of the items
It is an indirect tax that has covered most of its predecessor are kept either in 18 per cent or less slab.
indirect taxes. Only 19 per cent of the items are in the tax slab of 28 per
It is a single tax on the supply of goods and services from cent.
manufacturer to consumer. Taxes included in GST:
Under this only the value addition is taxed at each stage. Central Tax: Central Excise, Additional Excise, Service
Provision for input credit (credit of tax already paid) has Tax, Additional Customs Duty (Countervailing Duty),
also been made under GST to avoid double taxation. Special Additional Customs Duty and Surcharge and Cess.
The liability and actual obligation to pay Goods and State Tax: State Value Added Tax (VAT) / Sales Tax,
Services Tax (GST) lies on two different persons. Entertainment Tax (excluding taxes applicable by Local
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Bodies), Central Sales Tax (levied by the Center and The maximum number of holdings in India is of marginal
collected by the States), Octroi and Entry Tax, Purchasing type.
Tax, Luxury Tax, Taxes on Lottery, Betting and Gambling Holding with an area less than 1 hectare is called Marginal
and Surcharge and Cess. holdings, small holdings with 1 to 2 hectares, semi-medium
Taxes kept outside the purview of GST: holdings with 4-10 hectares and large holdings with an
Tax on intoxicating liquor for human use is exempted from area larger than 10 hectares are called large holdings.
GST, while five petrochemical products (crude petroleum, As per Agricultural Census in 2015-16, the total number
high-speed diesel, motor spirit, natural gas and aviation of operational holdings in the country is 138.35 million for
fuel) are temporarily excluded from the purview of GST. 2010-11, 146.45 million hectares in 2015-16, showing an
Permanent Account Number: (PAN): increase of 5.86 per cent.
PAN Card is issued by the Income Tax Department, bearing The share of the operational area has come down from
the person's name, date of birth and PAN number and 159.59 million hectare in 2010-11 to 157.82 million hectare
signature of the person concerned. It does not authenticate in 2015-16, indicating a decrease of 1.11 per cent.
the address. The share of small and marginal in the total holdings is the
Key Points of Foreign Trade Policy, 2023 : 86.08 per cent according to Agriculture census 2015-16.
On 31st March 2023 the Union Minister of State for The share of such holdings in operated area was 43.99%
Commerce and Industry, Consumer Affairs, Food and in 2015-16.
Public Distribution and Textile, Piyush Goel released The beginning of the Green Revolution is considered from
'Foreign Trade Policy, 2023'. the Third Five-Year Plan.
Foreign Trade Policy seeks to India's export to 2 trillion It had the most positive effect on wheat which has increased
dollors by 2030. the yield by about 500 per cent.
4 pillars of FTP 2023 are - Incentive to Remission, Export Agricultural Computation in 2015-16, the ratio of small
promotion through Collaboration, Ease of doing business and marginal holdings to total holdings is 86.08'1.
and Emerging areas. The share of semi-mid and mid-sized holdings was 13.35
The FIP 2023 is facilitating export by streamlining the per cent by number and 43.99 per cent by area.
popular Advanced Authorisation and EPCG Scheme. First National Farmers Commission was formed in
The New FTP is introducing one-time Amensty Scheme. January 2004.
The FTP 2023 encourages recognition of new towns The first Chairman of this commission was Sompal, later
through "Towns of Export Excellence Scheme" and M.S. Swaminathan became its President.
exporter through "Status Holder Scheme". The agricultural year in India is considered from 1st July
4 new towns namely Faridabad, moradabad, Mirzapur to 30th June.
and Varanasi have been designated as Town of Export According to the economic computation 2010-11, the net
Excellence (TEE) in addition to existing 39 towns. irrigated area in the net sown area of India was 45.7 per
Earlier, Foreign Trade Policy 2015-20 has been extend till cent.
2023 due to covid and Russia - Ukrain War.
The New Trade Policy (FTP) 2023 will came into Various Revolutions Priority Area
implemention from 1st April, 2023. Green Revolution Food Production
Miscellaneous White Revolution Milk Production
Mainly three types of steps have been taken under land Yellow Revolution Oilseed Production
reforms in India - 1. Abolition of Middlemen (landlords) Blue Revolution Fisheries Production
2. Tenancy Reforms and 3. Reorganization of Agriculture. Silver Revolution Egg / Poultry Meat Production
Under the Tenancy Reforms, mainly three types of
Red Revolution Tomato Production
measures were taken - 1. Regulation of Rent 2. Protection
of Tenancy Rights and 3. Tenants' Right to Own Land. Silver Fibres Revolution Cotton Production
Under the restructuring of agriculture, mainly two types of Golden Fibre Revolution Jute Production
measures have been taken. Holdings excess is considered Golden Revolution Fruits & Vegetables Production
illegal. (Grey) Revolution Fertilizer Production
Consolidation of holdings refers to the collection of divided
Round Revolution Potato Production
and fragmented holdings, thereby increasing the size of the
holdings. Pink Revolution Onion, Shrimp Production
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The main food crop in India is rice. India's largest textile industry centre is Mumbai. It is also
After Brazil, India is the second largest sugarcane producing known as the 'Virat Nagar of Cotton'.
country. India is not self-sufficient in terms of chemical fertilizers.
About 70 per cent of the total Coffee production in India In the Second Five-Year Plan, the Bhilai Steel Plant was
is produced in Karnataka. established in collaboration with the then Soviet Union
Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer of Wheat. Punjab (USSR).
and Madhya Pradesh are on the second and third position, Bhilai Steel Plant is located in Durg, Chhattisgarh.
respectively. During the Second Five Year Plan, Durgapur Steel Plant
The largest producer of Rice is West Bengal. Uttar (West Bengal) was established in collaboration with Britain
Pradesh and Punjab are on the second and third position and Rourkela Steel Plant (Odisha) was established in
respectively. collaboration with Germany.
National Agricultural Insurance Scheme was implemented The Indian Diamond Institute (IDI) is established in
in October 1999. Surat.
Note : The method used to calculate the annual value Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL) was established in
of goods and services produced is called value added 2000.
method. KRIBHCO fertiliser plant at Shahjahanpur is based on
natural gas.
The velocity of circulation of money is the number of times
a unit of currency is transferred in a unit period. The most important small scale industry in India is
In distinguised unemployment the person contributes less handloom sector.
than his capacity. Labour-Intensive industries are those in which the value of
Expenditures on money transfers and services are also labour is more important than the capital value.
current accounts. The textile industry is on second position in the Indian
Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojna (PMJDY) registered its economy after agriculture.
name in the Guinese Book of World Records for opening The textile industry is the second largest employment
the maximum number of bank accounts in a week. generating sector in the country after agriculture.
The number of times a currency is transferred from one unit The major sugar producing state is Uttar Pradesh (as on 1
to another is called the velocity of circulation of currency. July 2019) and on the second position is Maharashtra.
The ratio of additional consumption to additional income The centre for jute goods is Titagarh of Bengal and
is called marginal propensity to consume. the centre of silk textile production is Bengaluru city of
Goverment expanditure on health facilities education and Karnataka.
acquisition of fixed assets is called capital expenditure. Punjab has maximum contribution in wool textile
production. Most of the wool textile mills are located in
Agricultural Produce Board Amritsar, Gurdaspur and Ludhiana.
Sl. Bhadohi district located in Uttar Pradesh is a major centre
Board Establishment Headquarters
No. of carpet production.
The first industry which developed in India was the cottage
1. Coffee Board of India 1942 Bengaluru (Karnataka)
industry.
2. Indian Rubber Board 1947 Kottayam (Kerala)
Newsprint is mostly produced in India National News Print
3. Tea Board of India 1954 Kolkata (West Bengal)
and Paper Mills Ltd., Madhya Pradesh.
Guntur
4. Tobacco Board of India 1976 Major International Organizations:
(Andhra Pradesh)
World Trade Organization (WTO) it was established on
5. Indian Spices Board 1987 Kochi (Kerala)
1 January 1995.
National Meat and Poultry Its headquarter is located Geneva, Switzerland.
6. 2009 Delhi
Processing Board
As of 29 July 2016, 164 countries become members of the
Indian Grape Processing World Trade Organization
7. 2009 Pune (Maharashtra)
Board India is a member of the World Trade Organization since
National Fisheries 1995.
8. 2006 Hyderabad
Development Board South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
9. National Jute Board 2009 Kolkata (West Bengal) (SAARC) was established in December 1985.
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Its headquarter is located in Kathmandu. Derived Demand : The demand for an item that arises from
SAARC member nations are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, the demand for the item in which that item is used. Like the
Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. demand for bricks comes with the demand to build houses.
ASEAN was established in 1967. Its headquarter is located Devaluation : Devaluation is deliberately depreciating the
in Jakarta. value of your country's currency against foreign currency.
The World Bank was established in July 1945. Devaluation encourages exports and discourages imports.
World Bank Headquarter is located in Washington D.C. Deduction Rate: The rate of interest on the loan given by
Indian origin Ajay Banga has been appointed as 14th the central bank to the member banks is called the rate of
President of the World Bank. deduction. This is called the cut-rate because the interest
The headquarter of the European Economic Community is on the loan is deducted at the time of granting the loan. It
located in Brussels. is called 'Bank Rate’.
There are two types of revenue receipts (tax revenue and Equilibrium Price: The price at which the demand and
non tax revenue) in the economy. supply of goods will be equal in the market is called
Important Economic Glossaries 'equilibrium price’.
Credit Squeeze: Market limiting or closing the flow of
Embargo : A ban on ports so that imports - exports
credit in the market by the Reserve Bank to deal with the
remain suspended. In the prevailing sense, Embargo means
prevailing price rise and inflation is called 'credit squeeze’.
Economic Restriction.
Reflation: To deal with the prevailing economic crisis and
Credit Method is not a part of the method of measurement
crisis of price rise in the country to create more employment
of national income where as General investment product
opportunities by investing more money in the economic
method and expenditure method are the measurement
method of National income. sector is called 'Reflation'.
Balance Payment : The accounting of the transactions of Stagflation: When a recessionary situation arises along
a country with the rest of the world in a given time period. with inflation, that condition is called 'stagflation'.
Under the transaction comes the import of goods and Demonetization: The process of bringing the new currency
services, exports, short and long term investments and gifts. into circulation and taking out of circulation the old
Balance of Trade : The difference between the import and currency by the government is called Demonetization.
export of a country is called Balance of Trade. Boom: The state of economic activities moving at a rapid
The full form of BFSI is Banking Financial Services and pace is called the 'boom situation' in the economy.
Insurance. It is a broad term used in the industry that covers Buffer Stock: To meet the shortage of goods in an
financial services financial products and insurance products. emergency by storing them in large quantities is called
Bilateral Monopoly : It is a market situation in which the buffer stock.
monopoly of the buyer faces the monopoly of seller. Buyers Market: When the demand for a commodity is low
Break - Even - Point : The point at which the total and supply is high, it is said 'buyer market'. The buyer is
proceeds and the total cost are equal. In economics, cost in a better position than the seller in the buyer market.
has a common benefit. Hence, the equilibrium level point Demat Account: To trade in the stock market, it is
does not mean zero gain. necessary to have a Demat account. Demat account is
Reserve Repo Rate : It is the rate at which RBI borrows opened by recognized brokerage firms / banks.
money from commercial banks within the country. Active Share: The shares that are traded daily in the stock
Depression : A state of trade cycle in which economic market are called active shares.
activities are relaxed. In a recession, prices, profits, Insider Trading: When a person or persons collect
consumptions and capital investments are all at low levels. information about a company secretly and then purchase/
Open Market Operations : It is the agricultural sales and sell a large number of shares of that company, it is called
purchases of government securities in the open market by 'Insider Trading'. Insider trading is an illegal act.
RBI with the aim of influsing liquidity into the economy Tariff: The tax levied on imports is called 'Tariff'.
in the medium term. Share Certificate: It is a certificate of share provided by a
Recession : When the demand is less than the supply of company to its shareholder on which all the details related
goods is called 'recession'. This situation arises due to lack to the shareholder's share are mentioned.
of funds, due to which the goods are not sold, resulting in Volatile Share: The shares of which there are many
industry shutdown. changes in prices are called volatile shares.
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Short Selling: If the sale of more shares or the shares which Soft Loan: When a loan is obtained on easy terms such as
are not held by them are sold, it is called 'short-selling'. long repayment period and low interest, it is called 'soft
Grey Market: Grey market is a parallel market where loan'.
transactions take place without registration. The term Nostro Account : It is a bank account that a bank holds
is also used to refer to the transaction of shares without with a foreign bank in the currency of the country where
registration. the funds are held.
Primary Gold: 24-carat pure gold is called 'primary gold'. Hot Money: Early migration tendency of foreign currency
Deficit Financing: When a government's budget contains is known as Hot Money. It is transferred to places with
low income and high expenditure i.e deficit budget, then for higher profits.
that expenditure, the government takes a loan from banks Draft: A draft is a letter of credit in which an order is made
or issues additional letter currency. by a bank to any of its branches on demand for money
written in the draft as per the order of the recipient.
Major Committees / Commissions
Patent: The recognition of intellectual rights by a
Sl. Formation
Committiees Functions government to a person or institution related to the original
No. (Year)
discovery or creation is called a ‘patent’.
Assessment of Income Division of Labour: The process of getting a task done by
1. Mahalanobis Committee 960
Distribution more than one person at different stages is called 'division
Agriculture and Rural of labour'. It encourages specialization.
2. Khusro Committee 1989
Credit Normal resident of a country: Normal resident of a country
Unemployment means a person or entity who has been living in this country
3. Dantewala Committee 1969
Estimate for more than one year and whose economic interest is
4. Sarkaria Commission Center - State Relations 1983 concentrated in that country. For example- a person who has
Banking Services a passport and citizenship of India, but has worked in the US
5. Goiporia Committee 1990
Reforms for years. He will be considered a normal resident of America,
6. Goswami Committee Industrial Illness 1993 not American citizen and ordinary resident of India.
Productive and Unproductive Activities: The actions
7. Narasimham Committee Financial Reforms 1991
that contribute to the flow of goods and services in an
8. Raja Chelliah Committee Tax Reforms 1991
economy are called 'productive activities'. The person
9. Janakiraman Committee Securities Scam 1992 who contributes to these activities earns income, while
10. Malhotra Committee Insurance Reforms 1993 the activities that do not contribute anything to the flow
Restructuring of of goods and services are called unproductive activities.
11. Bhandari Committee 1994
Regional Rural Banks When individuals receive payments (eg. - old age pension,
12. Abid Hussain Committee Small Scale Industries 1995 scholarships, pocket expenses paid by father to son, etc.)
Handloom without any contribution to the flow of final production,
13. Meera Seth Committee 1997 such payments are called Transfer Payment.
Development
14. Mahajan Committee Sugar Industry 1997
Stocks and Flows: Stock is the variable amount that
expresses its total volume at a given point of time, while
Rupees Convertibility in
15. S. Tarapore Committee 1997 the variable flow amount refers to the amount of change in
Capital Account
a period of time.
Agriculture and Rural
16. VS Vyas Committee 2000 Closed Economy: A country that has no economic relation
Credit Extension
(import - export) from other countries is known as 'closed
Suresh Tendulkar economy'. Apart from this country, all other countries
17. Poverty 2005
Committee
which are kept in one class group are called the Rest of
Social,Economic and the World. At present, no country in the world has to be
18. Sachhar Committee Educational Status of 2005 considered closed economy.
Muslims
Open Economy: A country that has an economic
19. Rangarajan Committee Balance of Payments 1993 relationship with the rest of the world is called an 'open
Suggestions on economy'. There is a difference between GDP and GNP,
Dr. Kirti S.Parikh
20. Petroleum Products and 2013 which can be less, equal or more. For example GDP <GNP,
Committee
Price System GDP = GNP a GDP> GNP.
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General Science
(Physics)

Topics of the Unit

A. Physics
Units Dimensions of Physical Quantities Motion and Force Work, Power and Energy Gravitation Simple
Harmonic Motion Floatation Surface Tension Viscosity Pressure Elasticity Wave Motion Sound Heat
Light Static Electricity Electric Current Magnetism Nuclear Physics
B. Chemistry
Particle Nature of Matter Structure of Atom
Chemical Bonding Oxidation-Reduction or Redox Reaction Acid and Base Gaseous State and Nature of Gases
Hydrogen and Its Compounds Hardness of Water Elements of s-Block Boron and Carbon Elements of Groups
15, 16, 17 and 18 Some Important Non-Metals and Their Uses Some Important Metals and Their Uses Methods of
Extraction of Elements and Processes Polymer Chemistry : Important Facts General Chemistry Hydrocarbons
Fuel
C. Biology
Taxonomy Cytology Organic Evolution Genetics Plant Ecosystem Pollution
Kingdom Human Body Nutrients Other Diseases Other Important Facts

The word 'science' is originated from the Latin word Unit divided into two categories are (i) Fundamental or
'Scientia', meaning ‘knowledge’ or ‘information’. The Base unit (ii) Derived unit.
Sanskrit word ‘Vigyan’ and the Arabic word ‘ilm’ also have The following four types are prevalent for the measurement
the same meaning, ‘knowledge’. of physical quantities –
From the view of general science, it does not mean pure (i) C.G.S. System : In this system, units of length, mass
science rather, it covers science, that deals with day-to-day and time are expressed centimetre, gram and second
happenings in the physical environment. According to a respectively, hence it is called Centimetre, Gram, Second
famous scientist J.B. Conant - the study of such a series of or CG.S. method.
ingrained ideas obtained by experiments and observations that Note : All physical quantities coming in this mechanism
prove useful for possible future experiments is called Science. are expressed in the units of length, mass and time.
Science is divided into three parts - (a) Physics (b) The units of these three quantities are completely
Chemistry and (c) Biology. independent to each other and none of them can be
converted or related to other unit.
A Physics Hence these quantities are called fundamental quantities
and its units called fundamental unit.
Physics is derived from the Greek word 'Phusis' which
(ii) F.P.S. System : It's also called British method. In this
means “Nature” or “Knowledge of Nature”. It is equivalent to
system the units of Length, Mass and Time are expressed
Sanskrit word “ Bhautiki “ which is related to the study of the
in Foot, Pound and Second respectively.
physical world. (iii) M.K.S. System : In this system the units of Length, Mass
We can describe physics as the study of the fundamental and Time are expressed in metre, kilogram and second
laws of nature governing various natural phenomena. respectively.
(iv) S.I. System : In the year 1960, this method was accepted
1. Units
in the 11th General conference on weights and measures
A standard is needed for the measurement of a physical in Paris.
quantity. This standard is known as the unit of that physical Presently this method is used.
quantity. There are seven basic parametre in this method.
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SI Fundamental Quantities and Their Units

entity may be an atom, a molecule, an ion, an electron, any
Fundamental Quantities S.I. Units Symbols
Length Metre m 7. Candela (cd) :
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s radiation of frequency 540×1012 Hz, Kcd, to be 683 when

Electric Current Ampere A

or cd sr kg–1m–2s3, where the kilogram, metre and second
Thermodynamic Temperature Kelvin K
Quantity of Matter Mole mol Derived Unit : Units of all those physical quantities that
Luminous Intensity Candela cd can be represented by the combination of fundamental units.
The unit system is based on the units of above mentioned
seven basic quantities (length, mass, time, electric current, Symbols
temperature, amount of substance and light intensity) is Symbol s and
called 'International System of Units or SI Units. Physical Quantities Names of values in terms
the Units Fundamental Units
1. Metre (m) : Plane Angle Radian rad = m/m
of the speed of light in vacuum c to be 299792458 when Solid Angle Steradian sr = m2/m2
Frequency Hertz Hz = s–1
terms of the caesium frequency.
Force Newton N = kg ms–2
2. Kilogram (k) :
Pressure, Stress Pascal Pa = kgm–1 s–2
numerical value of the planck constant h to be 6.62607015
Energy, Work, Joule J = kg m2s–2
×10–34 when expressed in the unit Js, which is equal to
Quantity of Heat
Power, Radiant Flux Watt W = kgm2 s–3
Electric Charge Coulomb C = As
Voltage/Electrical Volt V = kg m2s–3A–1
constant.
Potential
3. Second (s) :
Electrical Capacity Farad F = kg–1 m–2 s4A2
numerical value of the caesium frequency Vcs, the
Electrical Resistance Ohm Ω = kg m2s–3A–2
the caesium-133 atom, to be 9192631770 when expressed Electrical Conductivity Siemens S = kg–1m–2 s3A2
in the unit Hz, which is equal to s–1. Magnetic Flux Weber Wb = kgm2s–2 A–1
4. Ampere (A) : The ampere is defined by taking the Magnetic Flux Density Tesla T = kgs–2 A–1
Inductance Henry H = kgm2s–2A–2
1.602176634×10–19 when expressed in the unit C, which Temperature Degree °C = K
Celcius
5. Kelvin (K) : Lumen lm = cd sr
numerical value of the Boltzmann constant K to be Illuminance Lux lx = cd sr m–2
1.380649×10–23 when expressed in the unit JK–1, which Activity of a Radio Becquerel Bq = s–1
is equal to kgm2s–2K–1, where the kilogram, metre and Nuclide
Amount of Absorbed Gray Gy = m2s–2
6. Mole (mol) : One mole contains exactly 6.02214076×1023
Radiation
Ionizing Radiation Sievert Sv = m2 s–2
value of the Avogadro constant, NA, when expressed in
the unit mol–1 and is called the Avogadro number. The (Dose equivalent)
amount of substance, symbol n, of a system is a measure of Catalytic Activity Kaital Kat = mols–1
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A Light year is used to measure the very long distance.

Some Derived Units in Terms of Fundamental
1 light year = 9.46 × 1015 metre
Units Parsec is the highest unit to measure distance.
Derived Quantities Derived Units in Terms 1 Parsec = 3.26 light years = 3.08× 1016 metre
of Fundamental Units A Nautical mile is a unit to measure distance in the sea.
Area m2 1 Nautical mile is equal to 1852 metres.
A Megawatt is the unit of measurement of electricity that
Volume m3
is generated at the power plant.
Speed, Velocity ms–1 1 megawatt = 106 (million) watt
Acceleration ms–2 There are 746 watts in one horse power.
Wave Number m–1
water.
Density, Mass Density kg m–3
1 Cusec = 28.317 liter/second
Surface Density kgm–2 The thickness of the ozone layer in the atmosphere is
m3kg–1 measured in Dobson Unit.
Current Density Am–2 One Dobson unit expresses a 10 micrometre ozone layer
at standard heat and pressure.
Magnetic Field Strength Am–1
One Dobson Unit (DU) = 2.69×1020 Ozone molecule per
Amount of Substances Concentration mol m–3 square metre
Mass concentration kg m–3 Ampere is the unit of electric current.
Coulomb (Ampere-second) is the unit of electrical charge.
Luminance cd m–2
Angstrom is the unit of wavelength of electromagnetic
waves and light.
Some Other Units than SI Units
1 Angstrom (Å) = 10–10 m
Names Symbols Value in Terms of SI Units The bar is a metric unit of pressure, but not part of the
Minute min 60s international system of Units (SI).
Hour h 60 min = 3600 s 1 bar = 105 pascal
A Calorie is the unit of energy.
Day d 24h = 86400s
Force has the unit 'Dyne' in the CGS system.
Year y 365.25 d = 3.156×107s S.I. Unit of force is Newton
Degree ° 1° = (π/180) rad 1 Newton = 105 Dyne
Litre L 1 dm3 = 10–3 m3 One nanometre is – 10–7 c.m.,
– 10–9 metre
Ton t 1000 kg
Newton-Second is the unit of Impulse.
Carat c 200 mg The S.I. Unit of work is the joule.
Bar bar 0.1 M Pa = 105 Pa(Pascal) C.G.S. unit of work is 'erg'.
Curie Ci 3.7 × 1010 Decays/second 1 Joule = 107 erg
Unit of power is joule/second, known as watt.
Rontgen R 2.58 × 10–4 A.s/kg
The Intensity of sound is measured in decibel.
Quintal q 100 kg SI unit for the measurement of distance is metre.
Barn b 100 fm2 = 10–28 m2 The abbreviation of word Radar Detection 'Radio and
Are a 1 dam2 = 102m2 Ranging'.
It is basically an electromagnetic system used to detect the
Hectare ha 1 hm2 = 104 m2
location and distance of an object from the point where the
Standard atmo- atm 101325 Pa = 1.013×105 Pa RADAR is placed.
spheric pressure It works by radiating energy into space and monitoring the
The International System of Units (SI), commonly known
as the metric system is the international standard for UHF and microwave range.
measurement. The abbreviation of word SONAR is- Sound Navigation
It is denoted by S.I. and Ranging.
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A Sonar is a device that uses sound waves to detect objects. Symbols of various powers of 10 : In physics, very huge
and minimal quantities are represented by the powers of 10.
Following are the names and symbols of the powers of 10 –
Power Power
A Sonar detects these objects by emitting ultrasonic waves Name Symbol Name Symbol
of Ten of Ten
Yotta 1024 Y Yocto 10–24 y
It is important to mention here that the Sonar can detect
Zetta 1021 Z Zepto 10–21 z
and display the distribution, density, and movement of a
360° or 180° in all directions. Exa 1018 E Atto 10–18 a
Pyrometer also is known as an Infrared thermometer or Peta 1015 P femto 10–15 f
Radiation thermometer or non-contact thermometer used to Tera 1012 T Pico 10–12 p
detect the temperature of an object’s surface temperature, Giga 109 G Nano 10–9 n
which depends on the radiation (infrared or visible) emitted Mega 106 M Micro 10–6 u
from the object. Kilo 103 K Milli 10–3 m
The High Temperature Pyrometer has a very wide
Hecto 102 h Centi 10–2 c
temperature measurement range from -50°C to over 2200°C
Deca 101 da Deci 10–1 d
In the the past, the volume of oil was measured in barrel.
Now it is measured in cubic metre.
1 barrel = 0.158987 cubic metre
2. Dimensions of Physical Quantities
Note : 1 barrel = 159 litres.
Unit of radioactivity is curie. to which the fundamental quantities are raised in order to
Diopter is the unit of the power of the lens. represent that quantity.
In the CGS system unit of magnetic inductance is Gauss. All physical quantities are expressed in terms of dimensions
S.I. Unit of electrical resistance is the Ohm. of L(length), M(mass) and T(time).

S.N. Derived Physical Quantities Relation with other Dimension Formula

1. Area Length × Breadth [L × L] = [L2]
2. Volume Length × Breadth × Thickness [L × L × L] = [L3]
Mass [M]
3. Density =[ML–3]
Volume [L3]
Displacement Distance [L]
4. Velocity or Speed or =[LT–2]
Time Time [T]
Change in velocity [LT–1]
5. Acceleration =[LT–2]
Time [T]
6. Force Mass × Acceleration [M] [LT–2] = [MLT–2]
7. Torque Force × Distance [MLT–2] [L] = [ML2 T–2]
8. Work Force × Distamce [MLT–2] [L] = [ML2 T–2]
1
9. Frequency [T–1]
Time period
10. Impulse Force × time [MLT–2] [T] = [MLT–1]
11. Momentum Mass × Velocity [M] [LT–1] = [MLT–1]
Work ML2T–2
12. Power = ML2 T–3
Time [T]
Force MLT–2
13. Pressure = [ML–1 T–2]
Area L2
Force MLT–2
14. Stress = [ML–1 T–2]
Area L2

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3. Motion and Force Newton's Laws of Motion : Sir Issac Newton proposed
three basic laws of motion based upon the assumptions of
Scalar Quantity : Scalar quantities are those physical Galileo.
quantities that have no direction but only have magnitude, Sir Isaac Newton formulated the following three basic laws
e.g. distance, volume, mass, density, work, energy, time, of motion on the basis of Galileo's concepts –
temperature, power, charge, frequency, potential and 1. Newton's First Law of Motion : According to this law,
speed etc. every object which remains in the state of rest or in uniform
Vector Quantity : Vector quantities are those physical motion in a straight line, unless compelled to change its
quantities that have both magnitudes as well as direction. state by the action of an external force.
e.g. impulse, displacement, acceleration, velocity, force, This law is also known as the Law of Intertia or Galileo's
Law.
Distance and Displacement : Total length covered by Inertia : Inertia means resistance to change. Inertia is a
distance. kind of property of an object which makes it resistant to any
At the same time, the minimum linear distance between kind of change in its state of rest or the uniform motion.
the starting and destination point of an object is called Some Important Examples of Inertia–
displacement. Inertia of Rest :
(i) A traveller falls behind when a stationary bus suddenly
Distance is a scalar quantity while displacement is a vector
moves ahead.
quantity.
(ii) Separation of dust particles on sudden jerking of a blanket.
Speed & Velocity : Distance travelled by an object in a
(iii) Falling of fruits from the tree when it is shaken.
speed. Due to the speed of
(iv) A hole is created in a windowpane of glass when hit by a
bullet but it gets broken when hit by a stone.
as its velocity.
Inertia of Motion :
Speed is a scalar quantity and velocity is a vector quantity.
(i) Leaning forward of the travellers when a moving vehicle
S.I. unit of speed and velocity is m/s suddenly stops.
Displacement (ii) If a person throws a ball vertically upwards in a moving
Speed = and
Time train, it comes back to his hand.
Distance D (iii) The passenger falls forward when he suddenly steps down
Velocity = =
Time T from the moving bus.
Acceleration : Rate of change of velocity of an object is 2. Newton's Second Law of Motion : According to this
called its acceleration. The rate of decreasing velocity is law, force applied on an object is equal to the mass of that
known as retardation. objects times its acceleration.
Unit of acceleration in S.I. System is metre/second2. Force = mass × acceleration
Circular Motion : When an object moves in a circular path, F = ma
Therefore, if no force is acting upon the object, its
then its motion is called circular motion. If an object moves
acceleration will be zero and zero acceleration means that an
at uniform speed, its motion is called uniform circular
object is in a state of rest or moving in a constant velocity.
motion.
3. Newton's Third Law of Motion :
Angular Velocity : The rate of change of angular
According to this law of motion, every action has an equal
displacement of a particle with time is called the angular
and opposite reaction. This is why this law is also called
velocity of that particle.
the 'Law of Action and Reaction'.
It is usually expressed by the Greek symbol 'ω' (Omega). According to this law, when a body applies a force upon
Unit of angular velocity is radian/second. another body, it also applies equal and opposite force to
Angular velocity is a vector quantity. that body.
Linear Velocity : Velocity of a particle moving in a straight Examples :
line is called a linear velocity. In other words, the rate of (i) When we punch the wall, the wall also exerts the same
change of linear displacement of any particle in linear force and we feel hurt.
motion is known as the linear velocity of that particle. (ii) The boat moves back when we jump out of it.
Unit of linear velocity is metre/second. (iii) A man while drawing water out of a well in a bucket drawn
Linear velocity is a vector quantity. by a rope is thrown backwards if rope breaks.
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Force : Force is that external factor that either changes the When a body moves in a circular path, a force pushes the
state of an object or tries to change its state. body towards the centre of the circle. This force is known
Force is a vector quantity and its S.I. Unit is 'Newton'. as centripetal force.
Anemometer is used to measure the velocity of the air and In other words, when a body moves with a uniform
its direction. velocity 'v' on a circular path with radius 'r', an acceleration
Momentum : The product of mass and velocity of an object v2/r exercises upon it directing it towards the centre. If
is known as its momentum. the mass of the body is m, the centripetal force upon the
Momentum = mass × velocity body will be
or P = mv
mv 2 Mass of the body × (Velocity of body)2
Where P momentum, Mmass and Vvelocity Fc =
r radius of the circle
S.I. Unit of momentum is kg m/s.
Change of Momentum : The rate of change of momentum When a stone fastened with a rope is moved around by hand
of an object is proportional to the external force acting on in a circular way if the rope suddenly breaks, the centripetal
the object. force is reduced to zero and as a result, the stone moves
Change in the momentum is always in the direction of force. linearly in the direction of the tangent of the circle.
This is another form of Newton's second law of motion. Movement of a motorcycle in a 'well of death' is only
Change in momentum possible because of centripetal force.
Force ∝
Time A cyclist leans inwardly negotiating a turn on road to avoid
If u is the initial velocity of an object of mass m, then its falling down. This is how he receives centripetal force.
initial momentum – mu At the turnings on the rail track and road inward slope is
drawn to avoid the fall of vehicles. This is also done to get

= mv Centrifugal Force :
Change in momentum = mv – mu B
mv − mu
F∝
t F

m( ν − u) A
F∝ O F
t
F ∝ ma F

F = ma
In SI units, the value of constant k is 1. C
F=1×m×a
Centrifugal force exercises itself on an object moving in a
F = ma
curved path, trying to push the object outwards from the
Which is Newton's second law of motion.
centre.
Law of Conservation of Momentum : The conservation
It acts opposite to the centripetal force.
of momentum states that, within some problem domain,
Centrifugal force is equal in magnitude to centripetal force
the amount of momentum remains constant; momentum is
This force is involved in the separation of cream from milk.
neither created nor destroyed, but only changed through the
Examples :
action of forces as described by Newton's laws of motion
(i) Hitting a person against the window on the left side when
Centripetal Force :
a car suddenly turns towards the right.
A V
v
(ii) The planets moving around the sun maintain their rotational
r motion and do not fall in the centre. This is because a
F

C all the celestial bodies that are revolving around the sun.
O F
Moment of Force or Torque :
F The moment of force is a measure of its tendency to cause
v

B of a force about an axis is the product of force and the

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perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force AF

to the axis. MA = (AF > BF) ⇒ MA > 1
BF
Moment of force = Force × moment arm
Examples of Second Class Levers : Lemon squeezer,
Moment of force is a vector quantity and its unit is
wheelbarrow, staplers, nutcracker, nail clippers and bottle
Newton-metre.
openers etc.
Lever :
3. Third Class Levers : In levers of this kind, the effort falls
between fulcrum and load. The mechanical advantage of
or fulcrum.
this kind of lever is always less than 1.
A lever is also called a simple machine and it can move
P
B F
With the help of it, any heavy load can be lifted by applying A
small force. It has three main parts–
W
1. Fulcrum : The axis around which a lever freely moves is
called fulcrum. Fulcrum is represented by F. AF
MA = (AF < BF) ⇒ MA < 1
2. Effort : Force applied by the lever to lift a heavy load is BF
called effort. Effort is represented by P. Examples of the lever of third class : Plough, tongs,
3. Load : The weight lifted by a lever is called load. It is ladder, human hand etc.
represented by W. Centre of Gravity :
The Mechanical advantage of lever : The ratio of load The centre of gravity is the place in a body or object where
(W) lifted by the lever and the effort (P) applied to lift the weight is evenly distributed and all sides are in balance
this load is called mechanical advantage of the lever. The e.g. centre of gravity in the middle of the seesaw.
mechanical advantage of a lever is represented by MA. Equilibrium : A body is said to be in equilibrium when the
W Load resultant of all forces and torques acting upon it is zero.
Mechanical advantage, MA = =
P Effort Kinds of Equilibrium :
Effort arm There are three types of equilibrium stable, unstable and
= neutral.
Load arm
Stable Equilibrium : If anybody is displaced slightly from
Types of Lever : Levers are of three types –
its equilibrium state and after removing the force, the body
1. First Class Lever :
again comes to its original state, this type of equilibrium is
(F) falls between effort (P) and load (W). Therefore to lift
called stable equilibrium.
more load by smaller effort, the effort arm should be greater
Unstable Equilibrium : If the body on being displacing
than the load arm.
slightly from its equilibrium state, does not return to its
In this process, mechanical advantage can be less than 1,
original state and shifts to another new state, this type of
1 or greater than 1.
equilibrium is called unstable equilibrium.
pliers, scissors, a
Neutral Equilibrium : If a body on slightly being displaced
crowbar, a claw hammer, a see-saw and weighing balance.
from its equilibrium state takes to a new equilibrium state
A F B
instead of coming into its original equilibrium, this kind
of equilibrium is called a neutral equilibrium.
In this kind of equilibrium, the position of the centre of
P W
gravity of the body remains the same even if the position
MA = AF (AF < BF; AF = BF; AF > BF)
BF of body changes.
2. Second Class Lever : In second class levers, the load falls Conditions of Stable Equilibrium: Following are the
between fulcrum and effort. conditions for a body to remain in stable equilibrium.
In such kinds of levers mechanical advantage is always Centre of gravity of the body must be lower as much as
greater than 1. possible.
P The vertical line passing from the centre of gravity of the
B F
body must pass through the base of the object. That is why
A
W the Tower of Pisa does not fall even it is diagonal because
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the vertical line passing through its centre of gravity goes energy, gravitational potential energy, electric potential
through its base. energy, etc.
The Potential Energy of a body of mass 'm' at the height
while holding a catch is not an application of third Law 'h' from the surface of the Earth is mgh (where g = is the
of motion. (SSC CHSL 2022 Tier-1) acceleration due to gravity)
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia mathematica, popularly Potential Energy (PE) = mgh
known as principia, published in 1687, is the great work Examples :
of scientist Isaac Newton. (i) Stretched segmented energy.
(SSC CHSL 2021 (Exam held in 2022) (ii) The energy of water held up by building dams.
Principle of conservation of Energy : According to the
4. Work, Power and Energy
energy conservation rule, 'Energy can neither be created nor
Work : Work is that physical activity in which a force is be destroyed, it can be changed from one form to another
applied upon an object to displace it in the direction of the form'.
force. Conversion of Energy : According to the principle of
Work done on applying a force upon an object is equal conservation of energy, energy cannot be destroyed but
to the product of the magnitude of force applied and the its form changes. This is called the conversion of energy.
displacement in the direction of the force. This is also known as the transformation of Energy.
Work done (W) = Force (F) × Displacement (S) Total energy always remains constant before and after the
Work is a scalar quantity and S.I. Unit of work is the joule. transformation.
If a force of one newton moves a body 1 metre in the
direction of the force, the work will be don 1 Joule. Appliances that Transform Energy
Power : The rate of doing work by any machine or a person Appliance Transformation of Energy
is called power.
Electric Fan Mechanical energy from electrical
Work
Power = energy
Time
W Electric Bulb Heat and light energy from electrical
P= t
energy
Power is a scalar quantity and its S.I. Unit is joule/second
or watt. Electric Cell Electric energy from chemical energy
Another unit of power is also horsepower. Candle Heat and light energy from chemical
1 Horsepower = 746 watts energy
Energy : The capacity for doing any work by anybody is Photo-electric cell Electric energy from light energy
called Energy.
Dynamo Electrical energy from mechanical
Energy is a scalar quantity and its S.I. Unit is the joule.
energy
Energy has many types, for example - mechanical energy,
heat energy, light energy, sound energy etc. Loud Speaker Sound energy from electrical energy
Mechanical Energy - It provides the ability to do some Sitar Sound energy from mechanical energy
mechanical work on a body.
Steam Engine Mechanical energy from heat energy
It's two type –
(i) Kinetic Energy (ii) Potential Energy Turbine Rotation Electrical energy from mechanical
Kinetic Energy : Energy present in a moving body due to energy
its motion is called Kinetic energy. The Kinetic energy of Photosynthesis Chemical energy from solar energy
a body of mass 'm' moving with velocity 'v' is equal to 1 Electric Electrical energy from mechanical
2
mv2. generator energy
Kinetic Energy is a scalar quantity.
1 Electric motor Mechanical energy from electric
Kinetic Energy (K.E.) = 2 mv2.
energy
Potential Energy : The energy present in a body due to
change in its state or the shape is called potential energy. Diesel Engine Mechanical energy from chemical
Potential energy are many types, such as - elastic potential energy
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5. Gravitation When a lift moves upward, the weight of the body inside
it increases.
According to Newton every body in this universe attracts When a lift goes up or down with a uniform velocity, there
every other body towards itself by a force. This force is is no change in the weight of the body.
called 'Gravitation'. If during the downward motion of a lift its acceleration is
Law of Universal Gravitation :
greater than the acceleration due to gravity g, a body in
Law of Universal Gravitation was given by Newton which
is why it is also called Newton's Law of Gravitation.
If the rope of a lift suddenly breaks while moving
According to this law, the magnitude of the force of
downward, the lift will fall like a free body and in this
attraction acting between two objects is proportional to the
situation, the weight of an object in the lift will be reduced
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
to zero.
square of the distance between them
Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion :
⎛ G m1m 2 ⎞
⎜⎝ F = ⎟ Kepler proposed three laws of planetary motion based upon
r2 ⎠
the astronomical observations of the motion of planets
Here, F = force, m1 2
= mass of
around the Sun–
second object, r = distance between m1 and m2.
First Law : First law is also called the Law of Orbits.
Here G is Gravitational Constant and its value is 6.67 ×
According to this law, all the planets move in elliptical
10–11 Newton meter2/kg–2.
In the SI system, the fundamental unit of G be written as– orbits and the Sun is located at its one of the focuses.
kg–1 m3s–2 (kg–1 meter3 second–2) Second Law : Second law is also called the Law of Areal
Constant G is a scalar quantity. Velocity. The line joining from the Sun to a planet traverses
Gravity : (sweeps) equal areas in equal periods of time, therefore the
Gravity refers to that force of attraction by which the Earth areal velocity of a planet remains constant.
attracts an object towards its centre. The Second law tells that when the planet is farthest from
Acceleration due to Gravity of Earth : the Sun, its speed is minimum and when it is nearest to the
Any object freely released from a height starts falling Sun, its speed is maximum.
towards the Earth due to the gravitational force of the Earth The Second Law of Kepler is equivalent to the principle of
and its fall velocity increases continuously. Therefore, this conservation of angular momentum.
per second increase in the velocity of the object is called Third Law : According to this law square of the time
acceleration due to gravity. period (T) of a planet is directly proportional to the third
Therefore, acceleration due to gravity is an increase in the power of semi-major axis (R) of the elliptical orbit of that
velocity of the object per second falling towards the Earth. planet, therefore T2 ∝ R3.
If the acceleration due to gravity of Earth suddenly It is clear from the third law that the more the planet is
disappears, the actual weight of the body is reduced to zero, distant from the Sun, the more will be its time period.
but there will be no change in the mass of the body. The nearest planet to the sun, mercury, has a time period of
Acceleration due to gravity is represented by g. only 88 days, while the farthest planet from the sun Neptune
The value of g on Earth is 9.8 m/s2. has the time period of about 165 years.
Acceleration due to gravity does not depend upon the shape Satellite : As the planets move around the Sun, in the same
and mass of a body. way, some celestial bodies also move around the planets.
Unit of acceleration due to gravity is metre/second2 or These bodies are called Satellites.
newton/kg. Orbital Velocity of Satellite :
Change in the value of g :
Orbital velocity of a satellite depends upon its height from
At the Poles of the Earth value of g is maximum and it is
the surface of the Earth.
minimum at the Equator.
The more the distance of a satellite from the Earth's surface,
The value of g decreases as one moves below the surface
the less will be the velocity of the satellite.
of the Earth.
Weight of a body in a lift : Revolution Period of Satellite :
When a lift goes downward, the weight of a body in it The time of one complete revolution by the satellite around
appears to decrease. the Earth is called the Revolution Period of Satellite.
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Circumference of Orbit Relation between Orbital speed and Escape velocity :

Revolution Period = If the orbital speed of a satellite near the earth is V, and the
Orbital Velocity
Period of revolution of a satellite also depends upon its escape velocity of an object thrown from the earth is Ve,
height from the surface of Earth. then
The more the distance of a satellite from the Earth's surface,
Ve = 2Vo
the more will be its period of revolution.
Period of revolution of satellites is not dependent upon their It's clear that if the orbital speed of a satellite revolving
mass. near the earth increase to 2 times due to some reason,
Geo-synchronous Orbit : then that satellite will leave the class and run away.
After a satellite launch, about 36000 km above the Earth's In June 1798 Henry Cavendish reported the measurement
surface (35786 km or 22236 miles), it falls into a position of the gravitational constant with the mass and density of
where its orbit conforms to the Earth's rotation. Here the the Earth (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)
satellite starts to rotate in a circular orbit at the same speed
6. Simple Harmonic Motion
as the Earth is revolving. This is called Geo-synchronous
Orbit. Simple Harmonic Motion : The to and fro motion of an
This type of satellite completes 1 revolution around the
Earth in 24 hours while the Earth makes one rotation about period of time is called Simple Harmonic Motion.
its axis in 24 hours. Therefore owing to the equal motion The mass spring system is an example of simple harmonic
of both satellite and the Earth both appears to be stationary motion because a mass which is tied to a suspended vertical
to each other. spring when set to oscillate in a straight line then its motion
In the case of the geo-synchronous orbit being in the represents simple harmonic motion.
equatorial plane, the satellite appears to be stationary at If a simple pendulum is displaced with a minimal angle
a point. Such an orbit of the satellite is known as Geo- and then left its motion will be simple harmonic motion.
stationary Orbit and such type of satellite is known as The Motion of any object tied between two springs at a
Geo-stationary Satellite. horizontal base is simple harmonic motion.
The Communication satellite is generally launched into Oscillation or Vibration : When a particle repeats its
geo-stationary orbits. motion on a mean position, this is known as Oscillation or
Polar Satellites : They belong to second class satellites, Vibration and such type of motion is known as Oscillatory
whose orbits are very short. Satellites whose orbit is motion or Vibratory motion.
very short (generally 500-800 km) in comparison to geo- Time period : Time taken to complete one oscillation or
stationary satellites and they move in the north-south one vibration is known as time period.
direction around the poles, these kinds of satellites are Second's Pendulum : A pendulum having time period
called Polar Satellites. equal to two seconds is called a seconds pendulum.
Polar satellites are mainly used for the study of meteorology, Frequency : Number of vibrations completed by a vibrating
geological survey and environmental studies. body in one second is called frequency.
Escape Velocity : Escape velocity is the minimum velocity S.I. Unit of frequency is called hertz or second–1.
by which a body is thrown above the surface of the Earth; it If the frequency of a vibrating body is represented by n and
1
time period by T, then the relation between them is - n = T
to the Earth.
The kinetic energy given to the body to throw it escape Simple Pendulum : A point mass attached to a light,
velocity is called 'escape velocity'.
Value of escape velocity for the Earth is 11.2 km/second. support is called Simple Pendulum.
If an object is thrown above with a velocity of 11.2 km/s If this simple pendulum is displaced from its mean position
or more, then it will not return to the Earth. then its motion is called simple harmonic motion.
Value of escape velocity for the moon is 2.38 km/second. The Time period of a simple pendulum is represented by
l
the formula T = 2 , where l is the length of string
g
upon astronaut is zero. and 'g' is the acceleration due to gravity.
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It's clear that the time period of the pendulum does not Law of Floatation :
depend on the mass of bob.
It is clear from the formula of time-period of a simple
pendulum that T ∝ l , therefore with the increase in length, force or upthrust.
the time period will also increase. A vessel displaces a huge amount of water and this
During the summer season, pendulum clocks tend to run displaced water in order to regain its original position
slower because the length of pendulum increases due to applies an upward force (buoyant force) upon the ship.
thermal expansion. It is easy to swim in the sea in comparison to the river
There is no effect upon the time period of a simple because seawater applies more upthrust than the water in
pendulum on changing its mass. the river.
The Time period of a simple pendulum is T ∝ 1 , The Density of seawater is comparatively more than other
g sources of water, river, pond and well. Therefore, there is
therefore, if the value of g decreases then its time period more upthrust in seawater.
will increase. This is the reason that time period T increases
while going at a height due to a decrease in the value of 'g'. (i) The Density of the material of the object is either equal to
Value of acceleration due to gravity 'g' at the moon is 1 of or less than the density of the liquid.
6
the value of g upon the Earth, therefore, on the moon time (ii) If the density of the material of the object is equal to the
period of simple pendulum will increase.
and in natural equilibrium.
is about 84.6 minutes, This is the maximum Density : Density is a characteristic property of matter.
limit of the time period of a simple pendulum.
In ideal condition (neglecting air resistance), similarly this relation is expressed by density.
sized pieces of wood, iron and wax, dropped from the Amount of mass concentrated in a unit volume of the
same height, will reach the Earth's surface at the same time, substance is called the density of the substance.
because all have the same acceleration due to gravity. Mass ⎧ m⎫
In the absence of air, the same weight of iron and wood are Therefore, Density = ⎨d = ⎬
Volume ⎩ v⎭
dropped from the same height, they will reach the ground
S.I. Unit of density is kg/m3.
simultaneously, but in the presence of air, same weight of
Relative Density : Relative density is the ratio of the
iron and wood are dropped from the same height, the iron
density of any substance to the density of a standard
substance.
If the uncertainty in position and momentum are equal, Water is usually taken as the standard substance at a
the uncertainty in velocity will be : 1/2m temperature of 4°C for the relative density of solids and
(SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1) liquids. It can also be calculated by comparing the mass of
an equal volume of substances.
7. Floatation Relative density of a solid substance
Mass of any volume of solid substance
Buoyancy : The property of liquids or gases due to which =
Mass of same volume of water
they apply upward force or upthrust upon the objects
absorbed by them is called buoyancy. Relative density of a liquid substance
Buoyant Force : The upthrust or the upward force applied Mass of any volume of the liquid substance
=
by the liquid or gases is called the buoyant force. The Mass of same vollume of water
buoyant force acts at the centre of gravity of the liquid In all measurements of Relative density, the density of
displaced by an object. water should be taken only at 4°C temperature because
below this temperature behaviour of water is abnormal. It
Archimedes's Principle : When a body is partially or means a density decrease below 4°C. The density of water
completely immersed in a liquid then there is an apparent is maximum at 4°C temperature.
decrease in its weight, this apparent decrease in weight of There is no unit of relative density.
the body is equal to the liquid displaced by it. Relative density is measured by Hydrometer.
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The purity of milk is measured by Lactometer. Fast approaching train drags the persons standing upon
Hydrometer and lactometer work on the principle of platform towards itself.
buoyancy. Upon blowing air between two suspended balloons, they
Metacentre : Point of the intersection of the lines going come closer to each other.
from the centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy of a
Metacentre.
8. Surface Tension
The tendency of a liquid surface to shrink its free surface
(i) Metacentre must be above the centre of gravity of the body. into the minimum possible surface area possible is called
(ii) Centre of gravity and the centre of gravity of displaced surface tension.
liquid (metacentre) both should be along the same vertical Due to the cohesive force among the molecules of
line. the liquid, its free surface acts like a stretched elastic
How much part of a solid material immerse in the liquid
depends upon the relative densities of liquid and the solid. a state of tension and has a tendency to get minimum area.
It can be calculated as– This tension of the surface of the liquid is called surface
Volume of immersed part of solid Density of sollid tension.
= =
Total volume of solid Density of liquid S.I. Unit of surface tension is newton/meter.
1 The value of surface tension for a liquid is dependent upon
part of its volume remains
10
above the water.
Bernoulli's Theorem : The sum of the total energy (i.e. surface.
the pressure energy, the kinetic energy and the potential Surface tension decreases with a corresponding increase in
energy) temperature.
The surface tension is zero at the critical temperature.
Equation of Bernoulli's Theorem is as follows– Examples of Surface Tension :
1 1 Detergents work upon the principle of surface tension.
PA + ρ v 2A + ρ gh A = PB + ρ v 2B + ρ gh B The surface tension of the water decreases after mixing
2 2
detergent in it.
1
Here PA , ρ v 2A and ρghA are respectively pressure A drop of oil expands upon water because the surface
2
tension of oil is much less than that of water.
energy, kinetic energy per unit volume and potential energy
The shape of the falling drops of water is spherical because
per unit volume at point A respectively.
of surface tension.
1 2
Similarly, at point B, PB , ρ v B and ρghA are the pressure, When water sprays from a tap in a small basin, you can see
2
kinetic and potential energy per unit volume respectively. bubbles form, but they burst very soon. This is due to the
It is clear from Bernoulli's Theorem that at a place where fact that the surface tension of the normal water is high and
it tends to draw the water molecules into the main body of
will decrease and where the pressure is high the velocity the water.
will be lower. Capillary action is the result of surface tension.
The wings of the aeroplane are designed in such a way
that the velocity of the air passing through the upper part because of surface tension.
is much higher than the air passing through the lower part Hairs of shaving brush cling together when it is removed
which reduces the air pressure on the plane and increases from water due to the free surface of water tries to acquire
a minimum surface area.
Venturimeter : This is an instrument based upon Adhesive Force : The force of attraction acting between
the molecules of unlike substances is called adhesive force.
in a pipe is measured. Cohesive Force : The force of attraction acting between the
Examples of Bernoulli's Theorem : molecules of the same substance is called cohesive force.
The design of an aeroplane. Capillarity :
Flying of tiles and tin shed from the rooftops of houses A glass tube of very short radius and having both ends open
during a storm. is called a capillary tube.
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The effect of rising and falling down of any liquid in a They liquid is thicker, the more viscous it is.
capillary tube is called capillarity. The reason behind this The order of viscosity is as follows -
phenomenon is surface tension. Honey > blood > water > air.
The capillarity effect depends on the radius of the capillary
Viscosity of some elements
tube. The height or depth of any liquid that enters the
capillary tube is inversely proportional to the radius of the Liquid Temperature (°C) Viscosity (mP1)
capillary tube. 20 1.0
Water
Examples of Capillarity : 100 0.3
Blotting paper easily absorbs the ink because of the Blood 37 2.7
presence of small holes in it which work as small capillary
16 113
tubes. Machine oil
Kerosene rises in a wick of lantern because of capillarity 38 34
action in the wick. Glycerine 20 830
When a lump of clay is put into the water, it becomes wet up Honey - 200
because of numerous holes in it which work as capillaries.
0 0.017
It is only due to the action of capillarity that water and Air
essential salts reach the branches, stems and leaves of 40 0.119
plants. Critical Velocity :
Agnes Pockels research was fundamental in establishing a streamline
the modern discipline known as surface tension, which critical velocity.
describes the properties of liquid and solid surfaces and
interfaces. (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)
At room temperature, the surface tension of water is less by the other particles to the same point, then such kind of
than ethyl alcohol. (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)

9. Viscosity
Viscous Force : Internal tangential forces act between zig-zag.
different layers of the liquid which try to resist the relative
motion among the layers. This type of frictional force is
called viscous force.
Visocisity : Viscosity is that property of a liquid due to
which it opposes the relative motion between its layers.
S.I. Unit of viscosity is Pascal-second (Pa. s) while in CGS very viscous because its density is less comparatively and
unit it is "Poise". only the density decides its velocity.
Viscosity is the property found in liquids and gases. There Terminal Velocity : When a body falls into any viscous
is no viscosity in solids. liquid then in the beginning, its velocity increase but after
Viscosity in gases is minimal in comparison to liquids but some time it starts falling with a constant velocity. This
constant velocity is known as the terminal velocity of the
Cohesive forces between the two molecules are because of body.
viscosity in liquids. Examples of Terminal Velocity :
The Viscosity of liquid decreases due to an increase in Raindrops fall to the ground at a constant velocity (terminal
temperature but it increases in gases. velocity).
It is hard to run inside the water in comparison to air because Even by parachute, a person comes to the ground with
water is more viscous than air. terminal velocity.
If a liquid with lower viscosity (such as water) and one In 1851, George Gabriel Stokes founded the science of
with higher viscosity (as honey and glycerine) are rolled hydrodynamics with his law of viscosity describing the

as they are more viscous but water will continue. (SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1)

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or on any object placed inside it, this pressure is called

10. Pressure
liquid pressure.
The force acting normally upon per unit area of the surface Amount of liquid pressure at any (d) point is equal to the
is called pressure. Therefore, pressure product of the density of that liquid, depth (h) of the point
Force ⎧ F⎫ and acceleration due to gravity (g) at that place. i.e. liquid
= ⎨P = ⎬ .
Area ⎩ A⎭ pressures are represented by P then P = hdg.
The pressure is a scalar quantity. S.I.Unit of pressure is
Newton/m2, it is also called Pascal (pa). (i) The pressure at a point within a stagnant
As there is an inverse relationship between the pressure and liquid is the same in all directions.
area, therefore objects with less area exert more pressure. (ii) At the same horizontal plane in a liquid amount of pressure
The person standing upon one leg exert more pressure upon remains the same.
the land in comparison to the person standing on both legs. (iii) The Pressure of a liquid depends on the density of the liquid,
The tip of a nail (owing to its sharpness) pierces deep into therefore if the density is high pressure will be high and if
the wall. the density is low, the pressure will also be low.
One can save himself/herself from getting trapped into Pascal's Law : According to Pascal's law force applied at
the marshy land by creeping on it because in this situation any part of incompressible liquid or gas enclosed in a vessel
of contact area considerably increases which results in get distributed equally by that liquid or gas in all directions
lowering of pressure. without any wastage. Hydraulic breaks and Hydraulic lifts
Atmospheric Pressure : A pressure acts upon the surface work on this principle.
of the earth because of the presence of different gases Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff received the Nobel Prize in
(oxygen, nitrogen etc.) 1901 for 'recognition of the extraordinary services rendered
This pressure is known as Atmospheric Pressure. by the discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and
Barograph is used to record atmospheric pressure. osmotic pressure in solutions. (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)
Standard atmospheric pressure is equivalent to the pressure Fisher's quantity theory is explained by his famous equation
exerted by the 76 cm (760 mm) column of mercury given as _______ MV = PT. (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)
barometer, and it represents an average atmospheric The correct order of radiations in descending order of
pressure at sea level. It is equal to 101325 Pascal (Pa). frequencies X-rays > Infrared > Microwaves > Radio
Atmospheric pressure can be represented in 'Bar' also waves. (SSC CGL 2022 Tier-2)
which is equivalent to 100,000 Pascal (105 Newton/m2). In year 1842 was the Doppler effect discovered by Austrian
Atmospheric pressure is measured by Barometer. scientist Christian Doppler, which describes the change in
Prediction of weather can also be made through the frequency of any kind of sound or lightwave produced by
barometer. a moving source with respect to an observer.
Sudden fall in the height of mercury column in a barometer (SSC CGL 2022 Tier-2)
indicates atmospheric pressure has reduced sharply in that
11. Elasticity
area.
Rapid reduction of atmospheric pressure at any place is an Elasticity : When an external force is applied upon anybody
indicator of the coming of storm or cyclone or blowing of then its shape changes but if the external force is removed,
fast winds. the body again restores to its original shape. This property
At higher places, from the surface of the earth, the amount of a body is known as elasticity.
of atmospheric pressure is low, this is the reason for leakage There is a certain value of force for a body below which a
body remains elastic and this is called the limit of elasticity
It is hard to cook food at mountains due to greater height but if the force applied is greater than the limit of elasticity,
because of low atmospheric pressure the boiling point of the body loses its elasticity.
water is lowered. In other words, we can say that elasticity is that property
The gradual and slow rise in mercury level in a barometer of bodies due to which they oppose the external deforming
is a forecast of clear weather. forces.
Pressure in Liquid : Any liquid (e.g. water, oil or alcohol) The substances which had crossed the limit of elasticity are
known as plastic.
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There are two types of object based on properties of It is also called shear modulus. It is represented by Eta ( ).
Elasticity – Hookes law was discovered in 1660, which states that for
(i) The bodies which regain their original state (or shape) after relatively small deformations of an object, the displacement
removing the deforming force are called Perfectly Elastic or size of the deformation is directly proportional to the
bodies. deforming force or load. (SSC Stenographer 2022)
(ii) The bodies which do not restore to their original state even
12. Wave Motion
after removing the deforming force are called Perfectly
Plastic Bodies. Wave :
Stress : When a deforming force is applied on a body, A wave is a type of disturbance produced in a matter which
a restoring force occurs in the body which is equal in travels without any actual physical movement of the matter.
magnitude but opposite in direction to the applied force. Through the waves, energy is transferred from one place
This restoring force per unit area is known as stress. to another.
If F is the force applied and A is an area of the cross-section Waves are mainly of two types :
of the body, then (i) Mechanical Waves
Force F Defor min g force (ii) Electromagnetic Waves
Stress = = =
Area A Area (i) Mechanical Waves
Mechanical waves are those waves that propagate only
S.I. Unit of stress is Newton/m2.
through a physical medium (air, solid or liquid). It is
Strain : The unit change in the length of an object due to
because of the elasticity of the mechanical waves.
external force is called Strain. If suspending a weight at
Mechanical waves are also called elastic waves.
one end of a wire of length L, there is a ∆L increase in its
Only the transmission of energy and momentum occur by
∆L
length, then strain = the mechanical waves not matter.
L
The strain is of three types – Water waves, sound waves, spring waves etc. are examples
(i) Longitudinal Strain of mechanical waves.
⎛ ∆L ⎞ When a mechanical wave propagates in a medium, the
(ii) Volumetric Strain ⎜
⎝ L ⎟⎠ particles of the medium start vibrating.
According to the direction of vibration of the particles,
⎛ ∆V ⎞
(iii) Shear Strain ⎜
⎝ V ⎟⎠ mechanical waves are of two types -
A. Longitudinal Waves :
The strain is purely a ratio that has no unit.
In these waves, particles of the medium vibrating along
Hooke's Law : According to this law the strain of the
the direction of wave transmission vibrate causing wave
material is directly proportional to the applied stress within
transmission. like, the transmission of sound waves into
the elastic limit of that material
the air.
Therefore, Stress ∝ Strain
Longitudinal waves can be produced in all mediums (solid,
Stress
∴ = E (constant) and it represents modulus of liquid and gases).
Strain
Earthquake waves are spring generated waves and sound
elasticity.
Young's Modulus of Elasticity : Within the limit of waves in air and water are longitudinal.
elasticity, the ratio of longitudinal stress and longitudinal B. Transverse Waves :
strain is called Young's Modulus of Elasticity of the body. These types of waves are produced in the medium when
Young's Modulus of Elasticity = LongitudinalStress
the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the
Longitudinal Strain direction of waves.
Volume Modulus of Elasticity : If there is a distortion in Transverse waves can only be produced in liquids and
the volume of an object due to volume stress, its ratio are solids.
Transverse waves can be electromagnetic such as light
Volume Stress waves.
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity : Amplitude : During the transmission of a wave (transverse
Volume Strain
Modulus Rigidity : Ratio of shear stress and shear strain or longitudinal) all the particles of the medium oscillate on
is called Modulus of Rigidity. both sides of their mean position. Therefore, the maximum
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displacement of the oscillating particle from its mean The part of the wavelength above the red colour of the
position is called amplitude. visible spectrum is called the Infrared Spectrum and the
Wavelength : During the propagation of a wave in a part with a shorter wavelength below the violet colour is
medium, the distance travelled by wave when a particle of called Ultraviolet Spectrum.
the medium completes one vibration is called wavelength. The wavelength range of ultra-violet rays is from 400 nm
Its S.I. Unit is meter and another unit is Angstrom (Å) (1Å to 10 nm (Here, nm nanometer).
= 10–10 metre). The wavelength range of infrared rays is from 700 nm to
Wave Velocity : Distance travelled by the wave in 1 mm (7 × 10–7m – 1×10–3m).
one second is called wave-velocity. Wave velocity is Sound Waves :
represented by v. Its S.I. Unit is m/s. Sound waves are a type of mechanical wave which we can
(ii) Electromagnetic Waves : feel through our ears.
These waves are produced by the vibration of electromagnetic Sound waves can travel only through a medium. They
(a cannot travel in a vacuum.
vacuum). Their speed is equal to the speed of light. Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves. Doppler weather Radar is an instrument that sends pulses
Light is also an electromagnetic wave with a speed of 3 × of electromagnetic energy into the atmosphere to detect
108 m/s. rainfall, determine its speed and intensity and identify
The wavelength range of electromagnetic waves is in the precipitation types such as rain, snow or hail.
band of 10–14 meter to 10–4 meter. (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)
The Frequency of electromagnetic waves of short
13. Sound
wavelength is high and the frequency of electromagnetic
waves of long wavelength is low. Sound is a type of wave which propagates in the form of
Electromagnetic waves exhibit both particle (photon) and audible mechanical waves with the help of a medium.
wave nature (transverse wave). Sound waves are of three types–
The Photoelectric effect can be explained only by the A. Infrasonic Waves B. Audible Waves or Sonic Waves C.
particle nature or photon-model of light (electromagnetic Ultrasonic Waves.
waves). A. Infrasonic Waves : Sound waves of a frequency less than
The concept of electromagnetic waves was proposed by 20 hertz are known as infrasonic waves. A human cannot
Maxwell. listen infrasonic waves.
Cathode rays, canal rays, α-rays, β-rays, sound waves and Whales, Rhinoceros and Elephants produced infrasonic
ultrasonic waves, etc are not electromagnetic waves. But sound.
gamma rays (γ) are electromagnetic waves (very high- Some animals get disturbed and star running and there just
frequency waves). before the earthquakes they can hear infrasonic wakes.
Waves of wavelengths from 10–3 meter to 10–1 meter are
called Microwaves. the main s ∝ k wave.
The light of the sun is a mixture of seven colours, these B. Audible waves : Waves of frequency from 20 hertz to
colours are produced by the light of different wavelengths. 20,000 hertz are called Audible Waves. Human ears can
The coloured band received in this way is known as the only listen to audible waves.
spectrum of visible light. C. Ultrasonic waves : Waves of a frequency more than
In the spectrum of light violet, indigo blue, green, yellow, 20,000 hertz are known as Ultrasonic Waves. The human
orange and red colours (VIBGYOR) are visible. ear cannot listen to these waves but a bat, dog and cat can
In visible light, the wavelength, of red colour is the longest easily listen to these waves.
while the wavelength of violet colour is the shortest. Uses of Ultrasonic Waves :
Spectrum has tension on both sides of the visible spectrum. Ultrasonic waves are used for the following purposes –
All this including visible spectrum, represents, all (i) In measuring the depth of the sea.
electromagnetic waves. It is known as the electromagnetic (ii) In cleaning costly clothes, parts of watches and
spectrum. aeroplanes.
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(iii) To kill harmful bacteria present in milk. Characteristics of Sound :

(iv) In the treatment of arthritis. There are three characteristics of sound –
1- Pitch 2- Loudness 3- Quality.
(vi) To clean the soot (smoke black) in the chimneys of 1. Pitch : Sound may be grave or shrill, which is known as its
factories. pitch. Pitch depends upon the sound. When the frequency
Sound can travel through different mediums such as air, and pitch of the sound are higher, the sound is shrill, and
liquid and solids. when the sound is grave, its frequency and pitch are low.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves. 2. Loudness : It is the loudness due to which sound appears to
Speed of sound in solids is maximum while in liquid it is be sharp or dull. Units of loudness are PHON and SONE.
slower and slowest in gases. Its utility unit is the decibel (dB).
3. Quality : Different sounds emerging from different sources
Speed of Sound in Different Mediums at 25°C
have the same pitch, and loudness represents the quality of
Mediums Speed of Sounds (m/s) sound.
Hydrogen 1284 The World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends
that noise exposure level should nor exceed 70 db over a
Helium 965
24-hour period, and 85 db over a 1-hour period to avoid
Air 346 hearing impairment.
Oxygen 316 Source of Sound Intensity (Desibal)
Sulphur dioxide 213 Rustles of leaves 20
Seawater 1531 Whisper 30
Distilled water 1498 40

Ethanol 1207 Normal conversation time 60

Methanol 1103 Truck sound 80-85

Aluminium 6420 Jet engine sound 120

Jet plane landing 150
Nickel 6040
Rocket engine 180
Steel 5960
Green plants are planted in highly noise pollution area, as
Iron 5950
they have ability to absorb sound waves.
Brass 4700 The green plants which control noise pollution are called
Glass (Flint) 3980
The unit of sound, decibel (db) was named to appreciate
In moving from one medium to another frequency of sound
the work of Scientist Alexander Grahm Bel.
remains constant, but there is a change in its speed and
wavelength.
Intensity of Sound :
There is no pressure effect on the speed of sound, but due The magnitude of sound energy passing through per unit
to the change in atmospheric conditions as temperature, the area perpendicular to the direction of propagation of sound
speed of wind and sound also changes. is called the intensity of sound. It is represented by I.
The speed of sound also increases when the temperature S.I. Unit of the intensity of sound is watt/m2.
of the medium increases. According to one calculation, the Echo :
speed of sound increases by 0.61 m/s with a 1°C increase
in air temperature. when original sound returns after hitting a hard surface
Speed of sound in the air of 0°C is 332 m/s and at 22°C it distant away from the listener.
is 344 m/s. To listen to the echo, the distance between the listener and
Speed of sound in moist air increases in comparison to dry
air. (about 17 meters).
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The effect of sound on the human ear can be experienced 14. Heat
1
up to second. Therefore, to listen to a clear echo, there Heat : When two bodies at different temperaturs are
10
1 brought in contact with each other, the energy is transferred
should be a time interval of second between a original
10
from the body with higher temperature to the body with
lower temperature until their temperature becomes equal.
Resonance : When the frequency of original vibrations
This energy is known as heat.
becomes equal to an external frequency applied by any
Heat always transfers from the body with higher temperature
force, and it results in the generation of abnormally large
to the body with lower temperature.
amplitude (or large vibration), this condition is known as
Work and Heat are mutually related e.g., when rubbing
resonance.
the palms get heated, this means that work done in rubbing
Interference of Sound :
was converted into heat.
A sudden increase or decrease in the intensity of sound at
The Mechanical Equilibrium "J" of heat expresses the
any point in a medium during the simultaneous propagation
relation between work and heat, i.e, on doing work 'W', heat
of two sound waves of the same frequency and same
W
amplitude is known as interference of sound. 'Q' is generated. Then mechanical equilibrium is J = Q
During the interference when the two different sound waves Value of mechanical equilibrium of heat J is 4.184 Joule/
at any point reach the same phase, it is a constructive Calorie.
interference, therefore, the intensity of sound increases. This means that if about 4.2 Joule work is done, one calorie
During the interference, if the sound at any point in the heat will be generated.
medium is in the opposite phase, the intensity of sound S.I. Unit of heat is 'Joule'.
decreases. Therefore, it is interference destructive. Bolometer is an instrument used to measure Heat
Diffraction of Sound : If there is any obstruction in the Radiation.
path of sound, then the sound quickly moves from the edge Other units of heat are as follows–
of the obstacle, this phenomenon is called diffraction of A. Calorie : Amount of heat required to increase the
sound. temperature of 1 gram of water to 1°C is equal to 1 calorie.
Doppler's Effect : The apparent change in the frequency B. International Calorie : Amount of heat required to
of the sound wave that occurs when either the source of increase the temperature of 1 gram of pure water from
the sound or the observer is moving relative to each other, 14.5°C to 15.5°C is known as 1 International calorie.
is called Doppler Effect. C. British Thermal Unit (BTU) : Amount of heat required
Doppler effect is produced due to the relative motion of to increase the temperature of 1 pound of water to 1°F is
source and observer. called 1BTU.
Mach Number : Under the same conditions of temperature Temperature :
and pressure in any medium ratio of the speed of the body
to the speed of sound is called Mach Number.
of heat between different bodies is called temperature.
Speed of Object Heat transfer between the two bodies takes place from
Mach Number =
Speed of Sound the body with higher temperature to the body with lower
Supersonic Speed : When the speed of an object is more temperature.
than the speed of sounds, it is called supersonic speed. Two bodies are considered to be in thermal equilibrium
Therefore, in this situation, the Mach Number for the when their temperatures are the same.
moving body will be more than 1. Thermometer : An instrument that is used to measure the
If the speed of an object is less than the speed of sound, temperature is called thermometer.
i.e. its Mach Number is less than 1, such speed is called Measurement of Temperature :
Subsonic Speed. There are four main scales used to measure the temperature
If the speed of a body is of Mach Number more than 5 (i) Celsius (ii) Fahrenheit (iii) Kelvin (iv) Reaumur Scale
Mach, such speed is called Hypersonic Speed. (i) Celsius Scale : In this scale, the freezing point of water
The object moving with hypersonic speed leaves a trail of is marked as 0°C and its boiling point 100°C and space
disturbance in a conical shape, known as shock wave. between them is divided equally into 100 parts. Each part
An audiometer is used to measure the intensity of sound. is equal to 1°C.
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A scientist of Swedish origin, Anders Celsius invented Using different gases in gas thermometer temperature of
this scale. extensive range can be measured.
(ii) Fahrenheit Scale : In this scale, 32°F is marked for Temperatures from –200°C to 500°C can be measured if
the freezing point of water while 212°F is marked for the hydrogen gas is used in a gas thermometer.
boiling point and space between these two points divided If nitrogen gas is used in a gas thermometer, its range
into 180 equal parts every part represents 1°F. becomes from +500°C to +1500°C.
Scientist of German origin Fahrenheit originated this scale. Helium gas thermometer has a temperature measurement
(iii) Kelvin Scale : This scale is also known as Absolute range of –270°C to 1500°C.
Temperature Scale. This scale measures 273K as the Platinum Resistance Thermometer : It can measure
freezing point of water and the boiling point as 373K. temperatures in the range of –200°C to 1000°C.
Kelvin was a British engineer who invented this scale in Thermocouple Thermometer : It can measure
association with physicist William Thomson. temperatures in the range of 270°C to 1800°C.
Degree sign (°) is not placed with a Kelvin scale (i.e. with Total Radiation Pyrometer : This thermometer measures
K). the temperatures of more than 500°C of the objects which
Reaumur Scale : On Reaumur scale freezing point of water radiate energy and the temperature of such objects is
is marked as 0°Re and the boiling point at 80°Re and the measured without touching the object.
This thermometer is based on Stefan Boltzmann Law.
space between them is divided into 80 equal parts. In this
According to this law, the amount of radiation emitted by
way, each part on this scale represents 1° Re.
any objects at a high temperature is directly proportional
Absolute Zero : 0 K is known as absolute temperature,
to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
it is also considered as a minimum limit of temperature.
E ∝ T4
Therefore, no temperature can exist below the 0 K
or E = σT4
(–273.15°C) because at this temperature motion of the
molecules of matter (molecular vibration) becomes
σ Stefan Boltzmann Constant
The amount of heat required for a unit
minimum (approximately zero).
increase in the temperature of the substance of unit mass
0 K = – 273.15°C and 273 K = 0°C.
Temperature considerably lower than 0°C (such as –40°C,
Joule/
–50°C or lower) are measured with the help of alcohol
Kg. Kelvin.
thermometer, because mercury starts freezing at –39°C,
while freezing point of alcohol is –114°C.
substances. Its value is 1 calorie/gram°C or 4.184 Joule/
Relation between Celsius and Fahrenheit :
gram 0°C.
C F − 32
=
5 9 in the control of temperature.
Relation between Celsius and Kelvin : Thermal Expansion : When the length, area or the volume
C = K –273 of an object increases on heating it, this is called thermal
expansion.
K = C + 273
Mercury Thermometer : It was discovered by Fahrenheit.
α)
Mercury thermometer can measure the temperatures from
β)
about –39°C to 357°C easily. λ)
Gas Thermometer : There are two types of thermometers Increase in length of any object due to heat is measured
used in this category (i) Constant Volume Gas α), Increase in an
Thermometer (ii) Constant Pressure Gas Thermometer. β) and
Only Constant Volume Gas Thermometer is used measurement of increase of volume is measured by the
extensively. γ).
According to the Ideal Gas equation, PV = nRT absolute Relation among all the three coefficients of thermal
temperature of any gas at constant volume is directly expansion is as follows–
proportional to its pressure. α : β : γ = 1 : 2 : 3 or β = 2α and γ = 3α
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States of Matter : There are three types of physical matter.

therefore, in liquids volume expansion is measured for (i) Solid (ii) Liquid (iii) Gas
calculating the effect of heat. Solid : In a solid state, the molecules of any matter are held
Generally, the volume of all liquids increases with the together closely with a strong attraction force forming a
increase in temperature, but the volume of water with an geometrical structure.
increase in temperature (0°C to 4°C) decreases.
A decrease in the volume of water even when its
temperature increases (between 0°C to 4°C) is known as place relative to their mean position.
abnormal expansion. This behaviour is an exception to Molecules of solids do not perform translatory motion.
the general rule. Liquids : The
It is only due to the abnormal expansion of water that the Intermolecular force between molecules of liquids is
density of ice is smaller than that of water. comparatively lower than that of solids.
Transmission of Heat : Flow of heat from one object to
another is called propagation or transmission of heat. It Molecules of liquids are free to move in the liquid from
can happen in three ways – one place to another but this motion takes place within the
(i) Conduction (ii) Convection (iii) Radiation liquid's boundary.
(i) Conduction : In conduction heat transfer takes place due Gas : In the gaseous state of matter intermolecular force
among the molecules is almost zero. Therefore, in gaseous
to the vibration of molecules, i.e, in this process molecules
state molecules move in free motion (Random motion) in
of a substance without leaving their place pass on the heat
different directions.
to nearby molecules.
In gaseous state shape and volume, both are uncertain.
(ii) Convection : In convection transfer of heat takes place
Change of State :
because of the motion of molecules. This kind of heat
When a solid is heated up to a certain temperature, it starts
transfer occurs in liquids and gases.
melting to change into a liquid, and this process is called
On heating liquids, their molecules shift their position to
Change of State. e.g. melting of ice at 0°C.
another object receiving heat.
Change of state is not only from solid to liquid but also
Air heats up only due to the convection process.
from liquid into gas when heated and this process also
(iii) Radiation : Objects at very high temperature radiate heat
takes place at a certain temperature, e.g. boiling of water
in the form of electromagnetic waves and they can travel
at 100°C and changing into a vapour.
in vacuum.
Therefore, the change of state is the process that occurs at
Heat radiation travels with the speed of light in a straight
a certain temperature in which a substance changes from
line.
one physical state to another.
A large amount of heat is generated by the sun along with Change of state also occurs by absorbing heat instead of
light which reaches the earth in the form of radiation. giving it, e.g. on cooling, water vapour (converted to small
Cooling : The process of cooling a heated body is called drops of water)
cooling. Anybody can cool down only when the temperature On gradually cooling water it turns into a solid in the form
of the body is greater than its surroundings. 0°C.
Newton's Law of Cooling : In stable conditions, the Melting Point : A temperature at which the melting process
rate of cooling of an object through radiation is directly of solids takes place is called the melting point of the solid.
proportional to the difference in temperature between the Boiling Point :
object and its ambience. starts boiling is called the boiling point of that liquid. e.g.
Therefore, water boils at 100°C; therefore, its boiling point is 100°C.
∆T difference in temperature of object and surroundings. Condensation : In the process of condensation, a substance
Kirchhoff's Law : This law is called Kirchhoff's Radiation or gass changes from the state of vapour to that of liquid
Law. According to this law, at the thermodynamic
equilibrium, a system that absorbs or emits heat radiation is called the condensation point.
has its absorptivity equal to emissivity. According to this, Condensation is the opposite process of boiling or
good absorbers of heat are also good radiators. evaporation.
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Water vapour can be condensed at any temperature below to a higher temperature, wet clothes become dry very soon
100°C to convert into liquid. due to higher evaporation.
If any substance (solute) is dissolved into liquid, the boiling The rate of evaporation depends upon the area of the
point of the liquid increases. It will now boil at a higher open surface of the liquid, its temperature and rate of
temperature compared to pure liquid. vaporization.
The boiling point of pure water is 100°C while Benzene Sublimation : The transformation of solids directly into
starts boiling only at 80°C. vapour (or gaseous form) on heating is called sublimation.
The boiling point of chloroform is 61.2°C. The substances which sublimate are Ammonium Chloride,
Latent Heat : Heat given or coming out from a substance Iodine, Camphor, Naphthalene etc.
during the change of state is called latent heat. Refrigerator : A refrigerator (also called a fridge) is a
The temperature of a substance when it undergoes a state household appliance that is thermally surrounded by a
of change is because of latent heat as this heat is consumed conductor and has a heat pump connection.
for changing the state of the substance. The temperature inside the fridge or refrigerator may remain
Latent Heat of Melting : Amount of heat required to convert above the freezing point of 0 ° C, much lower than the room
unit mass of a solid into liquid is called Latent Heat of temperature.
Melting. Because of the low temperature of the refrigerator or its
Latent heat required to melt ice is 80 calorie/gram or 3.34 coolness, it does not allow bacteria to grow in the food items
×105 Joule/kg. stored in it so that items kept in it are saved from decay or
Latent Heat of Vapourisation : At the constant spoilage.
temperature, the heat required to convert unit mass of Humidity : The amount of water vapour in the air is called
vapour is called Latent Heat of Vapourisation. humidity. Humidity is measured in three ways-
Latent Heat of Vapourisation for water is 540 calorie/gram (i) Absolute Humidity
or 22.6 × 105 joule/kg. (ii) Relative Humidity
If the latent heat of a substance is L, the amount of heat
(Q) required for the change of state of its mass m can be (i) Absolute Humidity : The total mass of water vapour present
described as Q = mL. in a certain volume of air is called absolute humidity,
S.I. Unit of latent heat is joule/kg. expressed in grams per cubic metre.
Getting a burn from water vapour is more painful than (ii) Relative Humidity : The ratio of the amount of water
getting burned from the water at 100°C. vapour present in a certain volume of air at a certain
Burning from water vapour is painful because it has extra temperature and the amount of water vapour to saturate
heat in the form of latent heat, which is 540 calorie/gram the air at the same temperature and at the same volume is
extra in comparison to boiling water. called relative humidity.
Ice mixture is formed on mixing salt and potash (KNO3) in The relative humidity is measured by the Hygrometer.
ice and its melting point is much below (i.e. – 22°C) than The relative humidity is expressed in percentage.
that of the ice. Relative humidity also increases with an increase in
Ice mixture is used to make ice cream. temperature in the atmosphere.
Evaporation : It is the ratio of the amount of water
Evaporation is the process that changes liquid water to vapour in the total mass of air.
gaseous water (water vapor). Water moves from the Earth's In other words, it expresses the amount of water vapour in
surface to atmosphere via evaporation. a unit mass of humid air.
Clouds are formed by continuous evaporation of sea- water Air Conditioning : The hygienic and comfortable
and through the rain, this water returns to the earth. conditions for humans are when relative humidity
Fast evaporation occurs at the different sources of water is between 60% and 65% and the temperature of the
upon the Earth during the summer. Because of this ponds atmosphere is between 23 degree centigrade and 25° C.
gets dry and water in the rivers recedes. This state is called air conditioning.
Wet clothes get dry only due to evaporation. Thermodynamics :
The process of evaporation becomes fast in dry (moisture The First Law of Thermodynamics: According to this
less) air, and this is the reason that in dry weather owing law, the heat energy (Q) given to a system is equal to the
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sum of the increase in internal energy of dU of the system It's clear that the speed of light is different in different
and the external work done dW i.e. medium.
Q = dU + dW The range of wavelengths of visible light is generally
Isothermal Process: When a change occurs in a body in considered to be between 400 and 700 nanometres or 4.00
x 10-7 to 7.00 x 10-7 metre.
whole process, such process is called Isothermal Process. Light waves move through a medium or a vacuum
The isothermal process can occur or be performed in as transverse waves, i.e. light is a kind of transverse
the same type of bodies, that have a system of heat electromagnetic waves.
regularization. Its transverse electromagnetic wave form can explain
Adiabatic Process: If the exchange of heat is completely properties, i.e. Reflection, refraction, diffraction,
blocked during any type of change in a thermodynamic polarization of light and straightline motion but the
body, such a process is called Adiabatic Process. photoelectric effect of light cannot be explained by it.
When a gas suddenly expands, there is no time for heat It is necessary to consider light as small bundles of energy
exchange and this is known as adiabatic process. For (photons) to explain the photo-electric effect.
example, when there is a sudden expansion of carbon The Crompton Effect can also be explained only by the
dioxide, it cools so intensely that it turns into dry ice. photon theory of light.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics : According to this The photon theory of light was explained by the famous
rule, it is impossible to completely change the function of physical scientist Albert Einstein to illustrate the Photo-
Electric Effect.
to an object of higher temperature. Albert Einstein explained that light is of dual nature.
Stevenson Screen is a unit designed for wet and dry bulb He observed both the particle and wave-like behaviours
thermometers to protect temperature sensors from being of light.

Note : First in 1676 the Danish astronomer Ole Romer

(SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1) calculated the velocity of light.
Ralph H. Flower coined the term 'zeroth law of
The speed of light is 3 x 108 m/s in a vacuum while it is
thermodynamics' in 1931, which asserts that two bodies in lower in other dense and transparent media (such as water
equilibrium with a third are in equilibrium with each other. and glass).
(SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1) Medium with higher refractive index has a lower light
The Thermal energy of a body arising from the motion of speed.
its atoms or molecules. The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed
ecruitment 2022) of light in a medium is called the Refractive Index of a
medium. Hence refractive index of a medium
15. Light
Speed of light in vaccum (c)
Light : Light is a form of energy like electricity or heat. µ=
Speed of light in a medium (uu)
The energy that moves in the form of radiation.
The major source of light (for Earth) is the Sun from which
Light itself invisible, but makes other objects visible.
a large amount of light and heat energy is released due to
Light can pass through a vacuum and transparent medium.
the ongoing Thermonuclear Reactions.
Light moves in a straight line in the form of electromagnetic
Light travels approximately 150 million kilometres to reach
radiation.
the Earth from the Sun and it takes about 8 minutes 19
Light passing in a straight line as electromagnetic radiation.
seconds.
Speed of light in different mediums The objects through which light passes out easily from one
Medium Speed of light (m/s) side of the object to the other side are called Transparent
Objects (e.g., glass, freshwater etc.).
Vaccum 3 × 108 Objects through which light cannot pass through are called
Water 2.25 × 108 Opaque Objects.
Glass 2 × 108 The objects through which the light passes partially are
called Translucent Objects.
Diamond 1.24 × 108 Oiled paper and tracing papers are translucents.
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Some Physical Phenomena related to light- Virtual images are those that form where the light rays do
Diffraction of Light: When light rays fall upon a very sharp not actually meet.
or thin-edged obstacle, it turns and enters the shadow region
of the obstacle, this phenomenon is called diffraction of if the person standing in front of the mirror raises his left
light. hand, then his right hand will be seen raised in the image.
It was the diffraction that proved that light rays do not The image of an object formed by a plane mirror is at the
always move in a straightline but they can also tilt from same distance as of the object from the mirror.
straight-line path. If a person is moving towards the mirror with v velocity,
Scattering of Light : When light rays collide with then he will see his image approaching towards him with
minute particles of dust which are always present in the 2v (double) velocity.
atmosphere, they propagate or spread in different directions. A person needs a mirror of half his length to see his full
This phenomenon is called scattering of light. image (from head to toe) through a plane mirror.
The intensity of the scattering of light or the intensity of If an object is placed between the two plane mirrors bent
the scattered light (I) is inversely proportional to the fourth at an angle θ° the number of images (n) of the object can
power of the wavelength of light(λ). be determined by the following method-
1 360
I∝ (Rayleigh’s Law) i. n= − 1 (when 360/θ is an even number)
λ4 θ
360
The wavelength of the violet colour of light is the lowest ii. n= (when 360/θ is an odd number)
among all the colours of visible light, so the scattering of θ
Three images will be formed by plane mirrors inclined at
violet light is the highest due to the Rayleigh’s Law
900 of an object placed between them (Calculation can be
The Red colour is scattered the least.
done by the formula given in(i).
The blue colour of the sky is due to scattering of light.
A person standing between two plane mirrors placed in a
In the light spectrum, the effect of the colours attached to
the blue coloured edge emerges after scattering as light images.
blue (sky), making the entire sky appear blue during the Spherical Mirror:
day. A mirror obtained when polished on the surface of a small
Clouds appear white relative to the blue sky because the panelled part cut from a hollow sphere of glass is called a
water droplets present in them are much larger than the Spherical mirror.
dust particles and the sunlight emitted from them does not Spherical mirrors are of two types -
depend on the wavelength. (i) Concave Mirror (ii) Convex Mirror
When light collides with a smooth Concave Mirror : If a hollow sphere is cut into parts
surface and returns. This phenomenon is called and the outer surface of the cut part is painted. Then it
of Light.
(surface) known as concave mirror.
A. Mostly real images are formed from concave mirrors.
B. When an object is placed between the focus and the pole of
ray all lies on the same plane. a concave mirror, in this case, the object receives a much

Plane Mirror : upright.

Virtual and erect image is formed only by the concave
mirror in the above situation.
The angle of incidence on a plane mirror is equal to the Dentists, E.N.T (Ear, Nose and Throat) specialists
exclusively use a concave mirror because it enlarges images
the normal meet at the same point. of nearby objects.
Images made by plane mirrors are virtual and upright. The light rays emanating from the light source placed at the
The mirror which is used on our dressing table is a plane focus of a concave mirror become parallel to the principal
mirror.
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The rays propagating parallel to the principal axis of a Normal beam Normal beam
concave mirror converge at the focus of the mirror after

Incident Dense Incident i Rare

Because of both the above properties, concave mirrors are Ray Ray
used in torches, searchlights, vehicle headlights and solar
Rare r r
cookers. Dense
Refracted Refracted
Ray Ray
Mirror
Position of Position of Nature of Size of During refraction, when the light rays from a rare medium
object Image Image Image enter the dense medium, it tends to bend towards the
At center of- At center of - Inverted and Equal in normal.
curvature curvature - Real size
The possibility of Total Internal Reflection of light
At focus Inverted and Pointed
arises when light enters the rare medium on contact with
- Real
the surface of two transparent media but with different
At focus Inverted and Very refractive indexes.
- Real large During refraction of light from the denser to the rarer
Between Center Between focus- Inverted and- Small medium when the value of the incidence angle exceeds a
of curvature- & center of Real particular value (critical angle), there is a complete internal
Curvature
Between pole Behind the Erect & Large medium.
Normal
and focus mirror Virtual
Between Center Between Center Inverted & Large Rarer
of Curvature & of Curvature Real medium
Focus and

Convex Mirror : If the concave part is polished in a Denser

medium
Incident Reflected
mirror is called a Convex Mirror. Ray Ray
Critical Angle : Critical Angle is the angle formed by
becomes virtual, small and upright.
refraction of light rays when refractive rays in a dense
The convex mirror is used in vehicles as a rear-view mirror
medium create a refraction angle of 90 ° from the normal.
Normal
straight.
Convex mirrors are also used as Rarer
medium
of light is the phenomenon in 90°
which light rays return after hitting a smooth and shining Denser
surface. medium Critical angle (ic)

Refraction : If light rays are travelling from one medium Incident

to another, they change their direction at the point where Ray
two transparent media separate with different refractive
indexes is called Refraction. (i) The light beam should move towards the rarer medium
In case of refraction, entering of light in a rare medium through the denser medium.
through a dense medium, the light rays move away (ii) The light beam should be incident to normal at an angle
from the normal through the incident point in the rare greater than the critical angle at the boundary (or contact
medium. plane) of the dense medium and the rare medium.
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Sparkling of the diamond and the mirage formed during (2) Concave Lens :
the summer days in the desert occurs due to total internal A Lens that diverges light rays is called a Concave Lens,
it is also called a Divergent Lens.
The cracked glass sheet and bent stacked test tube in the Both sides of a concave lens are bent inwards (concave).
In each case with a concave lens, only the virtual, erect
The Endoscopy ( abdominal checkup) technique works on
always formed between the second focus F2 and the optical
Optical Fibre : centres of the lens.

F2 F1
locations without energy loss. O
concave
zig-zag path. lens light
centre
Facts Related to Lenses -
Focus F: The point on either side of the lens on the principal
axis of the lens (convex and concave) where the light is
useful in that the internal parts of the body can be examined
converged or from where the light appears to diverge is
very well.
called focus.
(iii) convex
information. lens
Lens : The lens is an optical component that can focus or
F1 F2
diverge light rays. O
Lenses are usually made of glass and light rays get refracted
after passing through it.
The lens is a homogeneous transparent medium surrounded Concave lens
by two curved surfaces.
The curves of the lens may be spherical, cylindrical or
parabolic, but they are usually spherical. F2 F1
There are two types of lenses - o
(1) Convex Lens and (2) Concave Lens
(1) Convex Lens :
A lens focusing light rays at a point after refraction is called Formation of Image at Various Positions
a convex lens. It is also called Convergent Lens.
Object Image Image Nature &
Both sides of the convex lens are outward facing. Location Location Size
The midpoint inside the convex lens is called the Optical
At F2 Real, Inverted,
Centre. Reduced
The ray passing through the optical centre follows its initial
Beyond 2 F1 Between 2F2 Real, Inverted,
path without being refracted from the lens.
and F2 Reduced
light centre Between 2F1 Beyond 2F2 Real, Inverted,
and F1 Enlarged
1
M M
O convex At F1 Real, Inverted,
lens Enlarged
At 2F1 At 2 F2 Real, Inverted,
The line through the optical centre O and dividing the lens Same size
into two equal parts is called the Principal Axis (MM') of Between F1 & O On the same Virtual, Erect,
the lens. side as object Enlarged
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In the event of dispersion, white light gets split into its

Note : Note: The power of the convex lens is positive
component colours due to refraction from a particular angle,
and that of the concave lens is negative. from a prism.
Power of the Lens : If the focus distance of the lens is
expressed in meters, the inverse of the focus distance F is
also called the power of the lens (P). Red
Orange
The SI unit of the power of the lens is Diopter (D). Yellow
That is, Green
Blue
P = 1/ f (in metre) Indigo
If the lens has a focal length of 1 metre, its power is 1 Violet

diopter or 1 D. Seven colours deflected from the prism are-Violet,

If the lens of the above focus distance is convex, then its Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red from the
power will be +1D and if the lens is concave, then the power base upwards. The acronym of these prismatic colours is
will be -1D. VIBGYOR.
The power of sunglasses is zero (O) Diopter. Colours with shorter wavelengths present in white light
If the two lenses of similar nature having focal lengths f1m have higher dispersion.
and f2m keep close together, the combination would behave Therefore, the dispersion of violet colour is highest
like a single lens whose power is expressed by compared to other colours of white light because the violet
1 1 colour has the shortest wavelength.
Power, P = +
f1 f 2 Red light has the least dispersion because the wavelength
of this colour is the lengthiest (more than that of the other
Or
six colours combined).
f1 + f 2 The reason for the dispersion is the difference in refractive
P=
f1f 2
index for different colours of light.
The unique natural example of dispersion is the formation
changes and the amount of such a change depends on the of a rainbow.

Important Facts Related to Red and Violet

Colours
Refractive
lens will decrease but nature will remain the same. Colour Wavelength Dispersion
Index
Red Highest Highest Lowest
the lens, then the lens will behave like an ordinary glass
Violet Lowest Lowest Highest
plate.
If the refractive index of the substance of the lens is less Rainbow : A rainbow is formed owing to the dispersion
of sunlight (split of light into various colours) by the
immersed and then the nature of the lens will change, i.e, tiny droplets of water present in the atmosphere (colour
the convex lens will behave like a concave lens and the
concave lens will behave like a convex lens. Minute water droplets of rain act as prisms for the light rays
The air bubble inside the water looks like a convex lens radiating from the Sun and in the event of light incident
but display the nature of a concave lens. on them from a particular angle, they cause dispersion of
(refractive index 1.63), the glass-convex light.
lens (refractive index 1.5) behaves like a concave lens while In the process of rainbow formation, refraction of light,
the concave lens behaves like a convex lens.
Dispersion of Light: White Light (Light from the sun) or take place respectively for the dispersion of light.
visible light is the combined effect of light split into seven In the formation of the rainbow, a drop of rainwater causes
different colours. the dispersion of light similar to the following diagram.
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Sunlight Green Green Black Green Black Black Black

Refraction
Yellow Yellow Black Black Yellow Black Black
Water Droplet
Blue Blue Black Black Black Blue Black

Interference of Light :
Total Internal Like sound, light waves can also be interfaced.
Reflection When two waves of light (of equal frequency and
amplitude), which are normally generated by the same
source by passing through double slits appear at the fringes
Refraction screen when they appear on the screen at a certain distance.
Primary Colours Interference of light is actually a change in the intensity of
The three colours that can be mixed to produce white light light that results from the mutual overlapping of these rays
are called Primary Colours. These are Red, Green and during the movement of two light rays (having the same
Blue. frequency and amplitude) in the same direction. There are
Note : Primary colours are used in colour television. two types of interference :
1. Constructive Interference: When at some point in the
Secondary colours are Magenta, Cyan (Peacock, Blue) interference of light, light rays are in the same phase
and Yellow, in this category. producing interference which is called Constructive
Red + Green = Yellow Interference.
Red + Blue = Magenta Bright fringes of light are seen on the screen due to
Green + Blue = Cyan (Peacock Blue) constructive interference.
Other colours derived from primary colours which are in 2. Destructive Interference : In Destructive Interference, the
addition to white colour are called Secondary Colours, as light intensity becomes minimal when the light rays are in
is clear from the above-mentioned example. Two colours Opposite Phase at some point during the interference and
with the help of which the light of white colour is obtained dark fringes are produced on the screen.
are called Complementary Colours. It is clear from the above description that the white and
White colour can be formed from other colours : black fringes in the interference pattern of a monochromatic
Red + Peacock blue = White light source obtained by using double slit indicate the
Green + Magenta = White constructive and destructive interference, respectively.
Blue + Yellow = White Polarization of Light :
Light rays are transverse electromagnetic waves in which
Note : Such colours are not obtained because of
impurities found in the colours used in daily life. of wave propagation.
The colour of an object depends on the colour of the light Wave vibrations perpendicular to the light beam occur in
different directions.
A standard light beam having different directions of
If an object absorbs all the colours of light, then it appears vibrations is called Unpolarized Light.
Black. The phenomenon of converting unpolarized light into
polarized light is called Polarization of Light.
The colours of objects of different colours in light of Polarization of light is the process in which light moves
different colours: ahead following the same vibrational plane after passing
Polarizer.
Objects
Colour White Red Green Yellow Blue Black
of Light Object Object Object Object Object Object

White White Red Green Yellow Blue Black

Unpolarized Polarized Filters Polarized Light
Red Red Red Black Black Black Black
Light
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One of the most commonly used forms of Polaroid, i.e. Myopia can occur for the following reasons:
polarizers is currently made of iodine doping with polyvinyl 1 Increased thickness of the eye lens.
alcohol plastic. 2 A decrease in distance between focus and eye lens.
Polaroid is used in sunglasses because it reduces the 3 Increase in diameter or radius of the eyeball.
intensity of glare by absorbing polarized light in the In myopia, the image is formed ahead of the retina, i.e. just
horizontal plane. before the retina.
Polarized light is used to visualize the three-dimensional Myopia can be removed by using Concave Lens.
view (3D-view). For this, particular types of polaroids are Concave lens
Eye
used which have a vertical axis.
The shape and size of viruses are measured by the
polarization of light or polarized light. Retina

light. Treatment of Myopia

By using glasses of a concave lens, the rays of light coming
from a distant object diverge slightly after refraction from
effect from the vibrations through which the light rays move the lens and they now fall on the eye lens and this enables
linearly. them to focus precisely on the retina.
Eye : Hypermetropia (Farsightedness): People with
The Eye is a part of the visual system. Along with expanding farsightedness are able to see distant objects clearly but
the vision of these organisms, it also performs many picture nearby objects appear blurred or unclear to them.
response functions for them. The reason behind this defect is due to-
In higher organisms, the eye is a complex optical system i. Decreased thickness of eye lens.
that collects light from the surrounding environment and ii. Increase in the focal length of the eye lens.
also controls its intensity through a diaphragm. iii. The reduced diameter of the eyeball .
In order to create an image by the eye, the naturally provided Due to far-sightedness, the image of the object is formed
lens works with the help of the adjustment mechanism of behind the retina rather than on the retina.
the muscles. Hypermetropia can be removed by using a Convex lens.
Human Eye : The convex lens converges the light rays from a nearby
The human eye is capable of presenting a three-dimensional object and focuses on the retina with the help of the eye
view. lens.
All images in the eye are formed on the retina. Notably, the glasses used for reading purposes are
The conical-shaped cells present in the retina are sensitive essentially conver lenses.
to colours, that is, they are used to identify colours.
Convex Lens
The retina also contains rod-like or rod-shaped cells that
are sensitive to light intensity. O
Retina
The minimum distance of clear vision for the human eye
is 25 cm.
Vision Impairment :
Treatment of Hypermetropia
When a person is unable to see things near or far away, he
may be suffering from vision impairment. Vision Defects
Visual impairment is a term experts use to describe any Types of Nearby Distant Lens for
kind of vision loss, whether it's, someone who can not see Vision Defects object Object Treatment
at all or someone who has partial vision loss. Near- Can be seen Cannot be Concave lens
Myopia (Near-Sightedness) : In myopia, a person can Sightedness clearly seen clearly
see the closer object clearly but he cannot see the distant Far- Cannot be Can be seen Convex lens
objects clearly. Sightedness seen clearly clearly

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Presbyopia: It occurs in old age. In this disease, the Equation P = v/c

adjustment of the muscles of the eye reduces and the person Nichols and Hull in 1903 by measuring the radiation
is not able to see things clearly both nearer and far away. pressure of visible light. (SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1)
Presbyopia is also called a slight vision defect. This defect A non-SI unit called 'nit' is the unit of photometric quantities
is resolved with the help of a bi-focal lens. Luminance is used to measure a multitude of light
Astigmatism: This disease is caused by the cornea not intensities. (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)
being completely round. In this disease, horizontal and Measuring instrument Spherometer consists of a metal
vertical lines are not visible clearly and simultaneously. triangular frame supported on three legs, used to measure
Astigmatism can be removed by using cylindrical lenses. the radius of curvature of an object such as lenses and
Optical Instruments: curved mirrors which are spherical in shape.
Devices in which light is used are called Optical Devices (SSC CGL 2022 Tier-1)

like microscope, telescope, periscope and spectrometer. The speed of light in descending order in different mediums.
Microscopic objects such as cells, bacteria and viruses are Air > Water > Glass > Dismond.
studied under a microscope. (SSC Selection phase X (August 2022)

Distant objects and celestial bodies such as planets stars In 1928, CV Raman discovered that when a ray of coloured
and galaxies are observed from the telescope. light enters a liquid, a fraction of the light scattered by that
There are different types of microscopes that have different liquid is of a different course.
(SSC CHSL 2021 (Exam held in 2022)
capabilities, such as simple microscopes, combined
microscopes and electron microscopes. 16. Static Electricity
Simple Microscope : A very short focus distance convex
Static Electricity :
lens is used in simple microscopes.
Electrical charges of opposite nature (+ve and –ve) are
In a simple microscope, the size of the object depends on the
generated when objects are rubbed with one another.
vision it creates on the eye. That is, the larger the viewing
The charging of substances is called static electricity
angle, the larger the object and the smaller the viewing
because the charge being generated does not move.
angle the smaller the object appears.
The positive (+ve) or negative (-ve) charge generated in
The magnification ability of a simple microscope is
static electricity were named by Benjamin Franklin.
determined by the following formula-
When two similar charges are brought closer such as
D positively charged objects, they repel one another.
M =1+
f Oppositely charged objects such as positive (+ve) and
Where D least distance of distinct vision (25 cm) f = focus negatively charged (-ve) objects attract one another.
length of Convex Lens The main reasons for static electricity are electrons
Compound Microscope: In this microscope, two convex (negatively charged atomic particles).
lenses are placed upon a cylindrical pipe. An atom is a neutral particle in which the amounts of
The lens placed towards the object in a combined positive and negative charge are equal.
microscope is called an Objective Lens and the lens which When two objects are rubbed with each other, the object
is towards the eye is called the Eye Piece. The focal length on which the electrons remain low in number is positively
of the objective lens in the microscope is less than the charged and the object on which the electrons are in excess
eyepiece lens. becomes negatively charged.
Electron Microscope : In electron microscopes, the Surface Charge Density: The amount of charge located in
electron beam is used to look at objects in place of light. the unit area of a conductor is called the Surface Charge
Telescope: In a telescope, convex lenses are placed on both Density.
the open sides of a cylindrical pipe. The surface density of the charge on the point of any
In the telescope also the lens on the side of the object is the conductor is the highest.
objective lens and the lens on the side of the eye is called Conductors : The substances in which electric charge in
the eyepiece lens. conductors.
The focal length of the objective lens in the telescope is All metals and aqueous solvents containing salts etc. are
much larger than the lens in the eyepiece. electrical conductors.
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Copper and Aluminium are the most commonly used a car or bus, if its windows are closed, etc. If the celestial
conductors of electricity. lightning falls, the person sitting inside it is safe because
Silver is the best conductor of electricity while copper is the charge remains stuck on the surface.
close behind. Electric Potential : The work done in carrying a unit
Non-Conductors:
is called electric potential of that point.
electric current is not possible are called non-conductors The SI unit of electric potential is Volts or Joule per
such as wood, rubber, plastic, paper and mica etc. Coulomb. It is a scalar quantity.
Semiconductor: There are some materials whose electrical Potential Difference : The work done in bringing the
conductivity falls somewhere between conducting and positive unit charge from one point to another point in the
non- conducting materials, they are called semiconductors potential difference between those
such as Silicon, Germanium, Gallium, Arsenide, Selenium, points.
Tellurium etc. The unit of potential difference is volt.
Low-resistivity materials (such as metals) are good If W work has to be done in moving the charge q between
conductors of electricity while materials with high two points, then the potential difference V between those
resistivity (such as non-metals) are bad conductors of points is
W
electricity. V=
q
Generally, the resistivity of metals increases with increasing
temperature while the resistivity of semiconductor materials Electric Capacitance: The Capacitance (C) of a conductor
is equal to the ratio of the charge (q) given to the conductor
decreases with increasing temperature.
and the potential change (V) in the conductor.
Coulomb’s Law: The electrostatic force of attraction or
means, C = q
V
proportional to the product of the amount of charges and The SI unit of electrical capacitance is Farad (F)
the inverse of the square of the distance between them. Electrochemical Cell :
The Coulomb’s Law is also expressed with the help of the An Electrochemical cell is a device that converts chemical
following formula- energy into electrical energy. It is of two types-
qq (i) Primary cell
F = K 12 2
r (ii) Secondary cell
Here q1 and q2 are two electric charges at a distance 'r'. An electrochemical cell has two terminals, a positive
and F is the electrostatic force between them and K is the terminal, Cathode and a negative terminal, Anode.
constant.
Electric Field : The area around a charged body as far as of the power cell in the circuit to the negative terminal.
the electric effect can be experienced due to that charged Primary Cell : Primary cells convert chemical energy
directly into electrical energy. Primary cells cannot be
used again and again because they become unusable once
Electric Field Intensity : The force acting on the unit
used.
Examples of primary cells are Leclanche cell, Daniel cell
and Voltaic cell.
F
E= Secondary Cell : Secondary cells are to be charged before
q
they can be used.
Where, the electrical energy
F Electrostatic force is converted into chemical energy and this accumulated
Q charge chemical energy is later obtained as electrical energy.
E intensity of Electric Field Secondary cells can be used again after being discharged
by recharging them.
charge on the hollow conductor remains on its surface. A simple voltaic cell has a zinc anode and a copper rod as
Any hollow conductor or sphere behaves like an a cathode. These two rods are immersed in a glass vessel
electrostatic shield, i.e., if such a hollow conductor such as uric acid solution.
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The Voltaic cell was invented by Alessandro Volta. Ohm’s law states that if no physical change occurs in the
The Carbon rod is used as a cathode and as a zinc rod or state of the conductor, the potential applied at the ends of
body as an anode in a leclanche cell. Both these electrodes
are dipped into an aqueous solution of an electrolyte through it.
ammonium chloride.
Leclanche cell is also constructed in the form of a dry cell difference between the ends of the conductor is V, Ohm’s
in which cathode (carbon rod) is dipped into the mixture law can be expressed as follows
of manganese dioxide and carbon, and ammonium chloride V
V ∝ I or, V = RI ⇒ R =
is put in the form of paste in a zinc pot (anode). I
Electromotive Force (EMF) of Leclanche cell is 1.5 volt. R is a constant, it is called the Resistance of the Conductor.
Leclanche cell is more useful when there is a need for Some conductors follow Ohm’s Law while others do not.
The conductors which follow Ohm’s Law are known as
is required, e.g. in an electric bell, telephone and in the Ohmic Resistance. e.g., wire of manganese (Mg).
experiments of physics. The conductors which do not follow Ohm’s Law are known
as Non-Ohmic Resistance. e.g., Diode, Resistance of
17. Electric Current Transistor.
in a conductor is called electric Conductance: Inverse of the resistance of the conductor
current. is known as the Conductance of the Conductor.
Conductance is denoted by the symbol ‘G’.
(+ve) charge. SI unit of Conductance is S (Siemens) or Ohm-1 (Ω-1), it
Electric current is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is Ampere is also called mho.
(A). Its formula is G = 1 = 1 , where R is resistance.
There are two types of Electric current – R V
(i) Direct current (DC)
(ii) Alternating current (AC) unit length and unit cross-sectional area when a known
Direct Current : amount of voltage is applied.
one direction, then its called 'Direct current'. Resistance of a thick wire is less than resistance of a thin
Example, Battery. wire, made of the same material.
Alternating Current : Such a current, which value and The reason behind this is that resistance of the conductor is
direction keep on changing periodically with time, is called directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional
'Alternating current'. to the area of the cross-section.
The major advantage of alternating current over Direct If the length of the conductor is denoted by l and its area of
current is that alternating current can be transmitted over
long distance without much loss of electric energy. is denoted by-
If in a wire 6.24 x 1018 electrons per second enter from one l l
R∝ or R=ρ
end and the same numbers of electrons come out from the A A
other end of the wire then it implies that one Ampere (1A)
current is passing through that conductor. or the resistivity of the conductor. Its SI unit is Ohm-metre
Resistance: Resistance of a conductor is a physical (Ω-m).

Resistance is denoted by R. conductor.

SI unit of the resistance is Ohm (Ω) 1
Ohm’s Law : When a potential difference is applied across It is denoted by σ, σ =
P
a conductor, an electric current start following through it. Its SI unit is Ohm -metre–1 (Ω-1 m-1)
–1

German Scientist George Simon Ohm established the Combination of Resistances:

relation between the applied potential difference and its In an electrical circuit combination of resistance is done
resultant current in the form of experiments, this relation mainly in two ways-
is called Ohm's law. a. Series Combination b. Parallel Combination
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When the resultant of combined resistance is equal to the Transformer works with electrical equipment that operates
sum of all the resistance, they are in a series combination. at a voltage different from the main voltage.
If the combined resistances are represented by R1, R2, and Step-down transformers are used at power substation to
R3, the total resistance R is – step-down the voltage for distribution to consumers.
[R = R1 + R2 + R3] High-voltage transformeres are used in power generating
Similarly, when the inverse of the combined resistance is stations, X-ray tubes etc.
equal to the sum of the inverse of the resistance, the total Electric Motor: Electric motor is an instrument to convert
resistance is said to be in parallel combination. Electrical energy into Mechanical energy.
If the combined resistance is represented by R1, R2, and R3 Electric motors are used in many devices like electric fans,
then in parallel combination inverse of the total resistance washing machines, mixers and grinders.
R is – Microphone: Microphone works on the principle of
[1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3] electromagnetic induction.
Electric Power: The rate of consumption of energy in an Microphone converts sound energy into electrical energy.
electric circuit is known as Electric Power. SI unit of electric Electric Generator: Electric generator converts mecha-
power is the watt. nical energy into electrical energy. It is an application of
Electric power (P) = Potential Difference (V) x Electric electromagnetic induction.
Current (I) Switch: Switch is a simple tool that is used to break or start
Unit: The electrical energy that is consumed in an electrical
circuit in the presence of 1 kilowatt (kW) electrical power In a star network, N-1 lines are required for connecting N
in an hour is known as Unit. ndoes to the host node. (SSC CHSL 2022 Tier-1)
1 unit is also known as a kilowatt-hour ( KWh). Poor conductor is a component of identical size that offers
Volt × Ampere × Hour a higher resistance to electricity. (SSC CGL 2022 Tier-1)
Kilowatt-hour or unit =
1000 Hard Rubber is NOT a conductor. (SSC CGL 2022 Tier-1)
Watt × Hour
= i. Voltmeter An instrument that measures the
1000
magnitude of the current
Ammeter: Ammeter is an instrument used to measure the
ii. Ammeter An instrument that measures voltage
current in ampere.
iii. Galvanometer An instrument that measures
An Ammeter is always connected to the circuit in series.
resistance
An ideal ammeter should have zero resistance.
iv. Ohmmeter An instrument that measures the
Electric Fuse: Electric fuse is used for the safety of the
direction and the magnitude of the
appliances connected to the circuit.
current
Fuse is always connected to the circuit in series. Its melting
(SSC CPO 2022 General Awareness)
point is low.
In 1785, Charles Augustin Coulomb balance to measure
An electric fuse is generally made of an alloy of tin (63%)
and lead (37%). the force between electric charges. charles Augustin
Voltmeter: Voltmeter is used to measure the potential coulomb. (SSC CPO 2022 General Awareness)

difference between two points in a circuit. In 1859, physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff did Robert
The Resistance of an ideal voltmeter is . Wilhelm Bunsen invented flame spectroscopy, an
A Voltmeter is connected to the circuit in parallel.
Galvanometer: Galvanometer is an instrument that signals emission spectra. (SSC Stenographer 2022)

the presence of electrical current in an electrical circuit.

18. Magnetism
The current up to 10-6 Ampere intensity can be measured
by the Galvanometer. Magnets have the property to attract the iron towards
Transformer: Transformer is an instrument that works on themselves.
the principle of Electromagnetic Induction. Which works This property of the magnet is known as Magnetism.
to increase or decrease the alternative voltage.
A Step-Up transformer changes low AC voltage into high Natural magnets are generally made of Oxides of Iron
AC voltage and Step Down transformer changes high AC (Fe3O4) (SSC CPOSI, 2022)
voltage to low AC voltage. Magnetite (lodestone) is a natural magnet.
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B. Angle of Dip or Inclination: Angle of Dip or Inclination is

e.g. Bar Magnet, the angle made with the horizontal by the Earth’s magnetic
Magnetic Needle, Horse Shoe Magnet etc.
Steel is used in making the permanent magnet and the Value of Angle of Dip is 0° at the Equator of the earth and
temporary magnet is made of soft iron. 90° at the Poles.
Most of magnetism is found near the ends of a magnet. C. Horizontal Component of the Magnetic Field: Earth's
A Region near the ends of a magnet is known as the Pole Horizontal Component of Magnetic Field is different at
of the Magnet. different places.
Magnetism is absent just at the centre of the magnet. Magnetic Substances: Magnetic substances are of three
If a magnet is freely suspended in a horizontal plane, then types-
it's one will always stay toward the north and another will A-Diamagnetic Substances, B-Paramagnetic Substances
always stay towards the south. and C- Ferromagnetic Substances
In a magnet, the pole which stays towards the north is called A- Diamagnetic Substances: The Diamagnetic Substances,
the North Pole.
The pole of a magnet that stays towards the south is called
the South Pole. Gold, silver, Diamond, Carbon, Copper, Zinc, Water and
The line which joins the two poles of a magnet is called Salt are diamagnetic substances.
Magnetic Axis. B- Paramagnetic Substances: Paramagnetic Substances when
Opposite poles attract one another while similar poles
repel.
In magnetic materials, magnetism is produced through the Sodium, chromium, aluminium platinum etc. are
induction by a magnet. paramagnetic substances.
Magnetic Field: The area around a magnet in which the C- Ferromagnetic Substances: Those substances which,

Magnetic Field.
Magnetic Lines of Force: Imaginary lines which are Substances.
Iron, Steel, Nickel and Cobalt etc. are Ferromagnetic
Magnetic Lines of Force. Substances.
Nature of Magnetic Lines of Force: In a Ferromagnetic Substance, each atom behaves as an
The tangent drawn at any point of a magnetic line of force independent magnet.
Domain: In Ferromagnetic Substances, a large number of
Magnetic lines of force are close to each other at the place atoms joins to form a group which is called a Domain.
These domains are the cause of strong magnetism in
Ferromagnetic Substances.
equal distances. Curie Temperature: Curie temperature is the temperature
Magnetic lines of force always remain parallel to each other. above which a substance becomes Paramagnetic and below
Magnetic lines always emerge from the south pole of the which it remains Ferromagnetic.
magnet and make a curved path enter the South Pole. Again It is noticed that Curie temperature for iron is 770°C, for
these lines return to the North Pole of the magnet. Cobalt is 1127 °C and for Nickel is 354°C.
Terrestrial Magnetism: At a particular place, the magnetic
positioned bar magnet is the; point where the magnetic
These three elements are- (SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1)
A. The Angle of Declination;
B. The Angle of Dip or Inclination; and Earth from solar wind and cosmic radiation.
C. Horizontal Component of Earth’s Magnetic Field (SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1)
A. Angle of Declination: At a certain place, the angle between The right relationship between geometric length (Lg) and
geographical meridian and magnetic meridian is called the magnetic length (Lm) : Lm = 5 × Lg
6
Angle of Declination. (SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1)
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The radius of curvature of a charged particle's passage in a Neutron: It was discovered by Chadwick in 1932 by
bombing alpha (α) particles upon a beryllium sheet. It is
of particle. (SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1) a chargeless (Neutral) nuclear particle. It has maximum
In 1839, American Joseph Henry scientist created the penetration power.
world's most powerful electromagnet, the Albany magnet, Positron: It is a positively charged fundamental particle,
which could lift up to 750 pounds of metal at a time. whose mass and charge is equal to an electron. Therefore
(SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1) it is called the Anti Particle of an electron.
In 1851, Leon Foucault discovered the phenomenon of Neutrino: These are approximately massless and chargeless
fundamental particles.
Pi- Meson: Pi- Meson was discovered by Hideki Yukawa
(SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1) in 1935.
Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Eduard Weber invented These particles are of three types –Neutral (π0), positive
(π+) and negative (π-). They are unstable particles.
(SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1) Nuclear Stability:
Scientist Andre Marie Ampere suggested that the magnet Those nuclei in which the value of n/p (where n and p
must also exert an equal and opposite force on the current- are the numbers of neutrons and protons respectively) is
carrying conductor. (SSC CGL 2022 Tier-2) approximately 1 are very stable.
When the value of n/p in a nucleus is more than 1.5, then
of electromagnetic waves at an interface. it becomes very unstable and radioactive.
Radioactivity:
In order to gain stability, unstable nuclei themselves start
19. Nuclear Physics emitting alpha (α), beta(β) and gamma(γ) rays.
The Nucleus of an atom is studied under Nuclear Physics. The elements in the nucleus that contain atoms are called
The number of protons (Z) present in the nucleus is known radioactive elements and the phenomenon of emission of
as the Atomic Number. the above-mentioned rays is called Radioactivity.
The total number of protons and neutrons (A) present in Half-Life Period: The amount of time taken for a given
the nucleus is known as the Mass Number of an atom. amount of the radioactive substance to decay and reduce
Particle Mass (kg) Charge (Coulomb) to half is known as the Half-Life Period of that substance.
Transmutation: Transformation of a radioactive element
Electron 9.109 x 10–31 -1.6022 x 10–19 into another element is known as Transmutation.
Proton 1.6726 x 10–27 +1.6022 x 10–19 Radioactive Isotope: Radioactive Isotopes are made by
bombing a substance with neutrons inside the nuclear reactor.
Neutron 1.675 x 10–27 0 (neutral)
Uses of Radioactive Isotopes:
Constituents of an Atom: Cobalt- 60 is a radioactive isotope that emits high energy
Atoms and their interactions are studied under Atomic gamma (γ) rays. These rays are used in the treatment of
Physics. cancer.
There is a nucleus at the centre of the atom in which the Iodine-131 (I-131) is a radioactive isotope that is used in
whole mass of an atom is located in the form of proton and the treatment of thyroid gland cancer.
neutron.
In an atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number fertilizers received by the plants. This is called Radioactive
of protons. Tracer Method.
Fundamental Particles of the Matter:
Electron: It was discovered in the form of cathode rays automobile engines.
by JJ Thomson in 1897. These are very minute negatively The Carbon dating method is used to determine the age
charged particles and they revolve round the nucleus. of an object through its remains.
Proton: Proton was discovered by Goldstein in 1886 while The age of the remains of an organism is determined
it was named by Rutherford. These are the positively by the carbon dating method. In the living state, every
charged particles present inside the nucleus. organism takes Carbon-14 (radioactive isotope) elements
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along with normal Carbon-12 and after death, it ceases to

Quantum Theory Max Plank
be ingested. Therefore, the time from death to the present
Photo-Electric Effect Albert Einstein
can be calculated by the comparative ratios of radioactive
Carbon-14 (which continues to decay) and normal Laws of Electrostatic Coulomb
carbon-12 in a dead organism. Attraction
Binding Energy: The energy released in the formation of Photography (In metal) J. Neipce
the nucleus by the combination of proton and neutron is Photography (on paper) W. Fox Talbot
called the Binding Energy of the nucleus.
Photography (Celluloid) John Cabot and George
Nuclear Fission: Breaking of a heavy nucleus into two
Eastman
equal parts is known as Nuclear Fission.
Periodic Table Mendeleev
92
U235 + 0n1 56
Ba141 + 36Kr92 + 3 0n1 + Energy (200 MeV)
Laws of Electrical G.C. Ohm
An Atom bomb is an example of nuclear fission. An Resistance
Laws of Floatation Archimedes
Diode Valve Sir J.A. Fleming
present is called Enriched Uranium.
Plutonium-239 is also used in an atom bomb. Nuclear Reactor Enrico Fermi
Nuclear Fusion: When two or more light nuclei combine Laws of Electrical Faraday
to form a heavy nucleus and energy is released this reaction Decomposition
is called Nuclear Fusion.
Telegram Marconi
The energy obtained from the fussion of heavy hydrogen
Dynamite Alfred Nobel
U235 of the same mass.
Nuclear fusion is the only source of light and heat energy Contribution of Some Physicists of Different
of the Sun. Countries
The Hydrogen Bomb Important Contributions/
Name
The process of fusion in a hydrogen bomb is an Inventors
'uncontrolled process'. This can use only destructive. R.A. Millikan Measurement of Electron Charge
Important Inventions Related to Physics and Ernest Rutherford Nuclear Model of an Atom
Discoveries Neils Bohr Quantum model of hydrogen atom
Inventions Scientists Chandra Shekhar Inelastic scattering of light by the
Electron J.J. Thomson Venkataraman atoms

Proton Goldstein/Rutherford Louis Victor de Wave nature of matter

Broglie
Neutron James Chadwick
Meghnath Saha Thermal Ionisation
Atom John Dalton
Satyendra Nath Bose Quantum Mechanics
Atom Bomb Autohon
Wolfgang Pauli Exclusion Principle
Atomic Structure Neils Bohr & Rutherford
Enrico Fermi Controlled Nuclear Fission
Laws of Motion Newton
Werner Heisenberg Quantum Mechanics and Uncer-
Radioactivity Henry Becquerel
tainty Principle
Radium Madame Curie
Paul Dirac Relativistic Electron Theory, Quan-
Theory of Relativity Albert Einstein tum Mechanics
Electromagnetic Induction Michael Faraday Edwin Hubble Expanding Universe
Raman Effect C.V. Raman Hideki-Yukawa Principle of Nuclear Forces
X-Rays Wilhelm Roentgen Homi Jehangir Bhabha Cosmic Radiation
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Lev Davidovich Superfluidity Principle, Liquid Television John Logi Baird

Landau Helium Calculator B. Pascal
S. Chandra Shekhar Chandra Shekhar Limit Structure Dialysis Kolff
of Stars and Development
Heart lung machine John Heysham Gibbon
John Bardeen Transistor, Principle of
Superconductivity Relation Between Technology & Physics
C.H. Townes Meser and Laser Technologies
Abdul Salam Electroweak theory, concerned Steam Engine Laws of Thermodynamics
quantum electrodynamics and Nuclear Reactor Controlled Nuclear Fission
Radio & Television Generation of Electromagnetic waves
Galileo Galilei Law of Inertia transmission, detection
Christiaan Huygens Wave Theory of Light Computer Numerical Reasoning
Isaac Newton Universal Law of Gravitation, Laws Generation of Intense Superconductivity

Laser Light amplification by stimulated

Michael Faraday Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
emission of radiation
James Clerk Maxwell Principle of Electromagnetic Radi-
Rocket Propulsion Newtons Laws of Motion
ation Light and electro- magnetic
Electric Generator Faraday's Laws of Electro-magnetic
wave Induction
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz Electro-magnetic waves Hydro-Electric Power Transformation of gravitational
Jagadish Chandra Bose Microwaves, Wireless- potential energy into electrical energy
Transmission Crescograph Aeroplane Bernoulli's Principle in Fluid Dynamics
Marie Sklodowska Discovery of Radiation & Polonium, Particle Accelerator Motion of charged particles in
Curie Study of Natural radioactivity
Sonar
Albert Einstein Photo-electric Principle, Theory of
relativity Optical Fibers

Victor Francis Hess Cosmic Rays

Electron Microscope Wave nature of electrons
Instruments and Their Inventors Solar Cell Photovoltaic effect
Name of Instruments Discoverers Fusion Testing Reactor
(Tokamak)
Hydrometer Antony Baume
Giant Metre Wave Radio Detection of Cosmic Radio Waves
Microphone Berliner Telescope (GMRT)
Gobar Gas Plant A.V. Desai
Inventions & Inventors
Sextant Campbell
Name of Name of Year Main function of
Bunsen Burner Robert Wilhelm Bunsen
Instruments Inventors Instruments
Seismometer John Milne Are Lamp Humphry 1809 Generate intense light
Seismograph Luigi Palmieri Davy by electric sparking
Teleprinter Emile Baudot and Samuel Morse between two carbon
electrodes
Transformer Michael Faraday
Air Willis 1902 Atmosphere is kept
Air Brake George Westing House
conditioner Haviland cool or hot by con-
Holography Dennis Gabor Carrier trolling temperature
Lift Alice Otis and humidity
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Barometer Evangelista 1644 Measures atmospheric Odometer This instrument is used to measure the
Torricelli pressure distance travelled by a wheeled vehicle.
Chronometer John 1735 To know the correct Periscope This instrument is used to see the objects
Harrison time in a ship not falling in the line of sight.
Cyclotron Ernest 1929 An important instru- Photometer An instrument used to measure the power
Orlando ment which acceler- of illuminance.
Lawrence ates the production Pyrometer An instrument used to measure very high
of particles in atomic temperatures.
science Radiometer An instrument used to measure radiant

Seismometer An instrument used to measure the shocks

Instruments Uses
caused by earthquakes.
Altimeter An instrument used to measure the height
Sextant An instrument used to measure the angular
of an object placed higher than a certain
distance between two objects.
level.
Sphygmomanometer An instrument used to measure the blood
Ammeter An instrument used to measure the
pressure in arteries.
electrical current in a circuit.
Stethoscope An instrument used to listen to the sounds
Anemometer An instrument used to measure the
of heart and lungs.
velocity and direction of air.
Oscillograph An instrument for detecting electrical and
Audio Phone An instrument used for calculation of
mechanical vibrations.
hearing acuity.
Aerometer It is an instrument to measure the density
Binoculars An instrument used to see distant objects.
& weight of air and other gases.
Barograph An instrument used to record pressure.
Actinometer An instrument for measuring the intensity
Crescograph An instrument used to record the growth
of radiation of rays of the sun.
in plants.
Accelerometer This is a tool that measures proper
Chronometer To measure the proper time in ships.
acceleration.
Calipers Used to measure the distance between the
Escalator A moving staircase that carries people
opposite ends of an object, or measuring
internal or external diameters.
Epidoscope Instrument to show slides on the screen
Dip Circle Used to measure the angle of dip of a
in cinema.
place.
Commutator An instrument that periodically reverses
Dynamo Used to change mechanical energy into
the direction of current.
electrical energy.
Compass Needle An instrument to locate the direction of a
Epidiascope Instrument used to project film or an
opaque image on the screen.
Carbureter An instrument to mix a proper amount of
Fathometer An instrument used to measure the depth
of the sea. air in petrol in an engine.

Galvanometer It is an instrument used for detecting Calorie meter An instrument to measure heat.
indicating an electric current. Kinescope A television picture tube.
Geiger Muller It is an instrument used to detect and Kymograph An instrument for recording pressure in
Counter measuring ionizing radiation. blood, heartbeat etc.
Manometer Gramophone An instrument to reproduce sound
measure gas or liquid pressure. inscribed on a record.
Microtomes This is a tool used to cut extremely thin Gravimeter An instrument to measure the acceleration
slices of material, known as sections. due to gravity.
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Gyroscope An instrument for measuring angular Hypsometer An instrument to measure the height of
velocity. a place by measuring the boiling point
Xylophone Music instrument made of wood. of water.

Telescope An instrument to watch distant objects. Main Branches of Science

Tachometer An instrument for measuring the rotation Acoustics Study related to sound.
speed of a shaft or disc in an engine. Anthropology Study of human development.
Teleprinter An instrument to print automatically the Astrology Study of the effects of planets on human
information through a telegraph. life.
Transformer An instrument to increase or decrease the Astronomy Study of celestial bodies.
AC voltage.
Hymnology
Dictaphone A voice recorder.
Astrophysics Study of physical and chemical properties
Dialysis of celestial bodies.
kidney.
Agrostology Study of grasses.
Thermometer Temperature measuring instrument.
Acarology Study of mites and ticks.
Thermostat An instrument to stabilise the temperature.
Arthrology Study of joints of bonnes.
Photocell Changes solar energy into electrical
Biometry Application of mathematical processes
energy.
in biology.
Battery Collection of electrical energy.
Cardiology Study of heart in diseases.
Megaphone To send the sound at a distant place.
Conchology Study of mollusc shells.
Microscope Used to see the minute objects on
Chronology Study of determining the period of time.
Criminology Study of crime and criminals.
Radar Used to locate the position of aeroplanes
and missiles. Ceramics Art of making earthen pottery and the
science related to it.
Refrigerator Used to cool the things.
Cosmology Study of formation and development of
Radiator Used to cool the engine of the vehicle.
Universe.
Rain Guage Used to measure the amount of rain.
Chromatology Study of different colours.
Refractometer
Cryogenics Study of various applications at very low
mediums.
temperature.
Lactometer Used to measure the purity of milk.
Cytology Study of Cell biology
Voltmeter Used to measure the potential difference.
Cryptography Study of techniques for secure
Van-de-Graph Used to generate the high voltage direct communication.
current (D.C.).
Demography Study of the human population.
Generator An instrument to change mechanical
energy into electrical energy. Cartography Study and practice of making maps.

Stereoscope A device to create three-dimension Embryology Study of development of the embryo.

picture. Ethology Study of the behaviour of an animal.
Spectrometer An instrument used to separate parts of Aetiology Study of causes of diseases.
spectrum and study Therom. Exobiology Study of creatures outside the Earth.
Hydrometer An instrument used to measure relative Ecology Study of interrelation between plants and
density of liquids. environment of animals.
Hygrometer This instrument is used to measure the Eugenics Study of growth of desired genetic
relative humidity in the air. characteristics by controlled reproduction
Hydrophone It is used to detect sound inside the water. for improvement in population.
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Entomology Metallurgy Study of extracting metals from its ores.

insects. Mycology Study of fungi.
Epidemiology Study of distribution and possible control Myology Study of the muscular system.
of diseases and other factors among the
Metrology Science of measurement.
population.
Myrmecology
Genetics Study of genetic properties.
Mastology Study of human breast.
Genealogy Study of family history and the tracing of
their lineages. Numismatics Study or collection of currency.

Gynaecology Study of health related to women. Numerology Astrology of numerals.

Nematology Scientific discipline concerned with
Geonomy Study internal structure of the Earth.
nematodes or round worms.
Gastronomy Art of eating and cooking good food.
Nephrology Study of Kidneys.
Geology Study of physical states of the Earth.
Nephology Study of clouds.
Geogony Study of the Earth's formation.
Nomology Study of the thought process of brain.
Geognosy It is a branch of study that deals with the
Neurology Study of diseases in the brain and the
materials of the Earth.
nervous system.
Hematology Study of blood and related diseases.
Nidulogy Study of the nests.
Hepatology Study concerned with the prevention,
Odontology
diagnosis and management of diseases
diseases of teeth.
related to liver, gallbladder.
Obstetrics The branch of medicine and surgery
Histology Study of the structure of the tissues.
concerned with childbirth and midwifery.
Herpetology Study concerned with amphibian and
Osteology
reptiles.
Optics Study of the light and its nature and
Hydroponics Growing of plants in water without using
properties.
soil.
Ophthalmology Study of diseases related to eye.
Hydropathy Study of cure of diseases by using water.
Oncology Study related to the treatment of cancer
Hydrotherapy Technique of treatment of diseases by
and tumours.
water.
Ornithology Study of birds.
Horology Study of time.
Otology Study of ear and related diseases.
Holography Art of making three dimensional
Otorhinolaryngology Study of ear, nose and throat (ENT).
photography using laser.
Pathology Study of causes of diseases and their
Hygiene Study of the technique of care of health.
effects.
Ichthyology
Psychiatry Study of mental illness and their cures.
Laryngology A branch of medicine that deals with
Pediatrics Study of infants, children and diseases
disorders, diseases of the throat.
related to them.
Lepidopterology
Pneumatics Study of gases.
Limnology It is the study of inland waters lakes,
Pharmacology Study of medicines and its effects.
rivers, streams etc.
Phrenology Study of skull.
Meteorology Study of atmospheric sciences.
Pomology Study of fruits and their productions.
Morphology Study of the forms of living organisms
and relationship between their structures. Pedology Study of soil.

Mammography The process of examining the human Philology Study of the science of language.
breast to diagnose cancer. Petrology Study of creation of rocks.

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Posology Study of the part of medicine concerned Silicon doped with gallium forms _______ :
with dosage. p-type semiconductor. (SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1)
In 1995, Carl Wiemn with Eric Cornel experimentally
Phonetics Study of the tone of sound and its
pronunciation.
gas of rubidium atoms at extremely low temperatures.
Plasmology Microscopic study of cells of a living
(SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)
organisms.
Pioneer scientist Guglielmo Marcon used radio waves to
Serology Study related to an examination of blood transmit signals over distances of several kilometeres in
serum.
the 1890s. (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)
Saurology Study of lizards. For the Discovery of transistor effect William Bradford
Taxonomy Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain jointly
of living organisms. received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956.
The famous physicist Victor Franz Hess is known for the (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)

discovery of : cosmic radiation. (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1) Helium is used as a cooling medium for the Large Hadron
Gieger and Nutall found an empirical relationship between Collider (LHC) and the superconducting magnets in MRI
the half-life of alpha decay and the energy of the emitted scanners and NMR spectrometers. (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)
alpha decay and the energy of the emitted alpha particles Cathode ray Tube is a sealed glass vacuum tube containing
in 1911. (SSC CGL 2022 Tier-2) an electron beam that is focussed on a phosphor-coated
MS Livingston co-invented the device called Cyclotron in glass screen when light is emitted. (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)
1934 along with Ernest Lawrence to investigate the nuclear In 1887, Michelson and Morlus's experiment was an
structure. (SSC CPO 2022 General Awareness)
hypothetical luminiferous ether. (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a weak signal
(SSC Stenographer 2022) and regenerates it. (SSC CHSL 2022 Tier-1)
Tritium is a beta-emitting radioactive isotope of hydrogen Year 1924 Albert Einstein predicted a new state of matter,
that has one proton and two neutrons in its nucleus, making the Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC), based on a quantum
it three times as heavy as a hydrogen nucleus and one and formulation by the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose.
a half times heavier than deuterium. (SSC CGL 2022 Tier-2)
(SSC Stenographer 2022) A piezoelectric transducer is a type of electroacoustic
In the year 1896 Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium transducer used in a seismograph to measure vibrations in
salts emit penetrating radiation that can be registered on a rockets.
photographic plate. (SSC Stenographer 2022) Jean Baptiste Perrin was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics
Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose introduced a new in 1926, 'for his work on the discontinuous structure of
statistical method in 1924 to derive the blackbody radiation matter. (SSC CHSL 2021 Exam held in 2022)
law with respect to a gas of light quanta (photons). Radio waves are a type of radiation designated a part of the
(SSC Stenographer 2022)
electromagnetic spectrum with frequencies approximately
20. Miscellaneous from 300 GHz to 3 kHz, or equivalent, wavelengths
Klystron is the name of the thermionic electron tube used approximately from 1 mm to 100 km.
to oscillate and amplify microwave frequency signals. (SSC CHSL 2021 Exam held in 2022)
(SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1) Magnetic resonance Imaging technology uses a combination
Physicist team Baptiste Joseph Fourier is known for of a large magnet and radio waves to view organs and
discovering that any periodic wave can be represented as structures inside our body.
(SSC CHSL 2021 Exam held in 2022)
sine and cosine waves. (SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1) Otto Von Guericke is famous for the invention of the
vacuum pump in the 17th century and also pioneered the
the 17th century by using a concave mirror to collect light concept of the absolute vacuum of space, measured the
instead of a simple lens, which produces false colors due weight of air and used air pressure to predict the weather.
to the dispersion of light. (SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1) (SSC CHSL 2021 Exam held in 2022)
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Matter
B Chemistry
Chemistry studies the composition, structure, physical
and chemical properties of substances and their chemical Physical Chemical
reaction. Chemistry is an English world that is called
Rasayan Vigyan in Hindi. Solid Liquid Gas Pure Mixture
The word "chemistry" is derived from Alchemy which has Substance
its origin in the Arabic word Al-Kimia covering a wide
range of disciplines- chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, Element Compound Homogeneous Heterogeneous
astronomy and medical science during the ancient Mixture Mixture
Metal (Solution)
civilization period.
Non-metal
A study of Chemistry provides Scientists with insights ino
other aspects of Physical Science. Metalloid

Its origin is also said to be in the word, keme, the ancient

name of Egypt. Keme means "black earth". It's study was
Inorganic Compound Organic Compound
called Chemeteching.
Jacob Berzelius is called the father of chemistry and
Antoine Lavoisier, the father of modern chemistry. Under normal conditions of temperature and pressure, the
The credit of establishing chemistry as a separate discipline matter based on its physical conditions is divided into three
goes to Robert Boyle. states - solid, liquid and gas.
Due to a wide scope of study chemistry is divided into Solid :
different branches, which are as follows : and shape, is called solid e.g. metals, wood, salts, bricks etc.
Inorganic Chemistry There is very little intermolecular space in solids. Thus, the
density of solid is very high.
Organic Chemistry
Liquid :
Physical Chemistry
volume but its shape is uncertain is called liquid. The liquid
Analytical Chemistry
takes the shape of the vessel in which it is kept e.g. water,
Industrial Chemistry milk, alcohol, mercury etc.
Bio-Chemistry The density of a liquid is less than the density of a solid.
Agriculture Chemistry Within a limit, molecules of liquid remain in a disorderly
Nuclear Chemistry state and fall one over another and thus they behave like a
Green Chemistry liquid.
Gas : That physical state of matter in which volume and
Environmental Chemistry
shape both are uncertain is called gas. It spreads in the
Medicinal Chemistry
Polymer Chemistry
Phytochemistry In gaseous state, particles of the matter are comparatively
farther than in solids and liquids. Therefore, most of the
1. Particle Nature of Matter
space between them remains empty.
Every object that occupies space and has mass and opposes
the changes in its structure is called substance or matter. intermolecular space.
The matter is formed with very small particles which are The kinetic energy of gas molecules is higher. Therefore
called atoms. molecules of the gas move independently in all possible
: directions with great velocity.
forms– Difference between Vapour and Gas :
(a) Physical Vapour represents the gaseous state of the substance, which
(b) Chemical remains in a liquid state at normal temperature, while gas is
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the substance that remains in a gaseous state even at normal In other words we can say that- An element is a
temperature (room temperature). E.g, Ammonia is called substance which cannot be broken down into anything
a gas while the gaseous state of water is called vapour simpler by chemical methods.
because water remains in a liquid state at room temperature. E.g. carbon, sulphur, hydrogen, iron and gold etc.
There are other two states of matter other than solid, liquid
Important Elements Found on Earth & Their
and gas – Plasma and Bose-Einstein Condensate.
Shares in Earth's Crust
Plasma : The state of matter at a high temperature in which
Percentage in the Earth's
atoms of the matter are in an ionic-state is called plasma. Element
Crust
Therefore plasma is a good conductor of electricity. It is
one of the fourth states of matter. 46.60
Bose - Einstein Condensate : Silicon 27.72
It is the state of matter obtained when a dilute gas of Aluminium 8.23
low density is cooled to near absolute zero temperature Iron 5.63
(–273.15°C).
Calcium 4.15
Interconversion of the states of matter :
Sodium 2.36

different forces at work and the distance among the particles Magnesium 2.33
in it. It also depends upon the packing of constituent Potassium 2.09
particles of different types of matter. Titanium 0.56
These three states of matter interchange on account of Hydrogen 0.14
changes in temperature and pressure.
Heating Heating Average Quantity of Elements in Human Body
!!!!!!
Solid ↽!!!!! ⇀ !!!!!
! Liquid ↽!!!!! !! ⇀
! Gas
Cooling Cooling Element Percentage
Melting Point : Continuous heating brings in a state where
65.0
a solid substance completely changes its state into a liquid.
Carbon 18.5
This is called melting and the temperature at which this
Hydrogen 9.5
occurs is called the melting point.
Boiling Point : On heating any liquid, the kinetic energy Nitrogen 3.2
of its constituent particles highly increases and pulling force Calcium 1.5
among them becomes negligible and the liquid changes into Phosphorus 1.0
the gas. It is called evaporation of liquid Potassium 0.4
temperature at which this happens is called the boiling Sulphur 0.3
point.
Sodium 0.2
Chlorine 0.2
On the basis of the chemical composition, the matter is
divided into two sub-groups. 1-Pure Substance and 2. Magnesium 0.2
Iron 0.004
Pure Substance : The substance or matter which cannot be Others 0.046
converted into other types of matters through any physical The most abundant non metal found in the earth's crust is
process is called a pure substance. Silicon is the metalloid found in huge quantity on
Element : the earth's crust, while aluminium is the metal found in the
physical and chemical properties and which can neither be Earth's crust in huge quantity.
converted by any physical or chemical process into another Metals : The elements which are good conductors of
element nor state is called element. heat and electricity, with high melting and boiling points
and shine are called metals. They have the property of
element is a substance that cannot be broken down into ductility and malleability e.g. Iron, Silver, Copper, Gold
anything simpler.’’ and Aluminium etc.
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Non-metals : The elements having opposite characteristics Russian scientist M V Lomonosov in 1756 proposed the
of metals, i.e. which have no glitter, and no law of conservation of mass. According to this law "mass
property of ductility and malleability are called non-metals, is indestructible, i.e. matter neither can be created, nor it
e.g. sulphur, benzene phosphorus etc. can be destroyed."
Metalloids : The elements which have characteristics In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the substance
common to both metals and non-metals are called remains intact even after the change.
metalloids. E.g. arsenic, silicon, antimony bismuth etc. Due to this reason, when a chemical reaction occurs
Compounds : A pure substance in which two or more atoms are neither created nor destroyed. Instead the atoms
rearrange themselves to form new chemicals. This incident
and which can be changed into another state or converted is known as a chemical change.
into a suitable chemical process another element by are French scientist J.L. Proust in 1799, had proposed the law
called compounds. The properties of a compound are of constant proportion. According to this law, "In every
completely different from those of its constituent elements, compound masses of the elements are always combined in a

remains 1 : 8 whatever may be its process of making and

Example : (CO2) is the compound of
Compounds are of two types :
(O2).
A- Organic compound B- Inorganic Compound
The English scientist John Dalton in 1803, had proposed
A. Organic Compound :
the law of multiple proportions. According to this law
Those compounds which are mainly obtained from life
"When two elements by mutually combining form more
sources and in which one or more carbon atoms are
than one compound then there is a simple mathematical
combined with covalent bonds of the elements (like
ratio between the masses of the elements combined with
compounds. the common element".
B. Inorganic Compound : Example -
Those compounds which are formed by the combination (CO2)
of two or more elements (generally other than carbon) are (CO).
called inorganic compounds, e.g. water, salt etc.
Mixture : molecule are as follows -
ratio, it is called a mixture
Some major radioactive drugs
be separated by ordinary physical processes.
Mixtures are of two types : S.N. Name of Oxide Carbon Oxygen
12 gram 16 gram
1.
A. Homogeneous Mixture : (weight) (weight)
12 gram 32 gram
2.
uniform is called homogeneous mixture (weight) (weight)

and their composition in the air is uniform everywhere. German Scientist Richter in 1792, had proposed the law
B. Heterogeneous Mixture : reciprocal proportions.
ratio, According to this law "when two different elements
so formed is called a heterogeneous mixture. E.g. smoke combine with the same mass of a third element, the ratio
of the masses in which they do so must be same or multiple
Laws of Chemical Combination : of the mass ratio in which they combine.
When two or more substances combine mutually, then this
combination is based upon certain laws, which are known form Methane (CH4 2
).
as laws of chemical combination. These laws are– law of (CO2) C : O = 12 : 32
conservation of mass, law of constant proportion, law of In Methane (CH4) C : H = 12 : 4
multiple proportion, law of inverse proportion and the law Gay-Lussac in 1808, had proposed the law of gaseous
of gaseous volume by Gay-Lussac. volume. According to this law, "Whenever gases react
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with one another, the volume of the reacting gases as well atoms. Because of this, they are called Hetroatomic or
Heteronuclear molecules.
ratio, provided all the volumes are measured under similar Applications of Avogadro's Law :
conditions of temperature and pressure.
Example - Two volumes of hydrogen combine with one

(H2O).
molecular weight of a gas
H1 H2 + O2 H2O H2O Molecular Weight = 2 × Vapour Density

Two volume One volue Two volume (which is 22.4 litre)

The number of molecules present in a gram molecular
weight of a substance is called Avogadro's Number.
2:1:2 The number of atoms in one gram atomic mass of each
Concept of Elements, Atoms and Molecules : element is 6.022 × 1023.
Indian philosopher Maharshi Kanada Atomic and Molecular Mass :
that matter was formed by very small indivisible particles. The atomic mass of an element
These small particles form molecules after combining with Mass of one atom of an element
=
one another. Mass of one atom of Hydrogen
John Dalton, a teacher in New College of Manchester,
Atomic mass is a ratio, therefore it has no unit.
England, after going through study of structure of matter in
Atomic mass of an element
1808, had proposed the systematic view about the structure
of atom and structure of matter in his hypothesis which is Mass of one atom of an element
=
known as Dalton's Atomic Theory. Mass of 1 / 16 th part of one atom of oxygen
Dalton's Atomic Theory : Carbon-12 method :
Matter or element is made of numerous small particles
Atomic mass of an element
which are called atoms.
Mass of one atom of an element
Atom is the smallest particle of an element that cannot =
be divided and during the chemical reaction, it remains Mass of 1 part of one atom of c12
12 th
unchanged.
Atoms of the same element are equal in terms of weight, The Real mass of an isotope of Carbon-12 is 1.9926 × 10–23
shape and other properties. gram, which is equivalent to 12 amu.
Atoms of two or more elements join in small whole numbers 1.9926 × 10 −23
1 amu = ⇒ 1.66 × 10 −24 gram.
12
Berzelius Hypothesis : According to this hypothesis "At
Number of grams atoms of an element
equal temperature and pressure the number of atoms in the
equal volumes of all gases remain the same." Weight of element (in grams)
=
Avogadro's Hypothesis : According to this hypothesis Gram atomic mass of element
"At equal temperature and pressure, number of molecules According to the mole concept, the amount of substance
in the equal volumes of all gases remains the same." in which 6.022 × 1023 particles (atom/molecules/ions) are
The smallest particle of any substance (element or present is called one mole.
compound) which can remain in an independent state and It was accepted as a unit in the year 1967.
still retain the composition and chemical properties of that
substance is called Molecule. for the scientist that found the number of atoms in 12 grams
Molecules can be divided into two categories (A). of carbon 12.
Molecules of Elements and (B). Molecules of Compounds. This is the theoretical atomic mass of the Carbon-12
A. Molecules of Elements : Such types of molecules are isotope (6 protons and 6 neutrons). This means that the
formed by the same type of atoms, because of this they are atomic mass or atomic weight (12 grams) of carbon is
called Homoatomic or Homonuclear molecules.
B. Molecules of Compounds : Such types of molecules Calculation of reactants and products in chemical reactions
are formed by different and more than one type of is called stoichiometry.
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The reactant in a chemical reaction, that is totally consumed

when the chemical reaction is completed and limits the 19th century and after that, it has been known that the atoms
amount of forming product is called limiting reagent. are made up of different types of microscopic particles,
Molarity : The number of moles of a solute dissolved in which are called sub-atomic or elementary particles.
a solution of one litre of the volume is called the molarity Some of these particles are stable, and the rest are unstable.
of that solution.
Molarity (M)
Number of moles present in the substance atom and outside the atom.
=
Volume of solution (in litree) The distribution of fundamental parts inside the atom is
called atomic structure. Three fundamental particles are
Normality : The number of gram equivalents of a solute found in an atom - Electron, Proton and Neutron.
dissolved in a litre volume of a solution is called the Positrons, Neutrino, anti-neutrino and Meson are unstable
normality of that solution. particles.
normality (N) = Cathode rays are the beams with negatively charged
Number of gram equivalents of solvent in a solution
=
Volume of the soolution (in litre) The positively charged rays moving backwards of the
porous cathode are called Anode rays.
Normality (N) =
Molecule : A molecule is the smallest particle in a chemical
Mass of solute in the solution (in gram)
= element or compound that has chemical properties of that
Volume of solution (in litre)) ×equivalent weight element or compound. Molecules are made up of atoms of
W × 1000 different or similar kinds. Atoms in a molecule are held
N=
E × V (in ml) together by a strong chemical bond.
Molecular Weight : Molecular weight of any element or
Molality : The number of moles of a solute dissolved in 1 kg
compound is the number which represents that, how many
weight of a solution is called the Molality of that solution.
times the weight of one molecule of it is in comparison to
S.I. Unit of molality is mol/kg. 1
the weight of part of atom carbon-12.
12
2. Structure of Atom Electron : Electron is the negatively charged particle that
The advent of the modern age in chemistry brought with has a unit negative charge and mass equal to 9.109 × 10–31
it the atomic principle of chemical reaction proposed by kg.
John Dalton. Proton : Proton is a positively charged particle with a unit
He proposed this theory in his book "A New System of positive charge and mass equal to 1.6726 × 10–27
Chemical Philosophy" in 1808. kg.
Atom : The smallest particle of the matter which has the Neutron : Neutron is a neutral particle. Its mass is 1.675
property of participating in a chemical reaction is called × 10–27 kg.
atom.
Atomic Size : Hydrogen is the smallest atom among atoms. Some other Sub-Atom Particles
The radius of hydrogen atom is about 0.20Å. Other elements Particle Symbol Discoverer Mass (amu)
have atomic radii between 0.7Å to 2.5Å to 2.5Å (1Å 1.0 × C.D. Anderson Negligible
10–8 cm.) Positron + 1e0
(1932) (0.000548)
Atomic Weight : Atomic weight of any element is the
number that represents how many times one atom of that Yukawa 200 times of
1
Meson π+, π–, π0
element is in weight to part of carbon-12 or 1.008 (1935) mass of an
12 th electron
part of the mass of hydrogen atom. That is, the mass of a Uncertain
hydrogen atom is 1.008 amu. Neutrino (Neu)
Pauli (1930)
(< 0.000548)
The atomic masses of other elements range from 2 to 260
Segre and
amu.
Antiproton p –
Chamberlain 1.00757
Atomic Structure : Middle of the 19th century, atoms (1955)
were believed to be the smallest invisible particles of the
Antineutron n Cork (1956) 1.00893
matter.
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SI Fundamental Quantities and Their Units

Mass
Fundamental Radius (in
Symbol Discoverer On atomic Charge
Particle In gram (g) cm)
scale (amu)
J.J. Thomson –1.602 × 10–19 coulomb or,
Electron e or – 1e° 0.000548 9.109 × 10–28 2.8 × 10–13
(1897) –4.808×10 esu
–10

Goldstein (1886) +1.602×10–19 coulomb or,

Proton p or 1H1 1.00727 1.6726 × 10–24 0.8 × 10–13
Rutherford (1919) +4.808 × 10 esu
–10

James Chadwick
Neutron n or 0n1 1.0087 1.675 × 10–24 Zero (netural) 0.8 × 10–13
(1932)

Composition of Atomic Nucleus : The atomic nucleus is

made up of Protons and Neutrons. their mass numbers are 16, 17 and 18 respectively. These
The mass of nucleus is due to Protons and Neutrons and
the positive charge of nucleus is due to proton only. Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons,
Protons and Neutrons are collectively called 'nucleuous', but the number of neutrons varies.
because these particles are components of the atomic Isotopes were discovered by Frederick Soddy.
nucleus. Polonium is an element with the highest number of
The electrons in the atom reside close to the nucleus and isotopes.
move around the nucleus in different orbits at relatively Isobars : The elements which have the same atomic masses
short distance. but different atomic numbers are called Isobars, e.g. 18Ar40
The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number (Argon), 19K40 (Potassium) and 20Ca40 (Calcium).
of protons. So atoms are electrically neutral. Isotones : Those atoms of different elements having the
Mass Number : The sum of the total number of protons same number of neutrons in the nucleus but with different
and neutrons in the nucleus is called mass number. atomic numbers and different atomic weight are called
Mass number of atom (A) = Number of protons (Z) in the Isotones. e.g. Number of neutrons in 7N15 = 15 – 7 = 8 and
nucleus + Number of neutrons (N) in 8O16 number of neutrons = 16 – 8 = 8, therefore they are
i.e. A = Z + N known as isotones.
The mass number is not a fundamental characteristics of Isoelectronic : The particles (molecules, atoms, ions or
an element. Different atoms of an element have different compounds) which have an equal number of electrons are
numbers. called Isoelectronic, e.g. Na+, Mg++, Al+++ and F–.
Atomic Number : The number of protons in a nucleus Isodiapheres : Those atomic species in which the
of an atom or the number of electrons in a neutral atom is difference between the number of neutrons and the number
called its atomic number. of protons is the same are called Isodiapheres, e.g. 15P30 or
16
S32 and 92U235 and 90Th231.
Different elements have different atomic number. Isosteres : The molecules or ions which have the same
The atomic number of hydrogen element is 1, It means, number of atoms and valency electrons are called Isosteres,
there is one proton in the nucleus of hydrogen atom. e.g. N2, CO, CN– are isosteres.
Atomic mass : Isoprotonic : Those atoms, anion and cations of the same
equal to its mass number. element which have the same number of protons are called
Atomic mass = Mass number (A) isoprotonic, e.g. Fe, Fe2+ and Fe3+.
Atomic mass = Number of protons in the nucleus (Z) + Wave nature of electromagnetic radiation : There is a
number of neutrons in nucleus.
Isotopes : The elements which have the same atomic and they reinforce change mutually.
number but different atomic weight are called isotopes, e.g. This change has a contagion effect in the whole circuit in the
hydrogen has three isotopes 1H1 (Protium), 1H2 (Deuterium) form of a wave. These waves are called electromagnetic
and 1H3 (Tritium). waves.
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There is the following relation among frequency f, the projection of the spin angular momentum (s) along the
wavelength λ of electromagnetic wave and velocity of
C (m) value of the spin quantum number (s) is either + 1/2
light, (C) f =
λ or –1/2.
Quantum Numbers : The necessary numbers required to Radioactivity is the release of energy from the decay of
determine the position, nature and energy of an electron the nuclei of certain kinds of atoms and isotopes. Atomic
are called Quantum Numbers. These are of four types – nuclei consist of protons and neutrons bound together in
(i) Principal Quantum Number (n) : tiny bundles at the center of atoms.
number describes the electron shell or energy of an atom. Radioactivity has always been present on Earth, but it
The value of n ranges from 1, 2, 3..... to n i.e. it can take 1896.
any integer other than zero. The largest source of ionizing radiation for the average
(ii) Azimuthal Quantum Number (l) : The second quantum American is from naturally occurring radon in the air.
number, known as the angular or orbital quantum number Without heat from naturally occurring radioactivity, the
that describes the subshell or its shape. The minimum value Earth’s core would have frozen billions of years ago.
of l Henri Becquerel Discovers Radioactivity. In one of
(iii) Magnetic Quantum Number (m) : The magnetic quantum the most well-known accidental discoveries in the
number describes the energy levels available within a history of physics, on an overcast day in March 1896,
subshell and yields the projection of the orbital angular French physicist Henri Becquerel opened a drawer and
discovered spontaneous radioactivity.
on the values of l. For any value of l, value of m ranges Marie Curie coined the phrase "radioactivity." She
from – l to + l.
(iv) Spin Quantum Number (s): The fourth quantum number rays to be dependent on uranium's atomic structure, the
describes the spin of the electron within that orbit and gives number of atoms of uranium.

Difference among Alpha (α), Beta (β) and (γ) rays :

Character α-rays β-rays γ-rays
1. Nature These have two positive charges They carry negative charge These are
Its mass is equal to the atomic These are electrons Electroradiations.
mass of nucleus of Helium atom Its weight is 0.0005486 amu Their Wavelengths
(4 amu) These are represents by
These are nuclei of Helium –1°β or –1°e
It is represent by 2He4 or 2α4
2. Velocity Velocity of α Velocity of β Velocity of γ-rays is equal
equal to γ10th of the velocity of light equal to the velocity of light. to the velocity of light.
3. Penetrating These can penetrate 0.002 cm. thick These can penetrate 0.2 cm thick γ-rays can penetrate 100
power aluminium sheet. aluminium sheet. cm, thick aluminium
sheet.
4. Ionising α-rays ionise gases β-rays ionise the gases γ-rays ionize the gases.
Power Their ionizing power is 100 times Their ionizing power is 100 times Their ionizing power
that of β-rays and 10,000 times of the γ-rays. of γ10000 times that of
of γ-rays. α-rays and γ100 times
that of β-rays
5. Effect of α β
electric and negative charge plate. positive charge plate.
magnetic feild α-rays are also defected in β
α
6. Effect on pho- α-rays darken the photographic β-rays darken the photographic plate γ-rays less darken the
tographic plate plate less than the α-rays. photographic plate.
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Charles Wilson with Arthur Compton received the Nobel Noble gases always have the Van der Waals radius.
Prize in 1927 for the development of the cloud chamber Ionic Radius :
for the detection of charged particles. (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1) distance from the centre of the nucleus of the ion up to
Geiger and Nuttall found an empirical relationship
between the half-life of a alpha decay and the energy of with the increase in atomic number for iso-electronic
the emitted alpha particles in 1911. (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1) species.
In Year 1862 AEB de Chancourtois organise the elements Ionization Potential : Ionization potential is the measure
by atomic weight, by graphing the elements around a of the amount of energy required to remove an electron
cylinder with a circumference of 16 units, corresponding from a neutral atom or lowest energy state.
(SSC CGL 2022 Tier-1)

in energy of a neutral atom (in the gaseous phase) when an

electron is added to the atom to form a negative ion.
in Their Properties
A chemical element or element is a species of atoms having Elements of the groups VII-A of the periodic table have
the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei.
Electronegativity : The relative tendency of an atom in a
molecule to attract a bound electron pair to itself is called
remaining 24 being synthetic elements. electronegativity.
Florine has the highest electronegativity.
a gradual study of their properties. Remarkable efforts First, second and third periods of the periodic table are
were undertaken for this purpose by many chemists, e.g. called short periods
are known as long periods.
Burner etc.
Metals are good conductors of electricity and heat.
Mendeleev's Periodic Law : Russian scientist D.I.
Silver is a good conductor of heat.
Mendeleev proposed a law for the comparative study of
Some Other Important Facts :
elements and their compounds, according to it "Physical and
Hydrogen is the element of the smallest radius and
Chemical Properties of elements are the periodic function
francium and Cesium are the elements of the largest radius
of their atomic weight".
elements regarding the Van der Waals radius.
The original periodic table of Mendeleev was based upon
Carbon is the element with the highest melting point, while
the above periodic law.
helium is an element with the lowest melting point.
Modern Periodic Table : Modern Periodic Table was
given by Moseley in 1913. According to this law "Physical Comparative Properties of Periods of Groups
and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions in Periodic Table
of their atomic numbers".
There are 18 groups and 7 periods in the modern periodic Properties In a Period In a Group
table. Horizontal rows are termed as Period while vertical 1. Valence Increases from 1 to Remains same in
columns are known as Groups. Electrons 8 on moving from all elements of the
left to right same group
the outer shell of elements. It contains groups from 1 to 18 2. Valency First increases Remains, same
and 7 periods. According to the position of the last electron, from 1 to 4 moving for all elements in
it has been divided into s, p, d and f blocks. from left to right a same group then
The gradual change of properties along a group or a period reduces to zero
is called period properties.
3. Atomic Radii Reduces on Increases on
Atomic Radius : Atomic radius is the distance from the
moving from left moving down
outermost shell to the centre of the nucleus. It is of the
to right
following types – (i) Covalent Radius (ii) Van der Waals
Radius (iii) Metallic Radius. 4. Metallic Reduces on Increases on
There is the following sequence among these radii – Property moving from left moving down
Van der Waals Radius > Metallic Radius > Covalent Radius. to right
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Valency :
5. Ionization Increases on Decreases on
In 1852, the scientist, Frankland, used the term Valency
Potential moving from left moving down
for the 'combining capacity of atoms of elements'.
to right
6. Increases on Decreases on or Capacity).
moving from left moving down According to Frankland "Valency of any element is
to right represented by the number of hydrogen atoms that combine
7. Electronegativity Increases on Decreases on with one atom of that element".
moving from left moving down Electronic theory of chemical bonding proposed
to right
8. Increases on Decreases on between atoms is formed in order to get nearest inert gas
Property shifting from left moving down
to right gaining or sharing electrons.
The force of attraction which holds the different atoms in a
9. Reduction Decreases on Increases on
molecule of a compound is called Chemical Bond. There
Property shifting from left moving down
are three types of atomic bonds – (i) electrovalent or ionic
to right
bond. (ii) covalent bond and (iii) coordinate covalent bond.
Tungsten (W) is a metal with the highest melting point (i) Electrovalent or Ionic Bond :
while mercury (Hg) is the metal with the lowest melting Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bond in which valence
point. electrons are lost by one atom and gained by another. This
At normal room temperature, liquid metal is mercury (Hg). e.g.-
Tungsten and Rhenium are the elements with the highest
boiling point, while Helium is an element with the lowest * +
Na + Cl Na [ Cl ] or Na+Cl–, or NaCl
boiling point. 2, 8, 1 2, 8, 7 2, 8 2, 8, 8
Hydrogen is an element that has the lowest density (lightest Properties of Ionic Compounds :
element) and Osmium and Iridium are the elements that (i) Ionic compounds are generally soluble in polar solvents
have the highest density (heaviest elements), while lithium (Water, HCl, NH3 etc.).
is a metal that has the lowest density. (ii) The boiling and melting point of these compounds are
Iodine is a solid volatile non-metal. very high.
Plutonium (iii) Amount of ionization is generally high.
Astatine (At) is the metal found naturally upon the Earth (iv) Aqueous solution of these compounds is a good conductor
in very small amount. of electricity.
Francium (Fr) is a liquid radioactive element. Lattice Energy : The energy released during the formation
The melting point of inert gases is the lowest. of one mole of ionic crystal by the mutual combination of
The melting point of group IV-A elements is the highest. cations and anions is called lattice energy.
(ii) Covalent Bond : The bonds formed between the atoms
of the elements by sharing electrons are called covalent
of chemical elements arranged in order of atomic weight. bonds. Many bonds are neither purely ionic nor they are
(SSC MTS 2011, 2009; SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1) purely covalent, but they contain partial covalent tendency
In the 1920s Charles Janet along with ionic tendency or a partial ionic tendency along
with covalent tendency.
of the elements on patterns in the arrangement of electrons E.g.
around the atomic nucleus. (SSC Selection Phase X, 2022) Cl + Cl Cl Cl or Cl–Cl or Cl2
4. Chemical Bonding
Properties of Covalent Compounds :
Chemical Bonding : Chemical bonding is that alternative The covalent bond is rigid and directional. Therefore it
force that forms the molecules by combining two or more
atoms. isomerism.
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Covalent compounds remain in molecular form. Octet rule-

Under normal conditions of temperature and pressure, (i) Ion [Ti3+, Cr3+, Cu2+ etc.]
(ii) Molecules [BF3, BCl3, BeCl2 etc.] (< 8e)
volatile-liquid and soft solid. (iii) Molecules [ICl3, ClF3, PCl5, SO–24, IF7, SF6 etc.] (>8e)
The boiling and melting point of covalent compounds are
(iv) Molecules [NO, N2, ClO2, etc.] (Molecules with odd
low.
number of electrons)
Covalent compounds are generally insoluble in polar
Lone Pair of Electron :
solvents but they dissolve in non-polar solvents.
Pair of electrons that do not take part in the formation of
Electro-negativity and bond-nature :
1. When there is a large difference between the
Acids tend to accept the lone pair of electrons.
electronegativity of two atoms, then bonds between the
Bases tend to provide the lone pairs of electrons.
two will be Ionic, 2. When the difference between the
H
electronegativity of two atoms is less, then the bond
between them will be coordinated covalent and 3. Covalent H—O Lone pair N—H
Bond will be formed between the atoms if it is negligible
or zero difference between their electronegativity. H H
(iii) Coordinate Covalent Bond :
Hydrogen-Bond (H-bond) :
A Coordinate bond is a type of alternate covalent bond
The bond formed by the attraction force between a hydrogen
that is formed by combining a pair of electrons from an
atom in a compound molecule and a more electronegative
atom. It is also called Dative Bond or Dipolar-Bond. In
hydrogen
such bonds, the atom which provides the electron pair is
bond.
called Donor and the atom which accepts the electron pair
Molecules of compounds formed by the combination
is called Accepter.
Coordinate covalent bond directed from donor to acceptor
hydrogen bond are polar. Such as, HF, H2O, NH3, etc.
and is denoted by an arrow ( ) e.g. formation of
A Hydrogen bond is not found in H2S.
ammonium ion, the formation of H2SO4.
A Hydrogen bond is weaker than the covalent bond.
H A Hydrogen bond is found only in the compounds of
+ +
× H H
H ×N × + × oxygen, nitrogen and .
+ H
×
× H × N×× H+ or H—N H A Hydrogen bond is a weak electrostatic force.
×
H
H H Sigma Bond (σ-bond) :
When the orbitals of two atoms linearly overlap the bond
O
formed between the two atoms is called Sigma (σ) Bond.
H—O—S—O—H It is the strongest covalent bond.
Pi-Bond (π-bond) : Pi-bonds are formed by the lateral
O overlapping of atomic orbitals along a plane perpendicular
Properties of Coordinate Covalent Compounds :
VSEPR (Valence-Shell Electron Pair Repulsion) :
states, i.e. as solid, liquid and gas. Sidgwick and Powell
These compounds are insoluble in polar solvents but and later developed by Gillespie and Nyholm.
dissolve in non-polar solvents. According to this theory, the geometry of covalent
The melting and boiling point of coordinate covalent molecules depends upon the number and arrangement of
compounds are greater than that of covalent compounds electron pairs, i.e. due to electrostatic repulsion between
and smaller than ionic compounds. bond pair and lone pair of electrons.
Coordinate covalent compounds are not ionized in molten
or solid states. 6 bond pairs of electrons take geometrical shapes: linear,
Coordinate covalent compounds are good conductors of trigonal tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal and octahedral
heat and electricity in comparison to covalent compounds. respectively.
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Orbital Hybridization : Main Types Na Na+ + e–

1. sp hybridization – It is of linear shape C + O2 CO2
2. sp2 hybridization – It is of triangular shape 2KI + H2O2 2KOH + I2
3. sp3 hybridization – It is of tetrahedral-pyramidal shape The pages of old books turn yellow
4. sp3d hybridization – It is of triangular bipyramidal shape Reduction : Reduction is a chemical reaction that involves
5. sp3d2 hybridization – It is of octahedral shape the gaining of electrons from one of the atoms involved in
Paramagnetic and Diamagnetic Species : the reaction between two chemicals. The term refers to the
If there are electrons without a pair in a species, it is
Paramagnetic Species and whenever it contains pair of element that gains electrons is lowered. e.g.
electrons, it is called Diamagnetic Species. ZnO + C Zn + CO
Paramagnetic : (O2, O2–, N2+, N2–, N22– etc.) CuCl2 + Cu Cu2Cl2
Diamagnetic : (O22–, H2, N2 etc.) 2FeCl3 + H2S 2FeCl2 + 2HCl + S
Molecular Orbital Theory : Valency (Fe) = 3, Valency (Fe) = 2
According to the molecular orbital theory when two or more Oxidation Number :
atoms combine to form a molecule, the atomic orbitals of electrons that an atom either gains or loses in order to form
the atoms reshape themselves to form molecular orbital. a compound or an ion.

Hund and Mulliken. H2SO4

In 1848 number of S is + 6.
Electronic Concept of Oxidation-Reduction :
mirror images which laid the foundation for modern Oxidation : When there is a loss of one or more than one
stereochemistry. (SSC MTS, 2010; SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1) electron from an atom, molecule or ion, the process is called
Sidgwick and Powell first introduced the idea of a Oxidation e.g.
relationship between molecular geometry and the number Na Na+ + e– (by atom)
of valence electrons in the 1940s. (SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1) Cu+ Cu2+ + e– (by cation)
In 1954 2Cl– Cl2 + 2e– (by anion)
Chemistry for 'his research into the nature of the chemical H2S 2H+ + S + 2e– (by molecule)
bond and its applications to the elucidation of the structure Reduction :
(SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1) e.g.
is : (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)
3 Cl + e– Cl– (by atom)
Vladimir Prelog received the Nobel Prize 'for his research 2H+ + 2e– H2 (by cation)
in the stereochemistry of organic molecules and reactions' MnO4– + e– MnO42– (by anion)
in 1975. (UPPCS Mains, 2010; SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1) 2H2O + 2e– H2 + 2OH– (by molecule)
In the early nineteenth century, Auguste Bravais Oxidising Agent : The substance which reduces and
demonstrated that there are fourteen space lattices, or
regularly repeating arrangements of points in space, that O2, O3, HNO3, KMnO4, K2Cr2O7 etc.
differ in symmetry and geometry. (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1) Reducing Agent :
Hideki Yukawa, who received the Nobell Prize in 1949, and reduces another reacting substance is called Reducing
is well known for discovery of Theory of nuclear force. Agent e.g. H2, C6H12O6, Fe, Mg, SO2, C, SnCl2 etc.
(DRDO, 2010; Selection Post Phase XI)
S), Hydrogen-
5. Oxidation-Reduction or Redox Reaction O2
2
), Nitrus Acid
2 2

Oxidation : (HNO2) etc.

a type of chemical reaction that involves the transfer of Redox Reactions :

number of a molecule, atom or ion undergoes changes by Older bonds are broken and new bonds are formed in
gaining or losing an electron e.g. chemical reactions. Energy is needed for such reactions.
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Major Chemical Reactions : Examples of Physical Change : Melting of ice, boiling of

Exothermic Reactions : Those chemical reactions in which water, the magnetization of iron, heating of Sulphur, heating
energy is released are called Exothermic Reactions, e.g. of iron, Coagulation, Sublimation of iodine and heating of
combustion of 1 mole Charcol-(Carbon). In this process,
395 kilo-joule heat is generated. Examples of Chemical Change : Rusting in metals,
Endothermic Reaction : Those chemical reactions radioactivity, the formation of curd from the milk,
in which energy is absorbed are called Endothermic electrolytic decomposition, ripening of fruits, digestion of
Reactions, e.g. when carbon reacts with sulphur, 22 kilo- food, burning of a candle, burning of metal or non-metal,
calorie heat is absorbed.
Isomeric Reactions : Those reactions in which only the
rearrangement of atoms takes place are called Isomeric Sublimation : The reaction in which any solid substance
Reactions, e.g. formation of urea from ammonium cyanate directly converts into gas or vapour without changing
is an isomeric reaction. into liquid and again changes into solid on cooling is
Heating called sublimation e.g. Iodine, Camphor and Ammonium
NH4CNO NH2CONH2
Chloride etc.
Ammonium Cyanate Urea
is the process of complete or incomplete
Combination Reactions : When two small atoms combine
to form a big molecule, this reaction is called Combination air, light, moisture, or bacterial action that spoils food.
Reaction (UPPCS Mains, 2006; SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)
water, slacked lime is formed.
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 6. Acid and Base
1. Arrhenius Theory : Those substances that release
Electrolytic Reactions : When the molecule of a substance
hydrogen ion (H+) in an aqueous solution are called acids
breaks into small atoms by the passage of electricity, this –
) ion
is called Electrolytic Reaction. e.g. on passing an electric
in an aqueous solution e.g.
current into the water, it decomposes into H2 and O2
HCl (aqueous) ↽ !!!!
!!!⇀! H+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)
Electric Current
2H2O 2H2 + O2
!!!!
NaOH (aq) ↽ ⇀
!!!
! Na+(aq) + OH– (aq)
We observe everyday different types of changes in our
surroundings. 2. Bronsted-Lowry Concept : Acids are those substances that
release proton (proton donor) and bases are those substances
it melts and is converted into water. that absorb protons (proton acceptors).
When the tumbler containing this water is kept in a 3. Lewis Concept : The substances which absorb electron
freezer it is converted again into ice. pairs are acid and the substance which can donate electron
Thus, this is a temporary change and the substance pairs is called base.
comes to its original form. Such changes are physical By combining all above mentioned three principles, the
changes.
It means we can say that, physical change is a change Acid : The substances which release hydrogen ion in an
in which no new substance is formed aqueous solution or the substance which can release a
However, milk once converted into curd, cannot be proton or the substance which can absorb electron pairs
converted into milk again. Such changes are chemical are known as acids. Some main acids are as follows – HCl,
changes. These changes are of permanent nature. H2SO4, HNO3, CH3COOH, etc.
We can say now that a chemical change is a change asier, which
of materials into another, new materials with different mean sour.
properties and one or more than one new substances are Acid tastes sour.
formed.
Note : Aqueous solution of acid turns blue litmus paper
Both physical and chemical changes are integral part of
our daily life. into red.

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Aqua-Regia : When 3 parts of concentrated hydrochloric

Main Salts and Chemical Names and Uses
acid (HCl) and one part of concentrated nitric acid (HNO3)
Aqua- Salts Chemical Names Uses
Regia. 1. Comman Sodium Chloride In preservation of food,
Uses of Acids : Salt (NaCl)
H2SO4 (Sulphuric Acid) and HNO3 (Nitric Acid) are used
2. Washing Sodium Carbonate In washing of clothes, in
to clean iron.
Soda (Na2CO3) making of caustic soda
Nitric Acid (HNO3) is used to clean silver and gold.
and detergent powder
Oxalic Acid (C2H2O4) is used to clean stains on clothes.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) helps digest the food consumed 3. Baking Sodium
by animals. Soda Bicarbonate
Various types of acids are used as food items e.g. curd, (NaHCO3) reducing acidity in
vinegar, grapes and lime etc. stomach
Base : Compounds that form salt and water on reacting 4. Alum Potassium To stop bleeding from
with acids are called Base. Bases are of two types A- Base Aluminium wounds, colouring and
soluble in water and B- Base insoluble in water. Sulphate [K2SO4, for the purification of
A. Bases Soluble in Water : Al2(SO2)3 24 H2O] water
–
) in 5. Potash Potassium Nitrate In the formation of
aqueous solutions or the substances which can absorb (KNO3) fertilizer and in making
protons or the substances that can release electron pairs of gunpowder
are called bases. Some main bases are as follows- NaOH,
6. Blue Copper Sulphate Fungicide, electro-
KOH, Ca(OH)2, NH4OH etc.
Vitriol (CuSO4. 5H2O) plating, colouring and
printing
have no hydrogen ions (H+) e.g. SO2, CO2, SO3, etc.
pH Scale : When any acid or base is dissolved in water then
), e.g.- K2O, Na2O,
– the ionic product of the solution remains constant while the
FeO etc. concentration of H+ and OH– ions in it change.
B. Bases Insoluble in Water : The compounds which form Sorensen constructed the pH scale to show the concentration
salt and water on reacting with acids but other properties of H+ or OH– ions in any solution. For any acidic or basic
of alkali are not found in them. e.g- Cu(OH)2, Fe2O3, ZnO solution pH + pOH = 14
etc. In neutral solutions, the value of pH and pOH remains
7.
Note : A base turns the red litmus paper into blue.
In acidic solutions the value of pH is less than 7 and the
Salt : Salt is formed when there is a substitution of hydrogen value of pOH is more than 7.
from the acid when the reaction between acid and base takes In basic solutions value of pH remains more than 7 and the
place. e.g.
value of pOH remains less than 7.
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
Buffer Solution :
Salt
A buffer solution is a solution that resists any change in its
Uses of Bases :
pH value.
Bases are used in the manufacturing of paper, soaps and
Buffer solution cancels the effect caused by reaction when
preparing medicines. The strong basic caustic soda (NaOH)
any acid or base is poured into it. This is how its pH remains
is used to clean factories.
unchanged.
2
] is used in the formation of
The buffer solution is widely used in botany and zoology
soft water, bleaching powder, white washing of homes,
laboratories.
cleaning of hairs from the skin of dead animals.
Blood normally carries slightly the properties of, a base
Note : Magnesium Hydroxide [Mg(OH)2] is used in with a normal pH range of about 7.4.
reducing the acidity in the stomach. Which is also called The stomach is acidic, which helps food break down
milk of magnesia. properly.
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Some Natural Acids Graham's Law of Gaseous Diffusion : At the constant

temperature and pressure, the role of diffusion of gases is
Apple Malic acid
inversely proportional to the square root of their molecular
The Sting of ant and Methanoic Acid or Formic acid weights or their densities.
Scorpion
r1 d2 m2
Vinegar Acetic acid i.e. = =
r2 d1 m1
Curd (Sour milk)
Theories of Cooling :
Grapes and Tamarind Tartaric acid
(i) Joule-Thomson Effects :
Citric acid from higher pressure to lower pressure, then its temperature
Spinach gets lowered and cooling takes place.
Citrus fruit Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) (ii) Evaporation : Evaporation of liquids also causes cooling
because the molecules of the liquid absorb the heat to
7. Gaseous State and Nature of Gases increase their kinetic energy for evaporation and because of
this temperature of the liquid or that surface gets lowered.
In the 1860s Thomas Andrews undertook a through
gases is present around us in the atmosphere.
CO2, O2, N2 and water vapour all gases are present in the
atmosphere.
(SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1)
The following are the characteristics of the gaseous state-
Gases are highly compressible. 8. Hydrogen and Its Compounds
Gases release the same pressure in all directions.
Density of gases is small in comparison to solids and Hydrogen is the most abundant element found in the
liquids. universe.
Volume and the shape of gases is uncertain. Giant planets Jupiter and Saturn are mostly consists of
hydrogen gas.
Diffusion of gases takes place rapidly.
It is the third most abundant element found on the surface
Boyle's Law : At constant temperature, the volume of a
of earth.
certain mass of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.
Due to its lightest nature, it is found trace amounts
Here, mass means the number of moles in the gas.
1 atmosphere. (about 0.15% by mass).
V ∝ (At constant temperature and mass) Henry Cavendish discovered it in 1766.
P
Charle's Law : At constant pressure, the volume (V) of a Atomic or Active Hydrogen : Hydrogen molecule
certain mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute (H2) disintegrates into the hydrogen atoms (H atoms) at
temperature (T). low pressure in the presence of tungstens, palladium or
(Absolute temperature T = 273° + t°C) platinum heated at very high temperature or by passing
V∝T electric discharge at low pressure (even lesser than 1 mm
2
Avogadro Law : At the constant temperature and pressure of pressure of mercury) in the hydrogen.
number of molecules (moles) in the equal volume of gases Hydrogen gas in this state is called active hydrogen.
is equal. Active Hydrogen is very reactive and directly combines
V
Molar volume of the gas = = 22.4 litres (at N.T.P.)
n
Nascent Hydrogen : Hydrogen gas immediately released
(Here n = 1 mole) and after the chemical reaction is called Nascent Hydrogen.
Number of molecules in 22.4 litres of gas is Nascent Hydrogen is more reactive than molecular
= 6.022 × 1023 Hydrogen.
PV = nRT is called Ideal Gas Equation. Ortho Hydrogen : That molecule of Hydrogen in which the
Here, R is molar gas constant, its unit is litre atmosphere/ spins of both atoms are parallel is called Ortho Hydrogen.
Kelvin/mole or erg/Kelvin/mole or Joule/Kelvin/mole or Para Hydrogen : That molecule of Hydrogen in which both
Cubic cm atmosphere/Kelvin/ mole or calorie/Kelvin/mole. atoms spin in anti-parallel mode is called Para-Hydrogen.
Diffusion of Gases : Diffusion is the process of gases that Sources of Hydrogen : Sun is an abundant source of free
Hydrogen. Water and Hydrocarbons are the chief sources
with one another or to spread in homogenous form. of Hydrogen upon the Earth.
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Position in Periodic Table : Although Hydrogen has It can be used as -

similarities with alkali metals and halogens both, yet it has
wounds, cleaning of ears and in the preparation of
s1 of its solitary electron. toothpaste.
1
Isotopes : Three isotopes of Hydrogen- are Hydrogen (1H1),
heavy Hydrogen (1H2) and radioactive Hydrogen (1H3). of milk, wine and other beverages.
These isotopes are known as Protium, iH or H Deuterium
reducing agent in decolouring of wool, leather, and
2
1
H or D and Tritium 31H or T respectively.
are used in propellant of rockets.
All these isotopes have an atomicity of two.
Harold C Urey was credited with discovering the hydrogen
Hydrogen and Deuterium are permanent isotopes, while
isotope, or heavy hydrogen, for which he later received the
Tritium is radioactive; therefore, unstable. 1934 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. (SSC CPO, 2022, 2019)
Half life-period of Tritium is 12.32 years.
9. Hardness of Water
Heavy Water : In 1931, Urey and his associates discovered
Water (H2O) has a V like angular shape.
Deuterium and Heavy Water. They informed that in 6000 Molecule of water is partially polar.
parts of normal water about 1 part of heavy water is present. Due to polarity, molecules of water attract mutually and
It is represented by D2O. form a hydrogen bond and because of Hydrogen bond, there
The molecular weight of heavy water (D2O) is 20.02 g/mol, is molecular multiplication in water.
while ordinary water (H2O) weight is 18.015 g/mol. 277K (4°C). The
density of ice is less than that of water due to vacant spaces.
(CO) and hydrogen gas (H2).
Interspatial Hydrogen : Hydrogen present in the space Hard and Soft Water : The water that produces lather from
between the atoms of the metals is called Interspatial hard water and the water that
Hydrogen. easily produces lather from soap is called soft water.
Uses of Hydrogen :
salts of Calcium and Magnesium (Bicarbonates, Sulphates,
Therefore, it is used as a gaseous fuel.
Chloride etc.) The hardness of water is of two types.
1. Temporary Hardness : This type of hardness in water
in balloons.
is due to the presence of bicarbonates of Calcium and
Hydrogen gas is used in the production of vegetable ghee,
Magnesium, which can be removed just by boiling the
glass industry and in the production of synthetic petrol. water. On boiling soluble bicarbonates, these change into
Liquid Hydrogen : Fuel used in a rocket is called

(H2O2) are used as rocket propellant. lime water [Ca(OH)2] into the water and this is known as
the Clark Method.
Comparative Study of Heavy Water and
2. Permanent Hardness : This hardness of water is caused
Ordinary Water
because of the presence of sulphate and chloride salts of
Properties H2O D2O Magnesium and Calcium. This hardness can be removed by
1. Density at S.T.P. 0.9982 1.1056 (Na2CO3) into the
water. It changes soluble salts of magnesium and calcium
2. Freezing Point 0°C 3.8°C
into insoluble Carbonates and these can be separated by
3. Boiling Point 100°C 101.42°C Soda Process.
at 4°C at 11.6°C Distillation Method : In this method, water is converted into
vapour by boiling and then again, it is converted into water by
Heavy Water is used in Nuclear Reactors and Neutron condensing the vapour. Thus Permutit and Calgon's Process
Decelerators. is also used to remove the hardness of water.
Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) : Thenard discovered hydrogen Sterilization is the process of making the water Potable
O and
2 2 (removing harmful germs).
the molecular weight is 34. It is done by chlorination, ozon et rays.
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10. Elements of s-Block 11. Boron and Carbon

Those elements in which the ultimate electron (last electron) Boron : Boron is a strong reducing agent.
enters into the s-orbital are called the elements of s-block. It reacts with acids, bases and halogens.

Metals (Group-1) or Alkali Earth Metals (Group-2). bonds are formed.

Availability : Being very reactive Alkali Metals are not Boron is not found in a free state in nature. It is found in
found in nature in a free state, instead, they are found in
combined form as compounds. Colemanite, Bororite, etc.
Lithium is a strong reducing agent among Alkali Metals.
Properties of Compounds of Alkali Metals :
Stable order of Hydrides : Boron Tribromide and H2 and then by passing it through

1500 K
2B Br3 + 3H2 2B + 6HBr
Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3) and its Hydrates called Soda- Allotropes of Boron : There are two allotropes of Boron.
Ash or Washing Soda. (i) Crystalline and (ii) Amorphous
The crystalline form of Boron is in the form of brown
Na2SO3 NaCl
SO2 C l powder.
H
An amorphous form of Boron is colourless or brown.
Na2CO3 CO Uses of Boron :
l2 2 +H
B aC 2O Major uses of Boron are as input in making enamel and
BaCO3 NaHCO3 glass.
Boron is used as a neutron absorber in nuclear reactors.
Ionisation enthalpy of alkali metals is lower in comparison
Boron is used for the hardening of steel.
to other metals.
The melting point and boiling point of alkali metals are low
of Boron.
due to weak metallic bonds.
Carbon :
Alkali-Earth Metals : Radium is the heaviest of alkali
forms. Each form is called its allotrope. Carbon in nature
earth metals. is found in standalone as well as a combined state.
The pure form of carbon is diamond and graphites are found
Atomic Radii : Ionic radii of alkali metals increases to Ba in standalone state.
from Be. In a combination state, carbon is found in natural gas,
Be < Mg < Ca < Sr < Ba petroleum, atmosphere and in all animals.
Hydrogen-Enthalpy : Value of Hydration enthalpy There are two allotropes of carbon-
declines to Ba2+ from Be2+. (i) Diamond and (ii) Graphite
Diamond : Diamond is a very hard substance.
Potassium acid salt Potassium Bitartrate is obtained as a
by-product of alcohol manufacture during the fermentation has a .
process. (SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1)
Berylliam is a silvery-white metal that is used in an Diamond is an insulator of electricity.
alloy with copper or nickel to make gyroscopes, springs, The pure diamond is transparent and colourless.
electrical contacts, spot-welding electrodes, and non- Black or non-gemstone quality diamonds are called Boart.
sparking equipment. (SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1) Boart is used to cut the glass.
Potassium meta bisulphite chemical compounds, that is Any type of liquid, acid or base does not affect diamond.
used as a food preservative in some sauces and beverages, Graphite : There is sp2 hybridization of carbon atom in
retains their natural colour and protects against bacteria. the graphite, it remains arranged in the form of layers.
(SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1) Graphite is also called Black Glass.
Potassium chloride potassium salt is a mineral supplement Graphite is a good conductor of electricity.
used to treat or prevent low levels of potassium in the blood. Graphite is used in atomic reactors as electrodes and on the
(Selection Post Phase XI) tips of pencils, etc.
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Fullerene : Fullerene is the third crystalline form of carbon. Peroxidisulphuric Acid (H2S2O8) : This acid is also known
In one molecule of fullerene there may be 20, 60, 70 or as Marshal Acid.
more carbon atoms. Elements of Group-17 :
HC Brown discovered that diborane reacts with aldehydes Ascending order of the size of Halogen atom is–
and ketones to produce dialkoxyboranes, Which are F < Cl < Br < I < At
hydrolysed by water to produce alcohols. Iodine sublimates on heating.
(SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)
Volatile nature of Halogen decreases from F2 to I2
12. Elements of Groups 15, 16, 17 and 18 Descending order of ionisation enthalpy of Halogens is –F
> Cl > Br > I
Elements of Group 15 :

Cl > F > Br > I

orbitals.
Descending order of bond-energy is–
(ii) Nitrogen forms Hydrazine (NH2–NH2) and Hydrozoic
Cl2 > Br2 > F2 > I2
Acid including NH3.
(iii) Among the hydrides of group 15.
(a) Stability reduces from NH3 to BiH3 F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3 Fluorine is formed by the electrolytic dissociation of
(b) Reducing property increases from NH3 to BiH3 dehydrated Potassium-Hydrogen Fluoride (KHF 2 ).
NH3 < PH3 < AsH3 < SbH3 < BiH3 Hydrogen is obtained at the cathode while Fluorine is at
(c) Bond-angle declines from NH3 to BiH3 the anode.
NH3 > PH3 > AsH3 > SbH3 > BiH3 Chlorine is used for the formation of toxic gases used during
chemical warfare, e.g. Phosgene (COCl2), Chloropicrine
(a) Acidic nature of M2O3 gas as tear-gas (CCl 3NO 2), Mustard Gas (C 2H 4Cl-S-
N2O3 to Bi2O3. C2H4Cl).
N2O3 > P2O3 > As2O3 > Sb2O3 > Bi2O3 Iodine is not easily soluble in water but immediately soluble
(b) NO and NO2 are paramagnetic. in sodium or Potassium Iodide due to formation of Tri-
(c) HNO2 Iodide.
properties. HF and HCl are formed by heating their salts with
(d) Red Phosphorus or Phosphorus Trisulphide is used in concentrated H2SO4, but HBr and HI cannot be formed by
this method due to their reducing properties (HBr and NI
Zeolite : It is an aluminosilicate mineral. and I2 by the concentrated H2SO4).
2
Elements of Group-16 : Hydrogen Halides of Group-17 Elements :
(i) Elements of group 16 are collectively called
Descending order of boiling points-
Chalcogen or the makers of ore.
HF > HI > HBr > HCl
Polonium is a radioactive element. It was discovered by
(the least volatile) (the most volatile)
Madam Curie and Pyre Curie from Pitch-blende.
Descending order of acidicity-
HI > HBr > HCl > HF
polymorphism.
Descending order of Bond polarity-
(iii) Descending order of the boiling points of group-16
HF > HCl > HBr > HI
elements is-
H2O > H2Te > H2Se > H2S Descending order of dipole moment-
(iv) Descending order of reducing property of hybrids of HF > HCl > HBr > HI
group-16 elements is-
H2Te > H2Se > H2S > H2O
are enhanced.
(vi) Ozone is found in the stratosphere and absorbs the Halogen compounds of two or more halogens are called
ultraviolet radiations from the sun. Interhalogen Compounds. Their general formula is XYn
Peroxymonosulphuric Acid (H2SO5) : This acid is also (Where n = 1, 3, 5 or 7) and X is low electromagnetic
called Kero-Acid. between the two halogens.
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Radon is a radioactive element.

Elements of d and f-Blocks
Atomic radii in noble gases are Van-der Waals radii.
Elements of d-block : Those elements in which the last
Therefore, the atomic size of noble gases is greater than
the consecutive Halogen atoms.
elements. Elements of groups 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11
Ionization potential of Helium is the highest.
and 12 are related to this block.
Transition Elements : Note : Helium and Argon are soluble in water, therefore
between s and p blocks are called transition elements. they are also found in rivers, oceans and in the rain water
Generally, elements of d-block are transition elements in small quantities.
because their d-orbital is partially filled. General Helium (He) :

d1–10, ns1–2. aeroplanes and in meteorological balloons.

Elements of f-Block : Those elements in which the
asthma patients.
Helium is also used in compass, navigation instruments,
welding and other works.
of these elements is (n–2)f1–14, (n–1)d0–1, ns2. Xenon (Xe) :
Transition metals form paramagnetic and coloured
compounds due to the presence of pairless electrons. gas of Group 18 (noble gases) of the periodic table.

to the marginal difference in the energies of (n–1)d and compounds.

ns orbitals. Mn is the transition element that shows the
maximum number of oxidation states. colourless, odourless, and tasteless.
Transition elements are hard due to metallic bonds and Neon (Ne) :
The name neon comes from the Greek word "neos" which
and high boiling points. means "new".
Neon gas is used in liquid bulbs used for sending light
compounds compared to lanthanides. signals to aeroplane pilots.
Potassium Dichromate (K2Cr2O7) at pH < 7 gives orange Neon gas is used to produce light in different colours in
colour to the solution but in basic medium (pH > 7) gives advertisement for hoardings.
yellow colour because K2Cr2O7 converted into K2Cr2O4. Argon (Ar) :
Argon is called lazy gas.
Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4
agent in all the three acidic, alkaline and neutral mediums
but its equivalent weights are different in all these
mediums. Radon (Rn) :
Radon is a radioactive noble gas.
There is sd3 hybridisation of Mn and Cr in KMnO4 and
Radon gas is not found in the atmosphere.
K2Cr2O7.
Radon is used in the radioactive treatment of cancer.
Elements of Group 18 :
There are 6 elements of zero group in the periodic table- Note : Use of Cobalt-60 (Co-60) is prevalent for the
Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon and Radon. These radioactive treatment of cancer. Gamma (γ) rays are
elements at normal temperature are gases and generally produced by it which destroy the cancerous cells.
dormant, that is why they are called Inert or Noble Gases. Krypton (Kr) :
Noble Gases or Rare Gases are the elements of zero or the
18th group. ionised chamber for the measurement of cosmic radiation.
Noble Gases are monoatomic. They form 1% of the whole
atmosphere. longevity of bulb.
2
, Scientist Lord Rayleigh with William Ramsay showed
np ) of electrons.
6 in 1894 that air also contained an element unknown until
Argon. then, which was named argon. (SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1)

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d-block element Actinium in the periodic table is Nitrogen is a core component of amino acids, which are
represented by the Greek symbol 'alpha' and the metallic the building blocks of proteins, and of nucleic acids,
'rays'. (SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1) which are the building blocks of genetic material (RNA
Praseodymium is the soft, malleable, and silvery-yellow and DNA).
metal with atomic number 59 in the lanthanide series. Phosphorus :
(SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1) There are 5 Allotropes of Phosphorus - Yellow Phosphorus,
Nilonium element of group 13 has the atomic number 113 Red Phosphorus, White Phosphorus, Violet Phosphorus and
Black Phosphorus.
14
6d10 7s2 7p1.
Red Phosphorus and Phosphorus Trisulphide are used in
Seaborgium is transuranium element with atomic number
the making of matchstick.

- 18 nuclei. (SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1)

4
(Potassium Permanganate)
Plutonium actinide, discovered by Glenn T Seaborg
in 1940, is used as a heat source for sensitive electrical Phosphine (PH3) is used for signalling by the ships during
components in satellites as well as a power source for the voyage.
satellites. (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1) Sulphur :
White when magnesium
2
(SSC GD, 2022) plants and vehicles causing pollution.

13. Some Important Non-Metals and water vapour present in the atmosphere from Sulphuric and
Their Uses Nitric Acids which reach the top soil with rain and make it
Nitrogen : acidic, is called acid rain.
Nitrogen has a 78% share among gases present in the Note : Corrosion of Taj-Mahal is taking place due to
atmosphere.
0.01% of Nitrogen is present in whole of the earth, including
the atmosphere.
If there was no Nitrogen, the whole of the earth would be paint and colours. Ammonium sulphate is used in detergent
making and superphosphate fertilizer manufacturing etc.
Nitrogen is used to create an inert or incombustible Organic substances are abundant in domestic wastewater,
atmosphere inside industrial plants. including soaps, detergents, fats, pharmaceuticals, and
different products of human activity, such as urine and
refrigerators and other cooling plants. fecal materials.
Nitrous Oxide : 2
O) is also called Halogens :
Laughing Gas. This is also an anaesthetic (Chloroform is Halogen elements are placed in group 7A (or 17) of the
also used as anesthetics). periodic table.
The main compound of nitrogen is ammonia. Bromine is used in the formation of silver bromide.
Ammonia gas is formed by the Haber Process. Silver Bromide is used in the making of photographic plates.
Ammonia is used in the formation of fertilizers like Bromine is used in the synthesis of ethylene bromide.
Chlorine is used in the synthesis of herbicide and pesticides,
Ammonium Sulphate, Urea, ice and the compounds like
organic compounds and medicines.
Sodium Bicarbonate, Sodium Carbonate and Ammonium
Salts.
(UF6).

energy.
Fluorine is also used in the formation of Sulphur-
Some are found in the soil, they ).
6
convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate. These bacterias
are – Rhizobium, Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter etc. Hydrogen fluoride is used in the synthesis of
The nitrogen cycle matters because nitrogen is an essential chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) compounds and polytetra-
nutrient for sustaining life on Earth.
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Freon. Copper. The

conditionors (A.C.) as coolant. Carat.

F ) is used for making the upper layer of non-
2 4 n
Pure gold (100% gold) is 24 carats, 50% pure gold is 12
stick utensils. carats. This means that 4% of gold is present in one carat
gold (Alloy).
14. Some Important Metals and Their Uses Silver :
Sodium : Silver is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
Molten Sodium is used as a coolant in nuclear reactors. Silver is one of the most corrosionless metals.
Sodium vapour is used in sodium lamps. Silver Amalgam
Sodium chloride (NaCl) is used as edible salt. in the cavities of teeth.
Silver nitrate is used in making mirrors.
Note : Owing to the photosensitivity of silver-bromide, silver-
Potassium : chloride and silver-iodide, they are used in making
Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) is called nitre or gunpowder. It photographic plates.
Silver iodide is used in creating .
K+ ion is present in food or body and controls the heartbeat Mercury (Hg)
rate.
Different compounds of Potassium are used as fertilizers
in the form of Potash. e.g.- Potassium Chloride (KCl), called Amalgam.
Potassium Sulphate (K 2SO 4), Potassium Carbonate Cr metal ion released from tannery industry causes acute
(K2CO3), Potassium Nitrate (KNO3). water pollution. (SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1)
Calcium : Philosopher's stone convert all baser metals like iron into
Calcium and Phosphorus are the main constituent elements gold. (Selection Post Phase XI)
of bones and teeth.
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) is used in making toothpaste 15. Methods of Extraction of Elements
and toothpowder. and Processes
Plaster of Paris [Chemical name- Hemihydrate Calcium Presence in Nature : Metals in nature are found both in
Sulphate (CaSO4 H2O)] upon reacting with water turns separate and combined states. Gold, Platinum and Silver
into solid. are the metals found generally in a separate state.
Plaster of Paris is used in plastering the fractured bone, Minerals :
making idols and toys. and rocks are called minerals.
Copper : Ores : Minerals from which metals can be obtained are
Being a good conductor of electricity, copper is used in the called ores.
making of wires and electric appliances. The ores of metals are mainly
Utensils, coins and alloys etc. are made of Copper.
Copper Sulphate (CuSO4
the making of pesticides and analgesis.
Magnesium : and Silicate ores.
Magnesium is present in the Chlorophyll of plants. Metallurgy : The process of obtaining pure metal from the
Magnesium Elba [Mg(OH)2; MgCO3.3H2O] is an anti-acid ore is called metallurgy.
(removes acidity of stomach). Concentration : The process of separating the particles of
Magnesium Elba is sold in the market as ENO. impurities from the ore is called concentration.
Zinc : Gangue : Impurities such as soil, sand and pebbles etc. are
lotion and face cream. called gangue.
Flux :
Zinc is used in the galvanization of iron sheets. remove impure matters are called Flux.
Gold : Concentration of Ore : The processes like gravity

with it to make it durable. used for the concentration of ore.

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Separation Using Gravity : This method of concentration Cobalt (Co) Smeltite

of ores is based upon the differences in the density of pure Chromium (Cr) Chromaite
ore and the gangue.
Aluminium (Al)
Froth Floatation Method : Concentrated Sulphide
Cryolite
Corundum
Pine and Eucalyptus oil generate froth while Sodium and Diaspore
Sodium (Na) Sodium Chloride
Electromagnetic Separation : Solium Carbonate
If there is magnetic property either in the ore or in impurity, Sodium Nitrate
this method is useful.
Chemical Method : If the ore is of very impure form e.g. Tin (Sn) Cassiterite
Gold (Au) Silvenite
Calcination : In the process of calcination, an ore is heated
Calaverite
below its melting point in the absence of air.
Silver (Ag) Native Silver
Roasting : In the process of roasting, an ore is heated to
Argentite
Chlororgyrite
Smelting :
Zinc (Zn) Sphalerite
Zinc Blende
smelting.
Franklinite
Slag : Calamine
is called slag. Zincite
Aluminothermic Process :
Nickel (Ni) Millerite
Potassium (K) Potassium Chloride
Aluminium powder as a reducing agent is called
Potassium Carbonate
Aluminothermic Process.
Potassium Nitrate
Obtaining pure metal from raw or impure
Barium (Ba) Baryte
Magnesium (Mg) Magnesite
Dolomite
Carnallite
electrolytic dissociation method and Van Arkel process are
Epsom Salt
chemical methods.
Mercury (Hg) Cinnabar
done by Hall, Bayer and Sarpek processes. Manganese (Mn) Pyrolusite
Main ore of copper is copper-pyrite. Iron (Fe) Magnetite
Main ores of zinc are sphalerite and zinc-blende. Haematite
Main ores of iron are magnetite and haematite.
Siderite
Metals Ores Iron Pyrite
Bismuth (Bi) Bismuthinite Chalcopyrite
Copper (Cu) Azurite Uranium (U) Pithc-blende (Uraninite)
Copper Pyrite Carnotite
Chalcopyrite Galena
Chalcocite
Cuprite SI Fundamental Quantities and Their Units
Calcium (Ca) Sl.
Alloys Composition
Gypsum No.
Fluorspar 1. Brass Copper 70%, Zinc 30%
Phosphorite 2. Gun-metal Copper 88%, Zinc 2%, Tin 10%
Cadmium (Cd) Greenockite 3. Stainless Steel Iron 89.4%, Chromium 10%,
Antimony (Sb) Stibnite Manganese 0.35%, Carbon 2.5%
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4. Muntz-Metal Copper 60% and Zinc 40% 13. Bleaching Used as a germicide and for
5. Dutch Metal Copper 80% and Zinc 20% Powder [CaOCl2] discolouring paper and clothes
6. German Silver Copper 51%, Nickel 19%, Zinc 30% 14. Copper (Cu) In making brass and electric
7. Bronze Copper 88%, Tin 12% wire

8. Magnelium Aluminium 95%, Magnesium 5% 15. Copper Sulphate In the construction of electric
9. Duraluminium Aluminium 95%, Copper 4%, or Blue Vitriol cell, making germicides,
Manganese 0.5%, Magnesium 0.5% [CuSO4. 5H2O]
color
10. Nichrome Nickel, Iron, Chromium and
Manganese 16.
11. Solder (CuO) in the construction of blue &
green glass
12. Type Metal
17. In the formation of red glass and
Metals and Uses of Their Compounds (Cu2O) pesticides
Sl. 18. Chlorine (Cl) Mustard Gas, Tincher, in
Compounds Uses
No. making bleaching powder
1. Mercury (Hg) In making Thermometer, 19. Bromine (Br) In making medicine, Tincher,
Amalgam and Vermilion Colour industry and as repulsive
2. Mercuric- In making wood preservative 20. Iodine (I) In colour industry pesticide and
Chloride (HgCl2) and Pesticides in making Tincher-iodine
3. Sodium-
21. Sulphur (S) Medicine, Pesticides and in
Bicarbonate Bakery, industry and in the form
making of gunpowder
of repulsive.
22. Phosphorous (P) White phosphorous is used
4. Magnesium (Mg)
to kill rats, red phosphorous
alloys
used in matches and in making
5. Magnesium- In making Toothpaste, medicine phosphorous-bronz
Carbonate and Gypsum salt
23. Hydrogen (H2) In the production of Ammonia,
[MgCO3]
formation of organic compounds
6. Magnesium Making sugar from molasses in
the sugar industry 24. Used as rocket fuel
[Mg(OH)2] 25. Heavy Water In nuclear-reactions, Deuterated
7. Magnesium- In decorating cotton (D2O) compounds and as neutron
Chloride [MgCl2] retander

8. Calcium (Ca) Used to remove Sulphur from 26. Hydrochloric Aqua-R, Chlorine, Colour,
the petroleum and as reagent. Acid (HCl) Chloride salts formation
9. In making bleaching powder and 27. Sulphuric Acid Storage, Battery, Fertilization
(CaO) in the form of slurry (H2SO4)
petroleum, color making and as
10. Calcium
reagent in laboratory.
Carbonate
[CaCO3] 28. Ammonia (NH3) In making rayon, as reagent and
in ice-factory
11. Gypsum In making-Ammonium Sulphate
[CaSO4.2H2O] Plaster of Paris and in Cement 29. Before surgery as an anaesthesia
industry (N2O)
12. Plaster of Paris In making Idols, Bone-treatment 30. Producer Gas In heating furnace, as cheap
1
(CaSO4) 2 H2O and tying-bandage (CO +N2)

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31. Water Gas (CO In creating inert atmosphere, in Properties of Polymerisation :

+ H2) the work of welding. 1. In the polymerisation process molecules of a single
compound only combine.
32. Alum [K2SO4. In medicine making, leather
Al2(SO4)3 24H2O]
process.
water, in colouring of clothes
3. Molecular weight of the polymer in a polymerisation
33. Zinc (Zn) In making a battery, in the process is the multiple of molecular weight of the
formation Hydrogen. compound.
34. To make ointments and to make Polythene or Polyethylene is obtained by polymerisation
(ZnO) porcelain shine of ethylene (C2H4) at high temperature.
35. Zinc Sulphide In the form of white pigment Polystyrene is also a polymer, which is obtained by
(ZnS) polymerisation of phenyl ethylene.
Plastics :
36. In the formation of Ferrous salts
Plastics are compounds of large molecules.
(FeO) and in making of green glass
Plastics are generally prepared by the polymerisation of
37. In the formation of ferric unsaturated hydrocarbons.
salts, in making the polish for Cellulose is a natural molecule of large size and it is used
ornaments in the manufacture of plastics.
38. Potassium Photography Plastics are obtained from the substances found in nature
Bromide e.g. natural gas, oil, coal and plants.
39. Potassium Nitrate Gunpowder Plastics are mostly obtained from hydrocarbons.
Plastics are of two types natural and synthetic.
40. Potassium Fertilizer
Sulphate
like synthetic polymers.
41. Monopotassium Bakery
Tartrate Plastics are mainly manufactured by chemical or synthetic
methods. These on divided into two types-
16. Polymer (i) Thermoplastics (ii) Thermosetting Plastics
A substance with a large molecule in which a particular unit Thermoplastics : These are the plastics that get soft on
of a molecule reproduce itself to form a giant molecule is heating and when cooled they become hard.
called Polymer. The single unit of a chemical substance Thermoplastics have low melting points manufactured

into a large molecule. Polystyrene, Nylon, Polyvinylchloride and Polythene etc.

Starch and cellulose are also natural polymers that are Polythene : Ethylene (C2H4) on polymerisation at high
obtained from plants. temperature and pressure generates polythene.
Starch and Cellulose are formed by a single unit of polymer It is used in the making of packing bags and insulation
cover of electrical wires.
glucose). Polyvinyl Chloride : Polyvinyl chloride is formed by the
Proteins are polymers formed by single units of amino polymerisation of vinyl chloride. It is used in making thin
acids.
Plastic is also a polymer. Plastics are of two types– Polystyrene : Polystyrene is formed by the polymerisation
of phenyl ethylene. It is used in making bottles for acids
(ii) Synthetic Plastic e.g. Nylon, Polythene etc. and the covers of batteries.
Polymerisation : Thermosetting Plastics : These are the plastics made
When a large number of molecules of a single compound through crosslinking process promoting chemical bonding
combine to form a large molecule structure, it is called between macromolecular chains and creating a three-
Polymerisation. dimensional (3D) network.
The molecule which takes part in polymerisation action is Through the effect of heat and pressure molecules of
called a monomer. this plastic add up a number of turns it hard chains and
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which can initially be moulded into any shape. Once they Graphite is a non-metal with the highest electrical
conductivity.
e.g. Bakelite, Urea-formaldehyde, plastic etc. Carbon (C) is an element with the greatest chain-forming
Bakelite : Bakelite is formed when phenol is heated with property.
Carbon (C) is the largest compound (Chemical substance)
making plastic goods e.g. Bucket, Table, Chair and other forming element in nature (about 10 lakh compounds).
items. Francium (Fr) is the largest electropositive element.
Synthetic Fibres : Fluorine (F) is the largest electronegative element.
Chlorine (Cl) is the element with the highest electron
substances.

by the chemical reaction, these are called rayon.

Formulas, Chemical and Commercial Names
of Chemical Compounds
Commercial
Chemical Name Formula
The synthetic fibres which are used in making other Name
Washing Soda Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3
Baking Soda Sodium Bicarbonate NaHCO3
(i) Transformed fibres of cotton e.g. Viscose Rayon and Caustic Soda NaOH
Acetate Rayon.
Common Salt Sodium Chloride NaCl

Nylon : Nylon is the first completely synthetic fibre Bleaching Ca(OCl)Cl or

synthesized by man. Powder CaOCl2
Nylon is an artificial substance that is formed by the Potassium Aluminium K2SO4Al2
Alum
polymerisation of small organic molecules. It is used in Sulphate (SO4)3 24H2O
the production of tyres, nets, ropes etc. Dry Ice CO2 (Solid)
Rayon :
Marsh Gas
Methane CH4
carpets, mesh gauze and bandage for wounds. (Gobar Gas)
Rexine : It is an artificial leather. It is formed from Fools Gold Iron Pyrite FeS
cellulose or plants. It is used in making jacket, canvas, Pb3O4
shoes, slippers etc.
Ca(OH)2
Note : Paper is formed by pure cellulose.
CaO
17. Chemistry : Important Facts
Gypsum Calcium Sulphate CaSO4. 2H2O
Hydrogen is the lightest element.
Osmium (Os) and Iridium (Ir) are the heaviest elements. Calcium Carbonate CaCO3
(Chalk)
metallic element.
) is the element found in abundantly the earth's Green Vitriol Ferrous Sulphate FeSO4.7H2O
2
crust. Blue Vitriol Copper Sulphate CuSO4.5H2O
Astatine (At) is the rarest element in the earth's crust. Vermilion Na2B4O7.10H2O
Diamond is the hardest substance found in nature.
Sal ammoniac Ammonium Chloride NH4Cl
Nitrogen (N2) (78%) is an element found in the largest
amount in the atmosphere.
Bromine (Br) is the only non-metal, which remains in liquid
form at normal temperature and pressure.
Silver (Ag) metal has the highest electrical conductivity. in hospitals for helping patients to breathe.
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Chloroform when left open in the sunlight converts into Rice grains contains oryzenin. (SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1)
Erucic acid is found in Mustard oil. (SSC MTS 2022)
In Year 1787
distillation. Chemical Nomenclature', which included the rules for
naming chemical compounds that are still in use today.
(SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)
Pectin
into gas. in cooking and baking. (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)
On separating cream the density of milk increases. Oleic acid makes up 55-80% of olive oil, making it a good
2
O) is also called Laughing Gas. choice for most cooking methods. (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)

The density of gold is higher than the density of mercury of fruits is mainly composed of Galacturonic Acid.
and the density of mercury is higher than the density of (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)
steel, that is why gold sinks into the mercury, but steel
C14H18N2O5 that is two hundred times sweeter than sugar
Gallium arsenide is also used in computer as chips, while is Aspartame. (SSC CGL 2022 Tier-1)
generally silicon chips were used earlier. Curcumin chemical compounds is a naturally occurring

Methane (CH4) is called Marsh Gas (as it is generally used as a spice, in food colouring and as a traditional herbal
found in marshy land). medicine. (SSC Selection Phase X, 2022)
The major constituent of Gobar-Gas (Bio-gas) is methane Butylated hydroxyanisole chemical compound is used
(CH4). Methane gas is produced by the rotting of large as a yeast de-foaming agent, commonly found in butter,
amount of leaves which fall on the ground in forests. meat, cereals, chewing gum, baked goods, snack foods,
dehydrated potatoes and beer.
methane gas.
Oxy-acetylene gas 18. General Chemistry
the cutting and welding of metals. Coil of the heater is made of nichrome alloy.
2
) is called dry ice (sublimation Vessels to place acids are formed by monel alloy.
temperature-78.5 °C). Composition of various gases in the atmosphere (dry air) is
Methyl Isocyanate (MIC-C2H3
in the making of pesticides.
Note : The same gas had leaked from the Union Carbide Alcohol and Glycerine
factory in Bhopal when the gas tragedy occurred in water in radiators of vehicles in colder regions.
1984. Petrol is also called gasoline, when 10–20% ethyl alcohol
Gasohol.
Ethylene gas is used for ripening of fruits.
Saccharin is 300–400 times sweeter than sugar, but its
food value is zero. It is used by diabetic patients.
cause of the Greenhouse Effect.
For the checking of stomach, Barium Sulphate solution is
given to drink to the patient, as this solution is transparent
for the X-rays.
Butane and Propane.
2
known as Nitroglycerine. It was discovered by Alfred
equipment.
Nobel (after whose name Nobel Prize is named).
Kaolinite is the product as a result of the process of
hydrolysis of orthoclase. (SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1) Chemical Substances and Their Sources
Calomel is the popular name for mercury(l) chloride which
Chemical Substances Sources
is used as a laboratory reagent and as a depolarizer in dry
batteries. (SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1) Protein Casein Milk, Paneer
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Nicotine Tobacco The substance piperine is found in Black pepper.

(CRPF Tradesman 2023)
Caffeine Tea, Coffee, Cocoa
Formic Acid Ant, Scorpion sting
discovered. The name of the sweetener is Saccharin.
age of fossils, rocks etc. (CRPF Tradesman 2023)
) and carbon-tetrachloride (CCl4) are
2 19. Hydrocarbons
used in .
Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen are called
helps it in ignition. Hydrocarbons.
Celluloid is a man-made plastic liquid, which is used in Hydrocarbons are of three types– Saturated Hydrocarbons,
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons and Aromatic Hydrocarbons.
(1) Saturated Hydrocarbons : Saturated Hydrocarbons are
Luciferin. also known as Alkanes. Their general formula is CnH2n+2.
Formaldehyde (23–40%) dilute solution in water is called In saturated Hydrocarbons, all four valencies of the carbon
formalin. It is used in the preservation of dead animals. atom are in a stable state by making covalent bonds.
Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon. Organic compounds like Methane, Ethane, Propane and
Acidity is the property of chlorinated water. Butane are obtained by substituting the values of n = 1, 2,
Kajal (lampblack) is the purest form of carbon. 3, 4 ...... in the general formula CnH2n +2 of alkane series.
Glass melts in the form of hydrochloric acid. (2) Unsaturated Hydrocarbons : Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Hydrometer is an instrument to measure the relative density are also called Alkanes and Alkynes.
of the liquids. In Alkanes (CnH2n) hydrocarbon compounds carbon atoms
Rusting of iron is a chemical change. are mutually combined through the double bonds in the
Alloy of copper and tin is called Bronze. form of covalent bonds. Ethylene or Ethane (C2H4) is such
a kind of compound. In Alkyne (CnH2n–2) Hydrocarbon
Wohler prepared urea in a laboratory. compunds, Carbon atoms are mutually combined with triple
bonds e.g. Acetylene (C2H2).
Ultra-violet and antibiotics are used for the preservation of (3) Aromatic Hydrocarbons : Compounds derived from
food and meat. Benzene (C6H6) are called Aromatic Compounds. There
Lactose. is at least one aromatic ring or cycle in their structure.
(SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1)
Ficus benghalensis smell (aroma) of these compounds.
tree, a large evergreen tree of Asia characterized by its Isomerism : Compounds with similar atomic but different
trunk-like aerial roots. (SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1) properties are called Isomeric Compounds and this property
Caramelisation is a cooking procedure in which the sugar is called Isomerism.
There are two types of Isomerism :
(SSC MTS 2022) (i) Structural Isomerism : Molecules that have the same
In Spit-roasting method of cooking is food heated slowly molecular formula, but have a different arrangement of
over a source of heat and cooked by high heat and air atoms in space.
convection depending on the position of the food in relation (ii) Stereo Isomerism : Isomers that have the same structural
(SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1) formula but have different relative arrangements of atoms
Disorder Enzyme or groups in space are called Stereoisomers and the
i. Gaucher disease - Glucocerebrosidase phenomenon is called Stereoisomerism.
ii. Hunter syndrome - Iduronate-2-Sulfatase Petroleum : Petroleum (Crude Oil) is a natural source of
Hydrocarbons.
Petroleum is accumulated by nature in deposits made
(SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1) between certain types of Sedimentary rocks on earth.
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Uses of Petroleum : In Kolbe's reaction Ortho-hydroxybenzoic acid chemical

compound is formed as the primary product by heating
Petrol is also known as mineral oil is found beneath the
earth.

Components of different boiling points constituting crude

oil gets separated by fractional distillation, which is called
A. Soaps
Oil, Fuel Oil, Diesel, Kerosene, Petrol and Petroleum Gas. Generally, soaps are salt of higher fatty acids.
Acrolein is the name of the chemical compound having Washing soaps contain high Sodium salts.
the molecular formula C3H4O which is mostly used for the Bathing soaps contain Potassium salts of high fatty acids.
production of acrylic acid and acrylate ester.
(SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1) on its reaction with alkali, thereby leading to the formation
In 1937, Edward Davies Hughes along with Sir of salts of fatty acids and glycerol.
Christopher Ingold proposed nucleophilic substitution B. Detergents :
reactions of alkyl halides and related compounds. Detergents are those chemical substances that remove the
(SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1)
dirt from clothes and clean them. These detergents have
Tetrahydrofuran compound
soap-like properties and are not affected by the hardness
having the molecular formula (CH2)3CH2O.
of water.
(SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1)
Detergents are synthetic organic compounds and they have
Organic chemical compound Aniline is reacted with nitrous
better moisturising properties in comparison to soaps.
acid at 273-278K to prepare benzenediazonium chloride.
C. Explosives :
(SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1)
2-Propen-1-amine is the IUPAC name of allylamine, which
is used to make pharmaceuticals and other chemicals.
(SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1)
In Phthaladehyde diadehyde are two formyl groups
attached to adjacent carbon centrers on a benzene ring and
(i) Composite Explosives :
(SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1)
Anthocyanins is natural bioactive water-soluble phenolic
compound is present in fruits, vegetables, and grains with (a) Gunpowder :
red, purple, blue, or black hues. (SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1) Sulphur and Charcoal.
Ethynyl compounds having the molecular formul C2H is (b) Dynamite : Dynamite was invented by Alfred Nobel.
derived from the hydride of acetyene. Nobel made dynamite by absorbing Nitroglycerine in
(SSC CSHL 2023 Tier-1) Kieselguhr.
Benzophenone is a naturally occurring organic compound Dynamite is used for digging oil wells, making roads in
with the formula (C6H5)2CO. (SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1) hilly areas, laying tunnels and breaking the rocks.
(ii) Aliphatic Nitro Explosives :

O N S
Furan, Pyridine, Thiophene (iii) Aromatic Nitro Explosives :
(SSC CGL 2023 Tier-1)
A rise in the number of OH-groups associated with Toluene, Picric Acid etc.
anythocyanin increases the bluish colour of the antho- D. Glass :
cyanin. (CRPF Tradesman 2023)
Cumene is an alkylbenzene widely used as a chemical Soda glass is the cheapest and common glass.
intermediate in the production of phenol. Soda glass is used in making the utensils of daily use, tube-
(SSC CGL 2022 Tier-1) light, and laboratory instruments.
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Xena Glass is the best quality glass. slag, super phosphate of lime, etc. are the main phosphorus
fertilizers.
chemical pots. C. Potassium Fertilizers : Fertilizers with Potassium as their
Flint Glass is used in making electric bulbs, lenses for chief constituent is called Potassium fertilizers. Potassium
cameras and telescopes. Nitrate, Potassium Chloride and Potassium Sulphate are
Crook's Glass is used in making sunglasses. main Potassium fertilizers.
Crown Glass is used in making lenses for other glasses. Biofertilizers are biological preparations of efficient
Pyrex Glass is used in making laboratory instruments. microorganisms that promote plant growth by improving
Photochromatic Glass : This is a special type of glass, nutrient acquisition.
which becomes dark in intense light. This property in it is
due to the presence of Silver Chloride. nitrogen, solubilizing soil phosphorus, and stimulating
Potassium Chloride is used for making the glass hard. plant growth.

21. Fuel
the coloured glass.
Fuel :
Colour of the Glass and Metallic Compounds The substances which produce heat on burning are called
Colour of Glasses Metallic Compounds fuels, e.g. coal, wood and kerosene, etc.
On the basis of form, fuels are divided into two categories–
Dark Blue
(1) Primary Fuel – Coal, Wood, Petrol
Dark Red (2) Secondary Fuel : Water Gas (CO + H2), Producer Gas
Orange (CO + N2)
Types of fuel on the basis of physical state–
Yellow Cadmium Sulphide
(i) Solid Fuel – Wood, Coal, Charcol and Coke.
Brown
Green (iii) Gaseous Fuel – CNG, Biogas, Natural Gas.
Bio-Gas : Biogas is a gaseous fuel, which is prepared by
E. Cement :

of plants.
Silicate.
Due to Calcium Silicate and Aluminium Silicate hydration,
Names of the constituents of gases are- methane, Hydrogen,
cement has a solidifying property.
Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2
Methane (CH4) is found in the largest amount (50-75%)
in the biogas.
F. Fertilizers :
Butane and Propane.
that contain N, P, K and other necessary nutrients.
They are spread over the soil to re-supply the soil with
the proper amount of these nutrients.
The three numbers on the front of the fertilizer bag smell, Ethyl Mercaptan
represent the percentage by weight of nitrogen, quantity.
Natural Gas :
Chemical Fertilizers are mainly of three types– Nitrogen, Natural gas mainly contains Methane gas.
Phosphorous and Potassium Fertilizers. Natural Gas is considered clean and pollution-free fuel.
A. Nitrogen Fertilizers : The fertilizers which contain a large Petrol :
amount of nitrogen are called Nitrogen Fertilizers. Urea, Petrol is a fossil fuel that is used in cars, motorcycles, etc.
Ammonium Sulphate, Calcium Cyanamide and Calcium
Nitrate, are the main Nitrogen Fertlizers. petrol engine.
Urea has 46% of Nitrogen. Diesel :
B. Phosphorous Fertilizers : Fertilizers with a large amount of Diesel is generally used for heavy vehicles and running
phosphorous are called phosphorous fertilizers. phosphoric generators.
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lungs, windpipe). People can have bacteria in their noses

C Biology or throats at one time or another without being ill.
It is important to indicate that Bacteria are prokaryotes.
Biology is the science of life. The term 'Biology' is derived Bacteria can be both autotrophic and heterotrophic.
from two words 'Bios' (life) and 'Logos' (study). Autotrophic bacteria such as Cyanobacteria and
Biology is the branch of science that focuses on the study Rhodospirillum contain pigment-containing vesicles called
of living beings. 'chromatophores'.
Plants and animals (both are living organism) come under 2. Kingdom Protista : It consists of unicellular, eukaryotic
living beings. living organisms like Protozoa and algae.
Zoology (Zoion = an animal, logos study) is the study of Algae are a diverse group of aquatic organisms.
all animals where Botany (Botane = berb or plant) is the They have the ability to conduct photosynthesis.
study of plants. Certain algae are familiar to most people; for instance,
Zoion and botane are Greek words. seaweeds (such as kelp or phytoplankton), pond scum or
Lamarck the algal blooms in lakes.
and Treviranus in 1802 AD. Notably, algae are capable of photosynthesis and produce
Aristotle is called the Father of Biology and Zoology. their own nourishment by using light energy from the sun
Scientists George Emil Palade is considered the Father of and carbon dioxide in order to generate carbohydrates and
Modern Cell Biology (1912-2008). oxygen.
(CRPF Tradesman 2023) Thus most algae are autotrophs or more specifically,

beings have some special characteristics, on the basis of generate nutrients).

that, they can be separated from non-living things. These Plastics contain three types of pigments in algae. These
characteristics are as follow – are –
(i) Life cycle (ii) Protoplasm (i) Chlorophyceae - Green algae (with green pigment)
(iii) Cell structure (iv) Metabolism (ii) Rhodophyceae - Red algae (with red pigment)
(v) Respiration (vi) Nutrition (iii) Pheophyceae - Brown algae (with brown pigment)
(viii) Sensibility and Adaptability 3. Kingdom Fungi : It consists of eukaryotic and heterotrophic
(ix) Growth and Movement organisms with absorptive nutrition. They are parasitic or
(x) Excretion saprotrophic and their cell wall is made of complex sugar
1. Taxonomy named chitin. Ex- mushrooms, yeast, etc.
Mycorrhizae are a symbiotic association between plant
Taxonomy is the science of naming, describing and roots and fungi. Their major role is to enhance nutrient
classifying Organisms and includes all plants, animals and and water uptake by the host plant by exploiting a larger
micro organisms of the world. volume of soil than roots alone can do.
The term Taxonomy was coined by AP De Candolle. 4. Kingdom Plantae : All multicellular, photosynthetic
Carolus Linnaeus producing organisms are included in this kingdom. They are
'Systema Naturae'. green plants, Angiosperms, Gymnosperms, Thallophytes,
Carolus Linnaeus is called the father of modern taxonomy. Bryophytes and Pteridophytes.
Binomial nomenclature was proposed by him for living 5. Kingdom Animalia : This kingdom consists of all
organisms. multicellular Holozoic, the eukaryotic consumer. They
According to Binomial Nomenclature, the name of every directly or indirectly depend on plants for food.
living organism is derived from two Latin words, former This group is also called Metazoa. These are Phylum
is the name of genus and the latter is the name of species. Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Aschelminthes,
In 1969, Robert H. Whittaker Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca and Echinodermata and

Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and

1. Kingdom Monera : It includes all prokaryotic living Species are the categories or groups of animals and plants.
organisms like bacteria, Mycoplasma Blue-green algae A category is used as a division at the place of phylum for
(cyanobacteria), etc. plants. In contrast, the terms of the remaining categories
Mycoplasma pneumoniae are bacteria that can cause illness remain the same. The lowest category is species and the
by damaging the lining of the respiratory system (throat, highest is the kingdom.
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2. Cytology Rearing of silkworms for the production

Sericulture
of raw silk
Cytology is a branch of Biology that studies cell structure,
life-cycle, division, cell organelles, etc. It is studied at a Pisciculture Rearing of Fish
micro and molecular level. Malacology Study of Mollusca
Robert Hooke Oncology Study of Cancer
Study of abnormalities in physiological
units of life was in 1665 by a British scientist named Robert Teratology
development
Hooke. Hooke was one of the earliest scientists to study
Osteology Study of Bones
living things under a microscope.
In 1574 AD. Leauwenhoek studied the living cell for the Serology Study of Blood Serum
Ornithology Study of Birds
Cell Organelles. Purkinje coined the name, protoplasm.
The protoplasm consists of two constituents, the Cytoplasm
Cells are formed essentially from a living substance, the and the Nucleus (nucleoplasm).
Protoplasm. It contains a number of chemical substances. It A. Cytoplasm: It surrounds the nucleus and is surrounded by
performs all the biological actions. It is called the Physical a cell membrane or cell wall itself.
Basis of Life. Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm of one
1855 Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow formulated his famous
eukaryotic cell into two daughter cells. (SSC MTS, 2022)
aphorism 'Omnis cellula-e cellula' which became a part of
B. Nucleus:
the foundation of cell theory. (SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1)
cytoplasm. It was discovered by Robert Brown.
Sub-Divisions of Biology About 80% of protoplasm is water.
Gerontology Study and causes of ageing of Humans 99% of protoplasm contains four substances- Oxygen
Pedology Study of soil, soil formation, etc. (76%), Carbon (10.5%), Hydrogen (10%) and Nitrogen
(2.5%).
Study of medical procedure to break
Lithotripsy The ratio of organic and inorganic compounds in protoplasm
stones in Kidney, Pancreas, Gall-bladder
Agrostology Study of Grasses Cell :
Study of biology by Mathematical and A cell is the smallest functional unit of structure and vital
Biometry
Statistical methods activities of a living being.
Study and design of engineering system and Cells often regenerate themselves spontaneously.
Bionics modern technology by the application of
biological and system present in nature
Difference Between Plant and Animal Cells
Study of the relations of living beings Plant Cell Animal Cell
Bionomics 1. Cell wall is present. 1. Cell wall is absent.
with environment
Conchology Study of shells of Molluscs 2. Chloroplast is present. 2. Chloroplast is absent.
Study of genetic characteristics and 3. Centrosome is absent 3. Centrosome is present. It
Genetics (Centrosome is found in helps in cell division.
heredity of living beings
Algae and Fungi only).
Study of all animals' behaviour including
Ethology 4. There is usually a large 4. Vacuole is either absent
humans'
vacuole in the centre of a or very small.
Ichthyology Study of the science of Fish
fully developed cell.
Palynology Study of different types of pollen grains
5. In cell division, a plate 5. In cell division, cell
Parasitology Study of Parasites is formed at the centre of divides into two parts by
Entomology Study of Insects the cell. invagination of the cell
Study of the functioning and insanity membrane.
Phrenology of various parts of the brain, based on A Plant cell has a big central Vacuole unlike a number of
tructure of the cranial cavity small vacuoles in animal cells. (SSC MTS, 2022)
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sporophyte stage is dominant in Vascular plants plant However, the most common structure of membranes is
group. (SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1)
Cell Theory : Schleiden and Schwann propounded the cell
forth by SJ Singer and GL Nicolson in 1972.
According to this model, membranes are depicted as
1. All organisms consist of one or more cells.
2. Cells are the basic living units within organisms and all
interspersed with proteins in a mosaic-like fashion.
functions or activities occur in cells.
3. All cells engender from existing living cells. (B) Cell Wall :
Two types of cells are found in living beings– It is the outer covering of the cell membrane.
1. Prokaryotic Cells It is found only in cells of plants, fungi and bacteria.
2. Eukaryotic Cells It consists of cellulose in plants.
The cell wall of bacteria is made of peptidoglycan.
Difference Between Prokaryotic and It is made of chitin in fungi.
Eukaryotic Cells It maintains the shape of cells.
Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell (C) Mitochondria :
1. Cells are often small in 1. Cells are often big in size. Kolliker first discovered mitochondria in the striated
size. muscles of organisms.
Richard Altman discovered mitochondria in cells but
2. Incipient Nucleus. 2. Fully developed Nucleus.
named them bioplast in 1890.
3. Nuclear membrane and 3. Nuclear membrane and
Carl Benda
nucleolus are absent. nucleolus present.
Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles
4. Histone proteins are not 4. Histone proteins are (mitochondrion, singular) that generate most of the
associated with DNA. associated with DNA. chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical
5. Cell organelles are 5. Cell organelles like reactions.
present without mem- golgi body, endoplasmic Mitochondria is the site of respiration within cells.
brane. reticulum, chloroplast and It is also called as 'Power House of the Cell'.
mitochondria are present It is known as a prokaryotic cell within a eukaryotic cell.
with cell membrane.
Note : Besides nucleus and Chloroplast, DNA is found
6. Cellular respiration occurs 6. Cellular respiration in mitochondria also.
in plasma mem-brane. occurs in mitochondria.
70S ribosome is found in mitochondria and chloroplast.
7. All cells have 70S type of 7. All cells have 70S and
F1 particles are present in Mitochondria.
ribosomes. 80S ribosomes.
Mitochondria convert nutrients into energy.
Theodor Schwann presented the Classical Cell Hypothesis (SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1)
in 1839. (CRPF Tradesman 2023) Mitochondria can make copies of themselves.
Prominent Cell Organelles and Other Parts (SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1)
(A) Cell Membrane : (D) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) :
Cells are surrounded by a thin semi-permeable membrane K.R. Porter discovered it in 1945.
called the cell membrane. It is associated with the nuclear membrane on one side and
It maintains the shape of the cell and protects it from cell wall on the other.
external shocks. It is the largest membrane found in the eukaryotic cell.
The function of the cell membrane is to determine the
substances moving in and out of the cell. Endoplasmic Reticulum (rough ER) and smooth
Endoplasmic Reticulum (smooth ER). Both types are
Membrane present in plant and animal cells.
Biogenesis. (CRPF Tradesman 2023) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum is an extensive
Fluid mosaic model
sealed sacs, contiguous with the nuclear membrane. It
Biological membranes are known to exist in different is called ‘rough’ endoplasmic reticulum because it is
structures and phases, such as bilayers, micelles, studded on its outer surface (the surface in contact with
hexagonal, and cubic phases. the cytosol) with ribosomes.
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Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum is more tubular than Golgi Apparatus is a component of the cell organelles that
rough ER and forms an interconnecting network sub- principally performs the function of packaging materials, to
compartment of ER. It is found fairly evenly distributed be delivered either to the intra-cellular targets or secreted
throughout the cytoplasm. outside the cell. (SSC MTS, 2022)
The main function of endoplasmic reticulum is the Convex.
transportation of constructive fats and proteins for different (SSC CGL 2022 Tier-1)

membranes, like cell membrane, nucleus membrane (G) Lysosome:

Lysosome was discovered by Christian Rene de Duve in
1955.
Cytologist George E Palade demonstrated the role of the
Its main function is to devour and digest outer substances.
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in protein processing and sorting
It is a pouch-like structure surrounded by a single-layer
in a variety of cells in the 1960s. (SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1)
membrane.
(E) Ribosomes:
It contains various types of hydrolytic enzymes.
Ribosomes are a membrane-less small particles with a
The activities of all enzymes present in it are high at acidic
diameter of 150-250 Å.
pH.
It is also called Suicide Bag.
structure of the ribosomes in 1953. (H) Centrosome:
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) and ribonucleoprotein are found Centrosome was discovered by Edouard Van Beneden in
equal measure in ribosomes. 1883 and was named in 1888 by Theodor Boveri.
It is the site of protein synthesis. It is also known as a It contains two cylindrical structures called Centrioles.
protein factory. It is found only in animal cells.
A Ribosome is of two types based on the size and It causes cell division.
Centrosome is the major microtubule-organising centre
Ribosome. (MTOC) in eukaryotic cells involved in various cellular
70S Ribosomes are found in Bacterial cell, Chloroplast and processes, including sensory reception, locomotion, and
Mitochondria. embryogenesis. (SSC CHSL 2021)
During protein synthesis many ribosomes are assembled (I) Plastid:
on a single m-RNA, at this time they are called Polysome- Plastid was discovered by Ernst Haeckel.
ergosome or Polyribosome. It is often found in plant cells.
Three types of plastids are found -
polysomes. (SSC CGL 2022 Tier-1) (i) Chloroplast, (ii) Chromoplast and (iii) Leucoplast
Equisetum is the only living representative of Sphenopsida I. Chloroplast:
with an underground, creeping and perennial rhizome that Chloroplast contains a green-coloured pigment known as
gives off aerial and underground branches. chlorophyll.
Leaves and some parts of plants appear green due to
(SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1)
chlorophyll.
(F) Golgi Complex :
Plant photosynthesize with the help of chlorophyll and
Golgi Complex is also known as the Golgi Body.
make their own food.
It was discovered by Camillo Golgi in an animal cell in
A chloroplast is also known as the kitchen of the cells.
1898.
Golgi complex, functional unit is called Cisternae
Pteridophyta (SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1)
In plants, they are called dictyosomes. Most of the Chlorophyceae have one or more storage bodies
It is absent in bacteria and blue-green algae. called Pyrenoids located in the chloroplasts.
It forms the cell wall and lysosome. (SSC CGL 2022 Tier-1)
It is called the because it sorts- II. Chromoplast:
out the proteins and other components including enzymes, Chromoplast has many colours like red, yellow, orange,
etc. except green.
It is formed by different types of vesicles and microtubule
clusters. seeds etc.
Golgi apparatus Phaeoplast is responsible for the brown colour and
(SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1) Rhodoplast for the red colour in algae.
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Xanthophyll pigment is responsible for yellow colour. Cell division occurs mainly in three forms-
The red colour of tomato and chilly is due to lycopene in (1) Amitosis, (2) Mitosis, (3) Meiosis
the chloroplast. (1) Amitosis : This type of cell division takes place often in
III. Leucoplast: bacteria, fungi, some of algae and protozoans.
Leucoplast is colourless. It is found in that part of a plant (2) Mitosis : It occurs in somatic cells. Walther Flemming
which fails to receive sunlight. coined this name.
It is mostly found in roots and underground stems. (3) Meiosis : It occurs only in germ cells. The name 'meiosis'
It stores starch, oil and protein molecules like edible was given by Farmer and Moore in 1905.
substances. Difference Between Mitosis and Meiosis
Elaioplasts is a form of leucoplast specialises in oil
Mitosis Meiosis
synthesis and storage and is mainly found in the layer of
1. It occurs in somatic cells and 1. It occurs in reproductive cells
cells in pollen grains that develop pollen grains.
as a result of this division, and as a result of this division.
(SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1)
somatic growth and tissue Gametes formation take place.
Elaioplasts are leucoplasts that store oil and fat.
growth take place.
(SSC CHSL 2021)
(J) Nucleus: Nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown in 2. It takes less time in division. 2. It takes more time in division.

1831 AD. It is an important part of the cell. It acts as the 3. Chromosome pairs are not 3. It forms chromosome pairs.
controlling centre for the activities of the cell. formed in it.
The most important function of Nucleus is to transmit the 4. Exchange of genetic materials 4. Exchange of genetic materials
parental characters of the organisms to the new generation. among chromosomes does not among chromosomes takes
The nucleus is divided into four parts-nuclear membrane, take place in it. place in it.
nucleoplasm, nucleolus and chromatin threads. 5. Daughter cells have the same 5. Daughter cells have half the
The plasma of the nucleus is called Nucleoplasm and it is number of chromo-somes as number of chromosomes as
surrounded by a two-layered nuclear membrane. mother cell. mother cells.
The round part located in the middle of the nucleus is called 6. One mother cell forms two 6. One mother cell forms four
Nucleolus. daughter cells. daughter cells.
Nucleolus was discovered by Felice Fontana and named In the 1920s, Alexander Oparin and J. B. S. Haldane
by Bowman. independently proposed nearly identical hypotheses for how
Nucleolus contains DNA, RNA and Protein. life originated on Earth. Their hypothesis is now called the
A thread-like structure located in nucleoplasm is called Oparin-Haldane hypothesis.
Chromatin. The Oparin-Haldane hypothesis suggests that life arose
Chromatin was coined by Flemming. gradually from inorganic molecules, with “building blocks”
Chromatin is a nucleoprotein that is made by a mixture of
nucleic acids and basic protein (Histone). complex polymers.
Notably, Chromosomes are threadlike structures made of In the 1920s, Alexander Oparin and J. B. S. Haldane
protein and a single molecule of DNA that serve to carry independently proposed nearly identical hypotheses for how
the genomic information from cell to cell. life originated on Earth. Their hypothesis is now called the
While occurring about plants and animals (including
humans), chromosomes reside in the nucleus of cells. Formation of organic molecules, the building blocks of
Nucleic acid is very complex organic acid. cells (e.g., amino acids, nucleotides, simple sugars)
Nucleic acid consists of pentose sugar, phosphate and a Formation of polymers (longer chains) of organic
nitrogenous base. molecules, that can function as enzymes to carry out
It is of two types - (i) Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and metabolic reactions, encode hereditary information, and
(ii) Ribonucleic acid (RNA). possibly replicate (e.g., proteins, RNA strands),
Cell Division: Formation of protocells; concentrations of organic
The process by which a cell is divided into two or more molecules and polymers that carry out metabolic
parts is called cell division. reactions within an enclosed system, separated from
The cell that is divided is called mother cell and cells the environment by a semi-permeable membrane, such
formed after division are called daughter cells. as a lipid bilayer membrane.
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Cell analysis technique Flow cytometry is used to rapidly b

vertebrates. These are similar in fundamental structure and
or multiple lasers while suspended in a buffered salt-based organic growth but have different basic functions. Human
solution. (SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1)
Year 1925 E Gorter and F Grendel made a breakthrough swim and the forearms of quadrupedal vertebrates to run.
by examining the surface area of lipids and concluded that Analogous Organs: Analogous organs have a different
the lipid surface surrounding cells must be of two layers. basic structure and organic growth but perform the same
(SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1)
In a plant, Pectin is present in the middle lamella, primary wings of Draco (gliding lizard) birds and insects, stings of
cell and secondary walls and accumulates in the initial bees and scorpions.
stages of development during cell expansion. Vestigial Organs: Vestigial organs are such organs, where
(SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1)
tissues or cells are no more functional the way they were
3. Organic Evolution in their initial form. Such structures can be formed due
to changes in environmental conditions, gene mutation.
Example- plica semilunaris of the human eyes, ear pinna,
after the Earth was formed almost 4.6 billion years ago.
skin hairs, vermiform appendix, coccyx (tailbone), etc.
Various theories/hypothesis have been presented by many
scientists regarding to the origin of life on earth. in which Note : More than 100 vestigial organs are found in the
"Chemical evolution as a result of origin of life" is the most human body.
modern one.
Palaeontology: Study of plant and animal fossils including
A detailed and well-known hypothesis related to this was
those of microscopic size, preserved on rocks and surface
given by the Russian biochemist A.I. Oparin presented
of the earth is called Palaeontology.
'Materialistic Theory', which appeared is his book 'Origin
Connecting Links or Intergrading Species: An organism
of life'.
or species having characteristics of two different groups of
Basis hypothesis of Evolution - "Decent with change or
organisms is known as Connecting Links or Intergrading
Species. Example- Euglena is connecting link between
primary, simple and micro-organisms into a complex and
developed one is called organic evolution. plant and animal, archaeopteryx is connecting link between
Organic evolution is the theory, according to that more birds and reptiles. Prototheria is connecting link between
recent types of plants and animals have their origins in reptiles and mammals. Neopilina is connecting link
other pre-existing forms and the distinguishable differences between Annelida and Mollusca. Peripatus is connecting
link between phylum Annelida and Arthropoda.
in successive generations. Note : Virus is the link between living and non-living
Lamarck, Darwin, Hugo de Vries and others propounded organisms.
their theories in the context of organic evolution and
Theory of Organic Evolution
imperial evidence was given by them to prove their
Some important theories of organic evolution propounded
assumptions are as follows–
1. Evidence from Taxonomy
2. Evidence from Comparative Structure Lamarckism: First-ever logical theory on organic
3. Evidence from common Descent evolution was presented by the French biologist Jean-
4. Evidence from Comparative Embryology Baptiste Lamarck in his book 'Philosophie Zoologique'
5. Evidence from Comparative Physiology published in 1809. This theory is called Lamarckism or
6. Evidence from Genetics the theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics.
7. Evidence from Geographical Distribution 1. There is a natural tendency in an animal's body and its
8. Evidence from Analogy organs to grow continuously.
9. Evidence from Connective Organisms 2. Environmental conditions affect these animals directly, so
10. Evidence from Fossils it becomes necessary to use some organs more frequently
Homologous Organs: Organs of different animals which and some less frequently.
have similar basic structures but different functions. 3. Organs that are highly used and developed and the organs
For example- hands of human beings, wings of bats and used occasionally remain underdeveloped. Therefore,
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Lamarckism is also called the "principle of use and disuse Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution - Neo-Darwinism
of organs". emerged as the "modern synthetic theory of evolution".
4. In this way, any change in the animal's body is called This Theory originated from the book 'Genetics and the
Acquired Characteristics. They are hereditary, as a result Origin of Species' by Dobzhansky (1937) and was named
of which a new class of species are formed, for example, by Julian Huxley (1942).
the long neck of a giraffe, extinct legs of a snake. In Modern Synthetic Theory, the mechanism of biological
Darwinism: The second principle on organic evolution is evolution has been explained in terms of genetics of
known as Darwinism. Charles Darwin had the opportunity population of species.
to work as a natural-scientist on a world survey ship named
4. Genetics
HMS Beagle in 1831. Before the trip, he believed in
The process of transmission of genetic traits from one
believe in the concept of organic evolution, as a result of generation to another is called heredity. It is a major
that he propounded Darwinism. Darwinism is also called factor responsible for variations in the characteristics of
'Theory of Natural Selection'. The detailed explanation individuals.
of Darwinism was published in his book 'On the Origin A Catholic priest in Brunn, the city of Austria Gregor Johann
of Species' in 1859. Darwinism is based on the following Mendel is credited with the theory of modern genetics by
facts– formulating the basic rules of modern inheritance in 1865.
1. Abundant capacity of reproduction in animals Gregor Johann Mendel is called the father of genetics.
2. Struggle for existence Mendel chose the garden pea 'Pisum Sativum' for his
3. Variation and their inheritance hybridization experiments.
He selected the following seven lineage traditional
Neo-Darwinism: After Darwinism, neo-Darwinism genetic traits, with comparative variations or contrasting
emerged through the incorporation of Mendel's Genetic expressions of peas for these experiments–
Principles and Darwin's theories by evolutionary Strong
S. Stagnant
scientists. Characters/Traits Contracting
No. Expression
Expression
According to this theory, various factors affect species as
mutation, nature, diversity and reproduction, and due to 1. Purple White
these effects, new species of organisms are formed. 2. Axillary Terminal
Mutation Theory: Hugo De Vries propounded the Theory 3. Length of stem Tall Dwarf
4. Colour of unripened pod Green Yellow
1. The creation of new species does not occur as a result of
accumulation and gradual development from generation 5. Shape of Ripened pod (Constricted
between seeds)
to generation by natural selection of small and unstable
variations in characteristics, but it appears as a result of 6. Shape of Seed Round Wrinkled
sudden and occasional permanent changes. 7. Colour of Cotyledons Yellow Green
Mendel first studied the inheritance of one pair of
the sign of mutation are called Mutant and it is a pure breed contrasting characters (mono-hybrid cross) and later on the
for mutated traits. inheritance of two pairs of contrasting characters (dihybrid
3. Mutations are often uncertain. Mutation can occur in a cross).
Monohybrid Cross: Mendel made a cross between tall
(TT) and dwarf (tt) plants for monohybrid cross, with
4. All organisms have a natural quality of mutation. following results-
5. Different types of mutations can occur in different members
Native
of any species. Therefore a new similar species may Plant (P) T T
(Tall) t t (dwarf)
originate from a parent or ancestral species at the same
time.
Danish Botanist Johannsen (1905) supported the Mutation F1
Tt Tt Tt Tt All Plant
Generation
Theory by experimenting on garden bean plants like De Hybrids long
Self-pollination
Breeze.
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Law of Dominance: According to this rule, hybridization

F2
Generation T t Tt in plants with a pair of contrasting traits reveals dominant

These recessive traits appear in the second generation.

TT Tt Tt tt Law of Segregation: Variations of Genetic Trait, i.e.
factors of comparative forms remain unchanged even when
Pure Tall Hybrid Tall Pure dwarf they remain together for a long time which results in the
(25%) (50%) (25%) factors going into gamete remaining pure. It is called the
Conclusion : Phenotype ratio F2 law of purity of gametes. It is a universally accepted law
Genotype ratio F2 of inheritance.
Law of Independent Assortment: When hybridization
Tall plant of the pea is dominant and dwarf plant of pea is
is made between plants with two different traits, the
recessive character.
segregation of both traits is independent and the inheritance
Dihybrid Cross: Mendel made a cross between the plants
of one trait does not affect the other.
produced from round and yellow seeds (RRYY) and green
Human Genetics:
and wrinkled seeds (rryy) for dihybrid cross which gave
William Bateson 'Genetics' in 1905.
Johanssen 'Gene'.
P RRYY rryy Waldeyer coined the term 'Chromosome' in 1888.
Chromosomes are thread-like structures found in cells of
all organisms.
RY RY ry ry Chromosomes determine and transmit all genetic properties.
F1
Generation RrYy (round and wrinkled
hybrid seeds) Genome: A complete set of DNA of an organism including
all of its genes is called Genome.
Karyotype: Complete morphology of a set of chromosomes
is called Karyotype.
RY Ry rY ry RY Ry rY ry
Idiogram: Idiogram is the diagrammatic representation of
Self-Pollination Karyotype showing all the morphological features of a set
of chromosomes.
RY Ry rY ry Phenotype: Observable physical properties of an organism
+
are called Phenotypes.
RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
RY Pure Round Impure round Impure round Impure round Genotype: Genotype is the genetic constitution of an
and yellow and yellow and yellow and yellow
organism. It is a complete set of inherited genes that can
RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy be passed from parents down to generations.
Ry Impure Round Pure round Impure round Impure round
F2 and yellow and green and yellow and green Allele: An allele is a variant of a gene. Allele is any one of
Generation Rryy RrYy rrYY rrYy two or more genes that may occur alternatively at a given
rY Impure round Impure round Pure wrinkled Impure wrinkled site (locus) on a chromosome. It may occur in pairs or there
and yellow and yellow and yellow and yellow
may be multiple alleles.
RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy S. Benzer: first called the unit of function of a gene
ry Impure Round Impure round Impure wrinkled Pure wrinkled
and yellow and green and yellow and green as Cistron, a unit of mutation as Muton and a unit of
recombination as Recon.
Conclusion : Phenotype ratio of F2 generation plants
Arthur Kornberg discovered an enzyme named DNA
polymerase, which helps in DNA synthesis.
Genotype ratio of F2 generation plants
James D. Watson and Francis H.C. Crick proposed
a three-dimensional model of a double helix of DNA
Mendel proposed some heredity rules based on his molecule in 1953.
experiments are known as Mendel's Law of Inheritance. The stability of DNA helix is mainly due to hydrogen bonds.
Mendel's Law: DNA is the genetic material in cells.
Mendel proposed the following laws of inheritance based Friedrich Miescher discovered DNA in 1869. He called
on monohybrid and dihybrid cross – it 'Nuclein'.
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DNA contains Five carbon sugar 'deoxyribose'. In 1956 an American cytogeneticist, named Joe Hin Tjio
DNA molecules contain nitrogenous bases called Adenine,
Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine. exact number of human chromosomes.
DNA conducts all genetic processes. (SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1)
DNA regulates protein synthesis. Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology
The fundamental physical and functional unit of genetics Scientists can modify the DNA of bacteria, plants and
is a gene. animals to add genetic information (and the associated
Genes are constituted by DNA. characteristics) from a different organism. This process
RNA: Full form of RNA is Ribonucleic Acid. The synthesis has previously been called genetic engineering but more
of RNA from DNA is called Transcription. recently is referred to as recombinant DNA technology or

instead of deoxyribose. Genetic engineering is accomplished in three basic steps.

RNA contains nitrogenous base uracil instead of thymine. These are- (1) The isolation of DNA fragments from a
A molecule of RNA is of three types – rRNA, mRNA and donor organism; (2) The insertion of an isolated donor
tRNA. DNA fragment into a vector genome and (3) The growth
1. r-RNA (Ribosomal RNA): These molecules are of a recombinant vector in an appropriate host.
components of ribosomes that help in protein synthesis. Reproduction by somatic parts of plants such as root, stem
2. m-RNA (Messenger RNA): It helps in the selection of and leaf is called vegetative propagation.
amino acids outside the nucleus by receiving different Offsprings produced by vegetative propagation are similar
orders. to the parental one.
3. t-RNA (Transfer RNA): It brings various types of amino In species of Eudorina, the fusion of two different sized
acids to be collected at the ribosome for protein synthesis gametes is called Anisogamous. (SSC CPO 2022)

where the protein is produced.

Human species has a total of 23 pairs or a total of 46 the world.
chromosomes. It was produced on 5 July, 1996 at the Roslin Institute in
Scotland by the efforts of lan Wilmut, Keith Campbell and
Main differences between DNA and RNA their colleagues.
DNA RNA It was developed by the traditional cloning technique.
1. It contains deoxyribose 1. It contains ribose sugar.
sugar. 2009 at the Camel Breeding Centre in Dubai.
2. Its bases are adenine, 2. It has a uracil base of This clone was named 'Injaz'.
guanine, cytosine and thymine. Triticale is a hybrid of wheat (Triticum) and rye (Secale)
thymine. 19th century in
3. It is mainly present in 3. It is found in the nucleus Scotland and Sweden.
nucleus. and cytoplasm.
was born in February 2009.
22 pairs of chromosomes are homologous in females and However, Sampura was infected with a lung infection after
males. They are called Autosomes. within 7 days of its birth and died.
One pair (23rd) of a chromosome is not homologous in males Subsequently, the second cloned calf “GARIMA” was born
and females. It is called Heterosomes or Allosomes. on 6th June, 2009 with the birth weight of 43 kg.
23rd pair of chromosomes in females is XX and the entire Two monkeys have been cloned using the technique that
set of chromosomes are represented as 44A+XX. produced Dolly the sheep. Identical long-tailed macaques
23rd pair of chromosomes in males is XY and the entire set Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua were born several weeks ago
of chromosomes are represented as 44A + XY. at a laboratory in China.
G1 - First gap phase, the cell grows physically larger Stem cells have the ability to develop any part of the body
S - Cell synthesises a complete copy of the DNA as a cell. That means stem cell is an immature cell that has
G2 - Cell begins to recognise its contents in preparation the ability to grow and gain speciality of a mature cell.
for mitosis
M - The Cell divides its copied DNA and cytoplasm to embryo, adult and cord-blood .
make two new cells. (SSC CGL 2022 Tier-1) Stem cells are mostly derived from embryos.
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The Umbilical cord, blood, teeth, bone marrow, etc. are the ex viso contact with live non-human animal cells, tissues
uncontroversial sources of stem cells. or organs" is called what Xenotransplantation.
Stem cells help to treat corneal transplant, damaged muscles (SSC Head constable Ministerial)
due to cardiac attacks and many other diseases. Important Animals and Their Conception
Insect-resistant transgenic cotton is produced by genetic Period
engineering by inserting a gene.
Conception Period (Near
It is prepared by Bacillus Thuringiensis. Animal
about in days)
It is also called Bt cotton.
Human 270
Genetic Diseases and Affected Organs Cow 280
Disease Impact Carrier Buffalo 310
Colour-blindness Red and green colour cannot Women Elephant 620
be recognized Goat 150
Sheep 150
Haemophilia Blood clotting does not occur Women
Pig 115
Turner Syndrome Infertility (women) —
Dog 61
(mainly female)
Rabit 31
Klinefelter Syndrome Infertility (men) —
Horse 340
Down Syndrome Feeble minded, slanting eyes, — Mouse 21
(mainly child) protruding tongue, unusual
Lion 110
body structure
Blue Whale 360
Golden rice is an achievement of biotechnology.
Clone means Model.
Prof. Ingo Potrikus and Dr Peter Beyer were the Father of Creation of the same form and breed without tempering
golden rice. with genes occurs in cloning.
It contains beta carotene forming gene which converts into They are produced asexually, often identical to their Parent.
vitamin 'A' when it reaches human body. The process of generating a genetically indentical copy of
Amniocentesis is a pre-delivery examination conducted a cell or an organism is called cloning.
on a pregnant woman. While genes are transferred and replicated in transgenic.
In this process, a small amount of from the Human Genome Project : The 'Human Genome Project'
amniotic sac surrounding a developing fetus is sampled
and analyzed.
Various types of birth defects such as down syndrome, Scientists under the Human Genome Project have estimated
chromosomal abnormality. Sex determination can be that the human genome contains about 30,000 genes.
examined through it. This will help humans to get rid of serious genetic diseases
is used in establishing and premature deaths.
The transformation of the larva into an adult through drastic
establishing the pedigree of animals. change is called Metamorphosis. (SSC MTS, 2022)
This technique was invented in year 1984 AD by Sir Alec Obelia is an organism that exhibits metagenesis.
Jeffreys. (SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1)
Indian Scientist Dr. Lalji Singh is called the Father of
C1 Botany
Hair, Saliva, Blood Cells, Bone Cells, Dry Semen, of the
5. Plant
Spreading of cancer cells from one organ to another nearest Study of different types of plants and their activity is called
organ of a body is called Metastasis. Botany.
"A procedure that involves the transplantation, implantation Theophrastus is known as the father of botany.
or infusion into a human recipient of either (a) live cells, Plants differ from animals in following ways–
tissues, or organs from a nonhuman animal source, or (b) 1. Each plant cell is surrounded by a dead wall that is called
ans that have had cell wall, while animals do not have a cell wall.
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2. Plants prepare food by photosynthesis in the presence Chlorophyceae class of algae is widely known as green
of chlorophyll, so plants are called Autotrophs. algae. (SSC MTS, 2022)
Animals depend on plants for food, so animals are called Eudorina is an algae that undergoes anisogamous fusion
Heterotrophs. Chlorophyll is absent in animals. of gametes. (Selection Post Phase XI)
3. Growth in plants occurs through special cells that are located Ulethrix
in particular positions. The division of apical meristem at (SSC Stenographer 2022)
the apex of the roots and stems and the intercalary meristem Gracilaria algae produces agar. (SSC CHSL 2021)
leads to the increase in height while the lateral meristem
makes the stem of the plant thicker. Growth in animals
occur not at particular parts but all over the body. Algae that are used as food : Laminaria, Porphyra, Ulva,
4. Plants continue growing and forming new parts throughout Sargassum, Alaria, etc. are the algae that are used as food.
life and keep generating branches while in animals, the Use of algae in manufacturing of medicine : Antibiotic
growth of the body continues only up to a certain age. medicine chlorella is produced from chlorella that protects
5. Fully developed plant cells often have a large vacuole but us from bacteria.
animal cells do not have anything like that. Use of algae as fertilizers in agriculture: Some Sea algae
are used as fertilizers. Nostoc and Anabaena cause nitrogen

Algae used in the production of Iodine: Brown algae

According to the old method, a scientist named Eichler named laminaria contains iodine.
Use in Research: Chlorella, Acetabularia, Valonia algae
are used in research. Modern knowledge of the process of
Plant Kingdom the photosynthesis is based on experiment and research
conducted on chlorella.
Agar: Agar substance is obtained from red algae-Gelidium,
Flowering Plant or Non-flowering Plants or
Phanerogams Cryptogams Gracilaria, are used to produce jelly and ice-cream.
Golgi apparatus
(SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1)
Angiosperm Gymnosperm Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta
Food is stored in brown algae in the form of a complex
carbohydrates that may be in the form of laminarin or
Monocotyledons Diocotyledons Fungi Algae mannitol. (SSC CHSL 2021)
Harmful Algae:
Cryptogams: Microcystis, Chroococcus, Oscillatoria, Anabaena, and
other algae cause 'Water Blooms' in the water reservoir
Thallophyta, Bryophyta and Pteridophyta fall in this emitting smell. This process causes water to degrade and
category cryptogams.
Thallophyta is the largest group of plant kingdoms. These Algae named Celphaleurous is the cause of red rust in tea.
are simple and primitive plants. In these, the plant body is Sometimes it causes extensive damage to the tea crop.
in the form of Thallus, that is, the plant is not divided into
root, stem and leaf. Embryo and vascular tissues are also Diseases in Plants Due to Lack of Elements
not found in them. It includes algae and fungi. Disease Elements
Pteridophyta are cryptogam. (SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1) Heart rot of sugar beets Boron
Algae:
Internal cork of Apple Boron
Study of Algae is called Algology or Phycology.
Dieback disease of Citrus Copper
Algae are often Autotrophic containing chlorophyll and
without vascular tissues. Whiptail disease of Cabbage Molybdenum
In algae, an embryo is not formed after reproduction. Little leaf disease of Citrus Zinc
The member of the Rhodophyceae are commonly called Khaira disease of Paddy Rice Zinc
red algae. (SSC MTS, 2022)
Boron
The Phaeophyceae class of algae is widely known as brown
algae. (SSC MTS, 2022) Reclamation disease in cereals and legumes Copper
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3. Bacteriophage - The virus which infects bacterial cells is

Some Important Facts Related to Botany known as bacteriophage.
Tallest angiosperm plant in the Eucalyptus
Note : The term 'retrovirus' means it behaves backwards
world
from the original way that we all think about genetics
Tallest tree in the world Sequoia (Gymnosperm) which is that 'DNA makes RNA' and RNA makes
Smallest (shape) angiosperm plant protein. Reverse transcriptase is an enzyme found in
Plant having the largest leaf Victoria retrovirus.
Biggest seed Lodoicea Fungi :
The word fungi is derived from the Latin word fungus,
which literally means Mushroom.
Biggest antherozoid Cycas
Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the study
Biggest ovule Cycas of fungi.
Smallest seed Orchid Fungi are often found everywhere. These are achlorophyllous,
Smallest cell Mycoplasma eukaryotic, vascular tissueless thallophytes.
They are found on other plants in parasitic or symbiotic
Angiosperm plant having minimum Haplopappus Gracilis
form or on rotten substances in parasitic form.
chromosome numbers (2n = 4)
Fungi are never autotrophic, usually they are heterophytes.
Angiosperm plant having maximum Ophioglossum Their cell wall consists of chitin or cellulose.
chromosome numbers (2n = 1266) Food stored in fungi remains in the form of glycogen or
Smallest gymnosperm Zamia Pygmaea drops of oil.
Smallest pteridophyte Azolla
1. Fungi increase soil fertility by decomposing rotten
Smallest bryophyte Zoopsis substances.
Largest bryophyte Dawsonia 2. Many fungi like mushrooms etc. are edible.
Coffee producing plant Coffea arabica 3. A variety of antibiotics are obtained from fungi such as
Opium producing plant Papaver Somniferum Penicillium Notatum and Penicillium Chrysogenum, which
yield antibiotics called Penicillin.
Virus:
4. Yeast and some fungi are used in bakeries and distilleries
Viruses are acellular microscopic organisms that replicate
to prepare wine by fermentation.
inside the living cells.
5. Lysergic Acid Diethyl Amide (LSD) is a hallucinogenic
Ivanovsky discovered the virus in 1892. substance, made from a fungus 'Claviceps'.
Its nature is both living and non-living, that is why it is 6. Plant hormone called Gibberellin, necessary for increasing
called a connecting link between living and non-living. plant length, is produced from a fungus called 'Fusarium
A virus can be made as a crystal and kept for a long period Moniliforme'.
of time as non-living matter. 7. Neurospora, Yeast, Ascobolus, and other fungi have long
been used in genetics, cytology and metabolic discoveries.
characterized by having an inert crystalline structure outside
the living cell. Major Diseases caused by Fungi in Plants
Viruses are an obligate parasites. Once they infect a cell, Disease Fungi
they take over the mechanism of the host cell to replicate Late blight of Potato Phytophthora infestans
themselves, killing the host. Wart disease of Potato Synchytrium endobioticum
Early blight of Potato Alternaria Solani
range-
1. Animal Viruses- Animal virus infect the cells of animals, White rust of Crucifer Albugo Candida
including humans. The prominent examples of animal Loose smut of wheat Ustilago Tritici
Red rot of Sugarcane Colletotrichum Falcatum
of genetic material usually DNA or sometimes RNA.
Tikka disease of Groundnut Cercospora Personata
2. Plant Viruses - These viruses infect plants by invading the
plant cells the genetic material in these viruses is usually Wilt of Arhar Fusarium Udum
RNA or rarely DNA. Loose smut of Barley Ustilago Nuda
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Some species of aspergillus cause a disease called Often plants absorb nitrogen in the form of nitrates. The
aspergillosis in the lungs of humans.
Fungi such as Rhizopus, Mucor, Aspergillus, etc. destroy occurs through bacteria. These bacterias as exist on Earth as
food products. independent or in symbiotic relationship. Bacterias such as
Aspergillus Flavers and Aspergillus Parasiticum produce a Azotobacter and Clostridium are found as separately-living
on Earth. These stabilize the nitrogen of air between the
to pets. soil particles.
Lichens:
A lichen is not a single organism; it is a stable symbiotic atmospheric nitrogen (N).
association between a fungus and algae. Species of bacteria like Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium
The algae component in lichen produces carbohydrates live in symbiotic relationship in the roots of Leguminosae
through photosynthesis which is used as food by both algae
and fungi. Instead of food, fungi release water and minerals Frankia and Aerorhizobium are other examples of bacteria
to the hanging algae.
Morphologically, there are mainly three types of lichens Nitrosococcus and Nitrosomonas convert Ammonia into
(I) Crustose (II) Foliose and (III) Fruticose. Nitrite, while Nitrobacter converts Nitrite to Nitrate. These
The fungal partner is involved in sexual reproduction with are called Nitrifying Bacteria.
the help of reproductive structures called apothecia. To pressure milk for a long time, it can be pasteurized in
Lichens such as Lichenora, Parmelia, Umbilicaria etc. are the following ways –
used as food in different parts of the world. (I) Heat the milk at 62.8 °C (145 °F) for 30 minutes, Or
(II) Heat the milk at 71.7 °C (161 °F) for 15 minutes or
epilepsy. (III) Heat the milk at 88.3 ° C (191 ° F) for 1 minute.
Erythrin obtained from Rocella Montagnei is used to cure Curing is done by the fermentation process of the tea leaves
Angina.
Bacteria: tea leaves.
The branch of science that deals with the study of bacteria,
Streptococcus Lactis and Lactobacillus Lactis are used to
is called Bacteriology.
make dairy products.
Bacteria are the simplest microbial and unicellular proto
organisms.
These are ubiquitous and found in water, land or air and Antibiotic Bacteria
also in living and non-living plants and animals. Streptomycin Streptomyces Griseus
Chloromycetin Streptomyces Venezuelae
discovered it in 1683. He is called the father of bacteriology.
Terramycin Streptomyces Rimosus
Ehrenberg coined the term 'Bacteria' in 1829.
Robert Koch discovered bacteria of cholera and
tuberculosis. Bacteria Disease
Louis Pasteur discovered rabies vaccines, pasteurization Pseudomonas Solanacearum Potato Wilt
and fermentation. Plasmids are the genetic material found
Agrobacterium Tumifaciens Crown Gall
in bacteria other than chromosomes.
Bacterias, depending on their different shapes, can be Xanthomonas Campestris Black Rot of Cabbage
Xanthomonas Citri Citrus Canker
(I) Spherical or Coccus: These bacterias are spherical, Glycocalyx is called the slime layer when it is like a loose
such as Micrococcus, Diplococcus Pneumoniae. sheath in the cell envelope of bacteria. (SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1)
(II) Rod-shaped or Bacillus: These are rod-shaped, Lactobacillus Acidophilus is type of bacteria used in
tubular or cylindrical. Such as Lactobacillus. the manufacture of fermented dairy, sourdough, meat and
(III) Comma shaped or Vibrio: These are bacteria with a vegetable food. (CRPF Tradesman 2023)
comma (,) like structure, such as Vibrio Colliery, etc. Bryophyta:
(IV) Spiral or Spirilli: These are coiled or spring shaped, Bryophyta is the simplest and primitive group of an embryo-
such as Spirillum Rubrum. forming plant (Embryophyta).
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The Bryophyta is also called the Amphibia class of the This group consists of plants in which seeds are formed, but
Plant Kingdom. they remain without cover. The ovules or seeds developing
There is a complete lack of vascular tissue (xylem and out of them are not embedded in any shell, wall or fruit.
phloem) in Bryophyta class plants. They lack an ovary.
Plants of Bryophyta are more developed than Thalophyta are. Plants of this group are usually perennial and wood like.
The main plant of Bryophyta is gametophyte. Gymnosperms are xerophytes in nature.
Professor S.R. Kashyap is called the Father of Indian The worlds tallest plant, Sequoia Sempervirens which is
Bryology. found in Redwood Park, California, belongs to this group.
Due to high water absorption in Sphagnum, a plant of Zamia pigmaea is the smallest gymnospmer.
Bryophyta is used in wrapping and shipping other living Cycas, Ginkgo biloba and Metasequoia are called living
plants from one place to another. fossils because these plants are found in small numbers
Sphagnum is also used to clean wounds and in dressing. and their fossils are also found.
Sphagnum is also used as fuel. Ginkgo biloba is also known as Maidenhair tree.
Bryophytes grow in dense form, it binds the soil and thus The ovules and antherozoids of the cycas are the largest in
prevents erosion of soil caused by rainwater. the entire plant world.
Marchantia is not an example of thallophyta. All gymnosperms are wind-pollinated (Anemophilous).
(SSC MTS, 2022) In these, embryos develop before fertilization. There is no
Marchantia is a common type of Bryophyta. double fertilization and triple fusion, so the embryos are
(SSC CHSL 2022 Tier-1) haploid.
Pteridophyta:
Pteridophytes are vascular cryptogams, i.e., plants of this More than one embryo develops in each gametophyte.
Economic Importance of Gymnosperm:
Plants of this group are often terrestrial, which grow in Woods of Pine, Sequoia, Juniperus, Cedar, etc. are used to
moist and shady places. Some of its species are aquatic, make furniture.
such as Salvinia, Azolla etc. Cycas is also called Sago palm. Sago is obtained from it.
Except for a few woody ferns, most of the pteridophytes Match sticks are made from pine wood.
are herbaceous. Chilgoza is a type of edible seed, obtained from a plant
Pferydophytes are also called botanical snake. called Pinus Girardiana.
Vascular tissues in this group of plants are fully developed Broom and baskets are made from different types of leaves
but Xylem lacks Vessels and Phloem lacks companion cells. of Cycas.
Pteridophyta group includes the most primitive living and Turpentine oil is obtained from pinus (pine).
fossil vascular plants. Resins are extracted from some plants which are used in
The main plant of this group is the sporophyte, which often making varnishes, polishes, paints etc.
has roots, stems and leaves. A substance called tannin is extracted from the bark of
The Azolla is used as fertilizer. Application of it in rice Tsuga or Hemlock, from which the ink is made and is also
used as a medicine.
rice by more than 50% thereby it is used as a nitrogen-rich Cycas Rumphii produces a type of gum that is used to treat
biofertilizer and weed suppressant. malignant tumours.
Chlamydomonas is a type of haploid unicellular eukaryote
cell that has a diameter of ~10 µm, and about half of its Note : A drug called ephedrine is obtained from the
volume is occupied by cup-shaped chloroplasts. ephedra plant which is used as a medicine for cough and
(SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1) cold.
Ferns, horsetails and lycophytes belong to Pteridophyta Calotropis plant is considered a noxious weed that has a
groups. (SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1) chemical defense mechanism to protect it from predators.
Flowering Plant: (SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1)
Angiosperm:
In this group of plants, the seeds are embedded in the fruit
Gymnosperm: and thus it is different from gymnosperm.
It is a group that falls between the categories of
Pteridophytes and angiosperms. and seeds are all fully grown.
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Root:
feature of these plants. Roots are the lower descending part of plants. They develop
Tomato is an example of Angiosperm in Plant Kingdom. from radicles.
(SSC MTS, 2022) In contrast to the stem, roots show positive geotropism and
The seeds of these plants contain cotyledons, based on negative phototropism. There is a lack of nodes, internodes,
which this group is divided into (1) Monocotyledon plants
and (II) Dicotyledon plants. There are mainly two types of roots (i) Taproots and (ii)
I. Monocotyledon Plants: Adventitious Roots.
plants that have only one Cotyledon in their seeds. (i) Taproots : At the time of germination of seeds, main root
Following are the names of their main families and related (radicle) grows and forms the primary root, from which
plants. many secondary and tertiary roots emerge. Such roots are
called taproots, such as gram, pea and carrot.
Family Major Plants
Pneumatophores are specialised aerial roots that protrude
Orchidaceae Orchid, Habenaria, Vanda,
Liliaceae Garlic, Onion, Aloe Vera they are used for breathing in air and extracting nutrients
Palmae Betel nut, Coconut, Date Palm, Palm from the water.
Gramineae Wheat, Maize, Rice, Sorghum, Millet, (ii) Adventitious Roots: Roots originating from any part
Sugarcane, Bamboo etc. of the plant other than main root (radicle) are called
II. Dicotyledon Plants: adventitious roots. Example - pillar roots of banyan, roots
Their seeds have two cotyledons. of maize and sugarcane plant.
Following are the names of their major families and related
plants. like structures called root thorns. e.g. Pothos armatus and
Acanthorrhiza.
Family Major Plants
These are called thorn root.
Cruciferae Mustard, Radish, Turnip Shrub or Fibrous Root: In monocot plants, the radicle,
Malvaceae becomes dormant shortly after germination which prevents
Jute its growth resulting in many thread-like structures from the
Leguminosae Rosewood, Acacia, Catechu, Ashok,
Gulmohar, Kachnar, Shameplant, Shikakai, Example - paddy and wheat roots.
Fenugreek, Sanai, Tamarind and all Pulse The roots of some plants are green, in which food is formed
crops. by the action of photosynthesis. Example - roots of gurcha
Asteraceae or Sunflower, Bhringraj, Chry-santhemum, and water chestnut.
Compositae Marigold, Kusum, Dahlia, Kush etc. The roots that move towards the ground to support the
banyan are called pillar roots.
Cucurbitaceae Pumpkin, Kheera, Water melon, Cucumis
melo (Kharbooza), Lagenaria Siceraria
(Lauki), Trichosanthesanguina (Cha- which the roots act as food storage.
chinda), Momordica Charantia (Karela), Stabilization, absorption, conduction and accumulation of
Cucumber etc. food are the main functions of the root.
The carrot has a conical shape, the turnip and beet have a
Rosaceae Apples, Almonds, Pears, Strawberries
napiform and the radish has a fusiform root.
Rutaceae Lemon, Orange, Sweet Lemon, Wood apple
Stem:
Solanaceae Datura, Potato, Eggplant, Raspberry, Chilli, The stem develops from the plumule and forms the shooting
Tomato, Tobacco, Queen of the night, mechanism of the plant.
Ashwagandha, Atropa Belladonna This part of the plant grows towards the light.
Plant Morphology: Stems have negative geotropism and positive phototropism.
Study of the form, shape and characteristics of various plant Leaves are decorated on its internodes.

plant morphology. buds.

Plants are annual, biennial or perennial and show the nature Potato, ginger, mistletoe, yam, turmeric, garlic, lily and
of herbs, shrubs or trees. stems.
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In some weak plants, with weak stems, axillary or terminal Androecium: They contain one or more stamens. The
pollen grain is found in stamens.
Gynoecium: Carpels are present in it. Carpel has three
parts (i) Stigma, (ii) Style and (iii) Ovary.
Underground Stem Examples Pistil
Rhizome Turmeric, Ginger group of fused carpels that are usually differentiated into
Tuber Potato ovary, style and stigma and help in the process of receiving
pollen and fertilization. (CRPF Tradesman 2023)
Corm Mistletoe, Saffron
Pollination:
Bulb Onion
The process of transfer of pollen grains from the Anthrax
Leaf: to the stigma of the carpel is called Pollination. Pollination
It is usually green. is of two types - (i) Self-Pollination and (ii) Cross-
Its main function is to prepare food through photosynthesis. Pollination.
The leaves which pass through petiole are called Petiolate
and where the petiole is absent, are called Sessile. plant of the same species, this process is called Cross-
Shape of the leaves is different in varied plants. It helps in Pollination.
identifying the plants.
The broad, green part of the leaf is called Lamina.
(SSC MTS, 2022) plant, it is called self-pollination. The plants produced by
The leaves of some plants get coiled like the spring of a this method are less differentiated and new species are not
clock. It is called leaf tendril. Example- Wild pea. found. This maintains the purity of the species.
Cross-pollination is more prevalent in nature.
called leaf-spine. Example- Opuntia, acacia etc. Pollination occurs mainly through water, air and insects.
The leave of some insectivorous plants take the form of a Fertilization:
vase or pitcher to catch insects, such as Nepenthus.
The cross of male and female reproductive organs is
called fertilization. In angiosperm, this action occurs by
a combination of a male gamete made from the nucleus
of the pollen grain and an egg cell embedded in the ovule.
The fertilized egg is called Zygote.
In Angiosperm, triple fusion occurs while other groups of
Peduncle. plants have double fusion.
Parthenocarpy:
In some plants, the ovary forms fruit without fertilization.
Thus, the development of fruit without fertilization is
(I) Racemose called Parthenocarpy. Often these types of fruits are
(II) Cymose seedless. eg. Grapes, Banana, Pineapple, Orange etc.
(III) Special Now-a-days, seedless fruits are obtained by spraying a
(IV) Compound solution of suitable concentration of auxin and gibberellin
Flower:
It is the reproductive organ of the plant. Fruits:
The mature ovary is called fruits, i.e. fruits are formed
and Gynoecium is called a But if any of from the ovary.
these is absent, it is called an Incomplete Flower. If the fruit is formed by the participation of the ovary only,
The androecium is the male reproductive organ and the it is called true Fruit. e.g. Peas, Mangoes etc.
gynoecium is the female reproductive organ.
thalamus, sepals, etc. also participate in the formation of
the fruit, such fruits are called Pseudo Fruit or False Fruit.
Ex. Apple, Pear etc.
organ is present. There are mainly three types of fruits.
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1. Simple Fruit: Such as Litchi, Water Chestnut, Cashew D. There is no intercellular space among cells.
Nut, Guava, Banana, Papaya, Mango, Almond, Walnut etc. The meristematic tissues are divided into following three
2. Aggregate Fruit: Such as Custard Apple, Calotrope, categories based on the position of presence in plants-
Raspberry, Strawberry etc. (i) Apical Meristem, (ii) Lateral Meristem and (iii)
3. Composite Fruit: Such as Figs, Jackfruit, Mulberry etc. Intercalary Meristem
Some fruits and its edible parts are as follows – (I) Apical Meristem: These tissues are found on the
apical ends or apex of the stems and roots. They
Fruits Edible Parts
increase the length of root and height of the stem.
Mango Fleshy Mesocarp
(II) Lateral Meristem: These tissues are embedded
Guava Pericarp and Placenta in the lateral directions of the stems and roots. The
Grape Pericarpant Placenta division takes place only in the radial direction in
Tomato Pericarpant Placenta them. Their division leads to secondary growth,
whereby roots and stems increase in thickness.
Apple Fleshy Thalamus
(III) Intercalary Meristem: It is a part of the apical
Pear Fleshy Thalamus meristem, which separates from the roots and stems
Banana Mesocarps and Endocarp as they grow in length and height respectively and
Muskmelon Mesocarp and Endocarp does not turn into permanent tissue.This part falls
between the permanent tissues. Plant and its organs
Coconut Endosperm & Embryo (entire seed)
also increase in size due to their activity.
Wheat Endosperm and Embryo (entire seed) (2) Permanent Tissue: These tissues are formed as a result
Maize Endosperm and Embryo (entire fruit) of division and differentiation in meristematic tissues.
Cashew nut Cells of these tissues are either living or dead, thin-walled
or thick-walled.
Litchi Aril
There are three types of permanent tissues (i) Simple
Groundnut Seed
Mulberry Perianth (i) Simple Tissue: These tissues are made up of the same
Jackfruit Perianth and Seed type of cells i.e, a collection of structurally similar cells
that perform a common function. They are of three types
Pineapple Perianth
- Parenchymal, Collenchyma, and Sclerenchyma.
Lemon Endocarpic Juicy Hair
(ii) Complex Tissue: Complex tissue is a group of cells
Orange Endocarpic Juicy Hair that contains more than one type of cells and all together
Tamarind Mesocarp function as a unit. E.g. Xylem and Phloem.
Water chestnut Cotyledons and Aril Xylem: It is also called ‘water conductive tissue’. Its main
function is to transport water and mineral salts absorbed by
Pomegranate Juicy Testa
the roots to different parts of the plant.
Plant Tissue: It is made up of four types of cells namely. Tracheids
Tissue: A group of cells that have a similar origin and
function is called Tissue.
Tissues are divided into the following two categories based parenchyma. (SSC CGL 2022 Tier-1)
on origin and development - 1. Meristematic Tissue and
2. Permanent Tissue. Note : The age of the plant is calculated by counting
(1) Meristematic Tissues: These tissues are found in the annual rings produced by xylem tissue. This
growing regions of plants. It is only due to their continuous method of determining the age of plants is called
Dendrochronology.
as follows - Phloem: The primary function of phloem is to transfer
A. All the cells in these tissues are living and have a thin cell food produced in green parts of the plant to other parts.
wall. It is a vascular tissue.
B. These cells are round, oval or polygonal in shape. (iii) Special Tissue: This type of tissue performs a special
C. The Protoplasm is dense, the nucleus is large and the type of function in plants. Such as gum, resins, oil and
vacuole is small. latex secretions.
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These tissues are of two types - (foliage). Such plants are called ‘photo-autotrophs’. The
a. Glandular Tissue, b. Laticiferous Tissue above-mentioned process is called photosynthesis.
B. Miscellaneous or Leguminous Plants : Plants that
The Diploid Number of Chromosomes in
cannot prepare food without Chlorophyll, Bacteria, Fungi,
Some Plants
etc. are of the following types.
Chromosome (i) Parasites: These organisms get their food from other
Plant Botanical Name
– 2n
living plants or animals. Such as Bacteria, Fungi and
1. Garden Peas Pisum Sativa 14 Cuscuta.
2. Sweet Peas Lathyrus odoratus 14
Note :
3. Wheat Triticum Aestivum 42 to family Convolvulaceae. It is commonly known as
4. Rice Oryza Sativa 24 dodder plant, amarbel, akashabela. Traditionally it is
5. Barley Hordeum Vulgare 14
climbing parasitic.
6. Onion Allium Cepa 16
(ii) Saprophytes: Organisms that live on dead organic
7. Maize Zea Mays 20
matter. e.g. types of fungi.
8. Radish Raphanus Sativus 18 (iii) Symbiotic: Those organisms which sustain by
9. Cabbage Brassica Oleracea 18 drawing life from one another being in symbiotic
10. Cotton Gossypium Hirsutum 52 relationship. This is an example of the symbiosis of
Algae and Fungi.
11. Tobacco Nicotiana Tabacum 48
(iv) Insectivores: Plants that feed on pests to meet their
Husk of a coconut is made of Scherenchym tissue. nitrogen requirement. Example- Drosera, Dionia and
(SSC CGL 2022 Tier-1) Nepenthes.
Cells of meristematic tissue lack Vacuoles. (2) Respiration:
(SSC CGL 2022 Tier-1)
Life Process in Plants the absorbed oxygen is used in the oxidation of food
(I) Nutrition:
Water and inorganic elements are obtained from the
in a cell where most respiration occurs are called
soil by plants and inorganic elements are in the form of
mitochondria. The oxygen required for this oxidation
minerals in the soil.
reaches the cell from the atmosphere.
These are called nutrient elements and their nutrition is
Cellular respiration is of two types -
called mineral nutrition.
(i) Aerobic Respiration: When the degradation of food
It is important to mention here that Plants complete their
occurs with oxygen, excessive energy is released.
life cycle regularly.
(ii) Anaerobic Respiration: The degradation of food occurs
The 17 Essential Plant Elements include nitrogen, phos-
without oxygen. In such a situation, there is an incomplete
phorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, boron,
degradation of glucose (food).
chlorine, iron, manganese, zinc, copper, molybdenum,
and nickel. The non-mineral essential plant elements The respiratory quotient (RQ) is the ratio of CO2
include hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon. These are either produced to that of the O2 consumed while food is being
taken up as a gas or water. metabolized.
Plants are divided into two groups on the basis of (3) Emission or Excretion:
nutrition. Some excretory substances are formed in the body after
A. Autotrophic Plants: Such plants that make organic food. metabolic activities. The action of excreting them out of
Some bacteria make organic food from energy obtained the body is called Emission. The main emitting substances
by biological oxidation (support from oxygen) of organic of plants are - oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour.
matter, such as Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter bacteria. Carbon dioxide and water vapour are always emitted by
Such organisms are called chemo-autotrophs. plants, whereas oxygen is emitted only during the day
Some plants make organic food products (glucose) from (in the presence of light). All these excretory substances
simple inorganic materials (carbon dioxide and water) are exchanged in plants through the foliage. Some useful
using sunlight energy with the help of chlorophyll excretory substances are catechu, gum, tannin and resins.
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(4) Reproduction: The amount of chlorophyll in the cell is closely related to

Each organism has the ability to produce its progeny. photosynthesis. Photosynthesis increases with the amount
This process is called reproduction. It has mainly three of chlorophyll.
methods (i) Sexual and (ii) Asexual. There is one atom of magnesium in the centre of
In sexual reproduction, male and female cells are chlorophyll.
differentiated, while in asexual both cells are similar.
Photosynthesis takes place only in the visible light part
When a new plant is born from an organ of the plant ( e.g,
of the light spectrum, that is, rays from 3800 Å to 7600
root, stem, leaf or bud), it is called Vegetative Propagation.
Å wavelengths. This action is most excellent in red light
Such as Ginger, Turmeric, Potato and Onion stems. From
the leaves of Bryophyllum and Begonia, Vegetative
green light.
Propagation is used in methods such as grafting and
layering. The process of photosynthesis is a reaction of oxidation.
Vegetative Propagation is an asexual method of In this, water is oxidized to become oxygen and carbon
reproduction. dioxide is reduced to form carbohydrates.
In bacteria, fungi and algae vegetative reproduction occurs Photosynthesis consists of the following two major
processes –
The stem of sugarcane is solid and jointed in which nodes (i) Photochemical Reaction
and internodes are found. It usually consists of vegetative (ii) Dark Chemical Reaction
propagation by stems cutting or stem cutting method. Photochemical Reaction: This process takes place in the
The characteristic of seed plants in which one sperm nucleus grana part of chlorophyll. It is also called Hill Reaction.
fuses with the egg nucleus to form an embryo and another Hill reaction shows that (i) oxygen is generated from
water in the photosynthesis process and (ii) electron is
double fertilization. (CRPF Tradesman 2023) obtained from water for the reduction of CO2.
Photosynthesis: Energy for the decomposition of water comes from light.
In the process of photosynthesis, green parts of plants At the end of the process, ATP and NADPH are released
absorb solar energy and carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air as energy, which help to conduct a dark chemical reaction.
and form carbohydrates by absorbing water (H2O) from This is called Hill cycle.
the soil and releasing oxygen as a by-product. Dark Chemical Reaction: This process takes place in the
Light stroma part of chlorophyll.
6CO2 + 12 H2O C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Chlorophyll This results in the reduction of carbon dioxide to form
sugar and starch.
Terrestrial plants absorb carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere while aquatic plants absorb dissolved carbon Note : Amylum is another name for Starch found mainly
dioxide in the water. in the pulp of seeds, fruits, tubers, roots and stems of
In the process of photosynthesis, light absorption is plants, especially in corn, potatoes, wheat and rice.
followed by excitation of chlorophyll molecules by (SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1)
photons of light.
This is called PCR cycle or Calvin cycle.
The water required for photosynthesis is absorbed by
Plants that are adapted to live under plenty of sunlight are
the roots of plants and during photosynthesis, oxygen is
(Selection Post Phase XI)
released as a result of decomposition of water.
The correct sequence of processes that occur during
(Selection Post Phase XI)

(i) Light absorption Plant Hormones:

(ii) Excitation of chlorophyll molecules Plant hormones are also called phytohormones.
(iii) Transfer of electron Plant hormones are special organic compounds produced
(iv) Synthesis of energy (ATP) naturally in plants, which after transport reach other
Chlorophyll is a green pigment in leaves. This is the centre organs in very small amounts, and affect and regulate the
of photosynthesis. growth of many metabolic activities.
Anthocyanins is a water-soluble pigment belonging to a Auxin, Gibberellin and Cytokinin are growth promoters
phenolic group that is present in pomegranate, eggplant, while abscisic acid and ethylene are growth inhibitors.
black carrots and red cabbage. (SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1) Following are the major plant hormones.
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A. Auxin :
Mariculture
and fauna) for food and other products
The principal scientists related to the discovery of Auxin
were Charles Darwin and F. W. Went. Moriculture Cultivation of mulberry
Auxin formation occurs in the apical parts of the plant. Citriculture Cultivation of citrus fruits or products
The effect of Auxin leads to apical dominance in plants
Pomology The science of fruit-growing
and suppress the growth of the lateral buds. It prevents the
abscission of leaves. Hydroponics or The growing of plants without soil
B. Gibberellin: Aeroponics or
Gibberellin was discovered by Japanese Scientist Aeroculture
Kurosawa in 1926. Vegeculture The cultivation of vegetables and the
cultivation of plants (especially root
Key Terms and Related Products
crops, propagated by vegetative means)
Apiculture The raising and care of bees for
commercial (honey production) and Gibberellin is helpful in elongating the dwarf plant.
agricultural purposes (Crop pollination) Gibberellin is useful in the breaking of dormancy and the
promotion of germination of seeds.
Aviculture The breeding and rearing of birds
Aquaculture The rearing of aquatic animals or
of the plants.
cultivation of aquatic plants for food.
C. Cytokinin:
Agriculture The science, art or occupation
Naturally, it works together with Auxin.
concerned with cultivating land, raising
In the presence of Auxin, it helps in cell division and
crops and feeding, breeding and raising
growth.
livestock.
Cytokinin is helpful in the production of protein and
Algaculture A type of aquaculture under which RNA.
algae are cultivated
D. Abscisic Acid:
Sericulture It is a process of cultivating Silkworm Abscisic acid was discovered by W.C. Lew and H.R.
for the production of raw silk. Cairns.
Silviculture The cultivation of forest tree Abscisic acid is a growth hormone.
Spongiculture Cultivation of sponges Abscisic acid is helpful in keeping seeds in dormancy.
Abscisic acid plays a crucial role in the abscission of
Caniculture The breeding and rearing of dogs
leaves.
Floriculture
E. Ethylene:
Olericulture Cultivation of vegetable Ethylene is the only hormone found in the gaseous state.
Arboriculture The cultivation of trees and shrubs Ethylene helps in the ripening of fruits and increases the
Oligoculture The cultivation of a few crops or
species. Note :
Horticulture
vegetables and spices
Ostericulture 6. Ecosystem
market
Ecology: It is the branch of biology which studies the
Oleiculture Production, processing, and marketing interactions between organisms and their environments.
of olives. The word ecology is believed to have been invented by
Heliculture The farming and rearing of snails
Vermiculture Rearing of earthworms for increasing made by Reiter (1885).
agriculture production Ecologist Henry Chandler Cowles is famous for studying
plant life in the Indiana Dunes in 1896.
Viticulture Cultivation of grapevines (SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1)
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An ecosystem is an open system because an open system The entire dry mass per unit area of living beings in an
is a system in which energy and nutrients are exchanged ecosystem is called its Biomass.
between the physical environment and living organisms. The biomass of the primary producer of terrestrial
Autecology: Autecology is concerned with the study of ecosystems is more than each stage of consumers of the
an individual plant or individual plant species in relation food chain.
to the environment. In the terrestrial ecosystem, the pyramid of biomass is up-
right.
Note : Ocean is the most sustainable ecosystem.
The pyramid of the biomass in the grassland is up-right.
Synecology : It is the study of the plant community and its The pyramid of the biomass of aquatic ecosystem (pond)
relationship with the environment. is inverted in shape.
World Environment Day is celebrated on 5th June.

area or habitat are called Biotic Community. the relationship.

In terms of composition and function, the combined At each level of the food chain, the consumer converts
units of different organisms and environments are called only 10 per cent of the accumulated energy into his body
Ecosystem. weight.
Hyenas and Vultures are scavengers in the food web.
A.G. Tansley. The transfer of energy in any ecosystem is unidirectional.
The ecosystem consists of two components (a) Biotic
components (b) Abiotic components following points;
A. Biotic Components are divided into three parts - 1.
Producer, 2. Consumer, and 3. Decomposer uni-direction
1. Producer: Those components that make their own food At each energy step in food chain, the energy received
are called producers such as green plants. by the organisms is used for its own metabolism and
2. Consumer: Consumer mainly consumes food produced maintenance.
by the producer. There are three types of consumers - (i) Flow of energy follows the ecological rule of 10%.
Primary Consumer, (ii) Secondary Consumer and (ii) Ten per cent law related to the transfer of energy in
Tertiary Consumer. ecosystems has been given by Lindeman (1942).
(i) Primary Consumer: It includes herbivorous animals, who Primary producers of any ecosystem get the highest
depend on plants for food, such as cows, goats, rabbits etc. amount of energy. The primary consumer gets less energy
(ii) Secondary Consumer: Under this category those animals
come, which consume herbivorous animals i.e, primary energy.
consumers as their food, such as Frogs, Foxes, Wolves Pyramid of Energy is always up-right.
etc. Often there are a large number of primary producers in a
(ii) Tertiary Consumers: It includes lower organisms that food chain.
use primary and secondary consumers as their food, such Microorganisms in the aquatic environment are called
as Snakes, Lions, Cheetahs etc. plankton.
3. Decomposer: This includes those lower organisms which Continuous energy is required in an ecosystem.
decompose (rotten) dead producers and consumers, such According to the National forest Policy, the forest cover
as Bacteria, Fungi etc. should be 33 percent in plain area and 67 percent in the
B. Abiotic Component: It can be divided into the following hill area.
three parts – There are 18 biosphere reserves in India.
1. Climatic Components: like heat, water and air, etc. The United Nations Conference on the Human
2. Inorganic Substances: such as nitrogen, carbon, calcium, Environment (also known as the Stockholm Conference)
sulphur, phosphorus and water etc. was an international conference convened under United
3. Organic Substances: including proteins, carbohydrates Nations auspices held in Stockholm, Sweden from June
and lipids etc. 5-16, 1972.
The ultimate source of energy in any ecosystem is the
Sun. the ecosystem.
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The IUCN Red List is a critical indicator of the health of The National Green Tribunal (NGT) was established by
the world’s biodiversity. the Government of India on October 18, 2010 under the
The book is compiled and published by the International National Green Tribunal Act, 2010.
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It deals with matters related to environmental
edition of the book was published in 1964 and the latest protection, forests and other natural resources.
edition was published in 2018. Chipko movement was a non-violent movement which
The optimum pH of fertile soil is 6.5 - 7. came into existence in 1970's to protect trees from cutting
Forest Research Institute (FRI) is located in Dehra Dun. down.
Initially named as Imperial Forest Research Institute, It was initiated by the women in Uttar Pradesh’s
FRI came into being in 1906. Chamoli district (now is a part of Uttarakhand, India)
for the conservation of forests to maintain ecological
After reorganization of Forestry Research in the
balance in the environment.
country and creation of Indian Council of Forestry
The Appiko movement took place in Uttara Kannada
Research and Education (ICFRE) in 1988, the training
district of Karnataka in the Western Ghats. The movement
and research centres were given an independent status
created awareness among the villagers throughout the
of institutes.
Western Ghats about the ecological danger.
The central National Botanical Museum is located in
The Appiko Movement uses various techniques to
Kolkata (West Bengal).
Agenda 21 is a comprehensive plan of action to be taken slide shows, folk dances, street plays and so on.
globally, nationally and locally by organizations of the The Ramsar Convention was signed in in 1971 at
United Nations System, Governments, and Major Groups the small Iranian town of Ramsar. Since then, the
in every area in which human impacts on the environment. Convention on Wetlands has been known as the Ramsar
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is Convention.
the leading global authority on the environment. The Convention on Wetlands is the intergovernmental
UNEP’s mission is to inspire, inform, and enable treaty that provides the framework for the conservation
nations and peoples to improve their quality of life and wise use of wetlands and their resources.
without compromising that of future generations. World Wetlands Day, celebrated annually on 2 February,
UNEP was founded in 1972 after a UN General aims to raise global awareness about the vital role of
Assembly resolution (2997 XXVII). wetlands for people and planet.
It is headquartered in Nairobi (Kenya). This day also marks the date of the adoption of the
Greenpeace is a global network of independent national and Convention on Wetlands on 2 February 1971, in the
regional Greenpeace organizations (NROs) and Greenpeace Iranian city of Ramsar.
International as a coordinating organization. Presently 82 Ramsar sites are located in India.
It is headquartered at Amsterdam, Netherlands. Giant Salvinia
The Environment (Protection) Act was enacted in 1986 by outgrowing and replacing native plants that provide food
with the objective of providing for the protection and
(SSC Selection Phase X 2022)
improvement of the environment.
Environment Protection act, 1986 is known as 7. Pollution
'Umbrella Legislation' in India.
Pollution is the undesirable change in the physical,
The National Environmental Engineering Research
chemical and biological characteristics of air, water and
Institute (NEERI) is located in Nagpur.
land, which in any way damages the substances required
It is dedicated to environmental science and
for living organisms. Pollution is mainly of the following
engineering research as well as solving a variety of types -
challenges faced by businesses, government, and the 1. Air Pollution
general public. 2. Water Pollution
The National Environmental Engineering Research 3. Soil Pollution
Institute (NEERI), Nagpur was established in 1958 as 4. Radioactive or Nuclear Pollution
Central Public Health Engineering Research Institute 5. Noise Pollution
(CPHERI). 6. Electronic Pollution
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Substances that cause pollution are called pollutants. In the absence of ozone shield, ultraviolet rays may
Word “anthropogenic” is used by scientists in severely affect the health of the Earth’s organisms,
referring to environmental change caused or causing diseases such as mutations, skin cancers, reduced
immunity and cataracts.
A. Air Pollution: The unit of measurement of ozone layer is Dobson.
Mixing of some undesirable and environmentally It is worth mentioning that like other countries, the Air
dangerous elements in the air causes toxic changes in the Quality Index in India is prepared on the basis of eight
physical, chemical and biological properties of the air, main pollutants.
which is called Air pollution. (a) Particulate matter of < 10 micrometer size (or PM10)
Carbon monoxide (CO), Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Hydrogen
(b) Particulate matter < 2.5 micrometer in size (or PM2.5)
Fluoride (HF), Nitric Oxide (NO), Nitrogen Dioxide
(c) Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
(NO2), Ozone(O3), dust and smoke particles, are the major
air pollutants. (d) Carbon monoxide (CO)
Particles of Lead (Pb) (e) Ozone (O3)
nervous system. (f) Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Cadmium acts as a respiratory toxin and causes many (g) Ammonia (NH3)
cardiovascular diseases by increasing blood pressure. (h) Lead (Pb)
Ozone causes eye diseases, cough and chest pain. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
If silica dust is found in the iron ore dust, then those (MoEFCC) launched National Clean Air Programme
working in the mines contract Cytosilicosis disease. (NCAP) in January, 2019 with an aim to improve air
It is easier for Carbon Monoxide to react with haemoglobin quality in 131 cities (non-attainment cities and Million
in human blood about 240 to 300 times more than oxygen. Plus Cities) in 24 States/UTs by engaging all stakeholders.
B. Water Pollution:
breathing and eventually, death can also occur due to
The presence of undesirable and harmful substances or
asphyxia.
factors in water is called water pollution.
Water pollution can occur in many ways. The causes of
combustion of pulverized coal and is transported from the
pollution of drinking water are diseases causing bacteria,
combustion chamber by exhaust gases.
viruses, household detergents, toxic untreated substances
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) gases
from industries, weedicides, disinfectants and chemical
react with atmospheric water to form sulphuric acid and
fertilizers, etc.
nitric acid respectively. When it rains on the Earth mixed
Oil leaked from oil tankers quickly spreads to the surface
with rainwater, it is called Acid Rain. Acid rain is harmful
of ocean water. In this way, oil spread on the aqueous
to plants, animals and buildings.
When the pH of the rain water drops below 5.6, it is called surface is called Oil Spills.
acid rain. Acid rain refers to the ways in which acid from
the atmosphere is deposited on the earth’s surface. time causes a disease called Fluorosis. This causes rapid
Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur which are acidic in
nature can be blown by wind along with solid particles
disease called Asbestosis.
ground as dry deposition or in water, fog and snow as Minamata disease is caused by mercury or drinking
wet deposition water containing mercury.
On 3rd December, 1984, there was an accident at the Eutrophication is characterized by excessive plant and
Union Carbide, India Limited factory at Bhopal due to algal growth due to the increased availability of one or
leakage of methyl isocyanate (MIC) [C2H3NO]. This more limiting growth factors needed for photosynthesis
incident is known as the Bhopal Gas Tragedy. (Schindler 2006), such as sunlight, carbon dioxide, and
About 12-50 km above the surface of the Earth in the nutrient fertilizers.
stratosphere lies the ozone shield, which absorbs the Algal blooms are dense layers of tiny green plants that
ultraviolet rays radiated by the sun. occur on the surface of lakes and other bodies of water
when there is an overabundance of nutrients (primarily
rocarbons and Freon. phosphorus) on which algae depend.
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Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) test is conducted to Green plants that controlnoise pollution are called, 'Green
measure water pollution.
Note : Water pollution of rivers is measured by dissolved Note : Sound up to 60dB is not harmful to a healthy
oxygen. human.
C. Soil Pollution: E. Electronic Pollution:
Any unwanted change in the physical, chemical or Scientists have named invisible electromagnetic waves
biological properties of the soil that has a harmful effect emitted from television, computers and video game
on humans and other organisms or that destroys the devices etc. as electronic pollution.
natural quality of the soil is called soil pollution. Some special types of invisible rays emitting from
Various types of fertilizers, D.D.T. etc. disinfectants,
electronic devices have adverse effects not only on the
weedicides like -2, 4-D and 2,4,5-T etc., combine with the
soil to cause soil pollution, which leads to a decline in the
The six major pollutants are carbon monoxide, lead,
production potential of land.
nitrogen oxides, ground-level ozone, particle pollution
D. Nuclear Pollution:
These pollutants originate from nuclear power generation (often referred to as particulate matter), and sulfur oxides.
centres and atomic tests, which pollute water, air and soil.
C2 Zoology
These pollutants are harmful not only to the present
generation but also to future generations. Zoology studies various animals and their activities.
The following are the sources of radioactive pollution-
1. Pollution caused by fuels used in nuclear reactors.
2. Pollution arising from the use of nuclear weapons. The animal kingdom is mainly divided into two subgroups
3. Pollution arising from waste materials discharged from – A. Unicellular Animal and B. Multicellular Animal
nuclear power stations.
A. Unicellular Animal:
A unicellular animal is placed in a single Phylum
5. Pollution arising from the Sun’s ultraviolet rays.
Protozoan.
6. Pollution arising from radioactive materials used in
Phylum Protozoa:
research.
The body of organisms of the phylum Protozoa is made up
In the Second World War, atomic bombings on Hiroshima
and Nagasaki on 6 August, 1945 and 9 August, 1945, of only one cell.
respectively, caused the loss of millions of lives in The protozoa is both free-living or parasitic.
addition to many diseases in their offsprings. One or more nuclei are found in the organisms of the
On 28 March, 1979 in the US, there was also a severe Protozoa phylum.
mishap at the Three Mile Island Reactor. Protozoan movement is caused by Pseudopodia, Flagella
On 26 April, 1986, there was an accident in the reactor in or Cilia.
Chernobyl, Ukraine, which was the most damaging and All biological functions (digestion, respiration, excretion,
reproduction etc.) take place inside the body. Respiratory
In March 2011, there was an accident in Japan’s and excretory action in protozoa occurs by diffusion from
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear reactor. the cell surface.
E. Noise Pollution: Infection of Entamoeba Histolytica causes a disease
Undesirable noise or noise present in the atmosphere is called amoebic dysentery or amoebiasis.
called noise pollution. Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium etc. are organisms of the
Many types of vehicles, such as motor-cars, buses, jet- Protozoa phylum.
aircraft, tractors, railway engines, generators, loud- B. Multicellular Animals:
speakers, televisions, radios, and sirens of factories and
Multicellular animals are divided into 9 phyla Porifera,
machines, cause noise pollution.
Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida,
The unit of loudness or noise is the decibel (dB).
Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata and Chordata.
and hard of hearing people. The sound of 5dB is extremely 1. Phylum Porifera:
low, 75dB is moderately high, 95dB is extremely loud and Animals of Phylum Porifera are aquatic, mostly found in
sound over 120dB is very annoying. marine.
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Organisms of phylum Porifera show the cellular level of Pseudocoel cavity present in nematoda.
body organisation. Excretion in organisms of the phylum Nematoda is by
The organisms of phylum Porifera are multicellular, but protonephridia.
they lack tissues. Usually unisexual with sexual dimorphism.
The main body cavity is called Spongocoel in which water The organism 'Enterobius' (pinworm or threadworm) of
enters through numerous microscopic holes (Ostias) and this phylum is found mainly in the anus of young children.
exits through a large exhalant opening or Osculum. It causes children to choke, reduce hunger and also to
Sycon (Scypha), Leucosolenia, Euplectella, Spangilla etc. vomit.
are organisms of phylum Porifera. Roundworms (Ascaris), Threadworm, Wuchereria etc. are
2. Phylum Coelenterata: organisms of the phylum Nematoda.
The organisms of the phylum Coelenterata are aquatic, 5. Phylum Annelida:
mostly marine which are solitary or colonial. Their body is long, slender, bilaterally symmetrical True
The animals of the phylum Coelenterata are dimorphic. coelom and distinctly segmented.
The two primary cellular levels in the body are the outer Motion is mainly by setae made of chitin.
epidermis and the inner gastrodermis. In the middle of A well-developed and complete digestive system is
these, there is a jelly-like layer called Measoglea. present in Annelida.
The mouth is surrounded by thread-like sensory tentacles, Respiration is usually through the skin and in some by
which help in catching food etc. gills.
Haemoglobin is dissolved in plasma.
organisms of the phylum Coelenterata. Annelids are monoecious and dioecious.
3. Phylum Platyhelminthes: Earthworms, Leeches, Nereis etc. are the organisms of the
Most of the members of the phylum Platyhelminthes are phylum Annelida.
parasites of other animals (mainly vertebrates) and some Annelida is a phylum of animals found in fresh water
members are pathogenic. ponds, lakes and swamps and provides setae or parapodia
Triploblastic body formation, but the body cavity is for locomotion. (SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1)

absent. 6. Phylum Mollusca:

The body of organisms of the Phylum Platyhelminthes is Most of the molluscan are marine, some inhabit
freshwater and some terrestrially in damp soil.
Digestive system (incomplete) and excretory system Respiration in the organism of the phylum Mollusca is
(Flame cells) and reproductive system are absent from through gills (ctenidia).
phylum Coelenterata. Shell is always present in the organisms of the phylum
Phylum Coelenterata lacks typical skeletal, vascular and Mollusca.
respiratory systems. Digestion, circulation, excretion and nervous system
Liver Fluke, Schistosoma, Taenia etc. are organisms of develop.
phylum Platyhelminthes. The radula is the main feeding organ and also very
Flame cells help in osmoregulation in Platyhelminthes.
(SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1) gastropod) taxonomy.
Platyhelminthes group of Kingdom Animalia has The blood is colourless or blue due to the presence of
unsegmented, bilaterally symmetrical, soft bodies, with a hemocyanin.
triploblastic construction (comprising three layers of cells) Excretion is often by metanephridia. Examples - snail,
and a lacking coelom, skeleton and anus. (SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1) conch, octopus etc. are organisms of phylum Mollusca.
4. Phylum Nematoda: Pearl is formed between the mantle and shell after the
The body of organism of the phylum Nematoda is
bilaterally symmetrical, elongate and usually tapered depend upon the light penetration.
at both ends. Nematodes, also called roundworms, are 7. Phylum Arthropoda:
among the most abundant animal on Earth. The body of the organisms of the Phylum Arthropoda
The alimentary tract is straight with a terminal mouth and is usually divided into three parts (head, thorax and
anus. abdomen).
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Each segment usually bears a pair of lateral jointed

appendages adapted for food ingestion, locomotion, etc. are the organisms of Phylum Echinodermata.
respiration, copulation etc.
Note : The function of Aristotle's Lantern found in the
In these, the circulatory system is open.
alimentary system of sea urchins is to chew food.
The body cavity of the organisms of the phylum
Arthropoda is called haemocoel. 9. Phylum Chordata:
The Malpighian Tubules (MTs) are the main excretory The organisms of the Phylum Chordata have a spinal cord
organs in most insects. or notochord.
They play a key role producing primary urine and The dorsal tubular central nervous system is present in the
osmoregulation, selectively reabsorbing water, ions, midline of the body.
Pharyngeal gill-slits are present in the embryonic stage of
and solutes.
all chordates.
Besides these functions conserved in most insects,
The Phylum Chordata is divided into three sub-phyla
MTs can serve some specialized tasks at different
-Urochordata, Cephalochordata and Vertebrata.
stages of some species’ development.
Major Classes of Phylum Chordata:
Respiration through gills (aquatic forms) or tracheae or
book lungs (terrestrial forms). A. Pisces:
Green Gland- It is also known as the antennal gland or All animals in the Pisces are asymmetric.
maxillary gland. All the animals of the Pisces are aquatic.
In some species, the organs are also called green gland Respiration occurs through Gills.
or antennal gland because of their colour and location Their heart is two-chambered and contains only venous
(e.g., Astacus). blood.
In some fish, the skeleton is made of cartilage, such
In some freshwater crustacean species, the organs are
as Sharks, Scoliodon (Dog fish) and in some made
situated near the maxillary segments and are called
of bones. Such as Rohu (Lobea rohita), Sea horse
maxillary glands. It is a simple structure.
(Hippocampus) etc.
The green glands have a round bulbous end sac, a
long coiled tube like labyrinth and a bulbous bladder Important Information
opening outside by excretory pore.
Largest living Bird Ostrich
In the organisms of the phylum Arthropoda sexes mostly
separate with sexual dimorphism. Largest Ape Gorilla
Insecta is a major class of the phylum Arthropoda. Largest Egg Ostrich
The insects ideally have three pairs of legs.
Largest Terrestrial Mammal African Elephant
A cockroach has 13 chambers in the heart.
The bees, ants and termites found in this phylum are social Largest and the Heaviest Mammal Blue Whale
insects. Smallest Mammal Shrew
Cockroach, Lobster, Crab, Grasshopper, Musca, Mosquito, Smallest Bird Humming Bird
etc. are common organisms found in this phylum.
Fastest Running Animal Cheetah
Lignin is not the main component of the exoskeletons of
arthropods. (SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1) Marsupials Kangaroo
8. Phylum Echinodermata: Egg-laying Mammal Echidna and Duck
All animals in the Phylum Echinodermata are inhabitants billed Platypus
of the sea. B. Amphibia:
Water Vascular System is found in the organisms of the Animals of this class are amphibians, i.e., adapted for both
phylum Echinodermata. aquatic and terrestrial life.
Organisms of the Phylum Echinodermata have tube feet Amphibians are cold-blooded.
for locomotion, feeding and respiration. Respiration in organisms of this class usually occurs
Echinodermata has a relatively less developed nervous through the skin, gills and lungs.
system and sensory organs. Three-chambered heart is (two arteries and one ventricle)
They have extensive power of regeneration. found in Amphibians.
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The tadpole is the larval stage of annular amphibians, The uropygial gland, or preen gland, is a bilobed holocrine
such as frogs and toads. This early life stage more closely gland located dorsally at the base of the trunk.
The syrinx is the vocal organ of birds.
During tadpole stage, the body is characterized by two Generally, the urinary bladder is absent in birds.
In females, the left ovary often develops.
Pigeon, Crow, Sparrow, Cuckoo, etc. are the creatures of
Frog, bufo, salamander, etc. are an examples of the class Aves.
Amphibians. Note : 1. The cuckoo lays its eggs in other bird's nests.
C. Reptilia: Note : 2. Khanjan birds come from Siberia to India only
This class consists mainly of terrestrial animals. for nutrition, not for reproduction.
Reptilians are cold-blooded animals, i.e., hetro-thermic. Note :
The skeleton of reptiles is completely made up of bones. Note : 4. Balanoglossus belongs to Hemichordata
Respiratory activity in reptiles is done by the lungs. phylum of the animal kingdom.(SSC MTS, 2022)
In these, the heart is usually three-chambered while the
Mammalia:
crocodile is only the reptile that has a four-chambered
Mammalians are homeothermic i.e., warm-blooded
heart. animals.
The eggs of reptiles are covered with calcareous shells. Sweat and oil glands are found on the skin of mammals.
For locomotion, some have legs while some animals (like The heart of mammals has four chambers (two atria and
snakes) are footless. two ventricle).
maxillary Teeth appear twice in the life of most members of this
teech. class.
Snakes, Crocodiles, Lizards, Turtles etc. are examples of The red blood cells in mammals are devoid of a nucleus
reptiles. (except the camel and the lama).
Note : 1. King Cobra (Nagraj) is the only snake to make Pinna is a characteristic feature of all mammals.
a nest. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves in the class
Note : 2. Sea snake (Hydrophis) is the most venomous Mammalia.
nake in the world. Mammalia is divided into the following three sub-classes–
Note : 3. The Mesozoic Era is called the era of reptiles. 1. Proththeria- These are egg-laying. E.g. Echidna,
Platypus.
D. Aves:
2. Metatheria- They give birth to a premature baby who
The forelimbs of birds are transformed into feathers,
lives in a sac called marsupial until they develop. E.g.
Kangaroo Opassum etc.
The jaw is a set of bones that holds teeth. It consists of two
3. Eutheria - They give birth to fully grown babies. E.g.
main parts.
Humans, Elephants, Squirrels etc.
The upper part is the maxilla. It doesn't move.
Rat is an example of Phylum Mammalia of Animal
The moveable lower part is called the mandible. You
Kingdom. (SSC MTS, 2022)
move it when you talk or chew.
Kupffer cells are found in the liver of mammls.
The two halves of the mandible meet at your chin.
(SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1)
The joint where the mandible meets your skull is the
temporomandibular joint. Note : Flatworms an endoparasited found in animals.
Birds have a four-chambered heart with two arteries and (SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1)

two ventricles. Animal Tissue:

Birds are homeothermic, i.e., warm-blooded animals. Tissue is a group of cells that have similar structure and
Bird is NOT an example of "viviparous" animals. that function together as a unit.
(SSC MTS, 2022) A nonliving material, called the intercellular matrix,
Aves or birds breathe through the lungs.
The bones of birds are hollow (Pneumatic bones), they do This may be abundant in some tissues and minimal in
not contain bone marrow. others.
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Histology is the microscopic study of tissues and There are three types of muscular tissue - (a) Striated
organs through sectioning, staining, and examining Muscles, (b) Unstriated Muscles and (c) Cardiac
those sections under a microscope. Muscles.
Otology is a branch of medicine. It studies normal and (a) Striated or Stripped Muscles:
pathological anatomy and physiology of the ear as Stripped or striated muscles are often found in those parts
well as its diseases, diagnosis, and treatment. of the animal's body, which function at their own will.
The term 'tissue' was introduced by Xavier Bichat in Therefore, they are also called Voluntary Muscles.
the year 1801. Most of the striated muscles are attached to bones at both
The tissues found in the body of animals can be divided ends, hence they are also called Skeletal Muscles.
into the following categories. Movement of hand feet and body are responsible through
(1) Epithelial Tissue these muscles.
(2) Connective Tissue (b) Unstriated or Unstipped Muscles:
(3) Muscular Tissue Unstripped muscular tissue is present on the walls of organs
(4) Nervous Tissue that move involuntarily; Such as alimentary canal, urinary
bladder, gall bladder, uterus, blood vessels etc.
1. Epithelial Tissue:
Unstriped muscles are also known as Involuntary muscles.
Ruysch
Unstripped muscles control spontaneous movements.
Epithelial tissue is present on the outer, inner, or
(c) Cardiac Muscles:
independent surfaces of animals.
In composition, these muscles are similar to the striated
Epithelial tissue lacks blood cells.
muscles but the work is similar to the unstripped muscles.
The epithelium mainly acts as a protective covering for the
Cardiac muscles are found only in the heart walls.
body and internal organs (Lungs, Heart, Kidney etc.).
If the nerves that go into the heart are cut and removed, the
Epithelium Protects the cells of internal tissues from injury,
heart will still keep beating at its normal rate.
harmful substances and bacteria.
The largest muscle of the human body is gluteus maximus
(hip muscle) and the smallest muscle is stapedius.
to many tubular organs (Respiratory, Genitals, Ureters etc.).
4. Neural or Nervous Tissue:
The epithelium of skin or other sensory organs works to
The nervous system of organisms is made up of these
receive sensation.
tissues.
2. Connective Tissue: The function of nerve tissue is to move the nerve impulse
Connective tissues are most widely distributed through from one part of the body to another.
out the body. Specialized Cells for the transport of impulses are called
They make up about 30 persent of the body. nerve cells or Neurons.
Connective tissues are found in the inner and outer sides Neurons are the structural and functional units of nerve
of each organ and between different organs. tissue.
Connective tissues work to connect organs and their various
tissues. 9. Human Body
Fluid connective tissue (blood and lymph) also helps in A. Digestive System
transport. The entire process of digestion of food in the human body
Connective tissues also act to control body temperature and
prevent diseases. 1. Ingestion
There are three major categories of connective tissue- 2. Digestion
(a) Connective Tissue proper 3. Absorption
(b) Skeletal Tissue and 4. Assimilation
(c) Vascular Tissue. 5. Defecation
3. Muscular Tissue: 1. Ingestion: Consumption of food in the mouth is called
Muscular tissue is also called Contractile Tissue. Ingestion.
Muscular tissue makes up about 40 to 50 per cent of the 2. Digestion: The conversion of complex food into simple
body. substances in the presence of water is called Digestion.
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Digestive Organs: The digestion of food takes place in The tongue helps in chewing and swallowing food as well
the alimentary canal located in the abdominal cavity of our as controlling voices.
body. The food starts from the mouth cavity and passes out Salivary Glands:
as waste material from the anus through the oesophagus, Three pairs of salivary glands are found around the jaws
stomach, duodenum, small intestine and large intestine. of humans.
The average length of the alimentary canal of man is 8–10 Saliva secretes from the salivary glands.
m, in which the longest is the small intestine (about 6 m). Saliva contains about 99 per cent water and 1 per cent
In humans, the small intestine is divided into Duodenum, portion contains enzymes, proteins, salts etc.
Jejunum and Ileum respectively and the large intestine is Saliva contains Ptylin (Salivary amylase) which break
divided into the cecum, colon and rectum respectively. starch into sugar.
About 4 inches from the cecum the Vermiform Appendix is Saliva assists in chewing and swallowing food that reaches
attached to it, which is considered a vestigial organ because the mouth cavity.
it is of no use. Some enzymes present in saliva (such as lysozyme) destroy
In addition, liver, pancreas and salivary glands also help in the bacteria coming in the mouth with food.
digestion.
Digestion: Catalytic enzymes made from the protein in
Key Organs for Digestion
our alimentary canal digest food. For example, the enzyme Digestion in Stomach:
present in saliva in the oral cavity, the enzyme present in As soon as food reaches the stomach through the
gastric juice in the stomach. Enzymes of pancreatic juice oesophagus, peristalsis starts from the stomach towards
in the duodenum, enzymes of intestinal juice in the small the pyloric part.
intestine perform chemical action on food. There is no Due to peristalsis, the gastric juice gets mixed with food to
digestion in the oesophagus and large intestine. covert into a thin paste-like white pulp called Chyme.
Magnesium Hydroxide is used as an antacid to neutralize The gastric juice is secreted by the pyloric glands present
stomach acidity. (SSC MTS, 2022) in the stomach wall.
Human Dentition: The high acidity (pH 1.0 to 3.0) of gastric juice is due to
There are 16 teeth in each of both jaws in a human being. the hydrochloric acid present in it.
In total, both jaws have 32 teeth. Hydrochloric acid makes the food medium acidic and
On each side of each jaw, there are two incisors, one canine, eliminates the effects of saliva on food.
two premolars and three molar teeth. Gastric juice contains enzymes called pepsin and renin.
Following is the dental formula of an adult man. Pepsin breaks down proteins and converts them into simpler
2 1 2 3 8 16 substances, peptones and protease.
I , C , PM , M = × 2 = = 32 Renin helps in the digestion of milk proteins.
2 1 2 3 8 16
Digestion in Small Intestine:
Human teeth generate twice. First in infancy 20 teeth come
out, which are called milk teeth. Whose dental formula is
is done in the small intestine.
as follows –
The small intestine is mainly formed of three parts,
2 1 0 2 5 10 duodenum, jejunum and ileum, with lengths of 30 cm, 2.5
I , C , PM , M = × 2 = = 20
2 1 0 2 5 10 m and 3.5 m respectively.
The upper layer of teeth is mainly made of calcium Pancreatic juice, secreted by the pancreas is mixed with
phosphate and calcium carbonate. Enamel is the hardest food in duodenum. It contains following major enzymes -
substance in the whole body. A. Trypsin: It breaks down proteins into proteases and
Tongue: peptones.
The tongue is a muscular muscle on the surface of the oral B. Amylase: It works and breaks down chyme starch,
cavity. glycogen, and other polysaccharides (other than
There are small buds on the surface of the tongue, whose cellulose) into disaccharide sugars called maltose.
function is to gain knowledge of the taste of food. It is only C. Lipase:
through taste buds that we can understand the sour, sweet fatty acids.
and pungent taste. Intestinal juice contains enzymes such as maltose, sucrose,
The front part of the tongue is made to feel sweet, the back lactose, enterokinase, intestinal lipase, nucleases, to digest
part is bitter and both the sides are made to feel sour. nutrients.
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Intestinal juice is alkaline and about 2 litres of intestinal Insulin :

juice is secreted daily in a healthy human body. Insulin was discovered by Banting and Best.
Digestion of food is completed in the small intestine where Insulin controls the action of glycogen formation by
it is absorbed. glucose.
3. Absorption:
Absorption of digested food into blood is called Absorption. Excess of insulin causes hypoglycemia.
For this activity to happen, there is a unique structure called Note : Diabetes is caused due to excess amount of
Villi on the inner surface of the small intestine wall. glucose in the blood.
4. Assimilation:
Glucagon reverts glycogen into glucose.
The process of using absorbed food in the body is called Somatostatin is a polypeptide hormone that increases the
assimilation. period of assimilation of foods.
Assimilated substances are called metabolites. B. Circulatory System
5. Defecation: The process of blood circulation was discovered by William
After absorption, the remaining part of the chyme in the Harvey.
large intestine takes the form of faeces or stool which passes The following four major parts fall under the blood
out through the anus. circulation system are- (1) Heart (2) Arteries (3) Veins and
Liver: (4) Blood.
It is the largest gland in human body. Heart :
It converts an excess amount of glucose into glycogen and Heart is surrounded by pericardium.
also converts glycogen into glucose when needed. The average weight of the heart in an adult human is about
The liver converts excess protein into carbohydrates. 300 gram.
Fibrinogen protein is produced in the liver, which helps to The heart is the central organ of the blood circulation
form a blood clot with vitamin K. system.
Heparin protein is also produced in the liver, which does The heart has four chambers. In the front portion, there is
not allow blood coagulation inside the body. a right auricle and a left auricle while in the back, there
is a right ventricle and a left ventricle.
The liver also destroys dead RBCs.
There is a bicuspid valve between the left atrium and the
The liver synthesizes bile.
left ventricle. It is also called Mitral Valve.
Bile is stored in the gall bladder.
Tricuspid valve occurs between the right atrium and right
ventricle.
the bile duct, which makes digestion of fat easier.
The heart beats about 72 to 75 times per minute.
Bile destroys bacteria present in food. In the fetus, the heart beats about 150 times per minute.
When the bile duct is obstructed, the liver cells stop The heart pumps about 70 ml of blood per beat.
absorbing the bilirubin from blood, causing it to spread A heartbeat wave is initiated by the Sino-Atrial Node (S.A.
throughout the body, known as jaundice. Node).
Pancreas: A pacemaker is a small battery-operated device that helps
The pancreas is considered as the second largest gland in the heart beat in a regular rhythm.
the human body.
It has features of both Endocrine and Exocrine glands. wires (leads) and sensors (electrodes). Some newer
The pancreas secretes alkaline pancreatic juice. pacemakers are wireless.
The pancreas contains enzymes to digest all three main food Normal human blood pressure is 120/80 mm Hg, with
carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Thus, the pancreatic juice systolic 120mm and diastolic 80 Hg.
is called a complete digestive juice. Medical Devices Uses
Steapsin, the enzyme which converts fats into fatty acids
Stethoscope Used to measure the heart rate
and glycerol, is secreted by Pancreas. (SSC MTS, 2022)
Pacemaker when the heart rate is high or
Islets of Langerhans:
low, it is used to bring it to the
The island of Langerhans is a part of the pancreas.
normal state

rmone. Sphygmomanometer Used to measure blood pressure.

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Computed Tomography It is used to detect any abnormality C. Lymph Circulatory System

Scan (CT Scan) or deformity in the entire body. It is the portion of lymph tissue that reaches into the lymph
(ECF). It is
Electrocardiogram (ECG) Used to detect cardiac
light yellow or colourless substance.
abnormalities.
Electroencephalograph Lymph contains white blood cells only.
(EEG) abnormalities of the brain Granules found in the lymph are called lymphocytes.
Auto Analyzer Used to check glucose, urea,
cholesterol etc. organs to the heart.
MRI MRI-Magnetic Resonance Functions of Lymph:
Imaging can detect abnormalities Lymphocytes are formed by lymph.
or deformities throughout the Lymphocytes present in the lymph protect the body from
body. diseases by subsuming harmful bacteria.
Under the immunity system, Lymph destroys pathogenic
The blood pressure measuring device is called a
substances, bacteria and viruses etc. Lymph helps heal the
Sphygmomanometer.
wound.
The CO2 present in the blood increases the heart rate by
lowering the pH in the blood. trapping dust particles, bacteria, cancer cells, etc.
Excess acidity in the body increases heart beating rate, while Lacteals or the lymph cells present in the small intestine
excessive alkalinity makes beating rate reach abnormal wall absorb fat.
levels. The lymph nodes, spleen, thymus gland, tonsils and red
Veins : bone marrow are the major lymphoid organs.
A blood vessel carrying blood, from the body to the heart Blood:
is called a Vein.
The vein contains impure blood, i.e, blood containing
Blood is an alkaline solution which has a pH value of 7.4.
carbon dioxide, but as an exception in the pulmonary vein, Women possess about a litre less blood than men.
there is pure blood (oxygen-rich blood). The pulmonary Adult humans usually have 5 to 6 litres of blood in their
vein carries blood from lungs to the left atrium which is bodies.
Blood has two major constituents-(1) Plasma and (2) Blood
Artery: Corpuscles.
The blood vessels that carry blood from the heart to the 1. Plasma:
body are called arteries. about 55 percent of the blood.
The arteries contain pure blood, i.e, oxygenated blood, but Plasma contains 91% to 92% of water and 8% to 9%
as exception, the pulmonary artery supplies impure blood.
The pulmonary artery carries blood from the right
ventricle to the lungs. Through it, various types of chemical substances (food
items, proteins, minerals, hormones, gases, etc.) are
heart while impure blood (blood containing carbon dioxide) transported.
Serum:
The vessels that carry blood to the heart muscle are called the remaining plasma is called Serum.
Coronary Arteries. 2. Blood Corpuscles: Blood corpuscles constitute about 45
A heart attack occurs when the coronary artery is obstructed percent of the blood. The following types of corpuscles are
due to some reason. found in the blood.
The path of blood in the heart or circulation of blood has A. RBCs Red Blood Corpuscles or Erythrocytes):
the following order - Red blood cells are found only in the blood of vertebrats
Left atrium left ventricle aorta various body parts and make up about 40 percent of the blood.
inferior and superior venacava right atrium right These contain 99 per cent of the total blood corpuscles.
ventricle pulmonary artery lung pulmonary vein Heme pigment and globin protein are found in red blood
left atrium (pure blood with oxygen). cells.
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The colour of blood is red due to the presence of Blood group A - antigen-A and antibody-b
Haemoglobin pigment. Blood group B - antigen-B and antibody-a
The main function of haemoglobin is to transport oxygen. Blood group AB - antigens both A and B but no antibodies
Anemia. present.
B. White blood cells (W.B.C. or Leucocytes): Blood group O - antigen absent, but both antibody-a and b
Their main function is to provide protection to the body. present.
Blood Transfusion :
Basophils, (3) Neutrophils, (4) Monocytes and (5) Blood group has special importance in blood transfusion
Lymphocytes. There are also two types of lymphocytes- (A) when received by somebody. Based on this, blood is offered
'B' lymphocytes and (B). 'T' lymphocytes. according to the following chart.
The presence of excessive amount of white blood cells in Recipient Blood Group
the blood is called Leukemia. it is also called Blood Cancer.
The largest W.B.C in size is monocytes. Blood Donor Group A B AB O
The most protective W.B.C. is lymphocytes. A Yes No Yes No
C. Blood Platelets:
B No Yes Yes No
The major contribution of platelets is in the formation of
blood clots. AB No No Yes No
Blood platelets are found only in mammalian types of blood. O Yes Yes Yes Yes
In a normal human body, the amount of blood is 7-8 per
Therefore, blood group AB is called the universal recipient
cent of its weight (5-6 litres on average).
and blood group O is called the universal donor.
The blood covers about 1 / 13th of the body.
The Rh factor in the blood of the rhesus monkey was
The amount of haemoglobin is about 15 grams per 100 ml
discovered by Landsteiner and Wiener.
of blood.
According to Karl Landsteiner, the following four
The amount of glucose is about 80–120 ml per decilitre
categories of humans are based on different blood groups
blood.
and antigens present in them.
In the body, blood formation takes place in the red bone
marrow. Serial
Blood group Antigen Antibody
The accumulation of excess blood or the blood bank of the No.
body is located in the Spleen. 1. A A Anti- B or b
In the body, the lifespan of R.B.C. is about 120 days. 2. B B Anti- A or a
Spleen is called the Graveyard of RBCs.
3. AB A and B None
4. O None Both a and b
Note : A hemocytometer determines the number of
According to Bernstein, ABO blood group is a genetic
RBCs.
characteristic of human.
Note : The blood platelets are also known as throm-
bocytes. (SSC MTS, 2022) Mother-Father Blood Groups of Offspring
Note : Anticoagulants are commonly known as blood Blood Group Possible Impossible
thinners. (SSC MTS, 2022)
O×O O A,B,AB
Blood Group: O×A
The blood group was discovered by Karl Landsteiner. O,A B,AB
A×A
Variability in the blood is due to the presence of
B×B
glycoproteins in red blood particles, called Antigen. O,B A,AB
O×B
Antigens are of two types (1) Antigen - A and (2) Antigen
A×B O,A,B,AB -
- B.
Antibody - These special types of proteins are found in A × AB
A,B O,AB
plasma in the absence of antigens, which are of two types A × AB
- (1) Antibody- a (2) Antibody – b. B × AB
There are four types of blood groups based on antigens and AB × AB A, B, AB O
antibodies. A × AB

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D. Excretory System About 125 millilitres per minute or 180 litres per day
Excretion: The removal of toxic wastes from the body of
organisms is called excretion. In other words, excretion litres of urine is produced per day.
refers to the removal of nitrogenous excretory substances Urine contains typically 95% water, 2% ions of unnecessary
such as ammonia, urea, uric acid etc. salts, 2.6% urea, 0.3% creatinine, uric acid, etc.
Following are the primary excretory organs in humans- 1. The urine is light yellow due to the Urochrome pigment
Skin, 2. Lungs, 3. Liver, 4. Kidneys present in it.
Skin: The pH value of the urine is 6.
Sweat glands of the skin excrete water, CO2, urea and salts Often the stones formed in the kidney are made of calcium
in the form of sweat. oxalate.
The oily glands of the skin secrete sebum. Irregularity in the functioning of the kidney increases the
amount of urea in blood. This is called Uremia.
Lungs:
Dialysis is a treatment for people whose kidneys are failing.
The exhalation of carbon dioxide formed as a result of
oxidation of carbohydrates in the cells of the body is
blood the way they should.
performed mainly in the lungs during respiration process.
As a result, wastes and toxins build up in your blood-
The lungs also emit volatile components of certain foods
stream.
such as garlic, onions and some spices.
Dialysis does the work of your kidneys, removing waste
Liver:

Main Excretory Products of Animals

converting nitrogenous substances of excess amino acids
and ammonia of blood etc. into urea. Amino Acids: Excessive amino acids are excreted as
soon as possible by some animals like a mussel, snail,
Kidney:
some Echinodermata etc. This type of excretion is called
The kidney is a bean-shaped organ of dark red colour.
Aminotelic excretion or Aminotelism.
In humans and other mammals, it is present in a pair.
Ammonia-NH3: In most animals, ammonia produced
Its outer part is called Cortex and the inner part is called
as a result of the deamination process is highly toxic
Medulla.
and soluble in water. Often aquatic animals, with large
Each kidney is made up of about 10,00,000 renal tubules
amounts of water, emit it quickly. Such emission is called
called Nephrons. ammonotelism. Such excretion occurs in Protozoa,
The renal tubule or nephron is the structural and functional Porifera, Cnidaria, Annelida, Numerous Mollusca,
unit of the kidney. Arthropoda, Fishes, Turtles, Amphibian Tadpoles.
Apart from urine formation, osmotic control (balance of Urea: Most terrestrial animals (adult amphibians and all
water and minerals) is also an important function of the mammals) and such aquatic animals which cannot afford
kidney. to lose of much water, convert ammonia into urea and emit
Urine is formed in the renal tubules in which the excretory it. Such type of excretion is called Uricotelic Excretion or
substances remain dissolved. Ureotelism.
Each renal tubule is divided into four major parts - Uric Acid
1. Bowman's Capsule snails, etc.) in dry environments that need to store water
2. Proximal Convoluted Tubule make uric acid from ammonia. It is not toxic. Hence, these
can be retained in the body for a considerable period of
3. Henle's Loop
time before being discharged from the body. This is called
4. Distal Convoluted Tubule
uricotilic excretion or Uricotelism.
The pit of the Bowman's Capsule contains a dense cluster
Trimethylamine Oxide: This substance is soluble in water,
of thin blood cells called the glomerulus. but not toxic. Many marine animals excrete it.
The glomerulus and the Bowman's capsule together are Guanine: There is absolutely no need for water in its
called Malpighian Corpuscle. excretion. Spiders excrete their nitrogenous substances as
guanine.
remove unnecessary and waste materials from it. E. Nervous System
The blood supply to the kidney is very high (about 20-25% In organisms body, there is a network of thin cells called
of the total blood) compared to other organs. nerves.
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The nervous system receives the information of atmospheric The main functions of the medulla oblongata are to control
changes from the sensory organs and transmits them at a heart beating rate and intensity, respiration rate, food
rapid rate in the form of electrical impulses and establishes ingestion, vomiting, coughing, sneezing, hiccups, taste,
functional coordination between different parts of the body. secretion of saliva, hearing balance and movement of the
Schwann cells also called neurilemma cells, are the main tongue.
glial cells in the PNS and play an essential role in the Spinal Cord: Spinal cord is the posterior part of the medulla
survival and functions of neurons. (SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1) oblongata. Its main functions are as follows –
The human nervous system is mainly divided into three
parts – It carries stimuli to and from the brain.
(I) Central Nervous System Both the above functions of the spinal cord are essential
(II) Peripheral Nervous System for Homeostasis.
(III) Autonomic Nervous System Marshall Hall.
(I) Central Nervous System: The central nervous system II. Peripheral Nervous System: It consists of nerves
controls the body responses of animals. The brain and spinal emanating from the central nervous system.
cord are covered by it. There are two types of peripheral nerves-(1), Cranial nerves
(a) Brain: The brain of man is safe in the cranial cavity of the related to the brain and (2) Spinal nerves related to the spinal
skull. cord.
The human brain weighs about 1.3–1.4 kg. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal
The brain has three major parts, viz., forebrain, midbrain nerves in the human body.
and hindbrain. III. Autonomic Nervous System: The Autonomic Nervous
System (ANS) is that part of the peripheral nervous system
The cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus are part of the
that regulates and controls the functions of visceral organs.
forebrain.
Some of it is made up of cranial nerves and some of spinal
Cerebellum, medulla oblongata and pons Varolii are parts
nerves.
of the hindbrain.
Autonomic Nervous System can be divided into two parts -
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain.
1. Sympathetic Nervous System
Cerebrum: It is the centre of intelligence, will power,
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System
voluntary motions, knowledge, learning, memory, speech
Functions of the Sympathetic Nervous System:
and thinking. It is an analysis and coordination centre of
1. It dilates the pupil.
inspiration derived from the senses.
2 It reduces the secretion from salivary glands.
Thalamus: It gives the feeling of heat, pain, touch etc.
3. It increases blood pressure by contracting blood vessels.
Hypothalamus: Its main function is to control the
4. It increases the rate of heart-beat.
hormones secreted by endocrine glands. Thus, it contains
5. It stimulates the secretion of hormones from adrenal glands.
the centres which control hunger, thirst, temperature, love,
6. It relaxes the muscles of the urinary bladder.
hatred etc. It also regulates feelings of anger, aggression, 7. It stimulates the secretion of sweat.
emotions, pain, happiness and pleasure. It controls the 8. It reduces the rate of peristalsis by relaxing the muscles of
rhythm of sleep and daily activities. the alimentary canal.
The corpora quadrigemina and cerebral peduncle are part 9. It increases the number of red blood cells in the blood.
of the midbrain. 10. This prevents the external genitalia from being stimulated
Corpora Quadrigemina: It is the controlling centre of but encourages ejaculation.
vision and hearing. Functions of the Parasympathetic Nervous System:
Cerebral Peduncle: It is also called Crura Cerebri, which 1. It contracts the pupil of the eye.
connects other parts of the brain to the spinal cord. 2. It stimulates the secretion of salivary glands and lacrimal
Cerebellum : This is located in the upper part of the glands.
hindbrain. It is the second-largest part of the hindbrain 3. It reduces blood pressure by dilating the blood vessels in
after cerebrum. Its function is to maintain the balance of the skin.
the body and control the contraction of voluntary muscles. 4. It reduces the rate of heartbeat.
It coordinates all skilful actions. 5. It reduces the secretion of hormones of the adrenal glands.
Medulla Oblongata: This is the lower part of the hind 6. It contracts the muscles of the urinary bladder for urination.
brain, and is often called only the medulla. 7. It stimulates the external genitals.
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Arthroplasty is a surgical procedure to restore the function

Note : The functions of the parasympathetic nervous
of a joint.
system are generally reversed to those of the sympathetic
A joint can be restored by resurfacing the bones.
nervous system.
A unit of nerve tissue is called a neuron or nerve cell. We can divide the entire vertebral column into the following
Nerve cells are the longest cells of the body.
Sensory or Afferent nerve cells transmit impulses from 1. Cervical Vertebrae in neck - 7
peripheral organs and transport them to the central nervous 2. Thoracic Vertebrae in the thorax - 12
system. 3. Lumbar Vertebrae in Lumbar - 5
The motor or efferent nerve cells transmit impulses from 4. Sacrum at base of Lumber - 1 (5 in infants)
the central nervous system to the peripheral organs. 5. Coccyx in the Pelvis - 1 (4 in infants)
Synapses refer to the points of contact between neurons atlas. It supports the
where information is passed from one neuron to the next. weight of the skull.
Synapses mostly form between axons and dendrites. Sternum, ribs and vertebral column form the skeletons of
Epilepsy is a disorder resulting in abnormal electrical our neck and thorax.
discharges from the brain cells causing seizures. (SSC CGL
2021) bone and is located along the body's midline in the anterior
F. Skeletal System thoracic region.
Skeletal system gives shape to all vertebrates, including There are 12 pairs of Ribs in our body. It forms the lateral
humans. part of our thoracic cage.
The skeletal system of a human body is consists of two Functions of the Vertebral Column:
parts - (I) the Exoskeleton and (1) the Endoskeleton. The vertebral column keeps the head close and protects the
The exoskeleton consists of hair and nails. spinal cord.
The endoskeleton includes the inner skeleton framework, It provides support to the neck and thorax.
i.e. the bones and cartilage. It helps humans to stand and walk.
The endoskeleton of an adult human contains 206 bones.
The endoskeleton of an infant contain 300 bones. easier to rotate.
Calcicum phosphate is found in maximum quantity in (II) Appendicular Skeleton: It contains 126 bones of our
human bones. upper and lower limbs, i.e, the arms and legs; and the
The endoskeleton consists of two parts - (I) Axial Skeleton girdles connecting them to the thorax. Their description
and (II) Appendicular Skeleton. is as follows.
Axial Skeleton: The skeleton forming the main axis of (a) Pectoral Girdle and Upper Extremity:
the body is called the axial skeleton. It includes the skull, It consists of the following 64 bones –
thoracic and vertebral bones. There are 80 bones in adults Pectoral Girdle - 4
and 87 in infants. Upper arm - 2
(a) Skull: Skull is the endoskeleton part of the human head. Forearm - 4
It consists of 29 bones in total. Out of this, 8 forms the Wrist - 16
shell (case) around the brain, i.e, cranium, cranial cavity. Palms - 10
Fourteen bones from the remaining form the skeleton of Finger - 28
the face. There are 6 bones in the middle ear and a bone (b) Pelvic Girdle and Lower Extremity:
called Hyoid is located at the root of the tongue between It contains the following 62 bones -
mandible and larynx. Pelvic Girdle - 2
(b) Vertebral Column: Vertebral column of an adult consists Thigh - 2
of 26 (33 in infants) vertebrae. All vertebral cartilages are Patella - 2
connected by an intervertebral disc. Intervertebral discs Shank - 4
Ankle - 14
Sole - 10
Note : The smallest bone of the body is the stapes and Toe - 28
the largest bone is the femur. The femur, also called The forelimbs or hands are called the upper extremity and
thighbone, is the upper bone of the leg or hind leg. the hind limbs the lower extremity.
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Girdle of the upper extremity is called Pectoral Girdle and Trachea: It is attached to larynx. These are tubules 12 cm
the girdle of the lower extremity is called Pelvic Girdle. long and 2.5 cm wide joined with the larynx. It reaches
The main bone of the forelimb 'humerus' is attached to the the thoracic cavity and divides into two small branches
pectoral girdle and the femur of the hindlimb is connected (the right and left) called primary bronchi. The secondary
to the Pelvic Girdle. bronchi enter the bronchi of the right lung into its three
Functions of the Skeletal System: lobes, while the bronchi of the left lung divide into two
secondary bronchi. The splitting of the last branch leads
It provides the basis for muscles to join. to bronchioles, which eventually form the Alveolar Ducts.
It protects the soft organs present inside the body. Lungs: There are two lungs in the thoracic cavity,
It helps in respiration, nutrition and circulation. surrounded by a pleural membrane.
These red blood cells are formed in the bone marrow of The right lung of a man is somewhat larger and wider than
skeletal bones. the left lung but slightly smaller in length. A network of
Note : The ligaments connect the bones while the blood capillaries is spread across the lungs. There are about
tendons connect the muscles to the bone. 150 million alveoli in each lung, in which gaseous exchange
occurs between the air and the blood.
An undifferentiated layer, Mesoglea is present in between
The process of respiration can be divided into four
the ectoderm and the endoderm. (SSC CGL 2022 Tier-1)
categories - (1) External respiration, (2) Transport of gases,
G. Respiratory System
(3) Internal respiration and (4) Cellular respiration.
Combustion of glucose with oxygen releases energy, water
1. External Respiration: It consists of two processes,
and carbon dioxide. The process of inhalation of oxygen
respiration and exchange of gases.
and exhalation of carbon dioxide is called respiration.
Breathing:
The respiratory system consists of all the organs through
Respiratory activity is the inhalation of air from the
which air passes in and out are nose and nasal passages,
pharynx, larynx or voice box, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles
and lungs etc.
Through lungs, gases are inhaled and exhaled. It is the most or exhalation is the removal of air from the lungs.
important part of the human respiratory system. Hence, it During the lungs swell, causing the air pressure to decrease
is called pulmonary respiration. slightly from the pressure of the outside air and the air is
Nose and Nasal Passages: drawn into them.
The external nasal opens into two separate (right and left)
passages which have a long and erect nasal septum in the causing the air pressure to rise slightly above the external
middle to separate them. air pressure and some of the air exits out.
The cavity inside the nose is layered in the mucous Exchange of Gases:
membrane, which causes the secretion of mucus. Due Exchange of gases takes place inside the lungs. It involves
to mucus the nasal passage remains moist and sticky. the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases due to
Therefore, the outside air gets moist before reaching the the difference in their pressure. The direction of diffusion
lungs. of these two gases is opposite to each other.
The mucous membrane prevents dust particles, bacteria or 2. Transportation of Gases :
other microbes from entering the body. The movement of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) from
Pharynx: The pharynx in the airway is located behind nasal the lungs to the body cells and again from the cells back to
passages. the lungs is called transportation of gases.
It is about 13 cm long and has a long, funnel-shaped cavity. Oxygen is transported by a red pigment colour haemoglobin.
The Larynx or Sound Box: The part of the respiratory Haemoglobin is found in red blood cells.
tract that connects the pharynx to the trachea is called the It is an important function of blood to transport O2 from the
larynx or soundbox. lungs to all the cells of the body and CO2 from the cells to
The main function of larynx is to produce sound. the lungs.
Carbon dioxide transport blood in the following three ways -
the entrance, known as Epiglottis. While swallowing food, (A) In the form of Dissolved in Plasma: Carbon dioxide
it closes the glottis like a lid, so that food cannot enter the dissolves in plasma to form carbonic acid and at this state,
respiratory tract. about 7% CO2 is transported in our body.
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(B) In the form of bicarbonates: In the blood, about 70% of In glycolysis, two molecules of pyruvic acid are formed
carbon dioxide (CO2) is transported as bicarbonates. from one molecule of glucose and some energy is released.
(C) In the form of Carbamino Compounds: About 23% of Glycolysis results in a net gain of 2 ATP (Adenosine
CO2 in the blood is transported as carbamino haemoglobin. Triphosphate) molecules i.e, 7300x2=14600 calories or
3. Internal Respiration: Internal respiration is the gaseous 14.6 kcal energy.
exchange that occurs between the blood and tissue material (II) Krebs Cycle:
in the body. It is a cyclic series of hydrogenation and carboxylation
4. Cellular Respiration: Like nutrients in the body, oxygen
reactions.
(O2) is also used in cells. Glucose is called cellular fuel. The
The Krebs Cycle was described by Sir Hans Adolf Krebs
process of oxidation of glucose with the help of oxygen in
in the year 1937.
the cell is called cellular respiration.
The Krebs Cycle is also known as the citric acid cycle or
The types of cellular respiration are - (a) Anaerobic
tricarboxylic acid cycle.
respiration and (b) Aerobic respiration
The enzymes of the reactions of this cycle are mainly
(a) Anaerobic Respiration:
dissolved in the matrix of mitochondria.
It occurs in the absence of oxygen.
(III) Electron Transport System:
There is incomplete oxidation of foods and during the
Maximum ATP molecules are formed during the Krebs
process carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol are formed.
cycle.
Sometimes other different organic substances like - malic
In this process, energy is generated from the oxidation of
acid, oxalic acid, butyric acid, lactic acids are also formed.
high-energy compounds such as NADH formed during
This process results in the formation of lesser energy.
the Krebs cycle and glycolysis. This action occurs on
Anaerobic respiration occurs transiently in the tissues of
Cristae particles of the inner surface (membrane) of
higher plants, in sprouting seeds and fruits.
mitochondria.
This type of respiration often occurs regularly in many
fungi and bacteria. Note : Respiratory rate in a healthy adult human is
Organisms that produce energy by aerobic respiration in approximately 12–15 times per minute.
normal conditions, but can survive by producing energy The duration of the heart cycle in a healthy human being
by respiration even in the absence of oxygen are called is 0.8 seconds.
facultative anaerobes. Example- Lactic acid bacteria. Production of Energy:
Organisms that can survive only by anaerobic respiration In body cells, there is often a net gain of 38 ATP molecules
from the biological oxidation of a glucose molecule.
oxygen are called obligate anaerobes.
A 'glycerol-3 phosphate shuttle' in the cell of the striated
(b) Aerobic Respiration: muscle, brain, etc., while a 'mallet-aspartate shuttle'
When respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen, it is works in the cells of the liver, kidney, heart etc.
called aerobic respiration and the organism that performs Cells in which 'glycerol-3-phosphate' function has a net
such action is called aerobes. gain of 36ATP molecules instead of 38 ATP per glucose
In this activity, complete oxidation of food is carried out, molecule.
which results in the formation of carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water (H2O). A large amount of energy is also produced. Note : One molecule of NADH produces 3 molecules of
The complex process in cellular respiration can be divided ATP and one molecule of FADH2 produces 2 molecules
into three parts - (I) Glycolysis and (II) Kreb's cycle (III) of ATP.
Oxidative phosphorylation by the electron transport H. Endocrine System
mechanism. The gland consists of cells, tissues or organs whose cells
(I) Glycolysis: synthesize and secrete a substance. These are three types
in vertebrate animals –
the cytoplasm. (I) Exocrine Glands: These are duct glands.
Embden, Meyerhof
and Parnas. Due to which it is also called EMP path. released on the surface of the corresponding epithelial
It is also called sugar fermentation or anaerobic respiration. layer. Example- Milk gland, sweat gland, lacrimal gland,
In glycolysis, energy is released in the absence of oxygen. mucous gland, salivary gland etc.
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(II) Endocrine Glands: These are ductless glands. Human’s hypothalamus makes oxytocin, but your
Secreted substances or hormones from it released into posterior pituitary gland stores and releases it into your
the tissue material reach the blood cells and circulate bloodstream.
throughout the body, such as pituitary gland, thyroid, Thyroid Gland:
parathyroid, adrenal, pineal and thymus gland. This gland is located just below the larynx (Adam's apple)
(III) Mixed Glands: It includes both exocrine and endocrine on either side of the trachea in the neck of the human being.
types of tissue or cells—for example, pancreas. Its length in adult humans is about 5 cm and width is about
Major endocrine glands and hormones secreted from them: 3 cm.
Pituitary Gland: It weighs about 25 grams.
It is located in the sella turcica in the sphenoid bone of the It leads to the secretion of tetraiodothyronine (T4) or
cranium. thyroxine and triiodothyronine (T3) hormone.
It weighs between 0.5 and 1 gram. These increase the rate of energy production and the basal
Many of its hormones control other endocrine glands. It is metabolic rate.
thus known as the Master Gland.
Hormones secreted from the pituitary gland and their a. Myxoedema: This disease occurs in adults due to low
functions: secretion of thyroid. It dramatically reduces the metabolic
1. Somatotropin or Growth Hormone -STH or GH : rate, i.e., BMR. Hence, appearing the symptoms of
It controls the growth of the body, mainly bone growth. premature ageing.
b. Cretinism: This disease is caused due to hyposecretion of
thyroid in the embryonic stage or even in childhood. Thus,
In adult humans, its excess causes gigantism or acromegaly
the mental and physical development of the child is retarded
disorders.
and he remains stunted.
2. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone – TSH:
c. Common Goitre or Simple Goitre: Thyroid gland
It stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete hormones.
enlargement is called goitre disease; a lack of iodine in
3. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone-ACTH:
food causes this disease.
It is secreted by corticotroph cells of the anterior pituitary.
d. Hashimoto's Disease: This disease occurs due to excessive
It controls the secretion of the adrenal cortex.
hyposecretion or damage to the thyroid gland due to ageing,
4. Luteotropic Hormone - LTH :
injury, infection, surgery etc.
It is secreted by lactotroph cells of the anterior pituitary.
This is called 'Suicide' of thyroid.
It stimulates milk secretion from the breasts for the infant.
Disease Due to Excess of Thyroxine :
5. Follicle Stimulating Hormone - FSH:
1. Exophthalmic Goitre: In this, the hyposecretion thyroid
It stimulates the growth of seminiferous tubules of testes gland often enlarges. Protrusion of the eyeballs is due to
and spermatogenesis in males. the accumulation of mucus in eye orbits. The sight of such
It stimulates the growth and development of the ovarian a person seems to be frightening and staring.
follicles and oogenesis in women and also stimulates the 2. Plummer's Disease: In this disease, the goitre swells due to
secretion of female sex hormones 'Estrogen'. the formation of one or more nodules in the thyroid gland.
6. Luteinizing Hormone-LH: It is also called Toxic Multinodular Goitre. It increases
It induces the secretion of the male hormone testosterone heartbeat rate and respiratory rate.
in males. Parathyroid Gland:
In women, LH and FSH are the stimulators of ovulation, It is located just behind the thyroid gland in the throat.
maturation and secretion of female hormones. It is a gland derived from the endoderm of the fetus.
7. Vasopressin or Antidiuretic Hormone-ADH: It secretes the Parathormone Hormone also known as
It helps in maintaining water balance in the body. Collip's Hormone.
Its main function is to increase the reabsorption of water The Paratharmone and Calcitonin secreted by this
from the distal convoluted tubules of nephrons and hormone help in maintaining the ideal amount of calcium
collecting ducts in the kidney. ion in blood.
Oxytocin is a natural hormone that manages key aspects of Adrenal Gland:
the female and male reproductive systems, including labor This gland consists of two parts -
and delivery and lactation, as well as aspects of human 1. The outer part, i.e., cortex
behavior. 2. The inner part, i.e., medulla
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Hormones secreted by the Cortex and Their Functions: People who have anthophobia have an extreme fear of
I. Glucocorticoids: They regulate carbohydrate, protein and
fat metabolism. Cortisol is the most essential hormone
among them. means fear. Someone with anthophobia may be afraid
The cortisol hormone disrupts the body's immune system.
Therefore, it is injected at the time of organ transplant.
II. Mineralocorticoids: Its main function is the reabsorption petal — may cause fear.
of salts by the renal tubules and controls the amounts of The primary androgen is testosterone. It is called the
other salts in the body. Of these, aldosterone is the most Growth Hormone.
It promotes the development of male sexual characteristics
important hormone.
and sexual behaviour.
III. Sex Hormone: These hormones control sex, hair patterns
and sexual behaviour. 10. Nutrients
Note : Damage to the adrenal cortex leads to disturbances Following types of nutrients are required for conducting
in metabolic function known as Addison's Disease. and editing various types of biological functions in organisms
Due to this discovery, Thomas Addison is called the father - proteins, carbohydrates, mineral salts, fats, nucleic acids,
water and vitamins.
of endocrinology.
1. Vitamins:
Medulla:
Funk discovered vitamins.
The medulla secretes hormones, epinephrine and Vitamins are complex organic compounds.
norepinephrine, derived from the tyrosine amino acids. Vitamins control the actions of catalysts in metabolic
Vasodilation due to the effect of Epinephrine increases reactions in the body.
blood circulation in the brain, skeletal muscles, heart, About 20 vitamins have been known so far. These are in
lungs, liver etc. It reduces the blood pressure caused by two categories - (i) Water-soluble (Vitamin B,C) and (ii)
Norepinephrine. Fat-soluble (Vitamin A,D,E,K).
Due to the effect of norepinephrine, vasoconstriction The chemical name for vitamin 'A' is retinol.
reduces blood circulation in the organs of the peripheral Vitamin A as the “anti-infection” vitamin.
and abdominal organs such as skin, digestion, excretion, People with vitamin 'K' deficiency cannot be easily
reproduction etc., which are more active during sleep, rest operated, as there is a fear of excessive blood loss.
and when relaxed. It reduces the functioning of these organs Vitamin 'D' is considered as a Hormone.
and increases blood pressure. Vitamins and its sources and diseases caused by its
The adrenaline hormone secreted from the adrenal gland
is also called Fight and Flight Hormone. Disease due to
Vitamin Sources
These hormones are ready to react in the body in stress
threatening conditions. Vitamin A Nightblindness, Carrots, Green
(Retinol) xerophthalmia, Vegetables, Milk,
Secretion of adrenaline or epinephrine causes an increase
infection, inchanges Butter, Egg, Liver etc.
in heart rate and excitement in the body.
Vitamin B1 Beri-Beri, growth Cereals, Legumes,
D. Gonads: (Thiamine) retardation Soybeans, Milk etc.
1. Ovary: It secretes the following hormones – Vitamin B2 Cheilosis Paneer, Egg, Green
(a) Estrogen: It is called female growth hormone. It is helpful Vegetables, Milk,
in the development of secondary sexual traits of the female. Meat, Yeast etc.
(b) Progesterone: It induces the development of symptoms Vitamin B3 Pellagra Yeast, Meat, Fish,
necessary for pregnancy. (Niacin) Egg, Milk, Legumes
etc
(c) Relaxin: In pregnancy, these are secreted from corpus
Vitamin B5 Skin disease retarded Egg, Milk, Meat,
luteum and placenta. This hormone softens the pubic
(Pantothenic growth, white hair Groundnut etc
symphysis of the pelvic girdle, making the cervix wider Acid)
and facilitating childbirth. Vitamin B6 Anaemia, skin Milk, Yeast, Cereals,
2. Testes: (Pyridoxine) diseases, muscle Meat etc. Wheat, Egg,
Cells of Leydig secrete male hormones, Androgens from Vitamin B7 cramps skin diseases, Vegetables/Meat,
testes. (Biotin) hair fall Fruits etc.
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Vitamin B9 Anemia, retarded Vegetables, Pulses, Another protein called albumin is also found in milk.
(Folic Acid) growth Yeast, Meat, Egg etc. The enzyme that digests milk protein is called renin.
Vitamin B12 Pernicious Anaemia, Milk, Meat, Fish, Renin, after converting the milk soluble protein casein into
(Cynocobal- Nervous system Egg, Intestinal semi-solid and less soluble calcium paracaseinate converts
amin) disturbances Bacteria etc. milk into curd.
Vitamin C Scurvy Citrus Fruits, Protein is a complex nitrogen-containing organic material.
(Ascorbic Acid) Tomatoes, Almond,
Protein consists of molecules of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Vegetables etc.
and nitrogen.
Vitamin D Rickets (in Children) Butter, Cod Liver
(Calciferol) Osteomalacia (in Oil, Egg, etc. and Amino acids are monomers of protein.
Adults) Sunlight. Amino acids are essential for the development of skin,
Vitamin E Lack of reproductive Oil, Cereals, Egg- muscles and bones.
(Tocopherol) capacity, weak yolk, Soybean etc. The appropriate daily intake of protein for a normal working
genitalia and muscles woman is about 45-46 grams.
Vitamin K Impaired Blood Green Leafy Feeding mother requires 65 to 70 grams of protein per day.
(Naphthoqu- Clotting Vegetables, Egg,
Fats have the highest amount of calories per unit of food.
inone or Soybean, Intestinal
Phylloquinone) Bacteria etc. Metabolic oxidation of one gram of carbohydrates or protein
yields about 4.0 kcal, while one gram of fat yields 9.3 kcal
Protein:
of energy.
Protein is a complex organic compound. It consists of 20
The sources of fat are both animals and vegetables.
types of amino acids.
Functions of Proteins:
Out of which 10 amino acids are called Non-Essential
Proteins are essential for physical development.
amino acids. They are made in our body and the remaining
Protein also provides energy to the body.
10 amino acids are obtained by food substances, which are
Contractile proteins (actin and myosin) contract the muscles
called Essential amino acids.
and give motion to the body and organs.
Types of Protein:
Defensive proteins protect the body in the form of
A. Simple Protein: This type of protein is made up of only
antibodies.
amino acids. Example- Globulins, Histones etc.
Some proteins in the form of hormones regulate the actions
B. Conjugated Proteins: These types of proteins contain
of cells.
3. Carbohydrates:
acids. Example Glycoprotein, Chromoprotein etc.
It is made up of a mixture of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
C. Derived Proteins: These types of proteins are formed by the
process of hydrolysis. Example Peptone, Protease Peptide.
Carbohydrates supply 50% to 75% of the human body's
Soybean has the highest protein content.
energy.
Soybean contains about 40% of protein.
Types of Carbohydrates:
Groundnut contains protein, fat and sugar.
The amount of protein in groundnut is about 2.5 times A. Mono Saccharides: This is a simple form of carbohydrate.
Ex. Glucose, Triose, Galactose etc.
higher than that in eggs.
B. Disaccharides: Two molecules of monosaccharides form
Groundnut contains about 25.8 per cent of protein and about
Disaccharides. Ex. Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose etc.
49.1 per cent of fats.
C Polysaccharide: Polysaccharide consisting of several
Hair is made up of a Keratin protein.
molecules of monosaccharides such as Starch, Chitin,
Keratin is the major structural component of nails and hair
Glycogen etc.
in animals.
Wheat, Rice, Maize, Millet, Potato, Sweet potato etc. are
Tyrosine is the amino acid present in protein-rich foods.
the primary sources of carbohydrates.
Lack of tyrosine makes a person feel unhappy and tired.
Casein protein is present in milk due to which the milk Functions of Carbohydrates:
looks white. They provide heat and energy to the body.
The light yellow colour of cow milk is due to the presence It forms nucleic acids (RNA and DNA).
of Carotene mineral salts. Lactose, vitamins and other 4. Minerals:
ingredients are found in milk. Minerals control metabolic functions of the human body.
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Important Minerals and Its Functions

Diseases due to
Mineral Daily need (approx) Functions Sources

Sodium Low blood 1.5 gram Mechanisms of nerves and Simple Salt, Green
pressure, muscle muscles, heart beat, etc. Vegetables, Meat, Fish,
cramps Poultry and Milk
Magnesium Loss of Appetite, 310-420 milligram Bone and teeth formation and Green Vegetables, Milk,
nausea, mental function of nervous system Cereals
fatigue function
Iron Anaemia 8 milligram (men) 18 Formation of Red Blood Green Leafy Vegetables, Bran
milligram (women) Cells (RBC) (component of Flour, Millet, Ragi, Raisins,
27 milligram haemoglobin) Meat, Liver, etc.
(pregnant women)
Calcium Astigmatism, 1.2 gram Bone and tooth formation, help Milk, Vegetable, Cereal,
Tetany in blood clot and function of Whole Grains, Eggs, Fish, etc.
muscle and nervous system
Iodine Goitre 150 microgram Synthesizing thyroxine hormone Seafood, Iodized Salt
secreted by thyroid gland
Phosphorus Weakening of 700 milligram Strengthening bones and teeth Milk, Meat,Vegetables,
bones Cereal, etc.
Potassium Low blood 3.5-4.7 gram Maintaining muscle contraction Meat, Milk, Grains, Fruits,
pressure and transmission of nerve Vegetables.
impulses, heart beat.
Zinc Loss of appetite, 8-11 milligram For functioning of Insulin Meat, Fish, Other food items
retarded growth
Copper Anaemia, 900 microgram Iron metabolism, development Fish, meat, liver, green
Weakness of of connective tissues and blood vegetables, dry fruits, etc.
Connective Tissues vessels

5. Fats: The fat protects various parts of the body from injury.
Fat is made up of a mixture of carbon, hydrogen and less Fat is helpful in body development.
amount of oxygen. 6. Nucleic Acid:
It consists of glycerol and fatty acids. It is a nucleotide polymer of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
Fats are of two types - Saturated and Unsaturated. carbon and phosphorus.
It is found in small amounts in the DNA and RNA of our
Saturated fat is obtained from palm and coconut. cells.
An adult person obtains about 20 to 30% of energy from Functions of Nucleic Acids:
fat. It produces chromatin threads.
Oxidation of 1 gram of fat provides 9.3 cal. of energy. It produces a variety of enzymes.
It synthesizes and controls proteins.
Note :
It transmits genetic properties from generation to
suffering from Hypercholesterolemia, Hyperlipidemia generation.
and coronary artery disease. 7. Water:
Functions of Fats: It is consumed as a drink.
It accumulates under the skin in the body and prevents heat Water accounts for 60–70% of weight of a human body.
loss. Functions of Water:
Fats provide energy to the body. Water regulates our body temperature.
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It helps in the excretion of body waste. The cause of sleeping sickness is a protozoan parasite called
Trypanosoma
Note : Excess nitrate in drinking water causes Blue
Glaucoma or trachoma is the disease of eye.
Baby disease.
Chemotherapy is used to treat cancer.
13. Human Diseases and Their Treatment
Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT) is associated with
Interferon is used as a precautionary and preventive drug
diarrhoea therapy.
in viral infection.
SARS is an acronym for Severe Acute Respiratory
Syndrome.
Diseases Caused by Bacteria
Diseases Caused by Protozoa
Disease Carrier Bacteria Affected Limb
Disease Protozoa Affected Limb
Tetanus Clostridium Tetani Nervous System
Malaria Plasmodium RBC and Spleen
Typhoid Salmonella Typhi Intestine
Pyorrhoea Entamoeba gingivalis Gum
Cholera Vibrio Cholerae Intestine
Sleeping Trypanosoma
Pneumonia Streptococcus Lungs Brain
sickness Gambiense
Pneumonae
Amoebiasis Entamoeba
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Lungs Intestine
(Dysentery) Histolytica
Tuberculosis
Leishmania
Plague Yersinia Pestis Lungs, between Kala-azar Bone Marrow
Donovani
both Legs
Diarrhoea Giardia Intestinalis Small Intestine
Gonorrhoea Neisseria Urinary Tract
Gonorrhoeae SARS is a viral disease that primarily affects the human
Diphtheria Corynebacterium Trachea respiratory system.
Diphtheriae Paracetamol is used to relieve body pain and reduce fever.
Hooping cough Bordetella Respiratory
(Pertussis) Pertussis System Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming.
Leprosy Mycobacterium Nervous System, Typhoid disease mainly affects human intestines.
Leprae Skin Sir Ronald Ross discovered that malaria is caused by
unicellular protozoan 'Plasmodium' and female anopheles
Syphilis Treponema Reproductive
Pallidum Organ mosquito functions as a carrier of Plasmodium.
The term malaria was coined by John Macculloch.
Diseases Caused by Virus Laveran discovered the malaria parasite 'Plasmodium' in
Disease Carrier Virus Affected Limb the blood of a person affected by malaria.
Due to malaria, red blood cells (RBC) are destroyed and
AIDS HIV Immune System
Polio Poliovirus Neck, Spine and Nervous
The female anopheles mosquito is the carrier of malaria.
System
Orthomyxo Respiratory Tract Diseases Caused by Fungus
viruses Disease Fungus
Smallpox Variola Virus Whole-body (skin) Asthma Aspergillus Fumigatus
Chickenpox Varicella Virus Whole-body (skin) Athlete's foot Tinea Pedis and Trichophyton
Measles Paramyxovirus Whole-body (skin) Baldness Tinea Capitis
Rabies Rhabdo Virus Nervous System Ringworm Trichophyton and Microsporum
Herpes Herpes Virus Skin
The organ affected by malaria is Spleen.
Hepatitis B hepatitis B Virus Liver Chloroquine, Camoquin, etc. are used in the treatment of
malaria.
The cause of amoebiasis or diarrhoea is a protozoan called Dengue is a viral disease caused by Aedes aegypti, Aedes
Entamoeba Histolytica. albopictus and Culex fatigue mosquitoes.
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Dengue causes severe pain in bones and joints, along with Due to this, the action of respiration is not performed
a high fever. properly.
Dengue is also known as Breakbone fever. Potassium conducts the functions of the heartbeat and pulse
The number of platelets in the blood of a patient suffering system.
from dengue decreases.
Plasmodium vivax is a digenetic animal.
The life cycle of Plasmodium vivax is completed in two cereals, fruits, vegetables etc.
hosts - human and female anopheles. Golden
Plasmodium vivax causes malaria. Hour.
It lives as an endoparasite in red blood cells and liver cells. A drug called Beta-blockers is used to prevent heart attacks
The BMD test is used to identify Osteoporosis Disease. and high blood pressure.
Osteoporosis is a bone disease in which bones become weak Arsenic-74 is used in detecting tumours, Sodium-24 in
and brittle. detecting blood clots in the circulatory system, Cobalt-60
Food poisoning is caused by the bacteria 'Salmonella and Gold-198 in the treatment of cancer, Iodine-131 in the
Bacilli'. treatment of thyroid disorders and Carbon-14 is used to
In osteoporosis disease, the Bone Mineral Density decreases detect residues of organisms (Plants & animals).
and the micro-structure of the bone is destroyed. Radioactive phosphorus (P32) and cobalt 60 are used for
Poisoning from the bacterium 'Clostridium Botulinum' the treatment of Leukemia.
is called botulism. Leukaemia is a cancer of the body's blood-forming tissues.
Itai-Itai disease is caused by cadmium poisoning. The presence of albumin in the urine and its effect is
Phenylketonuria is a type of hereditary disease. The body expected to cause kidney failure.
of a person affected by phenylketonuria is not able to break Other Diseases
down the amino acid 'Phenylalanine'. Haemophilia:
In phenylketonuria, phenylalanine accumulates in the Haemophilia is a sex-linked genetic disease.
blood. Haemophilia is also known as Bleeder's Disease.
Disease and Related Vaccines In patients with haemophilia, blood does not clot on the
Disease Vaccines injury for a long time.
Haemophilia is also known as "Royal Disease" due to its
Diphtheria, Whooping Cough
DPT origin from Queen Victoria.
(Pertussis) and Tetanus
Haemophilia is a disease that is often apparent in men and
Diphtheria and Tetanus DT
women as its carrier.
Dog Bite Rabies Vaccine
Athlete's Foot:
TB B.C.G. Vaccine Infection of athlete's foot is caused by fungus Tinea pedis
Polio OPV and Trichophyton.
Smallpox Smallpox Vaccine Athletes foot affects the soft part of the skin (especially the
In phenylketonuria, the human brain is damaged and a state
of mental insensitivity occurs. Down Syndrome:
Diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough) and tetanus disease Down syndrome is a genetic disorder.
caused by Corynebacterium Diphtheriae, Bordetella Down syndrome is also called Mongoloid Idiocy.
Pertussis, and Clostridium Tetani, respectively. Down syndrome is caused by the 21st pair of chromosomes
The B.C.G. vaccine is applied immediately after childbirth in humans having three [2n +1 (21) -47] instead of two
to prevent Tuberculosis. chromosomes.
Mumps is a viral disease. In Down syndrome, the human head is round, the neck is
In Mumps the parotid gland enlarges in a painful form. thick, the face is open and the eyes are oblique.
Children are affected by Blue Baby Syndrome Hepatitis-B:
(Methemoglobinemia) disease when the amount of nitrate Hepatitis-B disease factor is the Hepatitis-B virus, which
in water is more than 10 ppm. is a DNA virus.
In Blue Baby Syndrome, the colour of the lips and body of
children turns blue. Hepatitis-B is an infectious disease.
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Tetanus: Leprosy:
Tetanus disease is also known as 'Lock Jaw'. Leprosy is a contagious disease.
In tetanus, the body of the patient becomes crooked and Bacteria named Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium
swagger. lepromatosis causes leprosy.
An infectious disease called tetanus is caused by bacteria Thalassemia:
called Clostridium Tetanus. Thalassemia is a genetic disease.
Minamata: Patients of Thalassemia cannot synthesize haemoglobin in
Minimata is a neurological disease. the body.
Minimata disease is caused by an excess of mercury (Hg) Bird Flu :
in the body. Bird Flu is the name of a disease known as
Bird Flu is caused by the virus H5N1.
Filariasis:
Filaria is also called Elephantiasis. Other Important Facts
Filaria is caused by a roundworm (nematode) called Visceral leishmaniasis is a diseases that is transmitted by
Wuchereria bancrofti. the bite of an infected female. (SSC CHSL 2023 Tier-1)
Female Culex and Anopheles mosquitoes act to spread Chikungunya is an infection caused by Aedes mosquito.
(SSC CHSL 2022 Tier-1)

HIV: The study of human beauty is called Kalology.

AIDS is a viral disease. Sex determination in humans depends on the chromosome
HIV virus is the cause of AIDS disease which affects white of the male and not on the chromosome of females.
blood cells. If the normal body temperature falls below 95 ° F, such a
In AIDS, the body's immunity is reduced. condition is called Hypothermia.
AIDS is transmitted through sex, through unsafe intercourse At the beginning of placenta formation, the HCG hormone
is secreted in large quantity in urine. Pregnancy is checked
and from an infected mother to infants through breast-
by its presence in urine.
feeding.
Humans usually excrete about 1.45 litres of urine per day.
ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay) test is
In breathing, the normal in and out is the quantity of air
used to identify AIDS.
inhaled and exhaled per breath is about 500 millilitres. This
The Western blot test is also used for HIV infection.
is called Tidal Air Volume.
According to genetics, the marriage of Rh– man and Rh+
Gidobudine (Azidothymidine): It is a type of antiretroviral
woman is possible.
drug used in the treatment of HIV/AIDS.
The fetus developing in the uterus is nourished by the
CD-4 count: This is used to test immunity.
placenta.
Japanese Encephalitis:
Alzheimer disease affects the human brain.
Domestic pigs and wild sparrows are carriers of the virus In Alzheimer, the memory capacity of humans is
of Japanese encephalitis. reduced.
Infection of this virus is done by Culex mosquito in humans First of all, German Psychiatrist Dr. A. Alois Alzheimer
and animals. recongnized this disease.
Jaundice: Electroencephalogram is used to reveal brain diseases such
The liver is affected by jaundice. as epilepsy, brain cancer, brain TB etc.
In jaundice, yellow coloured bilirubins spreads throughout EEG was discovered by a scientist 'Hansberger'.
the body by staying in the blood, causing the skin and eyes Common Cold is a contagious disease.
to turn yellow. Common Cold is transmitted through a sneeze, air etc.
Smallpox: Rhinovirus is responsible for the common cold.
Smallpox is caused by the variola virus. Astigmatism is a disease associated with the eyes.
Smallpox is a highly contagious disease. Visibility decreases in the person affected by Astigmatism
Smallpox spreads through the patient's skin, sputum, air, disease.
cloth etc. Ginger is a plant of the phylum 'Zingiberaceae'. The
Smallpox vaccine was invented by Edward Jenner. ginger plant contains the sympodial rhizome, which is a
Edward Jenner is said to be the father of Immunology.
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The process of taking food by an animal is called Ingestion.

Insectivorous plants eat insects because the soil in which ⎛ CO 2 ⎞
dioxide produced and oxygen used ⎜
they grow lacks nitrogen. ⎝ O 2 ⎟⎠
Epiphytes are plants that depend on other plants for shelter.
The manufacture of amino acids by methane, hydrogen,
Grana and stroma are found in chlorophyll.
water and ammonia was proved by Stanley Miller through
Important factors in seed germination are mainly air, his experiment.
moisture and suitable temperature. There is no need for Other chromosomes except sex chromosomes are known
sunlight. as Autosomes.
Often, Azolla, blue-green algae and rhizobium are used as Ranikhet disease is an infectious disease of chickens.
biofertilizers. It is a viral disease.
Onion cultivation is carried out by transplanting the plant. Foot and Mouth Disease and cowpox are viral infectious
The age of the tree is determined based on the number of diseases among cattle.
annual rings present in it. Anthrax is a communicable disease found among cattle and
The branch of agricultural science which deals with the caused by 'Bacillus anthracis' bacteria.
food, shelter, health and reproduction of domestic animals A protein 'Prion' is the cause of Madcow Disease.
is called animal husbandry. Commercial cork is derived from the plant Quercus Suber.
BMR refers to Basal Metabolic Rate. Coconut fruit is a drupe.
Itching disappears because it stimulates some nerves, which Due to transpiration, water comes out of the leaves as
direct the brain to increase the production of histamine vapour.
chemicals. Plants get nitrogen in the form of nitrate.
The giant dinosaurs found on Earth in the Mesozoic era Lack of magnesium and iron in the soil is the cause of
were reptiles.
The excretion of uric acid by birds helps in water Transpiration is measured by the Potometer.
conservation in the body. The common name of Parthenium hysterophorus is Carrot
The biological organization is the correct sequence – grass. (SSC CHSL 2021)
Cells >Tissues > Organ > Organ Systems >Organism Body. An organism Ascaris
When an eye is donated, the part of the donor's eye used is (SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1)
'cornea'.
Seal and Whale are aquatic mammals.
The baby born after in vitro fertilization and then
implantation in the uterus is called 'test-tube baby'. (SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1)
Sulpha drugs are used in the treatment of bacterial diseases. Hookworm is the common term for Ancylostoma.
'prontosil' was discovered in 1932. (SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1)
P-Amino Salicylic acid drug is used in the treatment of Meandrina is the generic name of Brain coral coelenterata
both tuberculosis (TB) and leprosy. animal having soft tube-shaped bodies that live together in
Most photosynthetic activities occur in the blue and red large groups.
area of light Flatworms an endoparasited found in animals.
Maximum damage to a tree is caused by the destruction of (SSC CGL, 2023 Tier-1)
its bark. The Notochord is an embryonic midline structure common
The plants grown in the desert are called Xerophytes. to all members of the phylum Chordata that serves as a
The plants grown in high humid areas or marshy areas are source of midline signals to surrounding tissues and as a
called Hygrophytes. major skeletal element of the developing embryo.
Aquatic plants are called Hydrophytes. (Selection Post Phase XI)
The plants grown in saline areas are called Halophytes. Hornwort
The correct sequence of the ecosystem food chain is usually a thin, horn-like, or needle-like capsule with spores
Plants > Vegetarian > Carnivores (Selection Post Phase XI)
Quinine is obtained from the bark of the Cinchona plant. Biological stain Safranin is used in histology and cytology
The tapeworm performs anoxic respiration. to colour all cell nuclei red. (SSC CHSL 2021)
371
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Environment
and Ecology
Topics of the Unit
Environment : An Introduction Ecology and Ecosystem Biodiversity Miscellaneous

The Environment (Protection) Act of India was enacted in

1. Environment : An Introduction
1986.
The word Environment is derived from the French word Blue carbon is that type of Carbon which is captured by
'Environ' which means to encirle or surround. oceans and coastal ecosystems.
Environment is dened as ‘the sum total of biotic and Sustainable Development's literal meaning is Natural
abiotic components that surrounds and influences an resources should be used by the present generation in
organism’. Everything that surrounds an organism is such a way that if there is minimum degradation of natural
collectively known as its environment. (UPPCS, 2006) resources.
Silent spring is an environmental science book published An ecosystem is a structural and functional components
in 1962. I was written by an American marine biologist of the biosphere, made up of a community of living
ecologist Rachel Carson. organism and their physical environment, which interact
Sustainable development is the concept of development and exchange materials with each other.
that meets the need of the present without compromising Components of ecosystem are - Abiotic and Biotic.
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Abiotic components consists - Energy, Rainfall,
The Brundtland Report, published in 1987 by United Nations Temperature, Atmosphere, Substratum, Materials, latitude
World Commission on Environment and Development, and Altitude.
coined the term "Sustainable Development". This Biotic components consits - Primary producers, consumers.
word was coined by WCED report titled "Our Common Ecotone is a zone of Junction between two or more diverse
Future". (UPPCS, 2020) ecosystems. Example - Mangrove ecosystem represent and
Events related to ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem.
Year/Place
Enrivonment Protection In Nature, many species occupy the same habitat but they
United Nations Conference on 5-6 June 1972, Stockholm, perform different functions. The functional characteristics
the Environment Sweden of a species is referred to as "Niche".
United Nations Conference on 3-14 June 1992, Rio de Janeiro, The earth is perhaps the only planet in the solar system that
Environment and Development Brazil supports life. The portion of the earth which sustains life is
Special session of the UN 23-27 June, 1997 New york called Biosphere.
General Assembly Organism within an ecosystem are connected through
World summit on Sustainable 26 August - 4 September, 2002 feeding relationships or tropic levels, where one organism
Development Johanesburg, South Africa serves as food for another. This series of organism each
Millennium Development 20-22 September, 2010 other creates a Food Chain.
Goals Summit New York A food web depicts all potential energy and nutrient transfer
UN Conference on Sustainable 20-22 June, 2012 Rio de among organism in an ecosystem, while a food chain
Development Janeiro follows only a single pothway of food.
United Nations Summit on 25-27 September, 2015 SDG - 6 will target the water availability for all and its
Sustainable Development, 2015 New York permanent management upto 2030 in India.
Stockholm + 50 2-3 June, 2022 Stockholm, NITI Aayog is the Nodal Institution for implementation of
Sweden Sustainable Development Goals in India.
The discussion on ‘Sustainable Development’ was started Rachel Carson Wrote the book ‘Silent Spring’, published
after submitting Our Common Future report on environment in 1962 which set the tone for an environmental movement
to the United Nations in 1987. in the world.
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National Environment Engineering Research Institute In the marine environment, Phytoplanktons are the main
(NEERI) was established in 1958 (Nagpur). primary producers.
(CAPF 2012, 2024) The correct order in the food chain of the various
The title of the Rio-20 declaration was “The future we components of a terrestrial grass ecosystem is Grass
want”. (GPSC 2002, 2004, 2014) Grasshopper Frog Snake.
The first ‘Earth Summit’ was held at Rio-de-Janeiro The ecological pyramids are of three categories - pyramid
(Brazil). of numbers, pyramid of biomars and pyramid of energy or
productivity.
The Headquarter of World Meteorological Organization is
The pyramid of energy in any ecosystem is Always upright.
located at Geneva.
The Biomass Pyramid of Pond/Marine/Aquatic is inverted.
The headquarter of United Nations Environment
The amount of energy decreases during the transfer from
Programme (UNEP) was located at Nairobi.
one trophic level to another in an ecosystem.
The National Green Tribunal, established in 2010, as per Ponds and swamps are the example of “Lentic Habitat” in
the National Green Tribunal Act is a specialised judicial the freshwater community.
body equipped with expertise solely for the purpose of Nutrient cycling is a concept that explains how nutrients
adjudicating environmental cases in the country. move from the physical enrivonment to the living organism,
In the year 1997, the World Environment Conference was and subsequently recycled back.
organised in Kyoto. Ecological succession is the process by which the mix of
The Earth Summit + 5 was held in 1997. species and habitat in an area changes over time.
The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee is Marine ecosystem covers approximately 70% of the earth's
constituted under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. surface and contain approximately 97% of the planet's
water. Approximately 85 % of the dissolved materials in
2. Ecology and Ecosystem seawater are sodium and chlorine.
Ecotones are areas of steep transition between ecological
Ecology is the branch of biology that explains the
communities, ecosystems, and/or ecological regions along
relationship between organism and their environments.
an environmental or other gradient.
The term 'Ecology' was coined by the German zoologist,
The ocean is our planet’s life support and regulate the
Ernst Hackle in 1866 to describe the 'economics' of living
global climate system. It is the world’s largest ecosystem,
forms. home to nearly a million known species and containing
A.G. Tansley (1935) coined the term “ecosystem” to vast untapped potential for scientic discovery.
recognize the integration of the biotic community and its Cropland includes areas used for the production of adapted
physical environment as a fundamental unit of ecology, crops for harvest.
within a hierarchy of physical systems that span the range Coral reefs host far more number of animal phyla than those
from atom to universe. hosted by tropical rainforests.
Karl Mobius called the idea of the ecosystem as Bio-geo-chemical cycle is the movement of nutrient
Biocoenosis. elements through various components of an ecosystem.
Forbes called ecosystem as Microcosm. The slogan of Chipko Movement is “Ecology is permanent
Ecological niche describes not only the physical space economy”.
occupied by an organism but also its functional role in the Arne Naess coined the term ‘deep ecology’. Arne Dekke
Eide Naess is widely regarded as the foremost Norwegian
community of organisms.
philosopher and one of the most inuential intellectuals of
The actual location or place where an organism lives is
the twentieth century.
called Habitat.
Grinnell enunciated the concept of the ecological niche.
Marine Ecosystem covers the largest area of the earth’s
The Ecological Footprint tracks the use of productive
surface. surface areas. Generally these areas are: grazing land,
Deforestation is the main causes of ecological imbalance shing grounds, cropland, built-up land, forest area, and
in India. carbon demand on land.
Solar energy is the primary source of energy in an Under the Ecological Transition, the relationships between
Ecosystem. humans and the physical environment is studied.
10 percent law is related with transfer of energy in a food Marine ecosystem is not a sub-category of terrestrial
chain from one trophic level to other. ecosystem.
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The ow of energy in the ecosystem is unidirectional (or The number of organism that can be supported by the
one-directional). The energy enters the plants (from the environment in a given area is known as carrying capacity.
sun) through photosynthesis during the making of food. (Uttarakhand PCS, 2012)
This energy is then passed on from one organism to another The primary source of energy in Ecobody is solar energy.
in a food chain. The energy given out by the organisms as (CGPSC, 2011, 2016; UPPCS Mains, 2015)
heat is lost to the environment. It does not return to be used 10 Percent law is related to energy transfer from a lower
by the plants again. This makes the ow of energy in the trophic level to a higher trophic level.
ecosystem ‘unidirectional’. Exam Oriented Facts
The Pyramid of Biomass is a graphical representation that
Eucalyptus is known as Environmental evil.
depicts the extent of biomass per unit area within different
It absorbs too much inland water and decreases water
trophic levels in an ecological system.
level at the place of its plantation.
In grasslands and forests, there is a gradual decrease
in biomass of organisms at successive levels from the It is mostly found in Australia.
producers to the top carnivores. Thus pyramids are upright. Lentic Ecosystem refers to the static water habitats like
However, in a pond as the producers are small organisms, ponds, lakes, swamps and marshes. Lotic Ecosystem
their biomass is very less and this value gradually shows refers to the moving water habitats like rivers.
an increase towards the apex of the pyramid, thus making Ecotone is a region of transition between two biological
the pyramid inverted in shape. communities.
The Ten Percent Law of transfer of energy from one Term 'Ecosystem' was coined by A.G. Tansley.
trophic level to the next was introduced by Raymond Order of Ecosystem productivity in decreasing order-
Lindeman in 1942. Mangrove, Grasslands, Lake, Ocean. An ecosystem with
According to this law, during the transfer of energy from more diversity has more productivity.
organic food from one trophic level to the next, only about The entire sequence of communities that successively
ten percent of the energy from organic matter is stored as change in a particular area are called ‘Sere’.
esh. Pycnocline - It shows density gradient in an aquatic
The remaining is lost during transfer, broken down in system.
respiration or lost to incomplete digestion by higher Halocline - It shows a salt gradient in an aquatic system.
trophic level. When organisms are consumed, 10% of
Thermocline - Represents the change in temperature
the energy in the food is xed into esh and is available with a depth of an aquatic system.
for next trophic level (carnivores or omnivores).
Arne Naess in 1973 used the term 'Deep ecology' for the
When a carnivore or an omnivore consume that animal,
rst time.
only about 10% of energy is xed in its esh for the
Ecological Niche term was coined by Joseph Grinnell
higher level. Thus, at every level of the food chain (rst,
in 1917, who called it Micro-Habitats.
second, third and top level), the consumer converts only
The concept of ‘Ecological Transition’ was rst used by
10% of the accumulated energy into his body weight.
John W. Bennett. He proposed the concept in his book
The concept of ‘Ecological Transition’ was rst used by
‘‘The Ecological Transition : Cultural Anthropology and
John W. Bennett. He proposed the concept in his book
Human Adaptation’’.
‘‘The Ecological Transition : Cultural Anthropology and
Indian Wild Life Protection Act was passed in 1972.
Human Adaptation’’. "Ecological transition “ mean, the
development of an anthropocentric orientation toward the Environment (Protection) Act was passed in 1986.
natural world that emerged in the Western Renaissance but Forest Conservation Act was passed in 1980.
has since characterized every civilization and nation. Oceanic outow is that process in which warm & nutrient
The actual location or place where an organism lives is less water at the surface is replaced by cold & nutrients
called Habitat. (BPSC Pre, 2019) rich water by air ow (wind).
A community of organism together with the environment Eco-sensitive zones are mentioned under the Environment
in which they live is cared Ecosystem. (IAS Pre, 2015) (Protection) Act, 1986. The vehicles used for commercial
Correct order of biological organisation ranging from activities in eco-sensitive zones have been regulated but
organism to Biosphere - Population - Community - are not prohibited hence except agriculture, rest of the
Ecosystem - Landscape. (UPPCS Pre, 2017) human activities are not prohibited but some of these are
Field, garden are articial ecosystem.(Jharkhand PCS, 2013) restricted and some of them have been regulated.
374
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The thin layer of gases surrounding the earth is called eastern India and Andaman group of Islands (Part of
the atmosphere. The atmosphere is majorly consists of Indo-Burma/Indo-Myanmar hotspots) and Nicobar group
Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon dioxide etc. The air around of Islands (Part of Sundalands hotspots) are ‘Hotspot’ of
us is a mixture of gases. Biodiversity in India.
Nitrogen is the most abundant gas available in the Giant sequoia trees are the largest trees by volume in the
environment. world. Many giant sequoias are between 250 and 300 feet
tall, the tallest being about 325 feet high.
We need oxygen to survive and therefore we depend on
The greatest diversity of animal and plant species occurs
the plants and trees for our survival. The process by which
in Tropical moist forests.
plants make their food is called photosynthesis. In this
Tropical rain forests are found in South and Central
process, they consume CO2 present in the atmosphere
and release oxygen in the atmosphere. America, central Africa and South-East Asia, and are
characterised by a high monthly mean temperature (above
Air is a mixture of gases. By volume, about 78% of this
18°C) and high precipitation (>100mm per month).
mixture is nitrogen and about 21% is oxygen. Carbon
Shielded by the Nilgiri Plateau to the North and the
dioxide, argon, methane, ozone and water vapour are
Mannarkad Plains to the South, the Silent Valley was named
also present in very small quantities.
a national park in 1984.
The Cartagena Protocol is the Convention on Biological
3. Biodiversity
Diversity. It is an international agreement which aims
Biodiversity is all the different kinds of life we'll nd in to ensure the safe handling, transport and use of living
one area. modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern
It consist the variety of animals, plants, fungi, and even biotechnology that may have adverse effects on biological
microorganisms like bacteria that make up our natural diversity, taking also into account risks to human health.
world. It was adopted on 29 January 2000 and entered into force
Bio-diversity is denoted with (a) alfa, (b) beta and (g) on 11 September 2003.
gamma indicating different categories. This classication United Nations Organization has declared decade 2011-
was done by Whittaker in 1960.
2020 as United Nations Decade on Biodiversity.
The term Biological diversity was coined by Raymond
Less number of trophic levels is not responsible for the
F. Dasmann in his book ‘A Different kind of Country’
increase in the biodiversity of an ecosystem.
in 1968.
The Himalayan Range is very rich in species diversity. It
The word biodiversity is a contraction of the phrase
is a conuence of different biogeographically zones is the
“biological diversity” and was rst coined in 1985 by
most appropriate reason for this phenomenon.
Walter Rosen of the National Research Council as a title
The Biodiversity Act was passed by Lok Sabha on 2nd
word in a seminar, organized to discuss biological diversity.
December, 2002 and by Rajya Sabha on 11 December,
Each of these species and organisms work together in
2002.
ecosystems, like an intricate web, to maintain balance and
National Biodiversity Authority of India was established
support life.
Natural habitat destruction is the main reason for the in 2003, in Chennai.
decrease in biodiversity. NBA checks the biopiracy and protects indigenous and
Habitat loss is a consequence of human activities such as traditional genetic resources.
deforestation, resource extraction, agriculture, urbanization, Application for Intellectual Property Rights related to
alteration of the sea-oor due to trawling (shing), or the genetic/biological resources cannot be made without the
release of pollutants. approval of the NBA.
Government of India in collaboration with the Norwegian If rainforests and tropical forests are the lungs of the Earth
Government has established a centre for Biodiversity Policy then surely wetlands function as its kidneys.
and Law at Chennai. Vultures are exposed to the drug, when they consume
Biodiversity hotspots are regions that contain a high level carcasses of animals that were treated with diclofenac
of species diversity, many endemic species and a signicant shortly before death.
number of threatened or endangered species. Vultures die from kidney failure within days of exposure
Eastern Himalayas (Part of Himalaya hotspots), Western to diclofenac-contaminated tissues, with post-mortem
Ghats (Part of Western Ghats and Sri Lanka), Most North- ndings of extensive visceral gout (Oaks et al. 2004).
375
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The marine animal called dugong which is vulnerable to

Convention Related Subject
extinction is a Mammal. It is given legal protection under
Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Cartagena Protocol Biosafety
The 10th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Stockholm Convention Persistent organic
Conference on ‘Biological Diversity’ was held at Nagoya, pollutant
Japan.
Montreal Protocol Ozone Layer
The 15th Conference of the Parties to the Convention
on Biological Diversity (COP 15), chaired by China and Kyoto Protocol Climate Change
hosted by Canada, took place in Montreal on 7-9 December The concept of Greenhouse Gases was postulated by Joseph
2022. It was preceded by the 5th session of the open-ended Fourier.
working group on the negotiation of the post-2020 global The main component of greenhouse gases are Carbon
framework for biodiversity on 3-5 December 2022.
dioxide, Methane, Nitrous oxide, Chlorouorocarbons etc.
Alpha diversity index shows the mean species diversity in
Carbon-di-oxide has highest contribution in global
a habitat at a local scale.
warming.
diversity measures the increase in species diversity along
Net zero means cutting greenhouse gas emissions to as
transects and is particularly applicable to the study of
close to zero as possible, with any remaining emissions
environmental gradients.
re-absorbed from the atmosphere, by oceans and forests
Gamma diversity describes the overall species diversity
for instance.
across communities within a larger geographic area.
India, at the 26th session of the United Nations Framework
Salt-water crocodile is found in the Andaman and Nicobar
Convention on Climate Change (COP 26) in November,
Islands.
2021, announced its target to achieve net zero by 2070.
In India, Slow Loris lives in the dense forests of the North
Presently, China is the largest contributor to carbon dioxide
East.
(CO2) emissions .
Ex-situ Conservation - Conserving biodiversity outside
Bhutan is known as 'carbon negative country' in the world.
the areas where they naturally occur is known as ex-situ
conservation. Examples - Seed banks, Botanical gardens, The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Zoological parks etc. Change (UNFCCC) ratified by 198 countries became
In-situ Conservation - Conserving the animals and plants effective on March 21, 1994.
in their natural habitats is known as in-situ conservation. Ozone Layer :
Examples - National Parks, Sanctuaries, Biosphere reserves, 'Ozone layer' absorbing ultraviolet radiation, mostly exists
Reserved forest, Protected forest and Nature Reserves. in Stratosphere .
Green House Effect : The maximum concentration of ozone is found in
The green house gases called with this name because Stratosphere.
it produces a “greenhouse effect”. Burning fossil fuels CFCs are responsible for Ozone Hole.
produces carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. The greenhouse Chlorouorocarbons (CFCs) are nontoxic, nonammable
effect makes the earth warmer, just as a greenhouse is chemicals containing atoms of carbon, chlorine, and
warmer than its surroundings. Carbon dioxide is the main uorine.
cause of human-induced climate change. Ozone protects the biosphere from Ultraviolet rays.
The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty Harmful ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun can cause
on climate change. It was adopted by 196 Parties at the UN Skin cancer.
Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris, France, on 12 Signicantly, the largest and deepest hole in the ozone is
December 2015. It entered into force on 4 November 2016. over Antarctica. It is due to excessive use of CFCs and an
The 26th United Nations Climate Change Conference increase in greenhouse gases.
(CoP26) was held in Glasgow, U.K. in 2021.
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997.
4. Miscellaneous
Owing to a complex ratication process, it entered into The United Nations Conference on Environment and
force on 16 February 2005. Currently, there are 192 Parties Development (UNCED), also known as the 'Earth Summit'
to the Kyoto Protocol. was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil from 3 - 14 June 1992.
376
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The Global Environment Facility (GEF) was established

Exam Oriented Facts
on the eve of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit to tackle our
The Maximum biodiversity is found in Tropical rain
planet's most pressing environmental problems. Carlos
forest. [UPPCS (Pre.), 2012]
Manuel Rodriguez is presently the Chief Executive Ofcer
Biodiversity increases towards the equator.
and Chairperson of the Global Environment Facility.
[UKPSC (Pre.), 2012]
In 2012, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable
Development was held in Rio and is also commonly called India has four biodiversity hotspots namely Himalaya,
Indo-Burma (Northeastern India and Andaman Islands),
Rio+20 or Rio Earth Summit 2012.
sunda lands (Nicobar Islands) and Western Ghat.
National Environmental Engineering Research
[RAS/RTS (Pre.), 2008]
Institute (NEERI) is situated in Nagpur, Maharashtra. It
Destruction of natural habitats is the most important
was established as Central Public Health Engineering
factor for the lost of biodiversity.
Research Institute (CPHERI) in 1958 to focus on water
[UPPCS (Pre.), 2023; Jharkhand PCS (Pre.) 2010]
supply, sewage disposal and related diseases and to some
Endangered species are listed in Red Data Book.
extent on industrial pollution.
Signicantly Red Data Book is published by IUCN.
NEERI is a pioneering laboratory in the field of
[UPPCS (Pre.), 2013; UKPSC (Pre.), 2017]
environmental science and engineering and part of Council
The Ramsa Convention was associated with the
of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).
conservation of wetlands. [UPPCS (Mains), 2008]
WMO is an intergovernmental organization with a
membership of 193 Member States and Territories WMO World Westlands Day is celebrated every year on 2
was originated from the International Meteorological February, Notably this day marks the date of the adoption
of the Convention on Wetlands on 2nd February, 1971 in
Organization (IMO) which was founded in 1879 to facilitate
the Iranian of Ramsar
the exchange of weather information across national
[UPPCS (Pre.), 2023; UP RO/ARO Re-exam (Pre.) 2016]
borders. WMO became a specialized agency of the United
The Biodiversity Act was passed in 2002. In February
Nations on 17 March, 1951.
2003, the President assented the Bill.
Green Development is a book written by W.M. Adams.
[UP UDA/LDA (Mains), 2010; CGPSC (Pre.), 2018]
*The full name of this Book is 'Green Development:
The concept of Greenhouse Gases was postulated by
Environment and Sustainability in a Developing World'.
Joseph Fourier. [UPPCS (Mains), 2011]
First edition of this book was published in the year1990.
India’s first Antarctic Research Station is known as The main component of Green House gases is carbon
Dioxide which is responsible approximately 64% of
“Dakshin Gangotri” .
Green House gas.
India constructed its rst research base, Dakshin Gangotri,
[65th BPSC (Pre.) 2019; UPPCS (Mains), 2011]
during the 1983-84 season.
Climate change is caused by Green house gases,
Agenda 21 is a comprehensive plan of action to be
Depletion of the Ozone Layer, Pollution etc.
taken globally, nationally and locally by organizations
[MPPCS (Pre.), 2014; UPPCS (Mains), 2017]
of the United Nations System, Governments, and Major
Cartagena protocal is related to Biosafety Agreemal.
Groups in every area in which human impacts on the
[Jharkhand PCS (Pre.), 2016]
environment.
Agenda 21, the Rio Declaration on Environment and The total amound of the green house gases produced,
directly or indirectly to support human activities, is
Development, and the Statement of principles for the
referred to as carbon foot print. [RAS/RTS (Pre.) 2018]
Sustainable Management of Forests were adopted by more
than 178 Governments at the United Nations Conference Newzealand, in 2005 introduced for the rst, a carbon
on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio tax to adress global warming. [IAS (Pre.) 2006]

de Janeiro, Brazil, 3 to 14 June 1992. India's rst National Action Plan on Climate Change was
In 1992, countries joined an international treaty, the United released in 2008. [UPPCS (Pre.) 2016; UPPCS (Pre.) 2018;
UP RO/ARO (Mains), 2021]
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) as a framework for international cooperation Nationa Green Tribunals (NGT) headquarters is located
to combat climate change. at New Delhi. [MPPCS (Pre.), 2023]

377
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Science &
Technology
Science and Technology : An Introduction Biotechnology Nano Technology Indian Nuclear Research Indian
Defence Technology Indian Space Program

(iv) Science Technology and Innovation Policy, 2013:

1 Science and Technology The then Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh presented
the Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, 2013 at the
An Introduction inaugural session of the Centenary Session (100th) of the Indian
Science and Technology have always been an integral Science Congress in Kolkata in January, 2013.
part of Indian culture. In ancient times it was termed as Natural The objective of the policy is to benefit of science,
Philosophy. After the attainment of Indian freedom, the
technology and innovation for National Growth and
Government of India has spared no effort to establish a modern
sustainable and more inclusive growth.
S&T infrastructure in the country. It is notable that the Department
Other objectives to encourage scientic thinking in all
of Science and Technology plays a pivotal role in promotion of
sections of the society i.e. development of scientic temper.
Science and Technology in the country. Notably, Department of
(v) National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy,
Science and Technology (DST) was established in 1975, which
2020
comes under the Ministry of Science and Technology.
The 5th Science, Technology and Innovation Policy aims to
Policies related to S&T :
foster, develop and nurture a robust system of evidence and
Four "Science, Technology and Innovation Policies" stakeholder-driven STI planning, information, evaluation
(STIP) have been implemented in the country since and policy research in India.
independence. Recently, the Draft of the 5th National Science, India has declared the year 2010-2020 as the Decode of
Technology and Innovation Policy has been nalized and the Innovation.
draft has been released by the Department of Science and
Technology Vision, 2035 :
Technology (DST) on its website. Signicantly DST comes
In January 2016, the Prime Minister unveiled the
under the Ministry of Science & Technology.
Technology Vision Document, 2035' while inaugurating
(i) Science, Technology and Innovation Policy 1958 : the 103rd Indian Science congress (Mysore, Karnataka).
India's rst 'Science, Technology and Innovation Policy This vision was dedicated to former President Late Dr.
'was directed by Jawahar Lal Nehru while Scientist Homi A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.
Jahangir Bhabha was one of the prominent Scientist in 1958. The Technology Vision, 2035, document is being referred
This Policy Resolution (1958) laid the foundation stone to as the Technology Information forecasting and
of science and scientic ecosystem in India. Assessment council (TIFAC).
(ii) Technology Policy Statement, 1983 : The following 12 thematic areas have been identied
The Technology Policy of Government of India was under the technology Vision, 2035 document on which
announced by the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi at the technologies are to be focused –
session of the 70th Indian Science Congress held in
Tirupati (Andhra Pradesh) in January, 1983. Medical Science and health care
The Policy included emphasis on achieving technological Education Food and
capability and technological self-reliance. Agriculture
(iii) Science and Technology Policy, 2003 : Materials
Water
Science and Technology Policy, 2003 was announced at the Information and 12 Thematic
90th Indian National Science congress held at Bengaluru Communication Energy
areas
(Karnataka) in January 2003. Technology
Environment
The main policy objectives are to advance scientic temper
Manufacturing
and fully integrate science and technology into all spheres Habitat
Transportation Infrastructure
of national activity on a sustainable basis.
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Nine Missions of Science and Technology : (vi) Enzyme and protein technology
To ensure India's sustainable development, the Prime (vii) Fermentation
Minister's Science Technology and Innovation Advisory (viii)Bio-transformation
Council (PM-STIAC) has set up 9 National missions. (ix) Stabilization of cell and cell products etc.
Each mission will be lead by lead ministry and involve The following techniques for manufacturing targeted
international and national institutionaly partners, young products in Biotechnology -
scientists and industries. (i) Gene engineering or DNA Recombinant Technique.
(ii) Hybridization Technique.
Natural Language Translation (iii) Cell and tissue Culture.
AGNi Articial (iv) Protoplasm Fragmentation etc.
Deep Ocean Intelligence (AI) Biotechnology is of two types on the basis of transfer can
Exploration be divided into.
Nine Quantum
Waste to Missions Frontier
Wealth Biotechnology
National
Bioscience for Electric Biodiversity Gene Biotechnology Non-gene Biotechnology
Human Health Vehicles (EV) Mission
Gene biotechnology : Involve gene transfer
Leaky Pipeline - The "leaky pipeline" metaphor Non-gen Biotechnology : Involves cell, tissue or entire
describes the way in which women become underrepresented organs.
minorities in the STEM elds. Signicantly, in mathematics Apart from this, the Science of Biotechnology is divided
the disequilibrium starts before undergraduation with fewer into the following sub-disciplines -
females choosing to major in these elds.
Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar Award : This award is Biotechnology
given to Indian Scientists under the age of 45 for outstanding
research in seven areas; who have in the opinion of CSIR, Red Biotechnology Blue Biotechnology
made a uniquely signicant and outstanding contribution to
the fundamental and applied advancement of knowledge. Green Biotechnology White Biotechnology

Earth, Atmosphere, Ocean Yellow Biotechnology

and Home Science
(i) Red Biotechnology : It deals with medical procedures
Physical Science Chemistry
using stem cells to obtain living organisms for the
production of new drugs or to regenerate damaged human
Medical Science 7 Region Biology
tissues or possibly to redevelop entire organs.
Examples :
Engineering Science Mathematical Science
(a) Designing organism to produce antibiotics.
(b) Engineering variety of genetic curves through genetic
2 Biotechnology manipulation.
(c) Manufacturing variety of test instruments.
Biotechnology is the system of manufacturing products (ii) White Biotechnology : White Biotechnology uses
by using biological processes, such as microorganism, enzymes and microorganism to produce value -added
plants and animals in technology to improve the quality chemicals from renewable sources.
of human life.
Note : White Biotechnology also called 'Grey Biotech-
Under this the following are produced -
nology'. Example - Pharmaceutical industry, food
(i) Manufacturing of antibodies, vitamins, vaccines, plastics
etc. industry, mining industry, fuel industry, production of
(ii) Disposal of toxic wastes using bacteria. industries related to environment protection etc.
(iii) Pollution control and production of new fuels. (iii) Green Biotechnology : This technology is used in
(iv) Germplasm development. agriculture sector for research and development of insect
(v) Embryo transfer technique resistant crops.
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(iv) Blue Biotechnology : This technology is used in marine is an articial process through which articial pregnency
environment, so that new techniques can be researched is created in women.
and developed to control the spread of waterborne harmful This method is popularly known as 'Test Tube Baby
organisms. Programme'.
(v) Yellow Biotechnology : This is new branch of In 1978 a child named Louise Brown was born by using
Biotechnology. Insect are used as a resource, so that this technique for rst time in England.
humans can get beneted. Robert Edward, who developed the test tube baby
Example : Lac insect, honey obtained from bee, silk technique, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in
obtained from silkworm. the year 2010.
Indian Scientist M.S. Swaminathan (1960s) developed Surrogacy : Surrogacy is such a process, through which
new techniques to increase food production in India and a childless couple can get child.
started the Green Revolution. When a women carries a child of a couple who are unable
For this contribution, he is called the father of 'Economic to conceive or carry a child due to physical or medical
Ecology'. reasons, it is termed a 'Surrogacy'.
What is Bt. Brinjal : Surrogacy is also called 'Renting a Womb' in other words,
Bt Brinjal is a transgenic brinjal created by inserting a because there is an agreement between the women and
gene Cry1AC from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis the couple, under which the women bears the child in her
into Brinjal. womb and after the birth of the child, she hands it over to
the couple.
What is Golden Rice : This women is called 'Surrogate mother'.
Golden Rice is a new type of rice that contains beta Three Parent Baby Technology/Mitochondrial
carotene (provitamin A a plant pigment that the body converts Replacement Therapy - 'Three parent baby' means a
into vitamin A as it needes. baby whom most of its DNA comes from its mother and
Human Genome Project (HGP) : In the year 1998, the father and some from a female Donor.
'US Department of Energy' and the 'National Institute Three Parent Baby Technology can be considered as an
of health' jointly started work on the human Genome advanced form of IVF technology.
Project (HGP). It was formally started in 1990 and it was Under this, egg of the mother and the egg of another female
completed in the year 2003. mother (donor) are mixed with the sperm of the father.
It was an international science-driven research program Britain is the rst country in the world to give legal
towards the determination of the DNA sequencing of the recognition to three parent baby technology.
complete human genome. Bioinformatics : Bioinformatics is the branch of biology,
This was the rst attempt to determine the blueprint of which deals with the acquisition, storage, analysis,
Human DNA genome sequence. distribution, interpretation etc. of biological information.
India was not involved in this project, but with the help In this technique of biology, information technology and
of this project, India started human Genome Project. mathematics are used.
Government of India started Genome India Project. This is In this process the desired result can be easily obtained by
a national project funded by Department of Biotechnology. analyzing the data with the help of computer and suitable
Signicantly, the Indian population of 1.3 billion consists bioinformatic software.
of 74600 population groups, and several thousands of them Brain mapping is also called 'brain fingerprinting'.
are endogamous. Brain mapping test was invented by American neurologist
Specic aim of this project - Dr. Lawrence A. Farwell did in 1955.
To create a exhaustive catalog of genetic variations Terminator Gene : Plants inhibit the development of their
To create a reference haplotype structure of Indians. embryo due to effect of terminator gene.
Design genome wide arrays for research and Under this, such gene can be inserted in any plant, due to
diagnostics at an affordable cost. which a good crop can be obtained from the plant, but its
Black/Dark Biotechnology : Application of biotechnology seeds can not produce new plants.
related to Bioterrorism is called dark biotechnology. Genetic Use Restriction Technologies (GURTs) may
In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) : In vitro fertilization or IVF be dened as a set of 'technological means that rely on
380
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genetic transformation of plants to introduce a genetic Application of Graphene :

switch mechanism which prevents unathorized use of
Using to enhance the strength of the materials
either particular plant germplasm, or trait(s) associated
with that germplasm. Nanoantennas In Fuel Cells
Since seed produced from plants with such genes will not
In Radiowave In Energy storage
able to produce new plants, farmers have to buy seeds from absorption
seed companies every time. Application
In Plansmonics of In Coating sensors
3 Nano Technology Graphene
In making Biosensors Water purication
Nano Technology refers to the branch of science and
engineering devoted to designing, producing and using In Cancer Treatment In Photothermal therapy
structures, devices and systems by manipulating atoms
Great material for making heat-spreading solutions
and molecules at nanoscale, i.e. having one or more
dimensions of the order of 100 nanometres or less. Green Nanotechnology :
Generally, under this, an overall study of the techniques Green nanotechnology has been described as an evolution
and related principles used at the microscopic level of of clean technology.
1-100 nanometres. Overall, there are two main goals of green nanotechnology-
1 nanometre is 1 billionth part of 1 metre (i.e. 10–9 metre). (i) Production of nanomaterial and products without harming
In simple word, the management and manufacturing of the environment or human health.
substance and devices at the nano level through technical (ii) Production of nanoproducts that provide solution for
skills comes under nanotechnology. environmental problems.
The rst hypothesis regarding nanotechnology was made
in 1959 by a Physicist Rechard P. Feynman. 4 Indian Nuclear Research
Richard P. Feynman is called father of nanotechnology.
The Atomic Energy Commission was established by the
Father of nanotechnology in India is, Professor C.N.R.
Government of India in 1948.
Rao.
Dr. Homi J. Bhabha was the first chairman of the
'Nano' is a greek word, which means 'Dwarf'.
commission.
Norio Taniguchi (1974 AD) used the term nanotechnology
The Department of Atomic Energy was established in
for the rst time.
August, 1954 for carrying out of nuclear power programs.
Nanotechnology is used in the elds of energy, cosmetics,
The Prime Minister is the ex-ofcio chairperson of the
water purication and treatment, medicine, space, defence,
commission.
agriculture, communication and electronics.
Main Centres of Nuclear Research and Development :
Fullerene or Carbon - 60 :
A. Atomic Research Centre (BARC) :
Fullerene is a molecule of carbon with zero dimensionality, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre is located in Trombay
which is found in spherical, ellipsoid, tube etc. (Mumbai).
Fullerene is used in batteries, paper batteries, automobiles, Dr. Bhabha founded the Atomic Energy Foundation centre,
aircraft and Pacemaker etc. in 1954 and after his death in 1966, the centre is now
Graphene : Graphene is two-dimensional conductor of known as BHABHA Atomic Research Centre.
carbon atoms. It is the isotopes of basic elements such The BARC promotes R&D in nuclear eld which also helps
as graphite, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), charcoale and the related industry and mining sectors.
fullerene. A CIRUS thermal reactor has been set up at BARC in
Graphene is mainly extracted from graphite, but while collaboration with Canada.
graphite a three-dimensional (3D) crystallized material, The experimental reactors are also called 'Zero Power
graphene has a two-dimensional (2D) orientation. Reactors'.
It is the thinnest and strongest element in the substance It is because their specic purpose is nuclear research rather
known for as. than producing energy.
Geim and Novoselov was awarded the Nobel Prize in In addition to producing radioisotopes in research reactors,
physics (2010), for discovery of graphene. work on nuclear technologies is also done.
381
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B. Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR) Uranium Corporation of India Limited Jaduguda
This centre was established in 1971 at Kalpakkam in
Indian Rare Earth Limited Mumbai
Tamilnadu.
In 1985, it was renamed as Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Nuclear Power Corporation of India
Mumbai
Research (IGCAR). Limited
The main task of IGCAR is research and development in
the eld of fast Breeder Reactor. Note : Apsara-U, Apsara, Cirus, Dhruva, Kamini,
The Fast Breeder Reactor was being installed at this centre Purnima-I, Purnima-II, Purnima-III, Zerlina, are the
using mixed MOX (PuO2 + UO2) fuel of Plutonium and names of BARC nuclear reactors. Out of these, Apsara,
Uranium. Cirus, Purnima-I, II, III and Zerlina are not Operational.
Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) has the following charac- Atomic Power Stations of India:
teristics: Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)
(i) The chain reaction is continuous in FBR by fast-moving was established in 1987. The Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut
neutrons. Nigam Limited (BHAVANI) was established in 2003.
(ii) It has a much larger number of fragmented neutrons than Its (NPCIL) function is to manage nuclear power generation.
in a heated reactor. Tarapur Atomic Power Station has been established with
(iii) It has a minimum level of emission of radioactivity. the help of America.
(iv) It uses sodium as a coolant. Tarapur is the first nuclear power plant in India.
C. Kalpakkam Mini-Reactor: Enriched Uranium is used here as fuel that is imported from
It is also called KAMINI using the acronym. America.
While Uranium or Plutonium is used as a fuel in other Rawatbhata Nuclear Power Plant is located in Rawat-
experimental reactors, KAMINI uses Uranium-233 as fuel. bhata (Rajasthan).
KAMINI Thorium is the rst reactor in the world to use It was established in collaboration with Canada. At present,
Uranium-233 fuel cycle. it is the largest ‘Nuclear Park’ in India.
This reactor is also used to trace criminals in addition to
research. Nuclear Power Plants in India
D. Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC): Atomic Power Plants Place
The headquarter of VECC is located in Kolkata. Tarapur Atomic Power Plant Maharashtra
This centre promotes research for the production of atomic Rajasthan Atomic Power Plant Rawatbhata (Rajasthan)
chemistry and nuclear physics radioisotopes.
Madras Atomic Power Plant Kalpakkam (Tamilnadu)
Currently, this centre has 3 cyclotrons. K130 Cyclotron
which has been in operation since 1977; the K500 Bulandshahar
Narora Atomic Power Plant
superconducting cyclotron through which the internal beam (Uttar Pradesh)
was accelerated in 2009, but it detected primary harmonic Kakrapar Atomic Power Plant Surat (Gujarat)
magnetic eld error. It is now being xed to make the beam Uttar Kannada
available for use and also the 30 MeVH Medical Cyclotron Kaiga Atomic Power Plant
district (Karnataka)
is under installation. Kudankulam Nuclear Power
E. Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology Tirunelveli (Tamilnadu)
Plant
(RRCAT)
Neutron Bomb :
This centre was established in 1984 in Indore.
The explosive power of this bomb is comparatively less.
The development of technology in the eld of laser and
Its radiation capacity is high.
particle accelerators is undertaken at this centre.
Nuclear Test :
Other Key Units of the Department of Atomic India conducted its rst nuclear test on 18th May, 1974 at
Energy Pokhran (Jaisalmer, Rajasthan).
Institute Name Place The bomb had a capacity of 12 kg TNT.
This test was named Smiling Buddha.
Atomic Minerals Directorate for Explora-
Hyderabad A second nuclear test was conducted in Pokhran on 11 and
tion and Research
13 May 1998 which was named Shakti-98.
Guru Jal Board Mumbai Three scientists share the credit for the success of the
Nuclear Fuel Complex Hyderabad Shakti-98 project. They are as follows-
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1. R.Chidambaram, 2. Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam and 3. Anil ITER is being operated by many countries of the world
Kakodkar. including China, European Union State, Japan, India,
India's test was done in the category sub-kiloton (i.e. less South Korea, Russia at Cadarache in rance.
than 1 kiloton) category. The primary ob ective of ITER is the investigation and
The biggest advantage of the sub-kiloton explosion is that demonstration of burning plasma. Expect this ITER will
India can continue trials in the laboratory even if India also test the availability and integration of technologies
has signed the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty essential for a fusion reactor.
(CTBT). In this pro ect a machine is being used namely Tokamak.
Tokamak is an experimental machine designed to harness
Note : A nuclear weapon or nuclear bomb is an explosive
the energy of fusion.
device whose base of destructive power is a nuclear In this pro ect Europe is responsible for the largest portion
reaction. of construction cost (45.6 percent), the remain is shared
Note : The inventor of the atom bomb is Otto Hahn. equally by China, India, Japan, Korea, Russia and US (9.1
Note : Otto Hahn is considered the father of nuclear percent each).
chemistry and harbinger of the atomic age. Nisargruna Biogas Technology :
Nuclear Reactor : Nisargruna biogas plants have been developed from
A Nuclear Reactor is a device in which nuclear reactions biodegradable waste like cow dung, grass, paper, kitchen
are generated, and the Chain reaction is controlled to waste, dry leaves.
release large amount of steady heat, thereby producing a The 'Slurry' obtained from this biogas plants can be used
good quantity of energy. as fertili er.
Parts of Nuclear Reactor : Methane (CH4) released from them can be used as an
Fuel - Uranium is basic fuel. energy product.
Moderator - Materials in the core which slows down the This technology is developed by BARC.
neutrons released from ssion so that they cause more Some major radioactive drugs
ssion. it is usually water, but may be heavy water.
Medicine Use
Coolant - A uid circulating through the core so as to
transfer the heat from it. Signicantly, in light water Cobalt-60 It emits gamma rays. It Destroys cancer
reactors the water moderator functions also as primary cells.
coolant. Phosphorus-32 Treatment of polycythemia vera (a type
Shield - A nuclear shield is tted around the reactor to of blood cancer)
absorb any radiation from leaking into its immediate
Iodine-131 Diagnosis of disease related to the
environment. Usually made of lead or special types of
thyroid gland
plastics.
Nuclear Fission : Samarium-153 or the diagnosis ofArthritis
Under the process of nuclear ssion, an atomic nucleus Holmium-166 or the diagnosis of arthritis
is split by bombardment of neutrons, as a result energy is utetium-1 or Radiotherapy
generated -
Example :
5 Indian Defence Technology
92
U235 + 0n1 56
Ba144 + 36kr89 + 30n1 + Energy
The atomic bomb is based on process of nuclear ssion. Defence Research and Development Organi ation (DRDO)
Nuclear Fusion : was established in 1958.
Under the process of nuclear fusion, two lighter atomic The Chief and Director eneral of DRDO acts as the
nuclei combine together to form a larger atomic nucleus. scientic advisor to the Defence Minister.
Example : Helium atoms are formed by the fusion of Indian Missile Program:
In July 1983, the Integrated Guided Missile Development
Hydrogen atoms and a large amount of energy is generated.
Program-IGMDP was launched.
2 2
1 H +1H → 42 He +10 n + Energy The foundation stone of this program was laid down by the
International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor former Prime Minister of India, Smt. Indira andhi.
(ITER) This program is running under the aegis of DRDO.
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1. Prithvi The club includes the United States, Russia, China, France
It is a surface-to-surface ballistic missile. Prithvi-I and and the United Kingdom.
Prithvi-II have a ring range of 150 kms and 250 kms 5. Trishul
respectively. It is a surface-to-air missile.
In February 1988, the rst test of the Prithvi missile was Its ring range is 9 kms.
conducted at Chandipur Integrated Test Range. In 2008, the Trishul Missile development program was
The rst test of the Prithvi missile was carried out in launched.
February, 1988. 6. Nag:
Prithvi-I missile has been delivered to the Indian Army. It is an anti-tank guided missile.
Prithvi-II is its air force version, with a range of 250-350 The repower of this missile is 4 km.
km. Prithvi-III (Dhanush) is a naval version. It works on the Fire and Forget Principle, once red, it
Prithvi missiles are based on uid propellants. does not need to be redirected.
2. Dhanush : 7. BrahMos:
It is Prithvi-II missile's naval orientation. It has been developed under a joint project between India
Its ring range is 350 kms. and Russia.
Brahmos produces supersonic cruise missiles that can be
It is a surface-to-surface missile.
launched from submarines, ships, aricraft or land platform.
3. Akash:
The word "BrahMos" comes from the word Brah, derived
It is a medium-range surface-to-air missile.
from the river Brahmaputra of India and the word Mos
Its ring range is about 30 kms.
from the river Moskva of Russia.
This can also be red from the mobile launcher.
Its ring range is 290 km which has been increased to 450-
"Akash" is comparable to the American Patriot missile.
500 km in its later version.
4. Agni :
It moves at almost thrice the speed of sound.
It is a surface-to-surface medium-range ballistic missile.
Other Defence Armaments & Equipment:
There are ve categories of Agni missile - Agni-I, Agni-II,
Battle Tank Arjun :
Agni-III, Agni. - IV and Agni-V. This battle tank has been developed by D.R.D.O.
It can also work in the dark.
Its maximum speed is 70 kms per hour.
AGNI - Ground- to-ground medium range ballistic T-90 Bhishma Tank :
missile
It is a missile launcher with a ring range of 4 kms.
Range
It can also protect itself from landmines laid.
Tejas:
Agni-V
Agni-I more than Tejas is the rst indigenously built light combat aircraft of
Agni-III
more than 700 km 5000 km 4th generation.
more than 3000 km
Agni-VI more It has been developed by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
than 8000 km (HAL).
Agni-II Agni-IV In January, 2011 the then Defence Minister dedicated it to
more than 2000 km more than 3500 km the Indian Air Force and in July, 2016 its rst squadron was
inducted into the Indian Air Force.
Agni-I has a range of more than 700 km. Drones :
Agni-II has a range of more than 2000 km. These are unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) which are
Agni-III has a range of more than 3500 km. self-propelled and based on pre-planned missions.
Agni-IV has a range of more than 3500 km, while The drone is controlled from the ground. They are much
Agni V has a range of more than 5000 km. cheaper than military aircrafts and they can be own and
Agni-VI has a range of more than 8000 km. controlled remotely.
Agni-IV is a two-stage solid propellant missile. These are of two types - one for surveillance and the other
Agni-V and Agni-VI is equipped with electronic devices equipped with missile bombs.
that jam the enemy’s radars so that it will remain untraceable Lakshya :
to the enemy. It is a pilot-less aircraft.
India has also joined the Intercontinental Ballistic Missile It is used as a target for the trial of surface to air and air
(ICBM) club with the Agni-V and Agni-VI test. to air missiles and tanks.
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It is a jet engine driven aerial vehicle (UAV) and can be Project - 75 :

used 10 times in its life. Project 75 is an ambitious project of India. Signicantly,
It can be remotely controlled within the range of 100 kms. this project involves the acquisition of six ships of the
It is used for training of all three branches of the Armed Kalvari-class diesel-electric attack submarines.
Forces. The P75 Kalvari-class diesel-electric / air-independent
Dhruv : propulsion (AIP) submarines are based on the Scorpene-
It is an advanced light helicopter with twin engines. class submarines, which were designed by French naval
It has been developed by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited. shipbuilding rm Naval Group (formerly known as DCNS)
Pinaka : in partnership with Spanish shipbuilding rm Navantia.
It is a multi-barrel rocket launcher. The new submarines are being built by Mazagon Dock
It is named after Lord Shankara’s bow ‘Pinaka’. Shipbuilders (formerly known as Mazagon Dock) in
It has 12 rockets in its tubes which can be red within a Mumbai, India, using the technology and training provided
gap of 44 seconds with a payload of 100 kg. by the Naval Group.
Its MK-I variant has a range of 38 kms and 60 km range The six scorpene class submarines under P75 are:
of the MK-II version. In December, 2019 its ring range 1. INS Kalvari (commissioned in 2017)
75-90 km was also successfully tested. 2. INS Khanderi (commissioned in 2019)
Kali 5000 : 3. INS Karanj (commissioned in 2021)
Kali (Kilo Ampere Linear) 5000 is a powerful beam 4. INS Vela (commissioned in 2021)
weapon. 5. INS Vagir (launched in 2020)
It emits microwave waves of several GW power which have 6. INS Vagsheer (Launched on 20 April, 2022)
the effect of dismantling electronic systems and computer
Project 75I (India) :
chips of aircraft and missiles and eventually destroying
The Project 75 (India)-class submarines, or P-75I, for short,
them.
are a planned class of diesel-electric submarines, which are
The Kali 5000 is developed by BARC and DRDO.
to be built for the Indian Navy. The P-75I class is a follow-
K-15 :
on of the P-75 class submarines of the Indian Navy.
K-15 or 'Sagarika' is a submarine-launched balistic missile
This project envisages the indigenous construction
(SLBM), which can also carry nuclear warheads.
of submarines equipped with a state-of-the-art air-
It was successfully tested in February 2008.
independent propulsion system.
This missile is developed by DRDO.
Ballistic Missiles :
It used two stage solid propellants.
Ballistic missiles are applied with the necessary force during
Sarath :
It is a one of a missile platform developed for deployment launching but are dropped by gravity to hit the target.
of Akash, Trishul and Nag missile. Cruise Missile:
By this, any missile will be loaded and taken to war zones Cruise class missile is able to nd its target and hit it.
and will be dropped at appropriate places. Stealth Technology:
Airborne Early Warning & Control System (AEW&C) : Aeroplanes, ships, submarines, missiles and satellites are
Airborne Early Warning & Control System (AEW&C), is a made invisible from the access of sonar, radar and infrared
force multiplier system of systems for detecting & tracking etc. by the use of stealth technology.
of enemy/hostile aircrafts/ UAVs etc.
It also enables operators onboard and on ground to identify,
Other Important Points
assess the threat and take actions to guide our interceptors Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam is said to be the father of Indian
to those for neutralizing those threats. Missile Technology.
The system is fully net centric, with complete command The outer atmospheric layer consists of electrically
and control functions not only providing the available charged ions, hence it is also called ion system.
information to ground through its multiple data links but Juno of US Space Agency (NASA), is a space research
also can receive information from ground, integrate and vehicle, launched to study Jupiter, the fth planet in the
fuse them onboard to provide the operators onboard a solar system.
composite picture of environment.
As a command centre, it enables onboard operators to select, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam is the rst President of India
command and guide specic interceptor aircrafts towards who ew for 30 minutes in Sukhoi ghter aircraft of the
enemy threat efciently and neutralize them. Indian Air Force.

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The rocket was taken to the launch site on a bullock cart;

Nuclear fuel is used in modern submarines.
later rockets would take bicycles.
The rst nuclear explosion was conducted by the United The Indian National Space Research Committee worked
States in July 1945 which name was 'Trinity'. under the Department of Atomic Energy.
Aryabhatta was the rst satellite launched by India. Later, the Indian Space Research Committee was
reorganized.
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (Thumba village) was
The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) was
established in Thiruvananthapuram because it is located
established on 15th August, 1969, after restructuring.
on the geomagnetic equator.
Number of centres and units were set up for the successful
The Earth rotates from west to east. In order to take ad- space program. These centres are as follows:
vantage of rotation in this direction, articial satellites are Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, Thiruvanan-thapuram
launched from the west direction to the east. (VSSC):
Chronograph is a device that provides prior informa- The centre is responsible for the rocket research and launch
tion about cyclones. vehicle development projects.
It plays an important role in developing Rockets and Launch
These storms rise in the sun.
Vehicles.
Polygraph machine is used as a lie detector machine. VSSC has developed India's Launch Vehicles SLV-3, ASLV,
Polygraph machine is based on the principle that PSLV and GSLV.
activities which occur in the mind of a human being are UR Rao Satellite Centre, Bengaluru (URSC) :
reected in the physical activities of man. URSC carries out the design and development of satellite
projects at this centre.
Holography is a technique of marking and repeating a
The URSC Centre has also undertaken the testing and
stereoscopic (3D) pattern of an object.
management of satellites.
The full name of FAX is Far Away Xerox. SHAR Centre, Sriharikota:
The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research It is also known as Satish Dhawan Space Centre.
(CSIR) was established in 1942. Its headquarter is The SHAR centre is located on the eastern coast of Andhra
located at New Delhi. Pradesh and is a major launching centre of ISRO.
Various performance stages of solid fuel rockets of launch
The Prime Minister of India is the ex-ofcio President vehicles are tested on the Earth from this centre.
of the CSIR.
Master Control Facility, Hassan (MCF):
This centre is located at Hassan district of Karnataka.
6 Indian Space Program The work of placing the INSAT satellite in orbit,
maintaining regular operation and contact of the satellite
In 1945, the science writer, Arthur C. Clarke in his paper, with the centre is done at this centre.
published in the 'Wireless World Magazine', proposed the The centre also monitors and controls all the activities of
principle of radio communication through geostationary the satellite in the orbit.
satellite. National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad (NRSC):
In his honour, the geostationary class is also called 'Clarke Its main campus is located in Balanagar, Hyderabad
Orbit'. (Telangana).
After continuous research in this direction, some satellites Its other campuses are located at Shadnagar – Rangareddi
were launched into space. district in Telangana, Jeedimetla in Hyderabad and
The world entered into the space age with the successful launch Begumpet in Hyderabad.
of the Sputnik-1 satellite (USSR) in 1957. This agency works under the Department of Space.
The Indian National Committee for Space Research The NRSC identies, classies and monitors the mineral
(INCOSPAR) was formed in India in 1962. resources on the Earth based on the information received
The rst chairman of this committee was a famous space from the satellites.
scientist Dr. Vikram Sarabhai. (MPPCS Pre, 2019) ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network
He is called the Father of Indian Space Programme. (ISTRAC):
India's spaceward odyssey began on November 21, 1963, The main function of this network is to provide surveillance,
with the launch of the US Nike Apache sounding rocket telemetry and control facilities to ISRO’s launch vehicles,
from Thumba, near Thiruvananthapuram. satellite missions and other space agencies.
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Its headquarter is located in Bengaluru. On 18th July, 1980, the second experimental test Rohini
ISTRAC's strict international standards are based on RS-1 was successfully launched by PSLV-3E2 rocket from
distance follow-up control ground centres at Bengaluru, Sriharikota and thus India became 6th member of (ISC)
Lucknow, Shar (Harikota), Thiruvananthapuram, Port Blair, The fourth experimental test Rohini RS-D2 was launched
Brunei, Biak (Indonesia) and Mauritius etc. successfully by PSLV-3 rocket from Sriharikota on 17th
Antrix Corporation Limited : April, 1983.
Antrix Corporation Limited (ACL), Bengaluru is a APPLE : It was India’s rst communication satellite placed
wholly owned Government of India Company under the on the geostationary orbit.
administrative control of the Department of Space. It was launched by the Ariane-1 (V-3) launch vehicle on
Antrix Corporation Limited was incorporated as a private 19th June, 1981, from the Kourou Space Launch Centre in
limited company owned by Government of India in French Guiana.
September 1992. Satellites :
It is a Marketing arm of ISRO for promotion and The celestial bodies orbiting a planet under the inuence
commercial exploitation of space products, technical of gravitational force are called satellites. They are both
consultancy services and transfer of technologies developed natural and artificial.
by ISRO. The Moon is the natural satellite of the Earth. Many man-
Another major objective is to facilitate development of made satellites revolve around the planets.
Low Earth-Orbit Satellite: This category of satellites orbit
space related industrial capabilities in India.
their planet in an elliptical circuit in the range of about 160
As the commercial and marketing arm of ISRO, Antrix
to 2000 km from the Earth’s surface.
is engaged in providing Space products and services to
Geo-Synchronous Satellite:
international customers worldwide.
It is also called stationary.
With fully equipped state-of-the-art facilities, Antrix
These satellites revolve in a circular orbit.
provides end-to-end solution for many of the space
At an altitude of 36000 km, they revolve around the Earth
products, ranging from supply of hardware and software
once in 24 hours.
including simple subsystems to a complex spacecraft,
The Earth revolves on its axis in 24 hours, so geostationary
for varied applications covering communications, earth
satellites appear to be stationary relative to the Earth.
observation and scientic missions; space related services
INSAT and GSAT series satellites are placed in the Geo-
including remote sensing data service, Transponder lease
Synchronous Satellite category.
service; Launch services through the operational launch
Indian National Satellite (INSAT) System:
vehicles (PSLV and GSLV); Mission support services; and
The Indian National Satellite System is known as a
a host of consultancy and training services. multipurpose working satellite system.
Major Indian Satellites: It is used in broadcasting programs on AIR and
Aryabhata is the rst Indian satellite built with indigenous Doordarshan.
technology. INSAT system is also useful in collecting scientic data
It was launched from the 'KOSMOS-3M' launch vehicle like meteorological information and geo-survey data.
on 19th April, 1975 from the Kapustin Yar Space Centre of The rst generation of the INSAT system had four satellites
the former SOVIET Union. INSAT-1A, 1B, 1C and 1D. Its second, third and fourth
Aryabhatta satellite of 360 kg was placed in Low Earth generation satellites are ready for launch.
Orbit (LEO : 563 × 619 km). Now, ISRO governs the launching of communication
After this, Bhaskar I, the first indigenously built satellites of GSAT series.
experimental remote sensing satellite and weighing 442 kg, Indian Remote Sensing Satellite System :
was launched from the former Soviet Union on 7th June, Indian Remote Sensing Satellite-IRS has been developed
1979. for survey and continuous monitoring of natural resources
Rohini Range: Four satellites were launched by the Indian on the Earth.
Satellite Launch Vehicle [SLV-3 Rocket] from the Indian Cartosat satellites have been launched under this
Launch Centre (Sriharikota) under this series. programme.
The rst experimental test launched by Indian Launch Cartosat-1 is India's rst remote sensing satellite, capable
Vehicle SLV-3E1 in August, 1979 from Indian soil, failed. of providing orbital stereoscopic images.
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The METSAT was renamed as 'Kalpana-1' in memory of

Important Facts
Kalpana Chawla, the rst female astronaut of Indian origin.
Sputnik-I was the rst satellite launched in the space by EDUSAT :
the former Soviet Union. This satellite was launched from the Satish Dhawan Space
Sputnik-II was the rst satellite to take living dog Centre, Sriharikota on 20th September, 2004.
'Laika' into space. It was the rst satellite in the world dedicated to educational
Yuri Gagarin of the former Soviet Union was the rst work.
man to enter space. Chandrayaan-I :
Chandrayaan-I is India’s rst mission to the moon.
Yuri Gagarin orbit the Earth on 12th April, 1961, in a
On 22nd October, 2008, the Moon mission was launched by
vehicle called Vostok.
the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C11).
Valentina Tereshkova of the former Soviet Union The launch was done from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre
became the rst female cosmonaut. in Sriharikota. Chandrayaan-I also carried the national ag.
Luna 9 was the rst spacecraft to land on the lunar The ag was installed by the Moon Impactor Probe on the
surface. surface of the moon.
The rst experimental spacecraft was Soyuz 4. After America, Russia, China, the European Union and
Japan, India is the sixth country that has been successful
Neil Armstrong was the rst human to step on the moon.
in sending a vehicle to the moon.
On 20th July, 1969, Neil Armstrong got this achievement Mangalyaan:
when he reached to moon by Apollo II Spacecraft. Mangalyan was fully indigenous project prepared by Indian
Neil Armstrong was followed by his co-astronaut Buzz Scientists.
Aldrin who also stepped on the moon. The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle PSLV-25 has successfully
On 3rd April, 1984, the rst Indian to go into space, was launched the vehicle from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre
Squadron Leader Rakesh Sharma. He along with two in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh on 5th November, 2013.
Soviet cosmonauts went on a space trip in a Soyuz T-11 On 24th September, 2014, at 8 am, it entered into the orbit
spacecraft. of Mars.
Smt. Indira Gandhi asked Squadron Leader Rakesh Sharma With this achievement, India became the rst country to
at Soviet Space Centre, "How does India look from space?" reach Mars in its rst attempt.
Then Rakesh Sharma replied that “Saare Jahaan Se The equipments Mangalyaan is carrying will be used in
Achcha” or “Better than the Whole World”. future for weather, farming, land and communication
satellites.
Kalpana Chawla, a woman astronaut of Indian origin,
Chandrayaan-II :
was the rst woman to enter space. She died in an accident
India's Chandrayaan-II mission was successfully launched
on February 1, 2003, when her spacecraft 'Columbia'
by GSLV Mark III M1 rocket from the second launch pad
(Mission STS107) was destroyed shortly after the entry
of Satish Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota, SHAR on
into atmosphere on return.
22nd July, 2019.
Different Names of Astronauts This was the first operational flight of GSLV Mark-III
rocket.
Chandrayaan-II mission consists of an Orbiter, Lander and
America Russia China India
(Vyomanaut) a Rover.
(Astronaut) (Cosmonaut) (Taikonaut)
Separating from the orbiter to land in the south pole region
METSAT : It was launched from the Satish Dhawan Space of the Moon on 7th September, 2019, the lander lost contact
Centre in Sriharikota (Andhra Pradesh) on 12th September, with ISRO's control centre in the process.
2002. Chandrayaan-III :
The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle-PSLV-C4 was used for On 5th of August 2023, Chandrayan-3 mission entered lunar
this purpose. orbit and India became the rst country to touch down near
METSAT is the rst meteorological space satellite launched the lunar south pole.
by the country. Notably, Chandrayan-3 was launched on July 14, 2023.
Earlier, INSAT series of satellites were used to obtain The primary objective of this mission was to domostrate
meteorological information. soft landing near to lunar south pole region.
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A 6-wheeled Pragyan Rover (weighing 27 kg) was to Cryogenic technology uses liquid Hydrogen (-253 ° C) and
be landed on the lunar surface through a Vikram lander liquid Oxygen (-183 ° C) as propellants at extremely low
weighing 1471 kg. temperature.
It was planned that the lander will have a soft landing on GSLV-MKII and GSLV-MK III are the latest versions of
the moon, but due to lost contact with ISRO, it landed on this launch vehicle.
the lunar surface by a hard landing. GSLV carries satellites up to 1.8 tonnes in weight.
Satellite Launch Vehicle, SLV-3 : GSLV-MK II carries satellites up to 2.5 tonnes in weight.
On 18th July, 1980, the SLV-3 was successfully tested. GSLV-MK III is used for satellites up to 4 tonnes, in weight.
With this achievement, India became the sixth member Cryogenic Technology:
country of the Space Club after Russia, America, France, The word cryogenic is derived from the Greek language
Japan and China. meaning production of materials at minimum temperature.
It was a four-stage simple-calibre launch vehicle. Temperature below 0 to - 150 ° C are called cryogenic
Solid fuel (propellant) is used in it. temperature.
Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle-ASLV : Hydrogen (at –253°C) and Oxygen (at –183°C) is used as
It is an augmented form of SLV-3. fuel in cryogenic engines. Since fuel is used in an optimum
It is constructed for carrying satellites up to the weight of state, it is called a cryogenic engine.
150 kg and placing them in the Earth's lower orbit. Cryogenic engines generate a large amount of energy.
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle - PSLV : In a cryogenic engine, the fuel ignition rate can be
It is a four-stage polar launch vehicle.
controlled.
In PSLV, solid propellants are used in the rst and third
In this engine, much force is produced per unit load of the
stages and liquid propellants are used in the second and
propellant due to which the vehicle gets more thrust.
fourth stages.
After America, Japan, France, China and Russia, India is
In solid propellant, Ammonia Perchlorate is used as an
the sixth country that has successfully tested cryogenic
oxidizer and Hydroxyl Terminated Poly Butadiene (HTPB)
technology.
as fuel.
Nitrogen Tetra Oxide (N2O4) is used as an oxidizer in the Important for Exam Point of View
second phase as liquid propellant and Unsymmetrical Di GPS-Aided Geo Augmented Navigation-GAGAN:
Methyl Hydrazine (UDMH) as fuel. Whereas the fourth ISRO and Airports Authority of India (AAI) have
stage uses a mixture of Oxides of Nitrogen (MON-3) as launched GPS for Indian Airspace. The supporting land
an oxidizer and Mono Methyl Hydrazine (MMH) as fuel. promotion guidelines have implemented the GAGAN
At present, PSLV has the following versions - project as a satellite-based augmentation mechanism.
(i) Core-Alone (CA) Version-It is without booster motors
(Light Policy for India). This augmentation system will be operated by a group
(ii) Standard Version - It has 6 strap-on booster motors with of seven spacecrafts.
9 tonnes propellants. It will be useful to get information related to security,
(iii) Extra Large (XL) Version - It has 6 strap-on booster telecom, sea navigation, besides assistance in aviation.
motors with 12.2 tonnes propellants (used for the rst ‘Bhuvan’ is a software developed by the Indian Space
time to launch Chandrayaan-I, to launch satellites in Research Organization (ISRO).
geostationary orbit.)
It will allow the terrain of India to be seen on Internet in
(iv) QL Versions - It has four strap-on boosters with a
the form of three-dimensional (3D) images.
12.2-tonnes propellants.
(v) DL Version- It has two strap-on boosters wtih a 12.2-tonnes Like Google Earth and Wikimapia, heights of different
propellants. terrain can be viewed through varied heights.
GeoStationary or GeoSynchronous Satellite Launch Sriharikota Island separates Pulicat Lake from the Bay
Vehicle-GSLV : of Bengal.
It is a Geosynchronous or Geostationary Satellite Launch The new name of METSAT is Kalpana-I.
Vehicle.
The air in the exosphere is extremely sparse and gradually
It is a three-stage satellite launch vehicle using solid
merges into outer space above.
propellants in the rst stage, the liquid propellant in the
second phase and cryogenic engine in the third phase. Communication satellites are located in outer space.
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The US Space Agency NASA has sent Rover named NASA's Cassinni space craft is related to planet Saturn.
Sojourner, Spirit, Opportunity, Curiosity and (UK PSC Pre, 2016; IAS Pre 2008)
PERSEVERANCE on Mars for exploration. The concept of expanding universe is based on Doppler
Cassini is a robotic spacecraft launched by NASA to Effect.
study Saturn and its satellites.
Black-hole is a collapsed star. (UIPPCS Pre, 2019)
Evidence of the presence of Sulfate on Mars has been
The tail of a comet always points way from the sun.
obtained as a result of NASA’s Spirit and Opportunity
(UPPCS Mains, 2011)
missions.
Highly dense stars are called Neutron stars.
The presence of sulfate clearly indicates that water is
(UK Lower Sub Pre, 2010)
present on this planet.
The presence of gypsum on Mars has also been A geostationary satellite has a period of 24 hours.
established. (UPPCS Mains, 2010)

The presence of methane in the atmosphere of Mars The communication satellites are located in Exsphere.
indicates traces of life on it. (UPPCS Mains, 2004)

Space shuttles are vehicles that are launched like rockets. The 'NISAR' satellite is joinly developed by ISRO and
They revolve around the Earth like satellites and land NASA (UPPCS Pre, 2013)
again like aeroplanes. The world's highest ground-based telescopic observatory
Challenger, Columbia, Discovery, Atlantis and is located at the atacama desert of northern chile.
Endeavor, etc. are NASA’s retired space shuttles. (IAS Pre, 2002)

The Galileo Project is a multi-satellite operation project GPS stands for Global Positioning System.
of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the European (UPPCS Mains, 2015)
Union (EU), like the Global Positioning System, GPS of ISRO's master control facility is located at Karnataka.
the US and GLONASS of Russia.
(UPPCS GIC, 2010)
India's NAVIC (IRNSS : Indian Regional Navigation
Vikram Sarabhai space centre is located in Thiruva-
Satellite System) is a regional satellite-based navigation
nanthapuram, Korala. (UP UDA/LDA Pre, 2010)
system based on 7 satellite in the IRNSS series.
Chandrayan-3 rover 'Pragyan' has two payloads : Alpha
Abdul Kalam Island, formerly known as Wheeler Island
Particle X-ray spectrometer (APXS) and laser included
is located in Odisha.
Breakdown spectroscope (LIBS). (UP RO/ARO Pre, 2023)
Missiles are tested here.
Moon express is world's rst private ight plan to go on
The island is located near Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary.
the moon. (Jharkhand PCS Pre, 2016)
The threatened Olive Ridley (tortoise) species inhabit
The molto of Defence Research and Development
this sanctuary.
Organization is - Balasya Mulam Vigrayanam.
Exam Oriented Facts (RAS/RTS Pre, 2021)

Dr. vikram Ambalal Sarabhi was considered as the father The Indian Army has established a quantum laboratory
of the Indian space programme. (MPPCS Pre, 2019) at military college of Telecommunication Engineering,
Mhow Madhya Pradesh. (MPPCS Pre, 2022)
Aryabhatta was the rst satellite launched by India on
april 19, 1975. India's rst indigenous anti-radiation missile is Rudram.
Laika was a soviet space dog who became the rst animal (66th BPSC Pre, 2020)

to orbit the earth in space. (UPPCS GIC 2010) Missile Brahmos was developed jointly by India and
Yuri Gagarin was the rst astronaut in space. Russia.
(MPPCS Pre, 2010) (UPPCS Mains, 2004; UPPCS Pre, 2003; UP UDA/LDA Pre, 2013)

Valentina Tereshkova is world's rst woman cosmonaut. The Australia group was established in 1985
[UP Lower Sub (SPI) Pre 2004; UPPCS Pre, 2001] (IAS Pre, 2011)

Neil Armstrong was the rst man who placed his foot on North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) was signed
the Moon. (66th BPSC Pre, 2020) on 14th April, 1949.
390
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Computer

Computer : An Introduction Main Functions of Computer Development of Computer in India National

Super Computing Mission Types of Computer Main Parts of Computer : Computer Programming Language
Computer Network Important Internet Glossaries The Words Related to Computer

Computer : An Introduction Development of Computer in India :

An electronic machine that calculates a large scale of data HEC - 2M
is called Computer. (Hollerith Electronic Digital Computer - 2M), it was
The word 'Computer is derived from the word 'compute', produced by British Tabulating Machine Works,
which means calculation. Letchworth.
Computer is generally called a Data Processing Machine. Computer Technology had emerged in the word late 1940s
A computer is a device that receives data as input and but India bought its first computer in the year 1956.
transforms it following a special set of instructions, to The official name of this computer was HEC-2M and was
produce the desired output. established in Kolkata based Indian Statistical Institute.
Programme – The instructions on which the computer TIFRAC
works are called Programme. It was India's first indigenous computer, which was
developed in the year of 1962.
Input Data Data Processing Output Information
The full name of this computer is - TATA Institute of
Main Functions of Computer : Fundamental Research Automatic Calculator.
Compilation of Data PARAM
Data Collection India's Supercomputer Program was launched in 1980s
Processing of Data when US refused to give India 'Cray' computer.
Release information received through data C-DAC (Centre for Development of Advanced Computing)
Data : Data is a set of raw facts, figures and statistics was established in year 1988, with the objective of
from which meaningful information is obtained after achieving self-reliance in the field of supercomputing.
processing. PARAM Supercomputers series is designed and built by
Processing : The collection, manipulation and processing C-DAC, Pune.
of collected data for the required use is known as data PARAM 8000, India's 1st Giga-scale supercomputer in
processing. It is a technique normally performed by a 1990.
computer. The processing includes retrieving, transforming PARAM 10000, 100 Gigaflop supercomputer in 1998.
or classification of information. PARAM Padma, 1 Teraflop supercomputer in 2002.
Bit : Bit is the smallest unit of computer memory. This was India's first supercomputer to enter the Top 500
In the bit memory, the data is stored in the binary form, 0 list of supercomputers of the world (ranked 171 in June
or 1. 2003).
Bit is the short form of the Binary digit.
Note : Notably, Supercomputers have very high storage
Nibble : A group of four bits is called a Nibble. It is equal
capacity and can store thousands of times more data than
to half a byte.
an average personal Computer.
Byte : A byte is a standard unit of computer memory.
Except this, a supercomputer can process billions of
A byte consists of 8 bits to store any letter in the memory.
instructions in a second. Modern supercomputers have
Character : In addition to number signs that are used to
thousands of processors and are used for complex
convey language and meaning are called Character, i.e.
computations.
a, b, c, d, 0, 1, 2, 3, Q, #, $ 1 < > etc.
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Thereafter other supercomputers of the PARAM series

The Father of Indian Super Computer is Vijay Bhatkar.
were PARAM 10,000, PARAM Padma, PARAM Yuva,
(MPPCS Pre, 2015)
PARAM Yuva-II, PARAM Biochrome, PARAM Bio
Blaze, PARAM Ishan, PARAM Shavak etc. were Laser printer is usually used for desktop printing.
(UK PCS Mains, 2002)
developed.
Some remarkable supercomputers of the PARAM series WWW on the Internet stands for world wide web.
are PARAM Shivay (IIT-BHU), PARAM Shakti (IIT- (UK PSC Pre, 2005; UPPCS Pre, 2015; UPPCS Mains, 2010)
Kharagpur), PARAM Brahma (IISER-Pune).
National Super Computing Mission
Exam Oriented Facts National Supercomputing Mission (NSM) has set up to
The first computer was made by Charles Babbage. provide the country with supercomputing infrastructure to
(UPPCS Pre, 2007) meet the increasing computational demands of academia,
researchers, MSMEs, and startups.
Charles Babbage is known as 'Father of Computer'. It is a first of its kind attempt to boost the country’s
[UP Lower (Mains), 2013; UK UDA/LDA Pre, 2017; UK PSC
computing power. National Super Computing Mission
(Mains), 2002, 2006]
is steered jointly by the Department of Science and
Dr. Alan M Turing invented electronic computer. Technology (DST) and Ministry of Electronics and IT
(MPPCS, Pre 2006, 2000) (MeitY) and implemented by the Centre for Development
of Advanced Computing (C-DAC), Pune and the Indian
The first digital computer built with IC chips is known
Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru.
as IBM System/360. (UK PSC Pre 2006)
I - NSM Systems
The main board of computer is known as Motherboard.
Sr. HPC System Computing
[UK PSC (Mains) 2002] Institute Name
No. Name Power
A pen drive is a removable secondary storage unit. 1. IIT(BHU), Varanasi PARAM Shivay 838TF
(UK PSC Pre, 2006) 2. IISER, Pune PARAM Brahma 1.70PF
In the USB port anyone plug in the cable of keyboard. 3. IIT, Kharagpur PARAM Shakti 1.66PF
(UP Lower Sub Mains, 2015) JNCASR, PARAM Yukti 1.8PF
4.
Bangalore
A network of networks is simply called Internet.
5. IIT, Kanpur PARAM Sanganak 1.66PF
(UK PSC Pre, 2010)
C-DAC, Pune PARAM Siddhi-AI 5.2PF/210PF
6.
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is a fixed connection most (AI)
popular in Areas without access to cable or fiber internet. 7. IIT, Hyderabad PARAM Seva 838TF
(MPPCS Pre, 2023) 8. NABI, Mohali PARAM Smriti 838TF
The first page displayed by used browse after opening a 9. IISC, Bangalore PARAM Pravega 3.3PF
website is called Home page. (MPPCS Pre, 2015, 2018) 10. C-DAC, Bangalore PARAM Utkarsh 838TF
The internet works on packet switching only. 11. IIT, Roorkee PARAM Ganga 1.66PF
[UP Lower Sub (Mains), 2015] 12. IIT, Gandhinagar PARAM Ananta 838TF
13. NIT, Trichy PARAM Porul 838TF
A database that contains the names and adress of various
hosts on internet is called Domain Name system. 14. IIT, Guwahati PARAM Kamrupa 838TF
(MPPCS Pre, 2021) 15. IIT, Mandi PARAM Himalaya 838TF

IPV6 protocal defines an IOP adress of 128 bit. II - R&D and Application development systems
(MPCS Pre, 2022) Sr. Institute HPC System Computing Year of Com-
No. Name Name Power missioning
Bluetooth technology allows wireless communication
16. C-DAC, SANGAM 150 TF 2017
between equipments. (UPPCS Mains, 2011)
Pune Testbed
India manufactured super computer 'PARAM' in Pune. 17. C-DAC, PARAM 100 TF 2018
(RAS/RTS Pre, 1999) Pune Shrestha
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18. C-DAC, PARAM 100 TF 2020 On the mainframe computer, multiple users can log in
Pune Embryo simultaneously.
Mainframe computers have a large memory.
19. C-DAC, PARAM Neel 100 TF 2020
Pune Supercomputer :
The term 'Supercomputer' was first used in the US in 1920s,
20. SETS, PARAM 100 TF 2020
when today's computers with binary digit technology were
Chennai Spoorthi
not evolved.
21. C-DAC, Bioinformatics 230 TF 2021
Supercomputer is a well-connected group of high-quality
Pune R&D Facility
computers mounted on high steel shelves in which several
22. C-DAC, System 82TF 2020 microprocessors work together.
Bangalore Software lab
Supercomputers can solve any problem of the computer
23. C-DAC, PARAM 27 TF 2020 immediately.
Pune Sampooran Units such as gigaflops, teraflops and petaflops are used
to describe the performance of the supercomputer.
III - PARAM Vidya under NSM HRD (For In a Supercomputer, billions and trillions of calculations
education and training) are processed within seconds.
Sr. Institute Name HPC System Computing Year of Com- Supercomputers are used in meteorological research,
No. Name Power missioning nuclear weapons, quantum physics and study of chemicals
24. C-DAC, Pune PARAM 52.3 TF 2022 etc.
Vidya1 The updated Top-500 list of the world's fastest super-
25. IIT, Kharagpur PARAM 52.3 TF 2022 computers was released in June, 2023. In this list US's
Vidya2 supercomputer 'Frontier' got top position as the world's
fastest supercomputer.
26. IIT, Palakkad PARAM 52.3 TF 2022
The supercomputer of Japan 'Fugaku' ranks second.
Vidya3
Three supercomputers of India, 'Param Siddhi' AI (131st),
27. IIT, Chennai PARAM 52.3 TF 2022 'Pratyush' (169th) and 'Mihir' (316th) have also been ranked
Vidya4
in the list.
28. IIT, Goa PARAM 52.3 TF 2022 With high computing capacity (RMAX) 4.62 petaflops,
Vidya5 "Param Siddhi AI" is the fastest supercomputer of India at
Types of Computer present. It is established at the Centre for Development of
Micro Computer : Advanced Computing (C-DAC), Pune, India.
Microprocessors are used in microcomputer. Digital Computer :
Microcomputers are used in homes and small businesses. The Digital Computer counts digits.
Microcomputer is also called P.C. (Personal Computer) In a digital computer, all data are stored as binary digit.
PC is divided into following categories. A digital computer converts data and program into binary
(i) Desktop Computer form 0 and 1 and converts them into electronic form.
(ii) Laptop Computer Analog Computer :
(iii) Palmtop Computer In the Analog Computer, the sides of physical quantities
(iv) Note Book Computer are presented constantly as analogies.
(v) Tablet Computer Analog computers continue to receive information in the
Mini-Computer : form of signal that is converted and displayed as data.
Mini-computers are large in size. A simple clock, speed meter of vehicle are examples of
Word length of mini-computer is 32 bit or more. Analog Computer.
Mini-computers are used for payroll, accounting and Quantum Computer :
scientific experiments etc. A computer that is based on quantum mechanics is called
Mainframe Computer : Quantum Computer.
Mainframe computers are used for server computers in Quantum bits or Q bits can encode more information than
large companies and offices. traditional bits.
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Generations of Computer :
Generations of Computer are based on the electronic Computers are classified into following five major
apparatuses of the computers. categories -

Generation Hardware Software Characteristics Example

I Use of vaccum tube and Use of Machine Big size, expensive, (i) ENIAC (Electronic
1940-1956 magnetic Drum Memory language limited application Numerical Integrator and
Calculator).
(ii) UNIVAC (Universal
Automatic Computer)
II Use of transistor, Programming language. Small in size, high storage IBM 1620, IBM 7094,
1956-1963 magnetic core for FORTRAN, COBOL capacity and fast speed. UNIVAC 1108
memory, use of magnetic
tape and disk
III Use of integrated circuit Use of O.S. (Operating Very small size, application Minicomputer
1964-1975 system), use of high in documentation and
level language BASIC processing
IV 1975 - Use of integrated Spreed sheet software, Fast speed and Cheap Micro computer
Present circuit, microprocessors Data base software,
memory of semicondu- Graphical user interface.
ctor at very large scale
V Present Multimedia, Internet, Internet and Multimedia, Very small, fast speed, easy Notebook, Palm top
and onward optical disk, parallel Artificial intelligence in application, multifaceted
processing hardware software use of all high application (Sound, visuals
level language as C, C++, text)
Java etc.
Main Parts of Computer : (i) Internal memory
Computer has 4 main units. (ii) External memory
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU) Memory Capacity is measured in byte, megabyte, kilobyte,
2. Memory unit gigabyte or terabyte.
3. Input device Primary or Internal memory is of two types.
4. Output device (A) RAM (B) ROM
1. C.P.U. : The term Central Processing Unit has its acronym (A) RAM (Random Access Memory)
as C.P.U. This is the main hardware of the computer. It is the main memory of the computer.
No sequence is followed by RAM in accessing information.
C.P.U. is also called the brain of the computer.
RAM is a volatile memory.
C.P.U. has two parts.
The capacity or size of RAM is 256 MB, 512 MB, 1 GB,
(1) Control Unit : Its main function is to control and operate
2 GB etc.
the functions of the hardware of the computer.
(B) ROM- (Read Only Memory)
The Control unit directs the exchange of data between ALU
ROM memory can only be read.
and Memory.
ROM is a permanent memory. (Non-volatile)
(ii) ALU : The full form of ALU is Arithmetic Logic Unit. Motherboard - The motherboard is the main Printed
ALU performs all logical and arithmetical tasks in a Circuit Board (PCB) where each plug of computer is
computer. plugged.
Memory Unit : A memory or memory unit is that part of CPU, RAM etc. are organised inside the Motherboard.
a computer through which the storage and instructions and External Memory or Secondary memory :
retrieval of data are carried out. Main examples of secondary memory are Hard disk, Floppy
There are two types of Computer memory - disk, CD.ROM, DVD, Pen Drive, Blu-ray Disk etc.
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Hard Disk : A hard disk has more than one disk. Each disk The image displayed on the monitor is made up of thousands
is divided into the track and each track is divided into the of small coloured dots (.) which are called Pixels.
sector. There are three types of monitors-
DVD (Digital Versatile Disc or Digital Video Disk) (1) CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
This is an optical storage device, which is similar to CD, (2) LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
but its storage capacity is more than 15 times to that of CD. (3) LED (Light Emitting Diode)
DVD is of two types - B. Printer : The result obtained from computer is printed on
(i) DVD-R (Recordable) paper and given to the user permanently.
There are many types of printers such as impact printer,
(ii) DVD-RW (Rewritable)
DOT matrix printer, inkjet printer and laser printer.
Pen Drive - Pen Drive is also known as USB flash drive.
C. Plotter :
It is most popular among current data storage devices.
It is used to obtain high quality drawing and graphs on large
Blu-ray Disk - Blu-ray Disk is an optical disk which is the paper.
advance version of DVD. In Blu-ray Disk, blu represents It is mainly used in engineering, architect, building
the colour of laser and ray represents optical ray. construction, city planning, map etc.
Input Devices : Computer Hardware : Hardware is that part of computer
All devices which are used to enter data and instructions that we can touch or see.
into the computer are called Input Devices. Example - System unit, monitor etc.
A. Keyboard : A keyboard is the main and the most important Computer Software : Software is an information,
input device. command or method on which a computer's hardware
A keyboard is a device that has keys similar to a typewriter. functions.
Text, number symbol etc. are used as input into a computer Program : A computer program is a collection of
through the keyboard. instructions that can be executed by a computer to perform
a specific task.
B. Mouse : A computer mouse is used to select text, icons,
A set of programs is called software.
files and folders in the graphical interface by controlling
There are two types of software.
the cursor.
(1) System Software
C. Scanner : Through this, the shape or written information
(2) Application Software
on a page can be scanned and processed as input directly System Software :
into the computer. (1) System software is the main program of the computer.
A hard copy can be converted to soft copy through a scanner. (2) System software controls the internal functioning of the
D. OMR (Optical Mark Reader) - OMR scanner checks the computer.
presence of pencil and pen marks on the OMR sheet. Operating system acts as a bridge between hardware and
E. Barcode Reader : A barcode reader is used to read a software.
barcode printed on top of the product. Programs in the computer run with the help of the operating
The barcode reader uses a laser beam to read the code. system such as Linux, Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 10.
F. Trackball and Joystick : Trackball and Joystick are used Utility Software : The system software which helps in the
to play games on the computer. maintenance of the computer is called utility software. For
example, anti-virus software.
G. MICR - (Magnetic Ink Character Recognition) :
Application Software : It is a group of programs that is
It is used to read the letters written in a special way with
designed by computer programmers to perform a particular
special ink (Iron Oxide) through computer.
task. For example, word processing software, database
It is used by bank in Cheques/drafts.
software, graphic software.
Note - MICR code consists of numbers from 0 to 9 and Specialist Software : It is used for a specific task, e.g.
four symbols (total 14 characters) are used. camera application installed in a smartphone and is
Output Devices: designed for the special purpose of photography.
These hardware devices are used to display, project or Computer Programming Language
physically produce computer information. The computer understands only one language which is
A. Monitor - The monitor is also called as Visual Display called Machine Language. It comprises 0 and 1 digit, hence,
Unit. called Binary Language.
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Machine Language Optical fibre works on the principle of complete internal

reflection of light.
Low Level Assembly Language Optical fibre is suitable for long distance communication.
Language
Computer Through wireless communication media, data and
Language information reach from one device to another in the form
of waves such as Bluetooth, Infrared, Microwave etc.
High Level Language
Wi-Fi, Wireless Fidelity : Wi-Fi is a wireless technology
of Local Area Network.
Language Translator - A translator is programming
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave
language processors that converts a computer program
Access) : It is a wireless technology for long-range and
from one language to another type of language translator -
high speed.
(i) Assembler : It converts assembly language or low level
The maximum range of Wimax is 50 km.
language into mechine language.
Modem :
Assembly Machine A Modem is an abbreviation of Modulator and Demodulator.
Language language The computer generates a digital signal while only an
Assembler
analog signal can be sent over telephone.
(ii) Compiler : A Modem is a device that transmits digital signal from
It converts high level Programming language into low level a computer to analog signal and transmits them from
programming language. It translates the entire program in telephone or cable lines and converts the analog signal
one way and reports all the error in the program at once in received from telephone or cable lines into a digital signal
their line order. to make it usable by the computer.
(iii) Interpretor : Internet and e-mail :
It converts high level language into machine language (low
Internet is a worldwide computer network through which
level) like compiler.
information can be exchanged very easily.
It translate one line of the source program into machine
It is a large network of many small computer networks
language and processes the previous line before translating
spread across the globe.
the next line.
There are many types of computers. Hypertext was
BASIC , C, C++, JAVA etc. all are high-level languages.
developed to remove mutual inconsistencies and establish
Fortran is also a high-level language. It is an acronym of
links amongst them.
Formula Translation.
To connect a computer to the internet, we have to take the
Fortran is a very easy language for scientific and engineering
service of ISP (Internet Service Provider).
computing.
Computer Network : Broadband allows the internet to run at a high speed. It
Computer network is a group of interconnected, independent requires a different type of Modem.
computers, capable of communicating with each other. Every network has rules to control the process of sending and
Local Area Network (LAN) : In a computer network, Local receiving data. These rules are called Protocols.
Area Network is limited to the geographical periphery. For Various Types of Protocols :
example, a computer network at home. (1) TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
Wide Area Network (WAN) : The geographical periphery (2) IP (Internet Protocol)
of WAN is large. For example, a network of networks spread (3) HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
across a city or a country. In this network, computers, are Chatting : Online chat may refer to any kind of
connected by leased lines or switched circuits. communication on the Internet that offers a real-time
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) : It has more than transmission of text messages from sender to receiver.
two LAN connections. Routers, switches and hubs combine Online Chatting is of two types :
to form a Metropolitan Area Network. (a) Text Chat (b) Voice Chat
Metropolitan Area Network is a network located within the Text Chat : It involves the exchange of information in the
boundaries of a city. form of texts or words.
Optical Fibre : Optical Fibre is a very thin fibre made of Voice Chat : In a voice chat, messages are heard and the
glass, plastic or silica. message is broadcast through voice.
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Video Streaming : By video streaming, video and audio It is called the world's first calculator.
can be seen and listened to instantly on internet. The word's first complete electronic computer is ENIAC
Through the downloading process, various softwares and (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) whose
games can be downloaded via internet. inventor J.P. Eckert and John Mauchly.
In online shopping, we can purchase or sell items through Bluetooth in an industry standard with the help of which
internet while sitting at home. computers are connected to personal networks by wireless
technology over the short distance by redio waves.
Note : Internet service was started in India on August
256 values can be represented in one byte.
15, 1995.
Unix is the first operating system written in 'C' language.
First company to provide Internet - Videsh Sanchar
This made it easier to use it on a new.
Nigam Limited (VSNL).
The first private sector company to start internet service Maya II is a DNA computer, in which DNA thread is used
- Satyam Infoway - 1998. instead of silicon chip.
Important Facts Related to Computer :
Important Internet Glossaries : Charles Babbage made the first computer in 1837.
Website : It is a group of related web pages. Charles Babbage is called the Father of Computer.
To view a website, an internet address is required which is The inventor of the electronic computer is Dr. Alan M.
called URL (Uniform Resource Locator). Turing.
URL (Uniform Resource Locator) : A unique address
Computer literacy means being able to use a computer.
expressing the name of the server on the internet is called
The electronic path that sends signals from one part of the
a unique address URL.
computer to another is called Bus.
URL means searching the whereabouts of a service,
Computer literacy day is observed on 2nd December every
organization or server on the internet like http:// www.
year.
bing.com/in is a URL.
The first computer, called TIFRAC, was manufactured in
Web Page : A Web Page contains a repository of
India.
information in the form of text, picture, video, audio and
Bengluru is called the Silicon Valley of India.
animation.
Bhartiya Janata Party is the first political party in India to
Web Browser : It is a client program in which all types of
have its own website on the internet.
websites and web pages are available and can be opened
JS Kilby developed the integrated circuit chip. This chip
at www.
consists of layers of silicon.
The web browser is used to access all the features and
The credit for the invention of the internet goes to Wilton
sources available on the internet through the World Wide
Curf.
Web.
Home Page : The first page of any website is called Home The feature of Deep Blue Computer, which can work as
Page. much as 32 computers, i.e., it can think 200 million moves
World Wide Web : The World Wide Web is a web of of chess in a second.
information sources. It is also known as www or web. This Chess world champion Garry Kasparov was defeated by
application was invented by Tim Berners Lee. Deep Blue supercomputer.
E-mail : Currently, E-mail is the fastest medium of The world's first electronic digital computer is named
exchanging information. ENIAC.
With the help of email, we can send a message to our "The Hindu" is the first Indian newspaper to be available
friends, classmates sitting in any corner of the world on the internet.
or businessmen for business purpose which is received A byte is made up of eight bits.
instantly. 1024 bytes equals to 1 kilobyte (1KB)
The messages of the email remain secure in the server of 1024 KB equals to 1 Megabyte (1MB)
the recipient computer network. 1024 MB equals to 1 Gegabyte (1 GB)
When a designated person logs in to his computer at his 1024 GB equals to 1 Terabyte (1 TB)
convenience, he receives this information. Sanskrit is the easiest language for computerization.
Abacus : COBOL is a high-level language (HLL).
it is an ancient calculating device, which was invented in In a compiler program the computer translates the high-level
ancient Babylon to calculate numbers. language into low-level language.
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A fault/error in a computer is called bug. DTS - Desk Top System

In 1998, the scientists at C-DAC Pune, built the computer
DTP - Desk Top Publishing
'Param-10,000' with the ability to perform one trillion
FAX - Far Away Xerox
calculations per second. The latest computer of the Param
series is Param Anant. Flops - Floating Operations Per Second
Nuclear tests on computers are known as Subcritical Tests. HLL - High-Level Language
When a running program on a computer suddenly goes HTML - Hypertext Markup Language
wrong or ends, it is called Crash. LAN - Local Area Network
PROLOG is a computer language of the fifth generation. MODEM - Modulator Demodulator
In the 2G, 3G and 4G spectrum, the word 'G' is used for RAM - Random Access Memory
word Generation.
ROM - Read-Only Memory
The range of a word length for a personal computer is 32
VDU - Visual Display Unit
bits or 4 byte.
The range of a word length for a supercomputer is 64 bits WAN - Wide Area Network
or 8 byte. WWW - World Wide Web
Spam is a type of unsolicited mail that is sent to a
large number of users. It is commonly used for email Exam Oriented Facts
advertisement, malware etc. Artificial Intelligence is about making a machine
Virus : It is a malicious program, which enters the memory Intelligence.
of different computers by joining with any useful program John Mecarthy is known as the father of AI.
or through the internet.
Blind Search can be used in small search space
It does the work of spoiling, erasing or changing the data.
significantly, Blind.
It can enter the hard disk's boot sector to reduce or slow
down the disk's capacity or prevent programs from running. Search is also known as uniformed search, and it does
Some computer virus examples are - Nimda, Sasser, not contain any domain information.
Scammer, Sarcam, Melissa, Conflicker, Sobig etc. Utility based agent deals with the happy and unhappy
Software designed to find and destroy potential viruses, state.
this program is called Anti Virus Program. Recognition patterns is the kind of learning algorithm
Nortan, McAfee, Kaspersky etc. are example of antivirus for "facial identities for facial expressions".
program.
Data mining is the application of machine learning
Unknown/known person entering the computer system
methods to a large database.
through the network without his consent interfering with
confidential data or information is called hacking. Anomaly detection technique helps in detecting the
The repeated harassment of an individual, group or outlies in Data.
organization by the internet or any other electronic method The must significant phase in genetic algorithm is cross
is called cyber Stocking. over.
The Words Related to Computer Open data is a data that can be freely used, reused and
ALU - Arithmetic Logic Unit redistributed by anyone subject only, at most, to the
requirement to attribute and sharelike.
ALGOL - Algorithmic Language
ASCII - American Standard Code for Information Big Data brings together data from many disporate
Interchange sources and application.
BASIC - Beginner's All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Deepfake AI is a type of artificial intelligence used to
Code create convincing images, audio and video hoaxes.
CPU - Central Processing Unit Artificial neural Network (ANN) is a computer
CAD - Computer-Aided Design program that mines the way human brains process
C-DOT - Centre for Development of Telematics information.
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Sports-Players

Olympic Games Commonwealth Games Asian Games Cricket Hockey Football Badminton Tennis
Chess Athletics Table Tennis Basketball Polo Golf Baseball Billiards Snooker Wrestling Water
Polo Swimming Boxing Shooting Volleyball Kabaddi Kho Kho Handball Sports Awards

It is headquartered in Lausanne, Switzerland.

1 Olympic Games This Committee conducts the Olympic Games and
determines the host city and rules for the Games.
Ancient Olympic Games : Initially, the Committee had a total of 11 members, but
According to the Greek Calendar 'Olympiad', the first currently, it comprises of 41 honorary members 1, honour
Olympic Games were held in 776 B.C in Olympia, member (USA) and 107 active members.
Greece. The Greek merchant, Demetrios Vikelas, was the first
These games are named Olympics due to being held in President of the Committee.
the city 'Olympia'. (SSC GD, 2019) On 10th September 2013, Thomas Bach of Germany
Ancient Olympic Games were held in honour of the Greek became the 9th President of the IOC.
God 'Zeus'. Thomas Bach was re-elected for a second four year term
These Games were organized as 'Religious and Athlete on 10th March, 2021.
Festival'. Neeta Ambani is the first Indian woman member of the
In Ancient Olympics, winners were awarded Crowns International Olympic Committee.
made of 'Wild Olives'. She was elected as a member on 4th August, 2016 (129th
Olive Branches are considered a symbol of peace in Session).
Greece. Sir Dorabji Tata was the first Indian to be appointed as a
Theodosius, the Emperor of Rome banned these Games in member of the IOC.
394. He was elected as a member of the IOC in 1920.
In December, 2022 P.T. Usha elected the first woman Indian Olympic Committee :
President of the Indian Olympic Association. Temporarily, the All India Olympic Committee was
The olympics include the Summer Games and the Winter formed in 1923-24 and the All India Olympic Games
Games. (later, Indian National Games) were organized in
The Olympic Charter indicates that in order to be February, 1924.
accepted, a sport must be widely practiced by men in at In these games, 8 athletes were selected to participate in
least 75 countries and on four continents and by women in the 1924 Paris Olympics.
no Fewer than 40 countries and on three continents. The Indian Olympic Association (IOA) was formed in
Modern Olympic Games : 1927 on the initiative of Harry Crowe Buck (Manager of
French linguist and sociologist, Baron Pierre de this team) and Dr.A.G Noehren.
Coubertin is credited with to start the Modern Olympic Sir, Dorabji Tata and Dr. A.G. Noehren were elected as the
Games. founding President and Secretary General respectively.
The Modern Olympic Games began in Athens, Greece in Sir Dorabji tata had provided financial support to the
1896. (SSC GD, 2019) Indian Olympic Moment
It is held every 4 years. (SSC CGL, 2023) Olympic Flag and Sign :
International Olympic Committee (IOC) : The Olympic flag was designed at the suggestion of Baron
The efforts of Coubertin led to the establishment of the de Coubertin.
International Olympic Committee (IOC) at the Conference In 1914, the Olympic flag was displayed and accepted for
of 12 Countries in Paris on 23rd June, 1894. the first time at the IOC’s 20th Annual Assembly in Paris.
The IOC is responsible for the development and It was first hoisted at the Antwerp Olympics (1920).
administration of the Olympic Games. (7th Olympics).
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The Olympic flag, made of white cloth, depicts five Tokyo (Japan) hosted first Olympic in Asia in 1964.
coloured interlocking rings as one of the emblems of the Other Important Points :
Olympic symbol. The Olympic Charter was compiled in 1908. Although,
These five rings symbolize fair and free competition some of the rules of the Olympic charter was written by
within five continents. Pierre de Coubertin in 1898.
Blue - Europe Yellow- Asia In the Antwerp Olympics(1920), the tradition of swearing-
Black- Africa Green - Australia and Oceania in at the Olympic Games began.
Red - North and South America One of the most prestigious players of the host country
Olympic's Motto : takes an oath on behalf of all the competing players.
The Olympic's motto was of three words Citius, Altius, Olympic mascots have been a key part of the Games since
Fortius, in Latin it means- “faster, higher, stronger.” 1968.
This motto was adopted in 1894, at the time when IOC TV broadcast of the Olympic Games started from the
constituted and presented the motto very first in Paris 1960 Rome Olympic Games.
Olympic 1924. In the Opening Ceremony's march past of the Olympics,
This motto was composed by Father Henri Didon. the Greece team leads the march while the host team is at
On 20th of July, 2021, International Olympic Committee the last.
approved the change in motto - The motto was updated The order of the other teams is fixed according to the
to Citius, Altius, Fortius - community (Faster, Higher, English alphabetical order.
Stronger - Together). 11 Israeli athletes were killed in the Palestine terrorist
Olympic Torch : attack at the Munich Olympics (1972).
The Olympic Torch is an integral part of the Olympic
Women also started participating in Olympic Games from
Games.
the Paris Olympics (1990).
The tradition of lighting the torch in the Modern Olympic
At the London Olympics, 2012 Saudi Arabia, Qatar and
Games started in 1936 from the Berlin Olympics.
Brunei sent women athletes for the first time.
A few days before the starting of the Games, the torch is
Thomas Hicks was the first American male athlete to win
relayed and brought to the sacred 'Hera Temple' in Athens
the Marathon Gold Medal in the Olympic Games.
and lit by the Sun rays.
(SSC CHSL, 2023)
Then, it is brought to the venue through a relay race.
Most in the Olympic Games :
This torch lits the stadium torch (Cauldron).
USA’s swimmer Michael Phelps holds the record of
Olympic Medal :
winning the most gold medals in a single Olympics.
Three types of medals are awarded to the winners of the
Phelps, popularly known as Golden Shark, won a total
Olympic Games.
of 8 golds in various swimming events at the Beijing
Gold Medal: It is 60 mm in the circle and 3 mm thick. It
is made of 0.925 grade silver on which a layer of 6 grams Olympics (2008).
of gold is coated. Previously, this record was in the name of another US
Silver Medal: It is made of 0.925 grade silver which is 60 male swimmer, Mark Spitz.
mm in circle and 3 mm thick. At the Munich Olympics (1972), Mark Spitz won 7 gold
Bronze Medal : The bronze medal is made entirely of medals in various swimming events. (SSC MTS 2019)

bronze (97% Copper, 0.5% Tin and 2.5% Zinc). Michael Phelps also holds the record for winning the most
Official Olympic Anthem : Olympic medals overall.
An eminent Greek poet Costis Palamas wrote lyrics of Phelps won a total of 28 medals, including 23 gold, 3
the Olympic Hymn in 1893. silver and 2 bronze in the Olympics concluded between
The Hymn was composed in 1896 by the Greek composer 2004-2016. (SSC MTS, 2019)
Spyros Samaras. Michael Phelps also holds the record for winning the
The composition was accepted as the official Olympic most Olympic gold (23), the most Olympic gold medals
Anthem at the 55th IOC Session Committee in 1958 and in individual events (13) and the most Olympic medals in
was sung for the first time at the 1960 Winter Olympics individual events (16).
(squaw valley). Previously, the record was in the name of United Soviet
The Anthem is sung at the opening and closing ceremonies Union’s female gymnast Larissa Latynina, who had won 14
of each Olympic Games. individual and 4 team Olympic medals between 1956–1964.
The Anthem is composed and written in Greek and Latynina won the most gold medals at the then Olympic
translated into English. Games (Women).
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She won a total of 9 gold medals in gymnastics. In the 2008 Beijing Olympics , the gold medal was won
America holds the record for the most Olympic gold by Abhinav Bindra in Air Rifle 10 m is India’s first gold
medals won by a country in an Olympics. medal in an individual event.
The United States won 83 gold medals at the Los Angeles Sushil Kumar is the first player from India who had
Olympics (1984). won medals in two consecutive Olympics (2008 Beijing,
Most times (4) the Olympic Games had been organized by Bronze and 2012 London, Silver).
America (1904,1932,1984 and 1996). From 1928 to 1956, India had won the gold medals 6
The city that hosts the Olympic Games most is London. times in a row in hockey.
The Olympics Games of 1908, 1948 and 2012 were held India has won a total of 8 gold medals in hockey so
in London. far. India won its last gold medal in hockey in the 1980
Olympics and India : Moscow Olympics.
Indian Olympic Association was established in 1927.
Paris Olympics- 2024
(SSC CGL Pre, 2023)
Officially, India started participating in Olympics at the The 2024 Summer Olympics, known as the Games of the
1928 Amsterdam Olympics under the Indian Olympic XXXIII Olympiad and marketed as Paris 2024, was a global
Association (IOA). multi-sport event held in France from July 26 to August 11,
Although, Norman Pritchard of British origin first 2024, with the opening ceremony taking place on July 26.
participated at the Olympics (Paris, 1900) on behalf of Following 16 days of remarkable sporting accomplishments,
India. the USA finished first in the medal standings with 40 gold,
But the citizenship of Pritchard was controversial who won 44 silver, and 42 bronze medals. China secured second place
2 silver medals in athletics event at the Paris Olympics. with 40 gold, 27 silver, and 24 bronze medals.
In the 1920 Antwerp Olympics, for the first time, India Four National Olympic Committees (NOC) won their
sent a team of 6 players. first-ever gold medals at Paris 2024: Botswana, Dominica,
There were two wrestlers, four athletes and two managers Guatemala and Saint Lucia.
in this team. The official Paris Olympic and Paralympic Games slogan
Among these players, Phadeppa Dareppa Chaugule had was “Ouvrons Grand les Jeux.”
secured 19th position in the marathon. The slogan highlights how the Games will be open
Chaugule was the first Indian Olympic Marathon runner to the powerful emotions and passions of sport, with
to participate in the Blister Marathon. some competitions staged outside the traditional
Apart from Chaugule, another Indian marathon runner stadium setting.
Sadashiv could not complete the Datar Marathon race.
The slogan for the Games, which translates as “Games
A team of players sent under the Temporary Indian
Wide Open,” reflects how the walls between the city
Olympic Committee to the 1924 Paris Olympics including
and the stadium will vanish, and the spectators will
7 athletes and 7 tennis players (including two women -
feel connected with the athletes when the Games arrive
Nora M. Poli and Meher Tata).
in the French capital in two years’ time.
Officially, Indian women first participated in the Helsinki
Olympics (1952). These 4 women were - Mary D’Souza Paris 2024 Olympic Games key figures
(Athletics), Neelima Ghosh (Athletics), Dolly Nazir The XXXIII Olympiad
(Swimming) and Aarti Saha (Swimming). 26 July to 11 August 2024
Excluding Norman Pritchard, the first Indian who won
19 days of competition (handball, football and rugby
a medal in the individual event of the Olympics is K.D.
take place from 24 July)
Jadhav (Wrestling Bronze-1952 Helsinki).
329 events
The first Indian woman who won an Olympic Medal
Athletes from the territories of 206 National Olympic
was Karnam Malleswari (Weightlifting Bronze- 2000,
Committees and the IOC Refugee Olympic Team
Sydney).
represented
The first Indian female boxer Olympic medalist is M.C.
Mary Kom (Bronze - 2012, London). 32 sports (including the 4 additional sports)
The first Indian female badminton player who won an 4 additional sports proposed by the Paris 2024
Olympic Medal is Saina Nehwal (Bronze-2012, London). Organising Committee: skateboarding, sport climbing,
The first Indian woman wrestler who won the Olympic surfing and breaking
medal is Sakshi Malik (Bronze - 2016, Rio-de-Janerio). 15 new events
401
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754 sessions (competitions and ceremonies) India secured three medals in shooting, including its first-
10,500 athletes ever Olympic medal in the 50m rifle 3 positions, achieved
5,084 medals have been produced, using 18 grammes by Swapnil Kusale.
of iron from the Eiffel Tower This represented India’s highest medal count in shooting
First medal for the Refugee Olympic Team: Cindy at the Olympics. Indian athletes participated in 69 events
Ngamba (bronze) – boxing - women’s 75kg across 16 sports, including archery, athletics, badminton,
boxing, equestrian, golf, hockey, judo, rowing, sailing,
These Olympic Games were the first to be planned and
shooting, swimming, table tennis, and tennis.
delivered in line with the reforms of Olympic Agenda 2020.
Lakshya Sen became the first Indian to reach the semi-finals
They were younger, more inclusive, more urban and more
in men’s badminton at the Olympics, finishing in fourth
sustainable.
place. Wrestler Vinesh Phogat was disqualified in the
They were the very first Olympic Games with full gender
final of the women’s 50 kg category for being 100 grams
parity, because the International Olympic Committee (IOC)
overweight.
allocated 50 per cent of the quota places to female athletes
India has won a total of 41 Olympic medals to date. Notable
and 50 per cent to male athletes.
achievements include Norman Pritchard’s silver medals
Paris Olympics 2024 medal table
(1900 Paris), KD Jadhav’s bronze (1952 Helsinki), Karnam
Paris Olympics, 2024 : Medal Table Malleswari’s bronze (2000 Sydney), Abhinav Bindra’s gold
Rank Country G S B T (2008 Beijing), and Neeraj Chopra’s gold (2020 Tokyo).
Men’s hockey has claimed 13 medals, including eight
1 United States 40 44 42 126
golds, while wrestling has won eight medals. India’s best-
2 China 40 27 24 91 ever Olympic performance was at Tokyo 2020, with seven
3 Japan 20 12 13 45 medals, including one gold. The second-best performance
was at the 2012 London Olympics, where India won six
4 Australia 18 19 16 53
medals (two silver and four bronze).
5 France 16 26 22 64
Indian Medal Winners at Paris Olympics 2024
6 Netherlands 15 7 12 34
Indian athletes Medal Event
7 Great Britain 14 22 29 65
Women’s 10m air
8 South Korea 13 9 10 32 Manu Bhaker Bronze
pistol event
9 Italy 12 13 15 40 Manu Bhaker and 10m air pistol
Bronze
10 Germany 12 13 8 33 Sarabjot Singh mixed team event

71 India 0 0 5 5 Men’s 50m rifle 3

Swapnil Kusale Bronze
positions
Paris Olympics, 2024 and India : Indian hockey team Bronze Men’s hockey
The Paris Olympics 2024 have ended with India ranking Men’s Javelin
71st in the medal standings, a drop from their 48th position Neeraj Chopra Silver
Throw
in Tokyo 2020. Although the country secured six medals – Wrestling Men’s
one silver and five bronze – there were numerous close calls Aman Sehrawat Bronze
57kg freestyle event
and disappointing results, leading to widespread debate
Paralympic Games
about the future of sports in India.
The Paralympic Games is a major international multi-sport
Neeraj Chopra earned a silver medal in javelin with a throw
event.
of 89.45 meters, marking his second Olympic medal and In this game, Disabled athletes participate.
making him India’s fifth athlete to achieve two Olympic The International Paralympic Committee organise this
medals. event.
Manu Bhaker became the first Indian woman to win The first Paralympic Games took place in Rome, Italy in
an Olympic shooting medal and the first athlete from 1960. [SSC CGL (Pre.) 2023]
independent India to win two medals in a single Games, In this games 400 athletes from 23 countries were
securing medals in both individual and mixed team events. participated.
402
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Since then they have taken place every four years. 4 RPC* 36 33 49 118
Since the summer games of seoul, Korea in 1988 and the
5 Netherlands 25 17 17 59
winter games in Albertville, France in 1992 the Games
have also taken part in the same cities and venues as the 24 India 5 8 6 19
olympics due to an agreement between the IPC and IOC. * Russian athletes participated in the Paralympics-2020
Summer Paralympic-2020, Tokyo under the banner of RPC.
The 16th Summer Paralympic Games were held in Tokyo, Tokyo Paralympics-2020 and India
Japan between 24 August and 5 September 2021.
India's biggest-ever 54 para-athletes participated in Tokyo
In this Paralympic, 162 countries participated,
Paralympics.
[SSC CGL (Pre.) 2023]
In this event India secured 24th Rank. (SSC CGL Pre. 2023)
Tokyo is the first city in the world to host the Paralympic
India’s Para-Badminton player Palak Kohli made history
Games for the second time.
by becoming the youngest para-badminton player(19
Earlier in the year 1964, the Paralympic Games were held
years old) in the world to participate (SL3-SU5 Women’s
here.
In Tokyo Paralympics, 2020, 4403 athletes participated. Doubles ) in Tokyo 2020. Paralympics.
Host nation NPC Japan have the biggest delegation at the Javelin thrower Tek Chand lead India's charge during the
Games with 254 athletes. opening ceremony. Tek Chand was India's flag-bearer at
Two new sports, badminton and taekwondo were introduced the Tokyo Paralympics opening ceremony.
in place of sailing and 7A-side football in the Paralympic Trailblazing shooter Avani Lekhara was India's flag-bearer
games. at Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games closing ceremony.
The Tokyo 2020 Paralympics mascot, was Someity. Harvinder Singh (Punjab) and Vivek Chikara (U.P) became
The motto of the game was “United by Emotion”. the first male archers from the country to qualify for the
A total of 86 countries won medals in Paralympics 2020. games.
Australian cyclist Paige Greco became the first Tokyo 2020 Prachi Yadav, a canoeist from Gwalior qualified in
Paralympic gold medallist. kayaking and canoeing for Tokyo Paralympics 2020, was
Ukraine's Maksym Krypak became the most awarded the only entry from India in this category at the mega event.
athlete at the Games. IAS officer Suhas Lalinakere Yathiraj is the first
administrative officer, who represented India in Paralympics.
Top 5 countries in Paralympic 2020 and India
Sakina Khatun became India's first female powerlifter
Rank Country Gold Silver Bronze Total (50kg) to qualify for the Tokyo Paralympics.
People’s Republic [SSC CGL (Pre.) 2023]
1 96 60 51 207
of China Someity is the official mascat of the Tokyo Paralympics
2 Great Britain 41 38 45 124 2020. [SSC CGL (Pre.) 2023]
United States of India won 19 medals in paralympic 2020.
3 37 36 31 104
America [SSC CGL (Pre.) 2023]

India's Tokyo Paralympics Medals

Name Sport Event Medal Name
Sumit Antil Athletics Men's Javelin Throw - F64 GOLD Sport Class: F64
Pramod Bhagat Badminton Men's Singles SL3 GOLD Sport Class: SL3
Krishna Nagar Badminton Men's Singles SH6 GOLD Sports Class: SH6
Manish Narwal Shooting P4 - Mixed 50m Pistol SH1 GOLD Sport Class: SH1
Avani Lekhara Shooting R2 - Women's 10m Air Rifle Standing SH1 GOLD Sport Class: SH1
Yogesh Kathuniya Athletics Men's Discus Throw - F56 SILVER Sport Class: F56
Nishad Kumar Athletics Men's High Jump - T47 SILVER Sport Class: T47
Mariyappan Thangavelu Athletics Men's High Jump - T63 SILVER Sport Class: T42
Praveen Kumar Athletics Men's High Jump - T64 SILVER Sport Class: T44

403
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Devendra Jhajharia Athletics Men's Javelin Throw - F46 SILVER Sport Class: F46
Suhas Yathiraj Badminton Men's Singles SL4 SILVER Sport Class: SL4
Singhraj Adhana Shooting P4 - Mixed 50m Pistol SH1 SILVER Sport Class: SH1
Bhavina Patel Table Tennis Women's Singles - Class 4 SILVER Sport Class: 4
Harvinder Singh Archery Men's Individual Recurve - Open BRONZE Sport Class: ST
Sharad Kumar Athletics Men's High Jump - T63 BRONZE Sport Class: T42
Sundar Singh Gurjar Athletics Men's Javelin Throw - F46 BRONZE Sport Class: F46
Manoj Sarkar Badminton Men's Singles SL3 BRONZE Sport Class: SL3
Singhraj Adhana Shooting P1 - Men's 10m Air Pistol SH1 BRONZE Sport Class: SH1
Avani Lekhara Shooting R8 - Women's 50m Rifle 3 Positions SH1 BRONZE Sport Class: SH1

Winter Olympics – 2022:

24th Winter Olympic Games were held between 4th - 20th 2 Commonwealth Games
February, 2022 in Beijing, China.
Introduction :
The first torchbearer was Ioannis, Antoniou, Olympic
Commonwealth Games are the second-largest grand
participant in alpine sking (2018, 2022).
sporting event in the world after the Olympic Games.
"Together for a shared future" was the official motto of
Its background lies in British Empire.
the olympic.
Ashley Cooper, the resident of Yorkshire (England), gave
The official Mascot of the Winter Olympic Games, 2022
the idea to organize this event in a magazine "Greater
was the 'Bing Dwen Dwen'.
Britain" in 1891.
In Mendarin 'Chinese', "Bing" has several meanings,
With the efforts of MM Bobby Robinson, a Canadian
though the most common is ice. The word also symbolises
athlete, the ‘First British Empire Games’ were held in
purity and strength. While "Dwen Dwen" means robust Hamilton, Canada in the mid-1930s amongst the British
and lively, and also represents Children. Empire Countries.
In this games Norway won 37 medals including 16 Gold, 11 countries have participated in 6 sporting events.
8 Silver and 13 Bronze, and topped in the medal lsit. In 1970 and 1974, these Games were known as the ‘British
The host country People's Republic of China got 3rd Rank Commonwealth Games’.
with 15 medals (9 Gold, 4 Silver, 2 Bronze), Finally, from the year 1978, its name was shortened to
Top 5 Countries in the medal table are as follows : "Commonwealth Games".
SI Fundamental Quantities and Their Units Its international regulatory body was renamed as ‘The
Commonwealth Games Federation’. Its headquartered in
Rank Country Gold Silver Bronze Total
London.
1. Norway 16 8 13 37 Commonwealth Games are held amongst the member
2. Germany 12 10 5 27 countries of the Commonwealth, in which only the
3. People's Republic of 9 4 2 15 residents of these countries can participate.
China Currently, the Commonwealth has 56 member countries.
4. United States of 8 10 7 25 In Commonwealth Games 1994, held in Victoria (Canada)
America only individual events were included.
In 1998, four-team events were also included in the
5. Sweden 8 5 5 18
Commonwealth Games which were held in Kuala Lumpur
Significantly India completed at the winter olympics 2022 (Malaysia).
at Beijing, China. These games were - Cricket (ODI), Hockey (Women &
On behalf of India Arif Khan was the country's flag- bearer Men), Football (Men’s), Rugby Sevens (Men’s).
during the opening ceremony. Cricket was dropped from the Commonwealth Games
The 2026 winter Olympics will be held in Italy. held at Manchester (England) in 2002.
404
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Basketball was included in the Melbourne (Australia) 1994 Canada 63 10 Australia

Commonwealth Games in the year 2006, but dropped at 1998 Malaysia 70 15 Australia
the Delhi Commonwealth Games (2010).
2002 Britain 72 17 Australia
Commonwealth Games – 2022
2006 Australia 71 16 Australia
The 22nd Commonwealth Games were held between 28
July - 8 August 2022 at Birmingham (U.K.). 2010 India 71 17 Australia
[SSC CGL (Pre.) 2023] 2014 Scotland 71 17 England
This was the third occasion when England hosted this 2018 Australia 71 18 Australia
games. Earlier in London (1934) and Manchester (2002). 2022 U.K. 72 19 Australia
This was the 7th occasion when UK (United Kingdom of *(19 sports and 4 Para sports)
Great Britain and Northern Ireland) hosted Commonwealth
Games. Top Ten Countries in the 21st Commonwealth
In 22nd Commonwealth Games 2022, 72 Countries/Region Games
along with more than 4500 athletes participated in 19 Sl.
Country Gold Silver Bronze Total
Games and 8 Para Games. No.
4 Newly Games were included in this tournament - 1 Australia 67 57 54 178
Women T-20 Cricket, 3 × 3 Basket Ball, 3 × 3 Wheelchair 2 England 57 66 53 176
Basketball and Mixed synchronised diving. 3 Canada 26 32 34 92
Shooting was removed from this tournament. 4 India 22 16 23 61
The Opening and closing ceremony of the 2022 5 New Zealand 20 12 17 49
commonwealth Games were held at Alexander Stadium. 6 Scotland 13 11 27 51
Significantly, Alex Yee of England won the first gold of 7 Nigeria 12 9 14 35
the tournament in men's triathlon. 8 Wales 8 6 14 28
Perry was the official mascot of the 2022 Common Wealth 9 South Africa 7 9 11 27
Games in Birmingham, England. This is a Multi-coloured
10 Malaysia 7 8 8 23
bull.
Commonwealth Games and India :
It is important to mention here that 23rd Common wealth
India had participated for the first time in the Second
Games (2026) will be held in victoria (Australia).
Commonwealth Games held in London in 1934.
Australia's Emma mckeon was the most successful player
India did not participate in the Commonwealth Games at
of this game. She won 6 Gold, 1 Silver and 1 Bronze.
Auckland (1950), Perth (1962) and Edinburgh (1986).
Commonwealth Games Held So Far So far Australia, Canada, England, New Zealand, Scotland
Number of Number and Wales had participated in all Commonwealth Games.
Organizing First
Year Participating of India won 1 Bronze medal in the Second Commonwealth
Countries Position
Countries Events
Games in London, 1934.
1930 Canada 11 6 England
1934 England 16 6 England India’s Achievements in Commonwealth Games
1938 Australia 15 7 Australia Held at Gold Silver Bronze Total
1950 New Zealand 12 9 Australia 1934-London(5th) — 1 — 1
1954 Canada 24 9 England 1958 – Cardiff (6th ) 2 1 1 4
1958 Britain 35 9 England 1966 – Kingston(8th ) 3 4 3 10
1962 Australia 35 9 Australia 1970 – Edinburgh(9th ) 5 4 3 12
1966 Jamaica 34 9 England 1974 –Christchurch(10th ) 4 8 3 15
1970 Scotland 42 9 Australia 1978 – Edmonton(11th) 5 4 6 15
1974 New Zealand 38 9 Australia 1982- Brisbane(12th) 5 8 3 16
1978 Canada 46 10 Canada 1990-Auckland(14th ) 13 8 11 32
1982 Australia 46 10 Australia 1994- Victoria(15th ) 6 11 7 24
1986 Scotland 26 10 England 1998-Kuala Lumpur(16th) 7 10 8 25
1990 New Zealand 55 10 Australia 2002-Manchester(17th) 30 22 17 69
405
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2006-Melbourne(18th) 22 17 11 50 The rules of these games are supervised by the Olympic

2010-New Delhi(19th) 38 27 36 101 Council of Asia(OCA) under the International Olympic
Council (IOC).
2014-Glasgow(20th) 15 30 19 64
The headquarter of OCA is located in Kuwait City,
2018-Gold Coast(21st) 26 20 20 66
Kuwait.
2022-Birmingham (22nd) 22 16 23 61
Asian Games, 2022 :
Commonwealth Games 2022 and India: Over 12,000 athletes from all 45 members of the Olympic
In 2022 games 322 members represented including 215 Council of Asia participated in the 19th Asian Games,
athletes and 107 officers. held in Hangzhou, China, from September 23 to October
India was the Champion in wrestling by winning 12
8, 2023.
medals (6 Gold).
A total of 481 events took place, with competitions in nine
Sanket Sargar was the first Indian to win a medal in
sports – archery, artistic swimming, boxing, breaking,
Birmingham. He bagged a Silver in the men's 55kg
hockey, modern pentathlon, sailing, tennis, and water polo
weightlifting event.
– serving as qualifiers for the Paris 2024 Olympics.
Mirabai Chanu was the first Indian to win a gold at CWG
The three mascots for the Games are a group of robots,
2022.
representing Memories of Jiangnan, which is a geographic
Sudhir won the first medal for India, a gold in para sports
area roughly China’s eastern regions south of the Yangtze
at the CWG 2022.
River.
Commonwealth Games 2022 : India medal The robots are Chenchen, Congcong, and Lianlian.
winners by sport The motto of the Asian Games 2023 was “Heart to
Sport Gold Silver Bronze Total Heart, at Future”. It was announced in 2019. The design
Wrestling 6 1 5 12 of the Asian Games 2023 medal was named “Shan Sui”
Weightlifting 3 3 4 10 (Lake and Mountain). It was inspired by Jade Kang of
Boxing 3 1 3 7 Liangzhu culture.
Badminton 3 1 2 6
Asian Games : Venue , Country and Games
Table Tennis 3 1 1 5
Sl. Participating No. of
Athletics 1 4 3 8 Year Venue
No. Countries Games
Lawn bowls 1 1 0 2
1. 1951 New Delhi 11 6
Para Table Tennis 1 0 1 2
2. 1954 Manila 19 8
Para Powerlifting 1 0 0 1
3. 1958 Tokyo 20 13
Judo 0 2 1 3
4. 1962 Jakarta 16 13
Hockey 0 1 1 2
5. 1966 Bangkok 18 14
Cricket 0 1 0 1
6. 1970 Bangkok 18 13
Squash 0 0 2 2
7. 1974 Tehran 25 16
TOTAL 22 16 23 61 8. 1978 Bangkok 25 19
9. 1982 New Delhi 33 21
3 Asian Games 10. 1986 Seoul 27 25
11. 1990 Beijing 36 29
The first Asian Games were held in New Delhi in 1951 12. 1994 Hiroshima 42 34
with the efforts of Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru and Antony De 13. 1998 Bangkok 41 36
Mello.
14. 2002 Busan 44 38
In these Games, 11 countries (India, Nepal, Sri Lanka,
15. 2006 Doha 45 39
Japan, Philippines, Iran, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia,
16. 2010 Guangjhu 45 42
Myanmar and Afghanistan) had participated.
‘Shining Sun’ was declared the symbol of the Asian 17. 2014 Inchiyon 45 36
Games by the Asian Games Association. 18. 2018 Jakarta/Palembang 45 40
Asian Games are also known as 'Asiad'. 19. 2023 Hangzhou 45 40
406
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Asian Games 2022 Medal Standings Squash 2 1 2 5

Cricket 2 0 0 2
Team/NOC Gold Silver Bronze Total
Kabaddi 2 0 0 2
People’s Republic of
201 111 71 383 Badminton 1 1 1 3
China (CHN)
Japan (JPN) 52 67 69 188 Tennis 1 1 0 2
Republic of Korea Equestrian 1 0 1 2
42 59 89 190
(KOR) Hockey 1 0 1 2
India (IND) 28 38 41 107 Rowing 0 2 3 5
Uzbekistan (UZB) 22 18 31 71 Chess 0 2 0 2
Chinese Taipei (TPE) 19 20 28 67 Wrestling 0 1 5 6
Islamic Republic of Iran Boxing 0 1 4 5
13 21 20 54
(IRI) Sailing 0 1 2 3
Thailand (THA) 12 14 32 58 Bridge 0 1 0 1
Bahrain (BRN) 12 3 5 20 Golf 0 1 0 1
D.P.R. Korea (PRK) 11 18 10 39 Wushu 0 1 0 1
India in 19th Asian Games, 2022 : Roller skating 0 0 2 2
A 655-member Indian contingent participated at the Asian Canoe 0 0 1 1
Games 2023. Sepaktakraw 0 0 1 1
The 19th edition of the continental quadrennial multisport Table tennis 0 0 1 1
meet was originally scheduled for 2022 but was postponed TOTAL 28 38 41 107
by a year due to COVID-19.
India finished their Asian Games 2023 campaign with Number of Medals India won at the Asian
a record haul of 107 medals - 28 gold, 38 silver and 41 Games
bronze. Year Gold Silver Bronze Total Rank
This surpassed India’s previous record tally achieved at 1951 15 16 20 51 2
the last edition at Jakarta 2018, where a 570-strong Indian 1954 4 4 5 13 5
squad racked up 70 medals - 16 gold, 23 silver and 31
1958 5 4 4 13 7
bronze.
1962 10 13 10 33 3
Shooting led the way for India at the Asian Games 2023
1966 7 4 11 22 5
with an unprecedented haul of 22 medals, which included
seven gold. 1970 6 9 10 25 5
Athletics, headlined by Neeraj Chopra’s successful title 1974 4 12 12 28 7
defence in the javelin throw, came a close second with six 1978 11 11 6 28 6
gold along with 14 silver and nine bronze. 1982 13 19 25 57 5
The cricket and kabaddi teams also bagged two gold 1986 5 9 23 37 5
medals each while the men’s hockey team’s gold secured 1990 1 8 14 23 11
a spot at the Paris 2024 Olympics. 1994 4 3 16 23 8
India also earned their first Asian Games badminton gold 1998 7 11 17 35 9
medal courtesy of the men’s doubles pair of Chirag Shetty
2002 11 12 13 36 7
and Satwiksairaj Rankireddy.
2006 10 17 26 53 8
India’s Asian Games 2022 medals tally: By sport 2010 14 17 34 65 6
Sport Gold Silver Bronze Total 2014 11 10 36 57 8
Shooting 7 9 6 22 2018 15 24 30 69 8
Athletics 6 14 9 29 2022 28 38 41 107 4
Archery 5 2 2 9 Data, based on, website of Indian Olympic Association.
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Indian Cricket Team and Don Bradman was the captain of

4 Cricket the Australian Cricket Team.
India had won their first Test Match defeating England in
Cricket is known as the “Game of Gentlemen” and is Madras in 1952.
played across five continents. In the same year, India won the first Test Series defeating
England is considered the father of Cricket. Pakistan.
In 1767, Hambledon Club became the first cricket club For the first time, outside the Indian sub-continent, India
in the world in Hampshire (England). had won the Test Series against New Zealand in 1967–68
Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) was established in 1787. under the captaincy of Nawab Pataudi (Junior).
The first Cricket Test Match was played between Australia On 13th July, 1974, India played their first one-day match
and England in Melbourne, Australia, from 15th-19th against England.
March 1877. Ajit Wadekar got the honour of captaining the Indian
On 5th January 1971, the first One Day Cricket Match
team in its first One Day match.
was played between Australia and England in Melbourne,
On 11th June, 1975, India won their first ODI in the First
Australia.
World Cup.
This match was of 40–40 overs.
Indian Premier league was started in 2008.
First women world cup was held in England in 1973.
(SSC CGL (Pre.) 2023)
SSC GCL (Pre.) 2023
India beat East Africa by 10 wickets in this match.
England’s W.G. Grace is considered the Father of
Virender Sehwag was the first captain of the Indian cricket
Modern Cricket.
team in Twenty-20 format match.
Kerry Packer of Australia is considered the Father of
The maximum limited of overs per bowler has been set at
ODI Cricket.
4 overs. [SSC CGL (Pre.) 2023]
The International Cricket Council (ICC) is the supreme
On 1 December, 2006, India won the match played
st
governing body of Test Matches, ODIs and T-20 Cricket.
In 1909 “Imperial Cricket Conference” was established against South Africa.
by Australia, England and South Africa. The Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy is a domestic Twenty 20
In 1965, it was changed into ‘International Cricket Cricket Championship in India. (SSC CHSL, 2023)

Conference’. In 1989, it renamed again as “International Major Trophies of Domestic Cricket in India :
Cricket Council” (ICC). A. Ranji Trophy
Initially, its headquarter was located in Lords, England. It is the oldest domestic cricket competition in India.
On 1st August 2005, the headquarter was shifted to Ranji Trophy started in 1934-35.
Dubai (UAE). This trophy was named after India’s first international
Presently, in ICC, there are a total of 12 full-time members cricketer Ranjit Singh Ji.
and 94 associate members. He played for England and Sussex, popularly known as
On 27th November 2015, the first day-night Test Match Ranji.
was played between Australia and New Zealand with Pink The trophy was donated by Maharaja Bhupinder Singh of
Ball in Adelaide (Australia). Patiala.
History of Indian Cricket: The first Ranji Trophy winning team is Mumbai.
Cricket was introduced in India by officers and employees The Most Ranji Trophy runs were scored by Wasim
of the East India Company. Jaffer (12,038 runs) and the most Ranji wickets were
Calcutta Cricket Club was established in 1792. taken by Rajinder Goyal (639 wickets).
On 25th June 1932, India played its first Test Match at Mumbai won the Ranji Trophy most of the (41) times.
Lord’s. The 2022-23 Ranji Trophy was the 88th Season of this
England defeated India by 158 runs in this test match. Trophy. In the final match Saurashtra defeated Bengal by
C.K. Naidu was the captain of the Indian Cricket Team in 9 wickets to win their second title.
this match. B. Vijay Hazare Trophy:
After independence, India played the first Test series The competition is named after Vijay Hazare, the former
against Australia in the year 1948. captain of the Indian cricket team. It is also known as
This was the first foreign tour of India after Independence. Ranji ODI Trophy.
In this series, Lala Amarnath was the captain of the It started in 2002-03.
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The first Vijay Hazare Trophy-winning team is Tamil Vijay Merchant Trophy.
Nadu. Rani Jhansi Trophy - It is a Women’s domestic cricket
The Vijay Hazare Trophy is administrated by BCCI. competition.
Saurashtra cricket team is the current champion, defeating Indira Priyadarshini Trophy - It is a Women’s ODI
Maharashtra in the 2022-23 version of this trophy. (one day) cricket competition.
C. Duleep Trophy : Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI):
This is a four day National First Class Domestic Cricket The Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI)
Competition. was established in Mumbai in the year 1928 under the
It started in 1961-62. Chairmanship of R.E. Grant Govan.
It is named after the Prince of Nawanagar, Mr. Duleep Since then, the BCCI has been affiliated with the
Singh. International Cricket Council (ICC).
The first Duleep Trophy-winning team is the West Zone. Components of Cricket :
Its runner-up is awarded ‘Devicha Trophy’. Length of the pitch - 22 yards (20.12 m).
In Duleep Trophy, the Pink Ball was used for the first time SSC CGL (Pre.) 2023
in 2016. Weight of the ball – not less than 5.5 ounces / 155.9 grams
The 59th season of Duleep Trophy was won by west zone
and not to exceed 5.75 ounces / 163 grams.(SSC CGL, 2022)
by defeating South Zone.
The circumference of the ball is not less than - 8.81 inches
D. Deodhar Trophy :
or 22.4 cm and should not exceed 9 inches or 22.9 cm.
This is a Limited Over Domestic List A category cricket
The length of the bat (maximum) is 38 inches (96.52 cm),
competition.
width (maximum): 4.25 inches (10.8 cm).
It started in 1973-74.
The length of the stump is 28 inches (71.12 cm).
The trophy is named after DB Deodhar, popularly known
as Grand Old Man of Indian Cricket. T-20 Cricket World Cup
The first Deodhar Trophy-winning team is South Zone. Organizing
In 2019-20, the trophy was won by ‘India B’ defeating Year Winner Runner-up
Country
‘India C’.
2007 South Africa India Pakistan
The tournament was played amongst five zones (East,
West, North, South and Central Zone) till 2014-15 session. 2009 England Pakistan Sri Lanka
From 2015-16, BCCI changed its format; now it is played 2010 West Indies England Australia
amongst Teams of ‘India A’, ‘India B’ and ‘India C 2012 Sri Lanka West Indies Sri Lanka
‘selected by BCCI. 2014 Bangladesh Sri Lanka India
E. Irani Cup :
2016 India West Indies England
It is a first-class five-day domestic cricket competition
played between the present Ranji Trophy winner and the 2021 UAE, Oman Australia New Zealand
Rest of India. 2022 Australia England Pakistan
It started from 1959 to 1960. 2024 West Indies and USA India South Africa
It is named after the late Z.R. Irani.
2026 India and Srilanka — —
He was associated with the Board of Control for Cricket
in India from the establishment of BCCI (1928) till his General Terms of Cricket:
death in 1970. Pitch, popping crease, return crease, wicket, throw,
The first Irani Cup winning team is Bombay. maiden, wide, four, six, batsman, bowler, chinaman,
Vidarbha won the trophy of 2018-19 defeating the Rest of wicketkeeper, slip, gully , cover, point, fielder, mid-
India. on, mid-wicket, mid-off, long-off, long-on, third man,
“Rest of India” has won the Irani Cup the most 28 times. bouncer, short-pitch, run out, LBW (Leg Before Wicket),
Other Domestic Cricket Tournaments: over the wicket, round the wicket, stroke, swing, off-
Rohinton Baria Trophy - It is an Inter-University Spinner, leg-spinner, follow-on, etc.
Competition. In cricket, the batsman gets out in the following 10 ways.
Cooch Behar Trophy - It is an Inter-State Competition 1. Clean Bowled, 2. Catch Out, 3. Run Out, 4. LBW (Leg
for Boys Under-19. Before Wicket), 5. Hit Wicket, 6. Handling the Ball, 7. Hit
C.K. Naidu Trophy - It is a limited-overs domestic the Ball Twice, 8. Obstruction of the field, 9. Stump-Out,
competition. 10.Time-Out.
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Men's One Day International Cricket World Cup The first president of FIH was Paul Léautey.
Year Organizing Country Winner Runner-up
The founding members of FIH were Austria, Belgium,
Czechoslovakia, France, Hungary, Spain and Switzerland.
1975 England West Indies Australia
Major Events in International Hockey :
1979 England West Indies England
1983 England India West Indies
On 26th January, 1895, the first international hockey match
was played between Wales and Ireland at Rhyl.
1987 India & Pakistan Australia England
For the first time, hockey was included in the 1908
1992 Australia & New Zealand Pakistan England
(London) Olympic Games.
1996 India, Sri Lanka & Sri Lanka Australia
This event is being held continuously since the Olympics
Pakistan
of 1928 (Amsterdam) after being excluded from some
1999 England, Scotland, Wales, Australia Pakistan
Ireland & Netherlands Olympic Games.
2003 South Africa, Zimbabwe & Australia India
Women’s Hockey was first included in 1980 Moscow
Kenya Olympics.
2007 West Indies Australia Sri Lanka The first Hockey World Cup was held in Barcelona, Spain,
2011 India, Sri Lanka & India Sri Lanka in 1971.
Bangladesh Indian Men's Hockey Team won Bronze medal in Paris
2015 Australia & New Zealand Australia New Zealand Olympics 2024.
2019 England & Wales England New Zealand Men's Hockey World Cup
2023 India Australia India Runner- India's
Year Place Winner
2027 South Africa & Zimbabwe — — Up Position
and Namibia 1971 Barcelona (Spain) Pakistan Spain Third
2031 India and Bangladesh — —
Amstelveen
1973 Holland India Second
(Netherlands)
5 Hockey 1975
Kuala Lumpur
India Pakistan First
(Malaysia)
The modern form of Hockey was developed mainly in Buenos Aires
1978 Pakistan Holland Sixth
schools of England in mid-18th century. (Argentina)
Firstly, in 1861, ‘Blackheath Rugby and Hockey Club’ 1982 Mumbai (India) Pakistan Germany Fifth
was established in England as an organized club. 1986 London (England) Australia England Twelth
On 16th April 1875, the English Hockey Association 1990 Lahore (Pakistan) Holland Pakistan Tenth
was established at the Cannon Street Hotel in London
1994 Sydney (Australia) Pakistan Holland Fifth
(England).
1998 Utrecht (Netherlands) Holland Spain Ninth
It is considered to be the beginning of professional hockey
games. Kuala Lumpur
2002 Germany Australia Tenth
(Malaysia)
In 1883, the rules regarding this game were established by
the ‘Wimbledon Hockey Club’. Monchengladbach
2006 Germany Australia Eleventh
(Germany)
The Hockey Association in 1886 recognized these rules.
2010 New Delhi (India) Australia Germany Eighth
The First Hockey Association was established in the U.K
(United Kingdom) in 1876. The Hague
2014 Australia Holland Ninth
(Netherlands)
This institution continued to exist for the next 6 years.
In 1886, it was revived by 9 founding club members. 2018 Bhubaneswar (India) Belgium Holland Sixth
International Hockey Federation (FIH): 2023 India Germany Belgium Ninth
On 7th January, 1924, the International Hockey Federation Hockey in India:
(Federation Internationale de Hockey: FIH) was established Hockey is considered the National Sport of India.
by the efforts of Paul Léautey in Paris (France). The credit for popularizing hockey in India goes to
It is the international administrative body related to the Britishers.
game of Hockey (HQ-Lausanne, Switzerland). The first Hockey Club in India was established in Calcutta
The International Women’s Hockey Association was in 1885–86. [SSC CGL (Pre.) 2023]
established in 1927. The first Hockey Association in India was the Bengal
Both the associations were merged in 1982. Hockey Association.
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Bengal Hockey Association was established in 1908. The “Penalty Bully” is given for breaking the rules in
The Sindh Hockey Association was established in Karachi women’s matches.
in 1920. The length of the hockey field can be 91.40 meters and
The Indian Hockey Federation was established in 1927 width up to 55 meters.
under the leadership of Colonel Bruce Turnbull. The weight of the ball can be between 156-163 grams.
Currently, its headquarter is located in New Delhi (earlier The circumference of the ball may be 2.81 inches to 2.94
it was located in Gwalior). inches.
It is the first Non-European Hockey Federation to be part The total weight of the hockey stick does not exceed 737
of FIH. grams (about 26 ounces).
On 28th April 2008, the Indian Hockey Federation was The length of the hockey stick does not exceed 105 cm.
disbanded by the Indian Olympic Association. The length of the goal post is 4 yards (3.66 m).
On 20th May 2009, Hockey India a new organization was The arc of 'D' is 16 yards (15 m).
established. The distance of the Penalty stroke is 7 yards (6.4 m).
Presently, “Hockey India” is the supreme body to conduct Some Terminologies used in Hockey:
all the activities of Men and Women hockey in India. Passback, Goal, Bully, Offside, Free-hit, Corner hit,
It was recognized as National Sports Federation by the Penalty Stroke, Penalty Corner, Penalty Bully, Dribbling,
Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports (Government of Jab and Lounge, D, Astroturf, Right back, Left-back Scoop,
India) on 28th February, 2014. Sideline, Tie Breaker, Rolling, Push in, Half volley, Full
India’s participation in the Olympics had begun in the back, Undercutting, Sudden Death, Infringement, Flick,
1928 Amsterdam Olympics. Reverse Flick, Shooting Circle, etc.
In its first Olympics India had won the gold medal
defeating Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Switzerland and 6 Football
Holland. India beat Holland 3–0 to win its first ever
Football is the most popular sport in the world.
olympic gold medal.
England owes the credit for developing the modern form
India set a record of winning 6 consecutive gold medals in
of football.
the Olympics held from 1928 to 1956.
In 1857, the first football club in the world was “Sheffield
India’s highest (altitude of 8000 feet) Hockey Astro Turf
Football Club” that was established in England.
ground has been built at Shilaroo (Himachal Pradesh) in
Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)
2010.
was formed in Paris on 21st May, 1904.
The ground prepared by artificial grass made of plastic
Its 8 founding countries were France, Belgium, Denmark,
on the iron wire using state-of-the-art technology is called Germany, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland.
‘Astro Turf’. FIFA organizes international football matches and also
Other Key Facts: works for its development.
The shape of the Hockey field is rectangular. The credit for establishment of FIFA goes to the French
Each team consists of 11–11 players. (SSC MTS, 2022) citizen ‘Jules Rimet’.
Each team can replace 3 players during the game. Its headquarter is located in Zurich (Switzerland).
Once replaced, the player cannot participate in that game The first President of FIFA was Mr. Robert Guerin
again. (France).
As per the new rules (effective from 1st January, 2019), the Currently, the President of FIFA is Gianni Infantino.
duration of the game will be 60 minutes [15-2-15 minutes England had joined FIFA membership in the year 1906.
(5 minutes timeout) -15-2-15 minutes]. (SSC MTS, 2022) On the issue of professional and non-professional players,
That is, there will be four sessions of 15 minutes and a England was excluded from FIFA.
break of 2 minutes between every two sessions and a 5 England rejoined FIFA in the year 1946.
minute time interval after the first two sessions. Football was included as an event in all the Olympics
In Ice Hockey there can only be maximum of 6 players on except the 1896 (Athens) and 1932 (Los Angeles)
Ice for each team at time, 1 Goalic and 5 Skaters. Olympics.
A long corner is awarded it a defender accidentaly puts the Women’s football was officially included in 1996.
ball over the back line. SSC CGL (Pre.) 2023 Other Important Facts:
The “Penalty Stroke” is given for breaking the rules in a International football grounds for adults can be 100 to 110
men’s match. meters in length and 64 to 75 meters in width.
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The circumference of the football may be 27-28 inches. The Indian team won the gold medal in Asian Games of
Its weight may be 410 to 458 grams (14-16 ounce). 1951 and 1962 in football.
Football cannot be changed during games without the
Men's Football World Cup
permission of the referee.
In the game of Football the distance between the goalpost Year Winner Runner-Up Venue
is 7.32 meters (24 feet). 1930 Uruguay Argentina Uruguay
The football matches are played in two-time formats of 1934 Italy Czechoslovakia Italy
45–45 minutes duration. 1938 Italy Hungary France
Two teams can change their ends after the intermission. 1950 Uruguay Brazil Brazil
From 1864, hand touching or handling in football was 1954 West Germany Hungary Switzerland
banned.
1958 Brazil Sweden Sweden
In 1870, the requirement of 11 players was accepted.
1962 Brazil Czechoslovakia Chile
A maximum of two players can be substituted after the
game starts. 1966 England West Germany England
The player who is off-field can substitute the player who 1970 Brazil Italy Mexico
is in-field, cannot be sent again. 1974 West Germany Holland West Germany
If a player is eliminated by the referee, no other player can 1978 Argentina Holland Argentina
substitute him. 1982 Italy West Germany Spain
The distance between the goal line and the penalty spot in
1986 Argentina West Germany Mexico
football is 12 yards.
1990 West Germany Argentina Italy
Football in India:
Football is the second most popular sports in India after 1994 Brazil Italy United States
cricket. 1998 France Brazil France
Football games got its popularity in India from the time of Japan & South
2002 Brazil Germany
the British Empire. Korea
Dalhousie Club was the first football club in India. 2006 Italy France Germany
All India Football Federation (AIFF) has the 2010 Spain Holland South Africa
administrative responsibility of football in India. 2014 Germany Argentina Brazil
‘Santosh Trophy’ is the symbol of the National Football
2018 France Croatia Russia
Championship. (SSC CHSL, 2017)
2022 Argentina France Qatar
Santosh Trophy was started in the year 1941.
‘Begum Hazrat Mahal Trophy’ is a symbol of National Canada, Mexico
2026 – –
and USA
Women’s Football Championship.
Rovers Cup is related to football. Football World Cup-2022 : Awards :
It was a football tournament started by British Football Golden Ball - Lionel Messi (Argentina)
lovers in 1891 in Bombay. Golden Boot - Kylian Mbappe (France)
'Durand Cup' is the oldest football championship in Golden Glove - Emiliano Martinez (Argentina)
India. (SSC GD, 2019) FIFA Young Player - Enzo Fernandez (Argentina)
It started in 1888. FIFA Fair Play Trophy - England
Kolkata is called the ‘Home of Indian Football’. Brazil has participated in all (22) Football World Cups
The national team of India qualified for World Cup held so far.
football in 1950. Brazil holds the record for winning the World Cup the
Bengaluru Football Club won Durand Cup 2022. most 5 times.
[SSC CGL (Pre.) 2023] Italy and Germany have won this title 4-4 times each.
India was the host country of AFC women Asia Cup Football Glossaries/Vocabularies :
Football 2022. (SSC CGL (Pre.) 2023) Pass, Back Pass, Corner, Dribble, Linesman, Caesars
At the time, India could not participate in the next round Kick, Banana Kick, Winger, Sweeper, Back, Volley,
due to being barefoot (without shoes). Send Off, Bars, Tiebreaker, Sudden Death, Fist, Net, Lob,
In the 1956 Melbourne Olympics, the Indian team was at Through Ball , Total , Center, Penalty , Handball foul,
the fourth position in football. Hattrick, Center, Penalty, Strike, etc. [SSC CGL (Pre.) 2023]
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The first Thomas Cup was organized in Priston in 1948–

7 Badminton 49.
Significantly, in May 2022 India have defeated the 14
Badminton is the second most popular sport in the world time champions Indonesia to win the Thomas Cup for the
after football. first time.
The 'Net' was introduced to the game in 1860. B. Uber Cup :
It was played at “Poona” among British military officers It is a Women’s International Team Event.
in India. It was named after England’s Badminton Player Betty
According to some sports historians, its rules were Uber who presented the cup as a donation.
formulated by the British in Poona (India) in 1873, while It is organized every two years.
some believe that in 1879, Cornel Shelby formulated the The first Uber Cup was held in 1956-57.
rules of the game. C. Sudirman Cup:
In 1893, the Badminton Association of England (BAE) It is the World’s Mixed Team Championship.
was formed. It is named after Indonesian Badminton Player Dick
In 1898, the first badminton tournament was held at Sudirman.
Guildford. It is organized every two years.
The first All England Championship was organized in The first Sudirman Cup was held in Jakarta (Indonesia) in
1899. 1989.
International Badminton Federation (IBF) is the D. Bimantara Cup :
Supreme institution of sports of badminton. World Junior Championship.
It was established in the year 1934. Some other major competitions - World Grand Prix.
The founding members of IBF are- England, Ireland, European Cup, Yonex Cup, China Cup.
Scotland, Wales, Denmark, Holland, Canada, New Badminton in India :
Zealand and France. Badminton got its popularity in India by British Military
India and America were associated with IBF in the year Officials.
1936 and 1938 respectively. Badminton Association of India is the regulatory body
Sir George Allen Thomas of England was its first of badminton in India.
President. It was established in 1934.
In September 2006, a meeting was held in Madrid accepted Its headquarter is located in New Delhi.
its new name Badminton World Federation (BWF). National Badminton Trophy:
In December 2004, it decided to shift its headquarter from Ibrahim Rahmatullah Cup
Cheltenham (England) to Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia). Gulab Rai Chadda Cup
Badminton was included in the Olympic Games in 1992 Dr. Devraj Narang Cup
(Barcelona). Mohammad Shafi Qureshi Cup
World Badminton Championship : Vikas Topiwala Challenge Cup (Men’s Singles Champion-
This championship was started in Malmo (Sweden) in ship)
1977. Calcutta Badminton Cup (Men’s Doubles Championship
It is organized every two years. & Junior Singles Championship)
Winners of First World Championship: Olympic Badminton Challenge Cup (Women’s Singles
Men’s Singles - Flemming Delfs (Denmark) Championship)
Women’s Singles - Lene Koppen (Denmark) All India Badminton Association Cup (Women’s Doubles
Winners of World Championship, 2022 Championship)
Men’s Singles - Viktor Axelsen (Denmark) Chiranjit Lal Madan Cup
Women’s Singles - Akane Yamaguchi (Japan) Burdwan Challenge Cup (Mixed Doubles Championship)
Other Badminton Competitions Fazal Ahmed Trophy, RR Nair Trophy, etc.
A. Thomas Cup: Badminton Court Dimensions
This is the Men’s International Team Event. The length of the Badminton court is 44 feet and the width
It was named after Sir George Allen Thomas, the first is 20 feet. [SSC CGL (Pre.) 2023]
President of the IBF in 1939 after donating the cup as a The height of the net is 5 feet.
donation. The weight of the shuttle is 4.74 to 5.51 grams.
It is organized every two years. The weight of the racket is 85-140 grams.
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Key Glossaries/Vocabularies : Other Tennis Tournaments :

Court, Long Service, Fault, Service, Rally, Backhand Davis Cup is the Men’s Tennis team competition.
Smash, Love, Deuce, Lob, Let, Love all, Drop, Lift, [SSC CGL (Pre.) 2016]
Pen hand Push, Linesman, etc. are the terms related to The Fed Cup is the Women’s team competition.
Badminton. Hopman Cup is an international mixed team competition.
Pan-Pacific Trophy, Witman Cup, Masters Grand Prix,
8 Tennis Aviation Cup, Volvo Tennis Cup, Evert Cup, Champions
Cup, Citizen Cup, Family Circle Cup, Edgbaston Cup,
Tennis is considered to be the most prestigious sport Heineken Trophy, Hamlet Cup, ATP World Tour and
among individual games. WTA Tour Competitions, etc.
In the modern context, the game was developed in Dimensions of a Tennis Court:
England. The length of the tennis courts is 78 feet (both Singles and
Modern Tennis is known as ‘Lawn Tennis’. Doubles).
Lawn Tennis is played on different types of courts. The width of the tennis court is 27 feet (Singles) and 36
Some tennis matches were also played on ‘Hard Court’. feet (Doubles).
International Tennis Federation: (ITF) is the apex body The height of the net is 3 feet.
of Tennis. The weight of the tennis ball is 56.0 grams - 59.4 grams.
It was founded in Paris in 1913. The colour of the ball is white or yellow.
Tennis in India : The maximum height of the racket is 29 inches.
The All India Lawn Tennis Association (AILTA) was Glossaries/Vocabularies :
formed in Lahore (now in Pakistan) in March, 1920. Service, Game, Love, Deuce, Fault, Return, Back
The first president of AILTA was Samuel Parry Hand Drive, Serve, Seeding, Volley, Half Volley, Late,
O’Donnell. Tiebreaker, Change, In, Out, etc. [SSC (GD) 2019]
In 1980, its name was changed to All India Tennis
Association (AITA). 9 Chess
It is headquartered in R.K. Khanna Tennis Complex, is
located in New Delhi. India is considered the Father of Chess. (SSC CHSL, 2017)
Tennis Grand Slam : In ancient times the game was known as ‘Chatur-Anga’
Four major Lawn Tennis Competitions Australian Open, (Chaturanga).
French Open, Wimbledon and American Open are Four competitors could participate in the game.
jointly called Grand Slam (Grand Slam Tournament) of In the sixth century, the word ‘Chaturanga’ reached Persia
Tennis. from India where it was named Chess.
The term Grand Slam for Tennis was used firstly in 1933 Game Format
by an American journalist John Kieran. The game of chess is played on a chess-board of which 32
The player who wins all the four above-mentioned tennis houses are black and 32 houses are white.
competitions in a calendar year is called ‘Grand Slam This board consists of 64 squares with 8 vertical and 8
Winner’. horizontal rows.
Fred Perry (Britain) was the first player to complete Chess Pieces :
a “Career Grand Slam” by winning all four contests It has 1 King and 1 Queen each for both the competitors.
(1934,1935, 1934, 1933) for the first time. 2 Bishops (camel), Rooks (elephant), Knights (horse) for
The first male player who had won all four (Australia, both the competitors.
French, Wimbledon and US Open) contests in ‘the same 8-8 Pawns for both the competitors.
calendar year’ was Donald Buzz, while the first female Glossaries/Vocabularies :
player was Maureen Connolly (US, 1953). Stalemate, Gambit, Check, Checkmate, Bishop, Grand-
Golden Slam : master, Fide, Knight, Acquit, Adjournment, Back-Rank,
Along with winning all four contests in the same calendar Blocked, Doubled Pounce, Hanging, Hole, Norms,
year, if a player also wins the tennis gold medal in Swedel, Tabia, X-ray attack, Castle, Elo rating, Knight,
Olympics, it is called Golden Slam. Steffi Graf is the Piece, etc.
only German player in the history of tennis who had Federation International Des Echecs:
achieved this distinction in 1988. On 20th July 1924, the World Chess Federation (FIDE)
The term Grand Slam was used in golf since 1930. was established in Paris (France).
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FIDE is the supreme regulatory body for the game of If an athlete is unable to participate in any one of the
chess. events, it is believed that he/she has opted out of the
Its headquarter is located in Lausanne, Switzerland. competition.
It is also responsible for organizing world level and Heptathlon:
continental level competitions. It is a men and women’s event.
The first president of FIDE was Alexander Rueb of the It is also a two-day competition where the first day (for
Netherlands. women) event 100 m Hurdle, High Jump, Shot Put, 200 m
FIDE organizes Chess Olympiad, Chess World Cup, race and second day - Long Jump, Javelin Throw and 800
Chess World Championships and other competitions. m race is held.
The FTY crypto cup is related to Chess. The declaration of the winner's name is based on the
[SSC CGL(Pre.) 2023] highest combined score.
Chess in India : Modern Pentathlon:
The All India Chess Federation (AICF) was established It has 5 events in a one-day tournament.
in 1951. This includes Fencing, Swimming, Shooting, Cross
Its headquarter is located in Chennai. Country running and Horse Riding.
Triathlon:
10 Athletics It includes Swimming, Cycling and Running events.
Steeplechase:
The English word Athletics means “Track and Field The steeple chase was a Men’s Event in the modern
Sports”. Olympic Games until 2008.
Athletics is also known as the ‘Queen of Sports’. Women’s Steeplechase Event was inducted from the 2008
It is the only event in the first Olympics held in 800 BC. Beijing (China) Olympics.
The emergence of the Modern Olympics “Athletics” led Its stipulated distance is 3000 meters.
to a group of diverse sports competitions. An athlete has to cross 28 hurdles.
Generally, the events involved in athletics can be divided It consists of seven streams of water.
into the following three categories. Gymnastics :
(1) Track Games (2) Field Games and (3) Joint Events Gymnastics is a sport where people perform exersize that
Currently, the track and field events at the international requires strength, flexibility, balance and coordination.
level include the following. Example - Flips, Jumps etc.
A. Track Events : Dipa Karmakar is related to Gymnastics. (EPFO SSA, 2023)
100, 200, 400, 800, 1500, 5000, 10000 m race. Marathon, Athletics Glossaries/Vocabularies :
110 m. Hurdle, 400 m. Hurdle, 3000 m. Steeple chase, 20 Heets, Start, On Your Marks, Set, False Start, Foot Fault,
km. and 50 km. Walking, 4x100 and 4x400 m. Relay. Take Off-Line, Runway, Stop Board, etc.
In women’s track events, 100 m hurdle race instead of 110 In the year 1912, the International Amateur Athletics
m hurdle race is organized. Federation (IAAF) was established by 17 National
B. Field Events: Athletics Federations at its first Congress (Sweden).
High jump, Pole Vault, Long Jump, Triple Jump, Shot Its headquarter is located in Monaco.
Put, Flywheel Throw (discus throw), Javelin Throw, Wire In 2001, the organization was renamed ‘International
Shot Throw (Hammer Throw). Association of Athletics Federations’ (IAAF).
C. Combined Events: Currently, it has 214 member associations.
Decathlon: This association organizes world championships (athletics)
It is a Men’s and women's event. every two years as well as other competitions related to
It is a two-day competition in which (for men) on the first athletics.
day - 100 m. race, Long Jump, Shot Put, High Jump, 400
m race and on the second day - 110 m Hurdles, Flywheel 11 Table Tennis
Throw, Pole Vault, Javelin throw and a 1500 m. race is
held. Table Tennis was invented in England in the early days of
In this, individual scores are determined for each event the 20th century and was originally called Ping-Pang.
and the athlete with the highest combined score is the In 1921, the Table Tennis Association was formed in
winner. England.
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International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF) was

formed in Berlin in the year 1926. 12 Basketball
Its headquarter is located at Lausanne, Switzerland.
Its founding member countries are England, Sweden, In 1891 the game was introduced in America by James
Hungary, India, Denmark, Germany, Czechoslovakia, Smith.
Austria and Wales. A group of 5-5 players from each team participated in this
In 1926-27, the first World Championship of Table Tennis game. (SSC CHSL, 2023)
Competition was held at London (England). A Basket ball match is played in two halves of 20 minutes
This championship is held at an interval of two years. each.
From 1953, Asian players started participating in this The Federation International De Basketball Associa-
championship. tion (FIBA) was established in 1932.
In 1988, Women’s and Men’s Singles and Doubles Events The first World Championship of Basketball was held in
of Table Tennis were included in the Olympics. 1950.
Major International Table Tennis Competitions: The first basketball game in India was played in 1930.
Corbillon Cup (World-Women’s Team), Swaythling Cup Indian Basketball Association (BFI) was established in
(World Men’s Team), U Thant Cup, St. Bridewas Cup, 1950 (Mumbai).
Iran Cup (Men’s Doubles), W. J. Pope Trophy (Women’s Its headquarter is located in New Delhi.
Doubles), Heydusek Cup (World Mixed Doubles), Stiga Manika Batra is the first Indian paddlar who win a medal
Cup, etc. at the ITTF-ATTU Asia cup 2022. (SSC CHSL, 2023)
Table Tennis in India: A ball screen technique is used in Basketball.
Table Tennis was started in India from Kolkata. (SSC CGL, 2023)
The Bengal Table Tennis Association was established in Dimension :
Kolkata in 1934 as the first organization. The length of the court - 28m.
In 1938, ‘Table Tennis Federation of India’ (TTFI) was The breadth of the court -15 m.
formed in Kolkata itself. The height of the basket (From the ground) - 3.05 m.
In 1946, the Women’s Singles Competition was started. The weight of the basket - 567-624 grams.
The Junior Team championship for boys was started in The size of the basket - 29.5 inches (men) and 28.5 inches
1954. (female).
The Sub-Junior National Championship was also started Basketball Glossaries/Vocabularies:
in 1994. End Line, Center Line, Dribble, Double Foul, Personal
Kolkata has the distinction of organizing 33rd World Table Contract, Multiple Throws, Intermission, Continuity Pass,
Tennis Championship in India in 1975. Hook pass, Over-time, Outlet pass, Pick, Pivot, Tip-off,
Competitions held in India: Ring guard, Backboard, Frontcourt, Point, Dead Ball,
Barna Bellock Cup (Men’s Team), Peethapuram Cup Basket Hanging, Lead Pass, Keyhole, etc.
(Men’s), Jai Laxmi Cup (Women’s Team), Travancore
Cup (Women’s), Gulf Cup (Team Competition), Indira 13 Polo
Cup (Junior Men’s), Kamala Ramanujan Cup (Sub-
Junior), etc. The modern polo game is believed to have originated
Perimeter from Manipur, India.
The length of the table is 2.74 m (9 ft). Polo was played as “Sagol Kangjei” in 3100 BC.
The width of the table is 1.52 m. (5 ft). Over a period of time, Muslim rulers played Chaugan
The height of the table is 76 cm (2.5 ft). (polo) and Afghanistan-resident used to play ‘Buzkashi’
The weight and the colour of the ball is 2.7 g (white or on a horse, but the game of Buzkashi was very cruel
yellow). because it was played with a goat, not a ball.
The height of the net is 15.25 cm. Although, in 525 BC in Persia, it was played under the
Key Glossaries/Vocabularies: name ‘Pulu’.
Rally, Service, Receiver, Stroke, Late, Point, Strike, Kolkata Polo Club was established in 1862 .
Obstructs, Side Spin, Top Spin, Under Spin, Penholder, The first polo club was established at Silchar, Assam in
End Line, Foil, Half Volley, Back Spin, Chinese Grip, 1833.
Center Line, Half Court, Reverse Sandwich, Free In 1869, the game was taken to England by the 10th
Hands, etc. Hussars Regiment.
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The Hurlingham Polo Association first formulated the A golfer can use a maximum of 14 clubs.
English rules of polo in 1875. Each golfer is allowed to have a caddie carrying clubs
A group of 4-4 players from each team participate in with him.
this game. Wood: It is used for long-range shots. It is usually made
Dimension: of wood, plastic or light metal.
The length of the field - 300 yards. Iron: It is generally made of steel and it is used for small
The width of the field - 160 yards. shots.
The distance between goals - 250 yards. Putter: It is made of light metal and is used to hit the ball
The breadth of the post - 8 yards. a short distance towards or into the hole.
Key Glossaries/Vocabularies : Hole, Halved, Par, Parry,
14 Golf Handicap, Bunker, Flagstick, Bogie, Foursome, Stimpy
Tea, Putt Hall, Nibalik, Caddie, Lims, Iron, Course, Lai,
Golf is originated from the east coast of Scotland during Post, etc.
the 15th century. Major Competitions:
The ‘Leith’ golfers established the first club in 1744. Men’s Golf World Cup:
'Duncan Forbes' formulated the club rules. It was started in 1953.
'Stroke play' was introduced in golf in 1759. It is the Men’s annual international event.
In 1867, the first Women’s golf (St. Andrews) club was Initially, it was known as ‘Canada Cup’ which was named
established. World Cup in 1967.
In 1990, Olympics (Paris), Golf was included in the Women’s Golf World Cup:
Olympic Games. It was started in 2000.
The Professional Golf Association (PGA) was formed in It is a Women’s professional event.
the USA in 1916.
It has not been organized since 2008.
The World Amateur Golf Council was established in
Grand Slam:
1958.
The term ‘Grand Slam’ in golf was first used to refer
In 2003, its name was changed to ‘International Golf
to Bobby Jones, who had won four major golf events
Federation’ (IGF).
(American and British Open also American and British
Its headquarter is located in Lausanne, Switzerland.
Amateur) in 1930.
Game Format:
The modern standard for Grand Slams is - The Masters
In this game, the players participate as an individual or as
(April), The US Open (June), The Open Championship
a team.
Players play in groups of two, three or four. also known as The British Open (July), the PGA
There are two types of games in Golf. Championship (August) to win in a calendar year.
Match Play - The team with the most holes, though it Other golf competitions are Urban Golf, Raider Cup,
wins. Solheim Cup, Presidents Cup, Walker Cup, Curtis Cup,
Stroke Play - In this, the player is the winner, who finishes UBS Cup, The Seve Trophy, Tommy Bahamas Challenge,
the ‘Course’ in the lowest strokes. Palmer Cup, PGA Door, PGA European Tour, etc.
Golf Dimensions:
The area of the golf course is 125 to 175 acres. 15 Baseball
The weight and circumference of the ball is 45.93 gm
and 4.27 cm. This game was developed in the US in the mid-19th
The diameter of the hole is 4.25 inches. century.
Tee- It is the flat land from where the first shot is hit. In 1845, Alexander Cartwright formulated the rules of
Fairway - It is an area where the grass is closely cut and the game.
the player hits the ball. He is considered as the Father of Modern Baseball.
Rough area - It is an area of grassland along with the side The player who throws the ball to ‘batter’ is called
of the fairway. ‘pitcher’.
Hazards- It includes areas, of water and trench. Baseball Dimension:
Punting Grass - In this area the ‘Hole’ is located. The bat of the baseball is spherical.
The Club- The Golfer puts the ball into the hole hitting The length of the bat is 42 inches and the maximum
the stroke by the club. diameter 2.75 inches.
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The circumference of the ball is 9.00 - 9.25 inches. In this game, 3 types of balls (white, spotted white or
The diameter of the ball is 2.86 - 2.94 inches. yellow and red) are used.
The weight of the ball is 141.75 – 148.83 grams. Players use ‘Cue’ to push their ball.
The distance of each base is 90 feet. Components of the Game:
The distance between the first base and the third base is To Win Hazard : 2 points are scored when the cue ball is
127 feet. pocketed by the second white ball and 3 points are scored
Key Glossaries/Vocabularies : Home, Diamond, Pitcher, when the red ball is pocketed.
Batter, Home Run, Baseman, Aight, Strike Ant-Rubber, To Loss Hazard : When the cue ball hits the pocket with
etc. the other white ball, 2 points are lost and when the red ball
hits the pocket, 3 points are lost.
16 Billiards Key Glossaries/Vocabularies : In Off, Pot, Steering,
Mark, Scooby, Spot, Stroke, Short Genie, Cushion,
Billiards is originated in the 15th century. Scratch, Break Pot, Long Genie ,Bolting, In Off Strigging,
Snooker is originated from Billiards. Bolding, Jigger, Visits, etc.
Billiards is derived from the French word Billart meaning B. Carom Billiards:
a wooden stick or ‘billy’ and a ball. It is played on a non-pocketed table.
Snooker is especially popular in English speaking The length of the table is 3.05 m.
countries such as England, Ireland, Canada and South The breadth of the table is 1.52 m.
Africa. Major Components of the Table:
‘World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association’ Foot Cushion, Foot String, Foot Spot, Center String,
(WPBSA) was established in 1968. Center Spot, Hand String, Hand Spot, Hand Cushion, Side
Its headquarter is located in Bristol, UK. rails, Diamond, etc.
The ‘World Ladies Billiards and Snooker Association’ In this game, three coloured balls - red (target ball) - white
(WLBSA) was established in 1981. and white spotted or yellow ball are used.
The World Billiards and Snooker Council (WBSC) was Key Glossaries/Vocabularies : Lagging, Leg, Break
established in the year 1971. Shot, Jumper Ball, Frozen Ball, Carrom. Safety Shot,
The council changed its name to ‘International Billiards Double Stroke, Cue, Jigger, Brake Pot, Inluck, In-off,
and Snooker Federation (IBSF) in 1973. Cansa, Bolting, Hazard, etc.
Its headquarter is located in Dubai, United Arab Major Trophies of Billiards: Golf Flak Trophy, Arthur
Emirates. Walker Trophy.
The ‘World Confederation of Billiards Sports’
(WCBS) was established in 1992. 17 Snooker
Its headquarter is located in Lausanne, Switzerland.
IBSF hosts non-professional Snooker and English It is played on the Billiards table with a pocket.
Billiards competitions in the world. 22 balls are used in this game.
Of these 22 balls, 15 are red balls and 6 balls are- yellow,
This body organizes Q Sports (Billiards-type games)
green, brown, blue, pink, and black, while the ‘cue ball’ is
which include Carrom, Billiards, Pool games of various
white.
categories and Snooker, etc.
The World Professional Billiards and Snooker Asso-
There are two types of Billiards games.
ciation (WPBSA) is the regulatory body of this game.
A. English Billiards :
It was established in 1968.
It is played by two players or by two pairs of players on a
Its headquarter is located in Bristol, U.K.
table.
The length of the table is 3.66 m. 18 Wrestling
The breadth of the table is 1.83 m. (12x6 ft).
Major Components of the Table: The credit for bringing Wrestling into the mainstream of
Cushion, Top Pocket, Center Pocket, Bottom Pocket, the sport goes to the ancient Greek Olympic Games.
Spot, Center Spot, Pyramid Spot, Block Line, D, Long In 708 BC, the first Wrestling competition was held in the
Butt Cue, Half Butt Cue, Rest and Half Butt Rest. ancient Olympics Games.
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Professional Wrestling began in France in 1830. Significantly, Aman Sehrawat won Bronze medal in Paris
Only ‘Greco Roman’ and ‘Freestyle’ Wrestling competi- Olympics 2024 in Wrestling Men's 57 kg. freestyle event.
tions were held at the Olympics.
Wrestling was included at the 1896 Olympics (Athens) as 19 Water Polo
a “showpiece” competition.
Wrestling returned as ‘free-style’ at the 1904 Olympics It is an aquatic version of ‘Rugby’.
(St. Louis). The Indian word “Pulu” is anglicized as “Polo” which
Greco-Roman wrestlers participated in the 1908 Olympics means 'a ball'.
(London). This game was started in England in 1859.
The world regulatory body for Wrestling “Federation The first authorized ‘Water Polo’ was played in 1873 at
Internationale des Luttes Associees’ - FILA was the Plunge of the Crystal Palace in London.
established in 1912. The Modern Water Polo was started in 1880.
In 2014, its name was changed to ‘United World The first international Water Polo match was played
Wrestling’ (UWW). between England and Scotland in 1890.
Its headquarter is located in Lausanne, Switzerland. On 28th January, 1890 the first American Championship
Dimensions : was organized.
In the international competition, a circular contest area of Water Polo as a demonstration sport, was included in the
9 m diameter and a central circle of 1m diameter. Olympics (Paris) in 1990.
A 1 : 1 metre diameter mace in a match held on a mattress, Game Rules :
called Matt. ‘Water Polo’ is a two-team game.
Wrestling Glossary: Each team consists of 13 players, 7 of which (6 players
Bridge, Flat, Sudden Death, Heave, Half Nelson, Cradle, and 1 Goalkeeper) are in the pool and 6 are off the pool as
Double, Nelson, Timekeeper, Tie, Foul, Obstacle in Bout, substitutes.
Caution, Warning, Dog fall, Fallback, Flying Marsh, The game is played in four time periods of 6 to 9 minutes
Rebout, Bridge, Cross Pace, etc. depending on the level of the game.
Wrestling in India: In a tie, there are two extra half-games of 3-3 minutes are
Some of the leading Wrestling players of India are - Karim permitted.
Baksh, Khashaba Dadasaheb Jadhav, Gama Mahan, Dara
In the case of no result, this process continues until the
Singh, Gobar Goho and Ghulam, etc.
result is declared.
Khashaba Dadasaheb Jadhav won a Bronze medal in
Dimension:
Wrestling at the 1952 Helsinki Olympics.
He was the first person in India’s Olympics history to win Water polo played in a rectangular pool.
a medal in the individual event. The pool is 20-30 meters in length and 10-20 meters in
In the fourth Asian Games (Jakarta-1962), all the wrestlers width.
of India got a place in the medal table. India received a The goal post is 3 meters wide and 0.9 meters above the
total of 12 medals in both Wrestling styles. water surface.
After this, Sushil Kumar won a Bronze medal in Wrestling The weight of the ball is 400-450 grams .
in the 2008 Beijing Olympics and a Silver medal in the Water Polo Key Glossaries:
2012 London Olympics. Punch, Dribble, Ball, Free throw, Corner Throw, Goal
Yogeshwar Dutt won a Bronze medal in Wrestling in the Throw, Penalty Throw, Donyi Polo, Goal Line, Personal,
2012 London Olympics. Fault, Ball Under, Is railing, Campus.
Women Wrestler Sakshi Malik won a Bronze medal in World Regulatory Body of Water Sports, the
Wrestling in the 2016 Rio Olympics. “International Swimming Association”(FINA) was
Ravi Kumar Dahiya won the 57kg men's freestyle established in 1908 in London, UK.
wrestling silver medal at the Tokyo Olympics. Its headquarter is located in Lausanne, Switzerland.
Ravi's medal, in the men's 57kg freestyle was only India's The 1930 FINA Congress, Berlin, unanimously approved
second silver in wrestling at the olympics after sushil the establishment of an ‘International Water Polo
Kumar's triumph at London 2012. Board’ (IWPB).
Except Ravi, Bajrang Punia made a remarkable Olympic In 1968, the FINA Congress changed its name to FINA
debut winning the bronze medal in 65 kg freestyle event. Technical Water Polo Committee.
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Olympic Swimming Events (Male / Female):

20 Swimming Freestyle - 50, 100, 200, 400, 800 and 1500 meters
Backstroke - 100 and 200 meters
Swimming as a sport has a history of thousands of years. Breaststroke - 100 and 200 meters
Digby, who writes on swimming, claims that ‘Man is a Butterfly - 100 and 200 meters
better swimmer than a fish”. Individual Medley - 200 and 400 meters
The first national swimming championship was organized Freestyle Relay - 4x100 and 4x200 meters
in 1846 AD, in Sydney (Australia). Medley Relay - 4x100 meters
In 1892, the first Women’s Swimming championship was Mixed Medley Relay - 4x100 meters
organized in Scotland. Marathon - 10 km
Swimming is the second biggest sport of Olympics (first- Dimensions -
Athletics). Large pool having 50 m long-distance swimming with 6,8
Singles and team events are organized under Swimming. or 10 lanes and for short distances 25 m long pool having
Events in Swimming : 4,5 or 8 lanes.
A. Back Stroke: The depth of the pool is 3 m (9 ft 10 in).
In this event, the swimmer swims with the help of his The temperature of the water should be around-26° C.
back. Swimming Glossaries:
B. Freestyle: Springboard, Twist, Zen, Stroke, etc.
The swimmer can adopt any method of swimming as per
their choice and convenience. National Sports of Countries
It requires that the swimmer has to touch the pool with Countries Sports
his hand or any limb while returning and at the end of the India Hockey (popularly)
race.
Spain Bullfighting
C. Front Crawl:
Canada Hockey (Winter), Lacrosse (Summer Season)
In this event, the swimmer alternately brings the hands up
and down in each stroke. Australia Cricket
Also, water has to be pushed backward by the feet. Brazil Football
D. Butterfly Nepal Volleyball (pre-May 2017 Dandy Beo)
Butterfly event was introduced in 1950. Indonesia Badminton
In this event, the swimmer has to keep his shoulders USA Baseball
always parallel to the surface of the water. China Table Tennis
By bringing both hands together from above, one has to France Football
bring the shoulders from the front to the back.
England Cricket
Both hands must move together.
Japan Sumo
Feet are allowed to run simultaneously.
E. Breast Stroke: Pakistan Hockey
In this event, the body of the swimmer is parallel to the Malaysia Badminton
surface of the water.
It is necessary that both hands are pushed forward from Russia Football and Chess
the chest together and brought back. Scotland Rugby Football
The legs are folded and pushed backwards. Bangladesh Kabaddi
F. Medley Events: Sri Lanka Volleyball
Individual and Relay events were organized under this Bhutan Archery
event.
In the individual event, a swimmer covers an equal Number of Players in a Team in Major Games
distance for four strokes.
Number of Players (in
Their order is as follows - Butterfly, Backstroke, Sports
one team)
Breaststroke and Freestyle.
Rugby Football 15
In a relay race, a swimmer has to get out of the ‘pool’ after
using a single event in swimming for a certain distance. Hockey /Football/Cricket 11
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Baseball 9 Twickenham Rugby Football England

Kho-kho 9 Trent Bridge Cricket England
Water Polo 7 White City Dog Race England
Netball 7 Yankee Stadium Boxing New York
Kabaddi 7 Forest Hill Tennis New York
Volleyball 6 Arun Jaitley Stadium
Cricket Delhi
Basketball 5 (Ferozshah Kotla)
Polo 4 MA Chidambaram
Cricket Chennai
Lawn Tennis and Table Tennis 1 or 2 (Chepauk Stadium)
Badminton 1 or 2
Bridge 2 21 Boxing
Famous Playgrounds and Related Sports Boxing was included as a demonstrative sport in 1904 in
St. Louis Olympics.
Sports Field Sports Venue It received its official entry for the first time at the 1908
JL Nehru Stadium Athletics Delhi London Olympics.
Shivaji Stadium Hockey Delhi It was not included in the 1912 Stockholm Olympics, as
Boxing was supposed to be illegal in Sweden.
Barabati Stadium Cricket Cuttack, Odisha
Boxing joined the Olympics as a permanent sporting
Wankhede Stadium Cricket Mumbai event from the London Olympics, 1920.
Eden Gardens Cricket Kolkata Officially, the emergence of Women's Boxing for the first
Keenan Stadium Cricket Jamshedpur time was in 1993.
Epsom Downs Women’s Boxing was included officially in 2012 London
Derby Race Britain Olympics.
Racecourse
There are two categories in International Boxing events-
Lords, Oval, Leeds Cricket Britain
A. Amateur B. Professional.
Brookland Football England
A. International Amateur Boxing Association:
Indira Gandhi Stadium Indoor Games Delhi
It is an Institution controlling Amateur Boxing.
Harlington Polo England It was founded in 1946 in London.
Brooklyn Baseball New York The institution is currently located in Lausanne,
Switzerland.
Sandy Lodge Golf Scotland
B. Major Institutions associated with Professional
Vivekanand Yuba Boxing:
Football Kolkata
Bharati Krirangan
World Boxing Council, 1963.
Perth, Brisbane, World Boxing Association, 1921 (as NBA) (WBA, 1962)
Cricket Australia
Melbourne International Boxing Federation,1983
Ambedkar Stadium Football Delhi World Boxing Organization, 1988
International Women Boxing Organization, 1989
National Stadium Hockey Delhi
Ring Size: The length and the width of the ring is to be
National Stadium Hockey Mumbai between the maximum 4.9 m × 4.9m and a maximum 6.10
Brabourne Stadium Cricket Mumbai m × 6.10 m.
Green Park Stadium Cricket Kanpur Major Boxing Glossaries:
Patney Mart Lake Boat Race England Uppercut, Hook, Belt, Block, Blow, Punch, Jab, Knock-
Headingley Manchester Cricket Britain down, Knock out, Bell, Bounce, etc.
The Vel Barker Cup is awarded for outstanding
Black Health Rugby Football London
performance and technique at the Olympic Sports Boxing
Wembley Stadium Football London Event.
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The circumference of the volleyball is 65 to 67 cm.

22 Shooting The height of the net is 2.43 m above the court for men.
The height of the net is 2.24 m above the court for women.
There are three main shooting events - A. Rifle Shooting, Beach Volleyball is a form of volleyball. There are two
B. Rapid Fire Pistol Shooting, C. Free Pistol Shooting.
players to play in beach volleyball.
A. Rifle Shooting:
The Net Antena of Volleyball should have red and white
It has three basic categories - 1. Smallbore 2. Bigbore, 3.
stripes.
Air Rifle.
If both the teams win two sets, the fifth final set should be
These are determined by the types of rifles are used.
played up to 15 points with a minimum lead of two points.
There are three recognized shooting positions for rifle
The length and the width of the net in the volleyball game
shooting - 1. Prone, 2. Standing , 3. Kneeling
is 9.50 m × 1m.
B. Rapid Fire Pistol Shooting:
It is sometimes also called Silhouette Shooting.
In this, a contest from a distance of 25m takes on 5 targets
24 Kabaddi
with a total of 60 shots.
There are 7 players in Water Polo and Kabaddi.
C. Free Pistol Shooting:
The ‘Out’ Kabaddi players sit in Seating Blocks.
The Contestant shoots from a distance of 50m.
Bonus Line is in the game of Kabaddi. The bonus line
Competitors are allowed to take 60 shots.
does not apply when the number of players is less than 6.
Major Shooting Glossaries:
‘Lona’ is related to Kabaddi Games. Two points are
Bull's eye, Bag, Marks-Manship, Shooting, Trench, Bird,
given for ‘Lona’. The opposition team must have at least
Skeet Shooting, Target, Muzzle flash, etc.
6 players to score bonus points. (SSC CHSL, 2022)
Current Shooting Olympics Events - Air Pistol, Air
Rifle, Rapid Fire Pistol, Rifle Three Position, Skeet and Key Glossaries of Kabaddi:
Trap. In Kabaddi game, the terms, Seating Block, End Line,
Indian Olympic Medalists in Shooting: Bonus Line, Baulk Line, Center Line, Sideline, Lobby etc.
Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore (Silver Medal), Men’s are used.
Double Trap (2004, Athens Olympics).
Abhinav Bindra (Gold Medal), Men’s 10m Air Rifle 25 Kho Kho
(2008, Beijing Olympics).
Vijay Kumar (Silver Medal), Men’s 25m Rapid Fire Kho-kho sports requires precision and accuracy with
Pistol (2012, London Olympics). excellent timing and speed when dives.
Gagan Narang (Bronze Medal), Men’s 10m Air Rifle A kho-kho team consists of 12 players with 9 players in
(2012, London Olympics). the field and 3 additional (Substitute) players.
Manu Bhaker (2 Bronze Medal), Women's 10m air pistol Dimensions of Kho-Kho:
event. The playing arena is rectangular in shape.
Manu Bhaker and Sarabjot Singh, 10m air Pistol mixed The total area including lobbies is 33m × 21 m.
team event. The length and breadth of the sports arena are 29m ×
Swapnil Kusale (Bronze) - Men's 50m rifle 3 Position. 16 m.
Singhraj Adhana is related to shooting. (SSC CGL Pre 2023) Sports arena for women and juniors is 27m × 16 m.
The Free Zone is 2.75 m × 16 m.
23 Volleyball Finally, both the rectangles measure 16m × 2.75 m each.
The number of squares in each cross lane is 8.
The number of players in the team is 6.
The square size is 30 cm × 30 cm.
The number of substitute players is 6.
The line dividing the volleyball court is called Centerline. Key Glossaries of Kho-Kho :
According to the rules of FIVB, the ceiling of the indoor The players sitting in the square are called the Chaser.
sports complex is 12.50 meters for any international sports The chaser's opponent is called the Runner.
competition in volleyball. There are a total of 4 innings (two innings for each team)
The weight of the ball is 260 to 280 grams. The Volleyball in the Kho-Kho match.
is multicoloured. The interval time is of 5 minutes.
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11. Shri Krishan Bahadur Pathak Hockey

26 Handball
12. Ms Pukhrambam Sushila Chanu Hockey
The term 'Penalty Throw' is related to Handball and Water 13. Shri Pawan Kumar Kabaddi
Polo. 14. Ms Ritu Negi Kabaddi
The total number of players in each team in Handball is 14, 15. Ms Nasreen Kho-Kho
with 6 players in court, one goalkeeper and 7 substitutes. 16. Ms Pinki Lawn Bowls
17. Shri Aishwary Pratap Singh Tomar Shooting
27 Sports Awards
18. Ms Esha Singh Shooting
Major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna Award : 19. Shri Harinder Pal Singh Sandhu Squash
Formerly known as the Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna, it is 20. Ms Ayhika Mukherjee Table Tennis
India’s highest sporting honour. 21. Shri Sunil Kumar Wrestling
It was established in 1991-1992.
22. Ms Antim Wrestling
The award is given by the Union Ministry of Youth and
23. Ms Naorem Roshibina Devi Wushu
Sports.
Under this, a cash prize of Rs. 25 lakh is awarded. 24. Ms Sheetal Devi Para Archery
It is significant that major Dhyan Chand Khel Ratna 25. Shri Illuri Ajay Kumar Reddy Blind Cricket
Award 2023, was given to Chirag Chandrashekhar Shetty 26. Ms Prachi Yadav Para Canoeing
and Rankireddy Satwik Sai Raj. Both are related to
Dronacharya Award :
Badminton.
It was started in 1985.
Arjuna Award :
The award is given to coaches for their excellent training.
The award is given to outstanding international performers
Under this award, a cash prize of Rs 15 lakh to lifetime
in last three years.
and a cash prize of 10 lakh to regular bronze statue of
Under this, a prize money of Rs 15 lakh and a bronze
Dronacharya is given.
statue of Arjuna is given.
Since 2001, this award is given only for those events Dronacharya Award for outstanding coaches
which are under the following competitions - Olympic in Sports and Games 2023
Games, Asian Games, Commonwealth Games, World A. Regular Category:
Cups, World Championships, Domestic Games and S.
Sports for the Physically Challenged. Name of the Coach Discipline
No.
Arjuna Awards for outstanding performance 1. Shri Lalit Kumar Wrestling
in Sports and Games 2023 2. Shri R. B. Ramesh Chess
S. 3. Shri Mahaveer Prasad Saini Para Athletics
Name of the sportsperson Discipline
No.
4. Shri Shivendra Singh Hockey
1. Shri Ojas Pravin Deotale Archery
5. Shri Ganesh Prabhakar Devrukhkar Mallakhamb
2. Ms Aditi Gopichand Swami Archery
B. Lifetime Category:
3. Shri Sreeshankar M Athletics 1. Shri Jaskirat Singh Grewal Golf
4. Ms Parul Chaudhary Athletics 2. Shri Bhaskaran E Kabaddi
5. Shri Mohameed Hussamuddin Boxing 3. Shri Jayanta Kumar Pushilal Table Tennis
6. Ms R Vaishali Chess
Dhyanchand Award :
7. Shri Mohammed Shami Cricket
The award was started in 2002.
8. Shri Anush Agarwalla Equestrian This award is given to the players who have contributed
9. Ms Divyakriti Singh Equestrian to the progress of the game despite performing well and
Dressage retiring from active sports life.
10. Ms Diksha Dagar Golf Under this, 10 lakh rupees is provided as prize money.
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Not more than three Awards will be given in a particular The Prize Money for the Winners in Major
year subject to deserving sportspersons being available.
International Competitions
Dhyan Chand Award for Lifetime achievement Winning Amount (in Rs.)
in Sports and Games 2023 Sl. Competition Gold Silver Bronze
S. No.
Name of the sportsperson Discipline Medal Medal Medal
No.
1. Ms Manjusha Kanwar Badminton Olympic Games
1. 75 Lakh 50 Lakh 30 Lakh
2. Shri Vineet Kumar Sharma Hockey (Summer and Winter)

3. Ms Kavitha Selvaraj Kabaddi 2. Asian Games 30 Lakh 20 Lakh 10 Lakh

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Trophy : 3. Commonwealth Games 30 Lakh 20 Lakh 10 Lakh
It is a Rolling Trophy. Para-Olympic Games
4. 75 Lakh 50 Lakh 10 Lakh
This trophy is awarded to the best performing university (Summer and Winter)
in the inter-university competition. 5. Para-Asian Games 30 Lakh 20 Lakh 10 Lakh
It also awards a replica of the trophy to the winning
Commonwealth Games
university. 6. 30 Lakh 20 Lakh 10 Lakh
(Para-Athletics)
Rs. 10 lakhs is given to the university that secures first
Special Olympics
place, Rs. 5 lakhs to second place and Rs. 3 lakhs prize 7. 5 Lakh 3 Lakh 1 Lakh
(Summer and Winter)
money to the third place.
It was founded in 1956-57.
Upcoming Sports Events
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (MAKA) Trophy 2023
Competition Venue
S.
Name of the sportsperson Discipline
No. Cricket
1. Guru Nanak Dev University, Overall winner 9th ICC Men's Twenty-20 World Cup India and Srilakna
Amritsar university (2026)
2. Lovely Professional University, 1st runner up
12th Women’s ICC T20 Cricket World England
Punjab University
Cup (2026)
3. Kurukshetra University, 2nd runner up
Kurukshetra University Football

Sports Fund Program: 23rd FIFA Football World Cup (2026) Canada-Mexico
Sports Fund Program was launched for the pension of America
players in 1994. Competition Venue
This pension is given to the players who have retired from
Miscellaneous
active sports life after the age of 30 years.
The pension that is given every month to the winners of 33rd Summer Olympic Games (2024) Paris, France
various competitions is as follows: 34th Summer Olympic Games (2028) Los Angeles, USA
(1) Olympic Games medalists Rs 10000
25th Winter Olympics Italy
(2) World Cup / World Championships
(a) Gold medalists Rs 8000 20th Asian Games (2026) Nagoya, Japan
(b) Silver and Bronze Medal Winners Rs 7000 20th Asian Games (2026) Aichi-Nagoya,
(3) Asian/Commonwealth Games Japan
(a) Gold medalist Rs 7000
BWF World Badminton championship Paris (France)
(b) Silver and Bronze Medalists Rs 6000
2025
(4) Para-Olympic Games
(a) Gold Medalists Rs 5000 Men's FIH Hocky world Cup (2026) Waver, Belgium
(b) Silver and Bronze Medalists Rs 4000 and Amstelveen,
(c) Bronze Medalists Rs 3000 Netherlands

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Miscellaneous

National and International Days Major Lakes in India Tourist Places In India UNESCO World Heritage Sites :
Indian Cultural and Natural Sites Renowned Personalities and Their Nicknames Major Research Institutes of India
Major Instruments of India and Their Players Major Classical Dances and Dance Artists Indian Security System
Indian Internal Security System International Awards and Honours Two Times Nobel Prize Winners National Awards
and Honours Important Awards: Field and Prize Money Persons Honoured with Bharat Ratna Jnanpith Award
Honoured Litterateur Major Mobile Apps and Portals Major Indian Writers and Their Books Latest Famous Books
and Its Authors Major Foreign Authors and Their Books International Organizations International Organizations,
Headquarters and Years of Establishment World's Major Organizations List of First Women in /of India Renowned
Persons in India States Governors, Chief Ministers and Capitals

23 March World Meteorological Day

1 National and International Days 24 March World TB Day
27 March World Theatre Day
January April
4 January World Braille Day 2 April World Autism Awareness Day
9 January Pravasi Bharatiya Divas 7 April World Health Day
10 January World Hindi Day 14 April Ambedkar Jayanti
12 January National Youth Day (Swami 17 April World Haemophilia Day
Vivekanand Birthday) 18 April World Heritage Day
15 January Army Day 21 April National Civil Services Day
24 January National Girl Child Day 22 April Earth Day
24 January International Day of Education 23 April World Book and Copyright Day
25 January National Voters Day 24 April National Panchayati Raj Day
26 January Republic Day 25 April World Malaria Day
26 January International Customs Day 26 April World Intellectual Property Day
30 January Martyrs' Day May
February 1 May International Workers Day or
2 February World Wetlands Day MayDay
4 February World Cancer Day 3 May World Press Freedom Day
13 February World Radio Day 7 May World Athletics Day
21 February International Mother Language 8 May World Red Cross and Red
Day Crescent Day
28 February National Science Day 8 May International Thalassaemia Day
March 11 May National Technology Day
3 March World Wildlife Day 15 May International Family Day
7 March Janaushadhi Diwas 17 May World Telecommunication Day
8 March International Women's Day 18 May International Museum Day
15 March World Consumer Rights Day 21 May National Anti -Terrorism Day
20 March International Day of Happiness 22 May International Day for Biological
20 March World Sparrow Day Diversity
20 March, 2023 World Oral Health Day 23 May World Turtle Day
21 March International Day of Forests 31 May World No Tobacco Day
21 March World Poetry Day June
22 March World Water Day 3 June World Bicycle Day
23 March (Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru) 5 June World Environment Day
Martyrs' Day 7 June World Food Safety Day
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8 June World Oceans Day 2 October World Habitat Day (First Monday
12 June World Day Against Child Labour of October)
14 June World Blood Donor Day 5 October International Teachers' Day
20 June World Refugee Day 8 October Indian Air Force Day
21 June International Yoga Day 9 October World Post Day
23 June United Nation Public Service Day 10 October World Mental Health Day
25 June International Day of the Seafarer 11 October International Day of the Girl Child
26 June International Day Against Drug 13 October International Day for Disaster Risk
Abuse and Illicit Trafficking Reduction
29 June National Statistics Day 14 October World Standards Day
July 16 October World Food Day
1 July National Doctors' Day (Dr. Bidhan 24 October United Nations Day
Chandra Rai Birthday) 31 October World Cities Day
1 July State Bank of India’s Foundation 31 October National Unity Day (Birthday of
Day Vallabhbhai Patel)
6 July, 2024 International Day of Cooperatives 31 October Kisan Adhikar Diwas
(First Saturday of July month) 31 October Indira Gandhi's Death Anniversary
11 July World Population Day November
17 July World Day For International 5 November World Tsunami Awareness Day
Justice 7 November National Cancer Awareness Day
26 July Kargil Vijay Diwas 9 November Legal Services Day
28 July World Hepatitis Day 14 November Children’s Day
28 July World Nature Conservation Day 14 November World Diabetes Day
29 July International Tiger Day 17 November National Epilepsy Day
August 19 November World Toilet Day
1 August – 7 August World Breastfeeding Week 21 November World Television Day
7 August National Handloom Day 26 November National Law Day The Constituent
10 August World Lion Day Assembly adopted the constitution
12 August International Youth Day on this day)
15 August National Independence Day December
19 August World Humanitarian Day 1 December World AIDS Day
20 August Indian Renewable Energy Day 2 December World Computer Literacy Day
29 August National Sports Day (On Birthday 2 December International Day for Abolition of
of Dhyanchand) Slavery
September 3 December International Day of Persons with
5 September Teachers' Day (Birthday of S. Disabilities
Radhakrishnan) 4 December Indian Navy Day
7 September International Day of Clean Air for 5 December World Soil Day
Blue Skies 7 December Armed Forces Flag Day
8 September International Literacy Day 9 December International Anti-Corruption Day
14 September Hindi Diwas 10 December International Human Rights Day
15 September International Day of Democracy 11 December International Mountain Day
15 September National Engineer’s Day 14 December National Energy Conservation
16 September World Ozone Day Day
21 September International Day of Peace 18 December International Migrants Day
27 September World Tourism Day 19 December Goa’s Liberation Day
October 22 December National Mathematics Day
1 October International Day of Older Persons 23 December National Farmers Days or Kisan
2 October Lal Bahadur Shastri Jayanti Diwas (Birth Anniversary of
2 October Mahatma Gandhi Jayanti Choudhary Charan Singh)
2 October International Day of Non-Violence 24 December National Consumer Day
4 October World Animal Welfare Day 25 December National Good Governance Day
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Major Lakes in India 2 Tourist Places In India

Lakes States/UnionTerritories
Dal Lake Jammu & Kashmir Madhya Pradesh
Tourist Places Location Built by
Wular Lake Jammu & Kashmir
Kandariya Khajuraho Raja Vidyadhara
Tarsar Lake Jammu & Kashmir Mahadev Temple (Chandel Dynasty)
Verinag Lake Jammu & Kashmir Madan Mahal Fort Jabalpur Raja Madan Singh
Manasbal Lake Jammu & Kashmir Mrignayani (Gujri Gwalior Raja Man Singh Tomar
Mahal) Mahal
Sheshnag Jammu & Kashmir Lakshmana Temple Chattarpur, Yashovarman (Chandel
Anantnag Jammu & Kashmir Khajuraho Ruler)
Dhar Fort Dhar Raja Bhoj First
Anchar Lake Jammu & Kashmir
Bhojshala Temple Dhar Bhoj Parmara
Nigeen Lake Jammu & Kashmir (of Mata Saraswati)
Surajtal Lake Himachal Pradesh ManMandir Palace Gwalior Raja Man Singh Tomar
Sattal Lake Uttarakhand Jai Vilas Palace Gwalior Jayaji Rao Scindia
(Maharaja of Gwalior)
Nainital Lake Uttarakhand Kaliadeh Palace Ujjain Nasir Shah
Bhimtal Lake Uttarakhand Jahaz Mahal Mandu Ghiyas-ud-din Khalji
Deotal Lake Uttarakhand Ashrafi Mahal Mandu
Narsingh Dev Datia Bir Singh Deo (Bundela
Khurpatal Lake Uttarakhand Palace Chief)
Damdama Lake Haryana Chausath Yogini Khajuraho Chandela Ruler
Temple
Pichola Lake Rajasthan
Jahangir Mahal Orchha Vir Singh Deo
Sambhar Salt Lake Rajasthan
Maharashtra
Rajsamand Lake Rajasthan Tourist Places Location Built by
Jaisamand Lake Rajasthan Ellora Caves Aurangabad Rashtrakuta by Ruler
Lunkar-Nasar Lake Rajasthan Ajanta Caves Aurangabad 2nd century BCE till 6th
century, by Buddhist,
Fatehsagar Lake Rajasthan Satavahana, Vakataka,
Rashtrakuta dynasties.
Didwana Lake Rajasthan
Bibi ka Maqbara Aurangabad Aurangzeb's son Azam
Nakki Lake Rajasthan Shah
Vembanad Lake Kerala Elephanta Caves Mumbai By the rulers of Kalachuri
and Rashtrakutas.
Ashtamudi Lake Kerala
Kanheri Caves Mumbai –
Periyar Lake Kerala Chatrapati Shivaji Mumbai Frederick William
Hussain Sagar Lake Telangana Terminus (Victoria Mumbai F.W. Stevens (Architect)
Terminus)
Kolleru lake Andhra Pradesh
Gateway of India Mumbai George Wittet (Architect)
Pulicat Lake Tamil Nadu & Andhra
Tamil Nadu
Pradesh
Tourist Places Location Built by
Berijam Lake Tamil Nadu
St. George Fort Chennai Francis Day and Andrew
Loktak Lake Manipur Cogan (British East
India's, representative)
Chilika Lake Odisha
Kailashnathar/ Kancheepuram Rajasimha (Pallava King)
Lonar Lake Maharashtra Kailashnatha
Temple
Tsogmo Lake Sikkim
Vivekanand Rock Kanyakumari –
Tamdil Lake Mizoram Memorial
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Kerala Fatah Sagar Lake Udaipur Maharaja Jai Singh and

Tourist Places Location Built by Maharana Fatah Singh

Fort Kochi Ernakulam By the Portuguese Saheliyon-ki -Bari Udaipur Maharaja Sangram Singh
II
Bekal Fort Kasargod Shivappa of Ikkeri
Dynasty Lakshmi Niwas Bikaner Maharaja Ganga Singh
Palace
Mattancherry Mahal Kochi By the Portuguese
(Dutch Castle) Uttar Pradesh
Telangana Tourist Places Location Built by
Tourist Places Location Built by Aram Bagh Agra Babur
Golconda Fort Hyderabad Mud fort made by the Fatehpur Sikri Agra Akbar
King of Warangal in 1143
Agra Fort Agra Akbar
Mecca Masjid Hyderabad Muhammad Quli Qutb
Shah Jahangir Mahal Agra Akbar

Karnataka Musamman Burj Agra Shahjahan

Tourist Places Location Built by Taj mahal Agra Shahjahan
Tipu Sultan’s Bangalore Haider Ali and Tipu Itmad-ud-Daulah Agra Nurjahan
Palace Tomb
Lal Bagh Bangalore Haider Ali and Tipu Shish Mahal Agra Shahjahan
Chenna Keshava Belur Vishnuvardhan Chini Ka Rauza Agra Allama Afzal Khan
Temple Mullah
Rajasthan Khas Mahal Agra Shahjahan
Tourist Places Location Built by Jama Mosque Agra Shahjahan's daugh-ter
Dhai Din Ka Ajmer Qutb-ud-din Aybak (Masjid) Jehanara Begum
Jhopada Moti Masjid Agra Shahjahan
Anasagar Lake Ajmer Arnoraja Chauhan Nagina Masjid Agra Shahjahan
Ajmer Sharif Ajmer – Mina Masjid Agra Shahjahan
(Dargah)
Anand Bhawan Prayagraj Motilal Nehru
Taragarh Fort Bundi Raja Rao Bair Singh (Allahabad)
Raniji ki Baori Bundi Rani Nathavati
Akbar Fort Prayagraj Akbar
(Queens Stepwell)
Chota Imambara Lucknow Muhammad Ali Shah
Anirudh Mahal Bundi Fort Raja Anirudh Singh
Bada Imambara Lucknow Asaf-ud-Daula
Sukh Mahal Bundi Raja Vishnu Singh
Junagadh Fort Bikaner Raja Rai Singh Dwarkadheesh Mathura Seth Gokul Das Parikh
Temple
Vijaya Stambha Chittorgarh Maharana Kumbha
Sati Burj Mathura Raja Bhagwan Das
Deeg Palace Deeg Raja Badan Singh &
Surajmal Singh Akbar’s Tomb Sikandra Akbar and Jahangir
Khanpur Palace Dholpur Shahjahan Govind Dev Vrindavan Amber's Raja Man Singh
Temple
Jantar Mantar Jaipur Sawai Jai Singh II
Nahargarh Fort Sawai Jai Singh Radha Vallabh Vrindavan Sundar Das
Jaipur II Temple

Hawa Mahal Jaipur Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh Shri Rangji Temple Vrindavan –
Umaid Bhawan Jodhpur Maharaja Umaid ingh Shahji Temple Vrindavan Shah Kundan Lal
Mehrangarh Fort Jodhpur Rao Jodha Gujarat
Gagaron Fort Jhalawar – Tourist Places Location Built by
Sunset Point Mount Abu – Jhulta Minar (The Ahmedabad Sidi Bashir
Jain Temples of Mount Abu Vastupal & Tejpal Vimal Shaking Minarets)
Dilwara Shah Sabarmati Ashram Ahmedabad Mahatma Gandhi
Lake Pichola Udaipur – Kankaria Lake Ahmedabad Sultan Qutbuddin Ahmed
Jai Samand Udaipur Maharana Jai Singh Shah II

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Delhi (Union Territory) Victoria Memorial Kolkata W. Emerson

(Architect)
Tourist Places Location Built by
Acharya Jagadish Howrah Colonel Robert Kyd
Qutb Minar Delhi Qutbuddin Aybak &
Chandra Bose
Iltutmish (Restoration and
(Kolkata) Botanical
Expansion by Firuz Shah
Garden
Tughlaq
Shantiniketan West Bengal Devendra Nath Tagore
Tughlakabad Delhi Ghiyasuddin Tughluq
Uttarakhand
Hauz Khas Delhi Alauddin Khalji
Tourist Places Location Built by
Red Fort Delhi Shahjahan
Jim Corbett Park Nainital –
Humayun's Tomb Delhi Biga Begum (Hajji
Begum) Lakshman Jhula Rishikesh –
Old Fort Delhi Punjab
Safdarjung Tomb Delhi Shuja-ud-daula Tourist Places Location Built by
Laxmi Narayan Delhi J.K. Birla Darbar Sahib Amritsar Maharaja Ranjit Singh
Temple (Golden Temple)
Khirki Masjid Delhi Khan-i Jahan Junan Shah Odisha
Jama Masjid Delhi Shahjahan Tourist Places Location Built by
Moti Masjid Delhi Aurangzeb Konark Temple Puri Narasimhadeva I

India Gate New Delhi Edwin Lutyen (Architect) Jagannath Temple Puri King Anantavarman
Chodaganga
Rashtrpati Bhavan New Delhi Edwin Lutyen & Herbert
Baker (Architect)
UNESCO World Heritage Sites : Indian
Jammu & Kashmir (Union Territory)
Cultural and Natural Sites
Tourist Places Location Built by
Place State Year
Chashme Shahi Srinagar Shahjahan
Tajmahal Uttar Pradesh 1983
Nishat Bagh Srinagar Asif Khan
Agra Fort Uttar Pradesh 1983
Pathar Mosque Srinagar Noor Jahan
Ellora Caves Maharashtra 1983
Shalimar Bagh Srinagar Jahangir
Ajanta Caves Maharashtra 1983
Hazratbal Shrine Srinagar Sadiq Khan
Konark Sun Temple Odisha 1984
Charar-i-Sharief Srinagar Zain-ul-Abedin
Group of Monuments at Tamil Nadu 1984
Bihar Mahabalipuram
Tourist Places Location Built by
Keoladeo National Park Rajasthan 1985
Vishnupad Temple Gaya Rani Ahilyabai
Manas Wildlife Sanctuary Assam 1985
Golghar Patna Captain John Garstin
Kaziranga National Park Assam 1985
Padri ki Haveli Patna Father Joseph
Khajuraho Group of Monuments Madhya Pradesh 1986
Takht Sri Patna Maharaja Ranjit Ji Patna
Churches and Convents of Old Goa Goa 1986
Harimandir Singh Sahib
Group of Monuments at Hampi Karnataka 1986
Sher E Shahi (Jama Patna Sher Shah
Masjid) Fatehpur Sikri Uttar Pradesh 1986
Pathar ki Masjid Patna Parvez Shah Sunderbans National Park West Bengal 1987
Sher Shah Tomb Sasaram Sher Elephanta Caves Maharashtra 1987
Shah Suri Group of Monuments at Pattadakal Karnataka 1987
West Bengal Great Chola Temple Tamil Nadu 1987,
Tourist Places Location Built by 2004
Fort William Kolkata – Nanda Devi & Valley of Flowers Uttarakhand 1988,
National Park Sanchi Stupa 2005
Belur Math Kolkata Swami Vivekanand
Sanchi Buddhist Monument Madhya Pradesh 1989
Dakshineswar Kali Kolkata Rani Rashmoni
Temple Qutb Minar and Its Monuments Delhi 1993
Nakhoda Masjid Kolkata Abdur Rahim Osman Humayun's Tomb Delhi 1993

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Mountain Railways of India West Bengal/Tamil 1999- 1945 Anthropological Survey of India (Kolkata)
Nadu 2005
1948 National Library (Kolkata)
Darjeeling Railway /Nilgiri/ Kalka- Himachal Pradesh 2008
1952 Sangeet Natak Akademi (Inaugurated in
Shimla Railway
1953)
Red Fort Delhi 2007
1954 Lalit Kala Academy
Mahabodhi Temple (Bodh Gaya) Bihar 2002
1959 National School of Drama (NSD)
Bhimbetka Rock Shelters Madhya Pradesh 2003
Chatrapati Shivaji Terminus Maharashtra 2004 1861 Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
(Victoria Terminus) 1784 Asiatic Society
Champaner-Pavagadh Gujarat 2004 1985 Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts
Archaeological Park
1891 National Archives of India
Jantar Mantar (Jaipur) Rajasthan 2010
1891 Central Secretariat Library
Western Ghats Karnataka, Kerala, 2012
Maharashtra, Tamil State's Folk Dances
Nadu, Goa & Gujarat State Folk Dance
Hill Forts of Rajasthan Rajasthan 2013 Andhra Chaddi, Siddhi Madhuri, Kuchipudi
A. Gagron Fort Jhalawar 2013 Pradesh (Classical), Ghantamardala, Kummi, etc.
(Rajasthan) Assam Bagurumba, Bihu, Nettle, Khel Gopal,
B. Chittorgarh Fort Rajasthan 2013 Natpuja, Maharas, Kaligopal, Jhumura
C. Amber Fort Jaipur (Rajasthan) 2013 Hobjanai, etc.
D. Kumbhalgarh Fort Rajsamand 2013 Arunachal Buiya, Chalo, Wancho, Ponung, Popir,
E. Jaisalmer Fort Jaisalmer 2013 Pradesh Mask Dance, etc.
F. Ranthambhore Fort Sawai Madhopur 2013 Uttar Pradesh Nautanki, Raslila, Jhula, Jadda, Kajree,
(Rajasthan) Jaita, Chachri, Jangar, Jhora, Dhola, Dadra
Great Himalayan National Park Himachal Pradesh 2014 and Charakula, etc.
Rani ki Vav Patan (Gujarat) 2014 Uttarakhand Garhwali, Kumayuni, Jhora, Kajree,
The Architectural Work of Le Chandigarh 2016 Chappeli, Raslila, etc.
Corbusier, An Out Standing Gujarat Dandiya Raas, Garba, Bhavai, Tippani,
Contribution to Modern Movement Padhar, Panihari, Nritya, etc
Archaeological Site of Nalanda Bihar 2016 Odisha Odishi (Classical), Paika, Chhau,
Mahavihara
Chaitighoda, Ghoomara, etc.
Khangchendzonga National Park Sikkim 2016
Bihar Jhijhiya, Jat-Jatin, Kajari, Sohar-Khilouna,
Historical City of Ahmedabad Gujarat 2017
Nagaland Rangma, Bamboo Dance, Noorlim, Chong,
Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Maharashtra 2018 Khaiva, Kuminaga, etc.
Ensembles of Mumbai
Goa Dekhni, Dhalo, Mando, Fugdi, Jagar, Koli,
Jaipur City Rajasthan 2019
Tarangmail, Dhangar Dance, etc.
Kakatiya Rudreshwara (Ramappa) Telangana 2021
Temple Karnataka Karga, Yakshgana, Kunitha, Veeragase,
Lambi, etc.
Dholavira: A Harappan city Gujarat 2021
Charaideo's Maidams Assam 2024 Kerala Mohiniattam (Classical), Kathakali
(Classical), Kaikotti kali, Thulal, Padayani,
Note : In November, 2021 UNESCO has included Kondattam etc..
Srinagar in the prestigious list of Creative Cities Network Chhattisgarh Jhoomar, Karma, Gendi Pandavani,
in the category of 'Folk Art and Culture and Craft'. Navarani, Diwari, Tapali, Panthi, Gaur
Maria, Raut Nacha, etc.
Major Cultural Institutions of India and Jammu & Damali, Hekat, Kud Dandinach, Mendajas,
Their Year of Establishment Kashmir Rauf, etc.
Establishment Jharkhand Alkap, Karya Munda, Paika, Jat-Jatin,
Institutions
Year Danga, Karama, Sirhul, Chhau, Domkach,
1985 East Zonal Cultural Centre (Kolkata) Fagua, etc.
1986 North Central Zone Cultural Centre Tamil Nadu Karagam Kavadi, Kummi, Kolattam,
(NCZCC Prayagraj) Bharatanatyam (Classical), etc.
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West Bengal Jatra, Dhali, Bowl, Kirtan, Marasia, Mohammad Sahib Mecca, Medina
Gambhira, Mahal, Chhau, Kathi, etc. Napoleon Corsica, Waterloo
Punjab Bhand, Naqual, Dhaman, Bhangra, Daff, Alexander The Great Macedonia
Giddha, etc.
Emperor Akbar Fatehpur Sikri
Madhya Swang, Matki, Gangaur, Badhai, Baredi,
Tipu Sultan Srirangapatnam, Mysuru
Pradesh Naurata, Ahirai, Bhagoria, Pandavani,
Teratali etc. Maharana Pratap Chittor, Haldi Ghati
Mizoram Chailam, Jagtalam, Cheraw, Khullam, Guru Nanak Talwandi (Nankana Sahib), Kartarpur
Thanglam, etc. Sardar Patel Bardoli, Nadiad
Meghalaya Ka Shad Suk Mynsiem, Nongkrem, Laho, etc. Mahatma Gandhi Sabarmati, Sevagram, Porbandar
Manipur Thangata, Khamba, Thoibi, Maharas, Jawaharlal Nehru Anand Bhavan, Teen Murti Bhavan
Rankhat, Manipuri (Classical), Rakhal, Vinoba Bhave Pavanar
Nataras, Pung Chulom, Nupa, etc.
Arvind Ghosh Puducherry, Kolkata
Maharashtra Dahikala Dashavatar, Powada, Mauji,
Ramakrishna Belur
Lejim, Koli, Nakata, Lavani, Tamasha,
Paramahansa
Kavita, Bohada, Gafa, Gauricha, etc.
Subhas Chandra Bose Cuttack
Rajasthan Chakri, Kalbeliya, Panihari, Gangaur, Neja,
Fundi, Jhuma, Ghapal, etc. Dr. Rajendra Prasad Ziradei
Himachal Jhamkada, Losar Shona Chuksam, Rabindranath Thakur Shanti Niketan
Pradesh Dandanach, Chapeli, Dhaman, Jhanta, Nelson Mandela Trafalgar
Mahathu, Jhali, Nati, Dangi, Cham, Abraham Lincoln Kentucky
Lahauli, etc.
Bhagat Singh Lahore, Banga
Graveyards of Great Men Chandrashekar Azad Alfred Park, (Chandrashekhar Azad
Park)
Persons Places Life Span
Mahatma Gandhi Rajghat (New Delhi) 1869-1948 India's Major Folk Arts
Dr. Rajendra Prasad Mahaprayan Ghat (Patna) 1884-1963
States Folk Arts
Jawaharlal Nehru Shanti Van (New delhi) 1889-1964
Uttar Pradesh Chowk Purna
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Chaitya Bhumi (Mumbai) 1891-1956
Gujarat Sathiya
Morarji Desai Abhay Ghat (Ahemdabad) 1896-1995
Guljari Lal Nanda Narayan Ghat (Ahemdabad) 1898-1998
Bihar Godna, Madhubani
Chaudhari Charan Singh Kisan Ghat (New Delhi) 1902-1987 Rajasthan Henna, Rangoli, Mandana
Lal Bahadur Sashtri Vijay Ghat (New Delhi) 1904-1966 West Bengal Alpana
Jagjivan Ram Samta Sthal (New Delhi) 1908-1986 Odisha Pattachitra
Giani Zail Singh Ekta Sthal (New Delhi) 1916-1994 Maharashtra Warli Painting
Indira Gandhi Shakti Sthal (New Delhi) 1917-1984 Andhra Pradesh Kalamkari, Nirmal
Shankar Dayal Sharma Karma Bhumi (New Delhi) 1918-1999 Madhya Pradesh Gond
Indra Kumar Gujral Smriti Sthal (New Delhi) 1919-2012
K.R. Narayanan Uday Bhumi (New Delhi) 1920-2005 Great deeds and Great Personalities related to
Chandrashekar Jannayak Sthal (New Delhi) 1927-2007 them
Rajiv Gandhi Vir Bhumi (New Delhi) 1944-1991 Persons Works
Atal Bihari Vajpayee Sadaiv Atal (New Delhi) 1924-2018
Panini founder of Sanskrit grammar
Sites Related To Great Men Maharishi Gautam founder of Nyaya Darshan
Persons Sites Guru Arjun Dev construction of Golden Temple
Mahavir Swami Pavapuri, Kundgram Guru Govind Singh Founder of Khalsa Panth
Gautam Buddha Lumbini, Kapilvastu, Kushinagar, Vinoba Bhave Founder of Boodan Movement,
Bodhgaya, Sarnath establishment of Pawanar Ashram
Jesus Christ Jerusalem, Nazareth Rabindranath Thakur Establishment of Vishwa Bharati
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Baba Amte Establishment of Anandwan Lala Lajpat Rai Punjab Kesari

Arvind Ghosh Establishment of Auroville Ashram Napoleon Bonaparte The Man of Destiny, The Little
(Puducherry) Corporal
Karl Marx Founder Scientific Socialism Ashutosh Mukherjee Bengal Kesari
Mother Teresa Founder of Nirmal Hriday Kazi Nazrul Islam Rebel Poet
Henry Dunant Establishing of Red Cross Dr. Srikrishna Singh Bihar Kesari
Robert Baden-Powell Establishing of Scouting Mohammed-bin-Tughluq A Mixture of Contrasts
Newton Principle of Universal Gravity T. Prakasam Andhra Kesari
Aryabhatta Discovers Zero Dhundiraj Govind Phalke Grandfather of Indian Films
Maharshi Kapil originator of Sankhya philosophy. Sheikh Abdullah Sher-e-Kashmir
Yatindra Mohan Sengupta Deshpriya
Dates of Establishment of Major States Jayprakash Narayan Loknayak
State Foundation Day Date Vallabhbhai Patel Sardar
Nagaland Day 1 December Sheikh Mujiburrahman Bangabandhu
Manipur, Meghalaya & Tripura Day 21 January Anugraha Narayan Singh Bihar Vibhuti
Mizoram & Arunachal Pradesh Day 20 February Chittaranjan Das Deshbandhu
Bihar Day 22 March Clive Lloyd Super Cat
Rajasthan Day 30 March Bal Gangadhar Tilak Lokmanya
Utkal (Odisha) Day 1 April Pt. Madan Mohan Malaviya Mahamana
Uttar Pradesh Day 24 January Major General Rajinder Sparrow
Himachal Pradesh Day 25 January Singh
Gujarat and Maharashtra Day 1 May Karpoori Thakur Jananayak
Sikkim Day 16 May Chakravarti Rajagopalachari Rajaji
Telangana Day 2 June C.F. Andruj Deenbandhu
Punjab, Haryana, Chhattisgarh, Madhya 1 November Ho Chi Minh Uncle Ho
Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala & Andhra Pradesh
Jain - Ul - Abidin Akbar of Kashmir
Day
Purushottam Das Tandon Rajarshi
Goa Day 30 May
Chandrashekhar Yuva Turk
Renowned Personalities and Their Nicknames Chaudhary Devi Lal Tau
Persons Nicknames P.T Usha Udanpari
Bhagat Singh Shaheed - E - Azam Amir Khusro Tota-e-Hind
Subhash Chandra Bose Netaji Annie Besant Ma
Mahatma Gandhi Rashtrapita, Bapu Lata Mangeshkar Swar Kokila
Rajendra Prasad Deshratna, Ajatshatru Sarojini Naidu Bharat Kokila
Rabindranath Thakur World Poet, Kaviguru, M.S. Golwalkar Guruji
Gurudev, Frontier Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Lal, Bal, Pal
Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan Frontier Gandhi Gangadhar Tilak,
Muhammad Ali Jinnah Quaid-e-Azam and Vipin Chandra Pal
Dadabhai Naoroji Grand old man of India Samudragupta Indian Napoleon
Raja Rammohan Rai The father of Indian Jagjivan Ram Babuji
Renaissance Chanakya Indian Machiavelli
Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel Iron Man Sunil Gavaskar Little Master
William Evert Gladstone Old Man of British Politics Martin Luther King Black Gandhi
Lal Bahadur Shastri Man of Peace John of Arc Made of Orleans
Queen Elizabeth Madame Queen Kapil Dev Haryana Hurricane
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Geoffrey Chaucer Father of English Poetry Centre for DNA and Finger Printing Hyderabad
Major Dhyanchand Hockey Wizard Diagnostics
Adolf Hitler Fuehrer Bharat Electronics Limited Bengaluru (H.Q.)
Syed Bandhu (Abdullah King Maker of Indian History Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad
Khan and Syed Husain Ali Science Center
Khan) Central Water and Power Research Pune (M.H.)
Mahakavi Kalidas Indian Shakespeare Station
Jamnalal Bajaj Fifth son of Mahatma Gandhi High Latitude Research Laboratory Gulmarg (J.K.)
William Shakespeare Bard of Avon Banaras Locomotive Works Varanasi (UP)
Ravi Shankar Maharaj Father of Gujarat Plasma Research Institute Gandhinagar (Gujarat)
Valmiki Adikavi ICAR-Indian Grassland and Fodder Jhansi (Uttar Pradesh)
Research Institute
Florence Nightingale Lady with the Lamp
Central Mining & Fuel Research Dhanbad (J.H.)
Milkha Singh Flying Sikh
Institute
Sathyabhama Das Biju The Frogman of India
Central Institute of Horticulture Lucknow (U.P.)
A.R. Rahman The Mozart of Madras
Institute of Microbial Technology Chandigarh
Rahul Dravid The Wall
Institute of Ecology Bangaluru (K.A.)
National Institute of Oceanography Panaji (Goa)
Major Research Institutes of India
Indian Geomagnetic Institute Mumbai (M.H.)
Name of the Institutes Location
Central Potato Research Institute Shimla (H.P.)
National Sugar Institute of India Kanpur (U.P.)
Central Planting Crop Research Institute Kasargod (Kerala)
Indian Institute of Pulses Research Kanpur (U.P.)
Central Salt & Marine Chemical Bhavnagar (Gujarat)
Indian National Science Academy New Delhi
Research Institute
Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi
Central Mechanical Engineering Durgapur (W. Bengal)
Indian Meteorological Department New Delhi Research Institute
Central Road Research Institute New Delhi Central Electrical Chemistry Research Koraikudi (T.N.)
Indian Institute of Soil Sciences Bhopal (M.P.) Institute
Central Institute of Medicinal Research Lucknow (U.P.) Central Building Research Institute Roorkee (U.K.)
National Institute of Immunology New Delhi Central Food Technology Research Mysore (Karnataka)
All India Institute of Medical Sciences New Delhi Institute
(AIIMS) India Security Press Nashik (M.H.)
National Botanical Research Institute Lucknow (U.P.) Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Mumbai (M.H.)
Indian Institute of Toxicology Research Lucknow (U.P.) Bhabha Atomic Research Center Mumbai (Maharashtra)
Central Research Institute for Jute and Barrackpore (W. B.) Trombay
Allied Fibres National Metallurgical Laboratory Jamshedpur (Jharkhand)
Archaeological Survey of India New Delhi Central Agmark Laboratory Nagpur (Maharashtra)
Indian Institute of Petroleum Dehradun (U.K) Indian Sugarcane Research Institute Lucknow (U.P.)
National Vision Disability Dehradun (U.K) Raman Research Institute Bangaluru (Karnataka)
Empowerment Central Leather Research Institute Chennai (Tamil Nadu)
Indian Institute of Survey, Dehradun (U.K) National Dairy Research Institute Karnal (Haryana)
Indian Institute of Chemical & Bio- Kolkata (W. Bengal) National Occupational Health Institute Ahmedabad (Gujarat)
sciences CPR Environmental Education Centre Chennai (Tamil Nadu)
Central Glass & Ceramic Institute Kolkata (W.Bengal) Central Tobacco Research Institute (Andhra Pradesh)
National Geophysical Research Hyderabad Rajahmundry
Institute Sugarcane Breeding Institute Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu)
National Brain Research Institute Gurugram Forest Research Institute Dehradun (Uttarakhand)
National Environmental Engineering Nagpur (M.H.) Ramakrishna Mission Culture Institute Kolkata (West Bengal)
Research Institute (NEERI) Centre for Nano and Self Matter Bengaluru
National Rice Research Institute Cuttack (Odisha) Sciences (Karnataka)

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Major Instruments of India and Their Players Major Classical Dances and Dance Artists
Musical Dance Artist
Player
Instrument 1. Kathak Sukhdev Maharaj, Lachhu Maharaj, Birju
1. Flute Hariprasad Chaurasia, Ronu Majumdar, Maharaj, Gopi Krishna, Shovana Narayan,
Pannalal Ghosh, Santosh Sant, V. Kunjmani, Sitara Devi, Chandralekha, Malavika
Rajendra Prasanna, S. Neela, Rajendra
Sarkar, Manjari Chaturvedi, Gauri Jog,
Kulkarni, etc.
Achchan Maharaj, Bindadin Maharaj,
2. Sitar Vilayat Khan, Pandit Ravi Shankar, Narayan Prasad, Saswati Sen, etc.
Nikhil Ranjan Banerjee, Shahid Parvez,
2. Odissi Kelucharan Mohapatra, Mohan Goswami,
Bande Hasan, Budhaditya Mukherjee,
Pankaj Charandas, Harekrishna Behera,
Pt.Umashankar Mishra, Manju Mehta,
Niladri Kumar, etc. Mayadhar Rawat, Sonal Mansingh, Kiran
Sehgal, Samyukta Panigrahi, Rani Karna,
3. Sarod Ayan Ali Khan, Rajeev Taranath, Vikas
Maharaj, Alauddin Khan, Hafiz Khan, Madhavi Mudgal, Indrani Rahman,
Ali Akbar Khan, Amjad Ali Khan, Zarine Kalicharan Patnaik, Kumkum Mohanty,
Daruwala, Vishwajeet Rai Chaudhary, Sujata Mahapatra, Sharon Lowen (US), etc.
Mukesh Sharma, P. Buddhadev Das Gupta, 3. Kuchipudi Shobha Naidu, Raja Reddy, Radha Reddy,
etc. Yamini Krishnamurthy, Lakshmi Narayan
4. Tabla Lachhu Maharaj, Shankar Ghosh, Swapan Shastri, Swapna Sundari, Vedantam
Chaudhary, Alla Rakha Khan, Latif Khan, Satyanarayana Sharma, Vempati Chinna
Zakir Hussain, Kishan Maharaj, Gudai Satyam, Payal Ramchandani, Arunima
Maharaj, Sukhwinder Singh Pinky, Fayyad kumar, Pratiksa Kashi, Uma Rama Rao, etc.
Khan, etc. 4. Kathakali Krishnan Nair, Uday Shankar, Ballaltol
5. Veena Badruddin Dagar, Sundaram, Balachandran, Narayan Menon, Mrinalini Sarabhai,
V. Doraiswami Iyengar, Kalyanakrishna Shanta Rao, Krishnan Kutty, Anand
Bhagavatar, etc. Sivaraman, Gopi, Kanak Rale, Keshavan
6. Shehnai Ali Ahmed Hussain Khan, Bismillah Namboodiri, Ruby Mishra, etc.
Khan, Dayashankar Jagannath, Anant Lal,
5. Bharatanatyam R u k m a n i D e v i A r u n d e l , Y a m i n i
Madhukar T. Dhumal, etc.
Krishnamurthy, Sonal Mansingh, Padma
7. Violin Sangeeta Shankar, Dr. N. Rajam, Ambi
Subrahmanyam, T. Bala Saraswati,
Subrahmanyam, Vishnu Govind Jog,
Ramgopal, S.K. Saroj, Mrinalini
T.N. Krishnan, Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan,
Sarabhai, Leela Samson, Malavika Sarkar,
Sandeep Thakur, Jyotsna Srikanth, etc.
Vyjayanthi Mala Bali, Priyadarshini
8. Pakhavaj Pt. Madan Mohan, Pt. Bholanath Pathak,
Govind, Nalini Prakas, Priya Murle,
Gopaldas, Chhatrapati Singh, Ustad
Kumari Kavita Ramu etc.
Rahman Khan, etc.
9. Santoor Shivkumar Sharma, Tarun Bhattacharya, 6. Mohiniattam Ragini Devi, Bharti Shivaji, Kalyani Kutti
Bhajan Sopori Abhay Rustom Sopori, etc. Amma, Sridevi, Shanta Rao, Hema Malini,
10. Mridang Thanjavur Ramamurthy, Thakur Bhikham Tara Nidigadi, Geeta Singer, Sunandya
Singh, T.V. Gopala-Krishnan, Dr. Jagdish Nair, Gopika Verma, Vijayalakshmi,
Singh, A.S. Rajagopal, etc. Radha Dutta, Pallavi Krishnan, etc.
11. Rudravina Pt . Vishwa Mohan Bhatt, Asad Ali Khan, 7. Manipuri Nal Kumar Singh, Atamb Singh, Guru Amli
Ustad Sadiq Ali Khan, Jyoti G. Hegde, etc. Singh, Jhaveri Sisters (Darshana, Nayana,
12. Nadaswaram Rajaratnam Pillai, Neeru Swami Pillai, Suvarna and Ranjana Jhaveri), Kalavati
Sheikh Chinna Maulana, T.K.Venupila, Devi, Savita Mehta, Charu Mathur, Rema
Haripad Murukadas, etc. Srikanth, Bimbavati, Gopal Singh, Guru
13. Sarangi Ustad Bundu Khan, Ram Narayan, Sabri Vipin Singh, Rajkumar Singhjeet Singh,
Khan, etc. Guru Nileswar Mukherjee, Sohini Ray, etc.
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Brigadier Air Commodore Commodore

3 Indian Security System Colonel Group Captain Captain
The Government of India ensures the security of the Lieutenant Colonel Wing Commander Commander
country. Major Squadron Leader Lieutenant Commander
The highest command of the armed forces lies with the Captain Flight Lieutenant Lieutenant
President. The actual responsibility of national security Lieutenant Flying Officer Sub - Lieutenant
rests with the Cabinet.
Indian Army, Navy and Air Force have their headquarters Indian Naval Training Institutes
in New Delhi. Indian Naval Training Institutes
Indian Army, Navy and Air force are divided into 7, 3 and INS Shivaji Lonavala
7 commands respectively.
INS Chilka Khordha
Chief Commanding Officer is the Chief of each Army
Indian Naval Academy Kannur
Command.
Commands and Headquarters of Indian Indian Air Force Training Institute
Army, Navy and Air Force Air Force Academy Hyderabad
Army Commands Headquarters Air Force Technical College Bengaluru
Northern Command Udhampur Air Force Administrative College Coimbatore
Southern Command Pune Paratroopers Training School Agra
Western Command Chandimandir (Haryana) Elementary Flying School Bidar
Eastern Command Kolkata
Indian Army Training Institute
Southern - Western Command Jaipur
Indian Military Academy Dehradun
Central Command Lucknow
National Defence College New Delhi
Training Command Shimla
National Defence Academy Khadakwasla
The Chief of Naval Staff is an officer of Admiral rank.
Defence Service Staff College Willington
Each Command of Navy is headed by a Vice Admiral.
Artillery School Deolali
Naval Command Headquarters
Infantry School Mhow*
Western Command Mumbai
Armored Corps Center Ahmednagar
Eastern Command Visakhapatnam * Madhya Pradesh Government in 2003 has renamed the
Southern Command Kochi city as Dr. Ambedkar Nagar.
The Chief of the Air Force is the Chief of the Air Staff,
who is of the rank of 'Air Chief Marshal'. 4 Indian Internal Security System
Airforce Commands Headquarters
National Cadet Corps (NCC):
Western Command New Delhi
National Cadet Corps was established in 1948.
Eastern Command Shillong Its headquarter is located in New Delhi.
Southern Command Thiruvananthapuram The motto of the National Cadet Corps is 'Unity and
Central Command Prayagraj Discipline'.
South-Western Command Gandhinagar NCC flag was introduced in 1954. It had three colours, red
Training Command Bengaluru is for the Army, Deep Blue' for the Navy and Light Blue
for the 'Air Force'. In the middle are the letters NCC and
Maintenance Command Nagpur
the golden NCC crest covered by a wreath of lotus.
Posts of Commissioned Officers in Indian Border Security Force (BSF):
Border Security Force was established in 1965.
Forces
Its headquarter is located in Delhi. Its task is to defend the
Army Airforce Naval
country's borders.
General Air Chief Marshal Admiral
Assam Rifles:
Lieutenant General Air Marshal Vice-Admiral Assam Rifles is the oldest paramilitary force in India. It
Major General Air Vice-Marshal Rear-Admiral was established in 1835 in the name in 'Cachar Levy'.
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Its headquarter is located in Shillong. Alfred Nobel were awarded 621 times to 1000 people and
Assam Rifles are called 'Sentinels of the Northeast' and Organisation.
'Friends of the Hill People'. Significantly in 1968, Sveriges Riksbank established the
Central Reserve Police Force - (CRPF): Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory
On July 27, 1939, the Crown Representative Police was of Alfred Nobel.
established. The first Nobel Prize in Peace, Literature, Medicine,
It was renamed CRPF on 28 December 1949. Chemistry and Physics was awarded in 1901.
Its headquarter is located in Delhi. The Nobel Prize is announced each year in October.
Rapid Action Force (RAF) is a part of the Central Reserve Nobel Prize is distributed on December 10, Alfred Nobel's
Police Force. death anniversary.
Rapid Action Force was set up on 11 December, 1991 to Each Nobel Prize can award up to three people in a year.
deal with riot-like situations. This organization came into The Nobel Prize has so far been awarded only twice to
full existence in October 1992. dead persons - Eric Axel Karlfeldt (in 1931) and Dag
CRPF is the only force in the paramilitary forces consisting Hammarskjold (in 1961).
of 6 women battalions. In 1974, it was made a rule that Nobel Prize would not be
88 (Female) Battalion was established in 1986 as the first awarded posthumously.
female battalion. The Red Cross has been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize
Sashastra Seema Bal: three times (1917, 1944 and 1963).
Special Service Bureau was formed in 1963. In 1915, Sir William Henry Bragg was succeeded by his son
It was renamed as 'Sashastra Seema Bal' (SSB) on 15 William L. Bragg, along with the Nobel Prize in Physics.
December, 2003. Lawrence Bragg (25 years old male) and Malala Yusufzai
Indo - Tibetan Boarder Police (ITBP): (17 years old female) are the youngest Nobel Prize
Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) was formed in October, recipients.
1962. John Goodenough (97 years) is the oldest person to recieve
Its headquarter is located is in New Delhi. the Nobel Prize.
The motto of ITBP is - Shaurya - Dridhata - Karma Nishtha. Two Times Nobel Prize Winners
Central Industrial Security Force (CISF): 1. Marie Curie Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 and in
Central Industrial Security Force 'was formed in 1969 to Chemistry 1911.
protect the industrial complexes of the Central Government. 2. Linus Pauling Chemistry in 1954 and Peace Prize in 1962.
Its headquarter is located in New Delhi. 3. John Bardeen Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956 and 1972.
National Security Guards (NSG):
4. Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1958 and
National Security Guards (NSG) was formed in 1986 to 1980
face the challenges of terrorism in India.
Its headquarter is located in New Delhi. Nobel Laureates (Scholars of India and Indian
Its motto is 'Sarvatra Sarvottam Suraksha'. Origin) in 1980
Abhijeet Banerjee (born 1961) Indian-American Abhijeet
5 International Awards and Honours Banerjee received the 2019 Nobel Prize in Economic
Science. The award was given jointly with his wife Esther
Noble Prize Dufflow and Harvard University professor Michael Kramer.
The Nobel Prize is set up by Alfred Bernard Nobel, a world- He was awarded for his "experimental approach to global
renowned Swedish scientist and inventor of dynamite, poverty alleviation". The famous books written by Abhijeet
with interest from Permanent Fund of 10 Lakh Pound - 5 Banerjee and Esther Dufflow are "Poor Economics" and
different fields - (1) Literature, (2) Medical Science, (3) "Good Economics for Hard Times".
Physics, (4) Chemistry and (5) Peace, is given in this field Kailash Satyarthi (born 1954): In 2014, Kailash Satyarthi
with special and notable contributions. was awarded a Nobel Prize for his struggle against the
The field of Economic Science was conferred with the oppression of children and youth and the right to education
Nobel Prize Award of Sweden in 1968, on the occasion of of all children. He was born in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh.
Sveriges Riksbank, 30th anniversary. He has a degree in Electrical Engineering and a Master's
The first prize in economics was conferred in 1969. Degree in High Voltage Engineering. He started the
Between 1901 and 2023, the Nobel Prize and the Sveriges Bachpan Bachao Andolan in 1980, giving his career as
Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of an Electrical Engineer. He also led the global movement
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against child labour. All this is a campaign of solidarity Gitanjali and Sadhana are his important works. Renowned
at the global level for the Protection and Promotion of as a great poet, play writer and novelist, Gurudev also
Children's Rights. composed the National Anthem. Devendra Nath Tagore
Amartya Sen (born 1933): Prof. Amartya Sen was awarded founded Shanti-Niketan and later the institute converted
Nobel Prize for Economic Science in 1998. He is the in Vishwabharati University by Rabindranath Tagore. It
first Asian to receive this honour. Shantiniketan born this is significant to mention have that Bangladesh's national
scholarly economist has presented the concept of public anthem lifted "Amar Shonar Bangla" was penned by
welfare economics. Rabindranath Tagore in 1905.
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1910-1995): Dr. Venkataraman Ramakrishnan (born 1952): Venkata-
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, an astrophysicist, was raman Ramakrishnan was awarded Nobel Prize in
awarded Nobel Prize for Physics in 1983. He was educated
Chemistry in 2009 for his study on the structure and
at Presidency College, Chennai. He is the nephew of Nobel
function of ribosomes, the molecular machine that makes
Laureate Sir C.V. Raman. Later, he moved to America.
proteins. He was born in Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu. He did
He propounded the theory in the constellations named
his MS in Physics from the University of Baroda, Gujarat
'White Dwarf'. The limit he has set for the mass of these
in 1971. He did his PhD in Physics from Ohio University
constellations is called the Chandrashekhar Limit. His theory
revealed many mysteries in the origin of the universe. USA in 1976. He studied at the University of California San
Mother Teresa (1910–1997): Mother Teresa received Diego from 1976 to 1978 as a graduate student in molecular
the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979. She was born in Albania at rhodopsin biology.
Skopje which is now in Yugoslavia. Her childhood name Oscar Awards
was Agnus Goxha Bojaxhieu. She joined the Sisters of The Oscar Awards (Academy Awards) started in 1929.
Loreto in Ireland in 1928 and came to Kolkata in 1929 as The Oscar Awards are presented by the US National
a missionary. To serve the poor and the sick, he formed an Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.
organization called Missionaries of Charity and Nirmal George Bernard Shaw and famous American singer and
Hridaya for the leprosy patients, drug addicts and the songwriter Bob Dillon have received both the Oscar Award
afflicted. and the Nobel Prize (for Literature).
Hargobind Khurana (1922-2011): Hargobind Khurana The Oscar Awards nominee for the Best Foreign Language
was awarded Nobel Prize for research in the field of Indian Film (first) was Mehboob Khan's 'Mother India'
Medicine in 1968. He was born in Raipur (now in Pakistan). (1958).
He earned a doctorate in chemistry from the University of Bhanu Athaiya is the first Indian woman to receive an Oscar
Liverpool. In 1960, he became a professor at the University Award (for 'Gandhi').
of Wisconsin. He explained the genetic code by his Satyajit Ray was the first Indian to receive the Lifetime
discovery and explored its role in protein synthesis. Achievement Time Award of Oscar (Honorary Awards)
Chandrashekhar Venkataraman (1888–1970): The in 1992 for his achievements.
first Indian Dr. ChandrasekharVenkataraman received Significantly in Oscar, 2023 India's 'The Elephant
Nobel Prize for Physics in 1930. Raman was born in
Whisperers' wins Best Documentary Short while RRR song
Thiruvanaikkaval near Tiruchirappalli in Tamil Nadu.
'NATU-NATU' gets best Original Song Award.
He studied at the Presidency College, Chennai. Later, he
Pulitzer Prize:
became the Professor of Physics at Kolkata University. He
Pulitzer Prize was started in 1917.
received many awards and honours. He was awarded the
The award is given in the name of American publisher
title of 'Sir' and received the Nobel Prize for significant
research in the field of optics. He found from his research Joseph Pulitzer for his outstanding contribution in the field
how rays of other wavelengths are also present in divergent of Newspaper, magazine, online journalism, literature and
light. His discovery is known as the Raman Effect. This musical composition.
discovery made in 1928 explains the frequency change in It is awarded by Columbia University, USA.
light rays passing through a transparent medium. Grammy Awards :
Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941): Rabindranath Tagore Grammy Awards are given annually by National Academy
was the first Indian to receive the Nobel Prize for Literature. of Recording Arts and Sciences (The Recording Academy).
Rabindranath Tagore, known as 'Gurudev', was born on Each year, the prize is awarded to what is inthe opinion of
7 May 1861 in Kolkata. He was awarded Nobel Prize the judges, the best novel of the year written in English and
in Literature for his book of poems Gitanjali in 1913. published in the UK and Ireland.
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Booker Prize: Padma Vibhushan is given for exceptional and distinguished

Man Booker Prize was started in 1969. services. Padma Bhushan is given for distinguished services
The award is being conferred by the Man Group. In of higher order and Padma Shri for distinguished services
February 2019, a charitable organization Crackstart joined in any field.
as its financial provider. So now, the word 'Man' has been These awards are announced every year on the eve of
removed from its name. Republic Day.
Each year, the prize is awarded to what is, in the opinion Gallantry Awards :
of the judges, the best novel of the year written in english The soldiers of the Government of India, who have made
and published in the U.K. and Ireland. incredible contributions or made supreme sacrifices for the
defence of the country, are awarded various medals for this
Note : It is noteworthy that "Kairos" by Jenny
valor.
Erpenbeck, translated by Michael Hofmann, has been
After Independence, three gallantry awards i.e Paramvir
named the winner of the Internationa Booker Prize 2024.
Chakra, Mahavir Chakra and Vir Chakra were instituted
Ramon Magsaysay Award: by the Government of India on 26 January, 1950.
Ramon Magsaysay Award is been conferred by the On January 4, 1952, the other three gallantry awards i.e
Government of the Philippines from 1958 in memory of Ashok Chakra Category-I, Ashoka Chakra Category-II and
Ramon Magsaysay, the former President of the country. Ashok Chakra Category-III were introduced. These awards
It was established in year 1957. were renamed as Ashoka Chakra, Kirti Chakra and Shaurya
It is called 'Asia's Nobel Prize’, Asia's most prestigious award. Chakra respectively in January, 1967.
The order of priority of these awards is Paramvir Chakra,
Note : The 1959 Ramon magsaysay Award was presented
Ashok Chakra, Mahavir Chakra, Kirti Chakra, Vir Chakra
to Tibeten spiritual leader the Dalai Lama in April, 2023.
and Shaurya Chakra.
Kalinga Award :
Kalinga Award was first provided in 1952 and established Important Awards: Field and Prize Money
Awards Field and Prize Money
in 1951.
The award is given by UNESCO for its extraordinary effort 1. Jnanpith Award in the field of literature (Rs 11
lakh)
to popularize science.
2. Dadasaheb Phalke in the field of film (Golden Lotus and Rs
Award 10 lakh)
6 National Awards and Honours 3. Saraswati Samman in field of literature (Rs. 15 Lakh)
Bharat Ratna : 4. Vachaspati Award for outstanding contribution to Sanskrit
Literature (Rs. 1 Lakh)
Bharat Ratna Award was instituted in 1954.
5. Vyas Samman in the field of literature (Rs. 3.50 Lakh).
It is the highest civilian honour of the country.
6. Kabir Award for Social Harmony (Rs. 1.50 Lakh)
It is awarded in recognition of exceptional service/
7. Major Dhyanchand for Meritorious Performance in Sports
performance of the highest order in any field of human Khel Ratna Award Games (25 Lakhs Rs.)
endeavour. 8. Arjuna Award in the field of Sports (Rs. 15 Lakh)
The medal of Bharat Ratna is of the shape of a peepal leaf, 9. Dhyan Chand Award for Lifetime Achievements in Sports (Rs.
on which the picture of the sun is inscribed. 10 Lakh)
Former Prime Minister Indira Gandhi is the first woman to 10. Dronacharya Award in the field of Sports training (15 lakh
be awarded Bharat Ratna. rupees)
Lal Bahadur Shastri was awarded Bharat Ratna 11. Dhanvantari Award in the field of Medicine
posthumously in 1966. 12. Shanti Swarup in the field of Science (Rs. 5 lakh)
The first foreigner awarded Bharat Ratna was Abdul Bhatnagar Prize
Ghaffar Khan. 13. Borlaug Award in the field of environment and agriculture.
Padma Awards : Paramveer Chakra:
One of the highest civilian awards of the country, Padma It is the highest award for bravery.
Award is given in three categories - Padma Vibhushan, Its medal consists of four replicas of 'Indra's Vajra' with
Padma Bhushan and Padma Shri. bronze built, spherical and embossed state emblem at
These awards are given in Arts, Social Work, Public Affairs, center. On its backside, the Paramvir Chakra is written in
Science and Engineering, Business and Industry, Medicine, Hindi and English with two Lotus flowers. Its lace is plain
Literature and Education, Sports, Administrative Services, etc. and purple in colour.
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Mahavir Chakra:
Persons Honoured with Bharat Ratna
This medal is made of spherical and standard silver. An
Person Year
embossed star with five corners is engraved on its façade.
1. Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, Dr. Sarvepalli 1954
Its centrepiece is engraved with the state emblem (including
Radhakrishnan and Chandrasekhar Venkataraman
the motto).
2. Dr. Bhagwan Das, Dr. Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya 1955
After this, Mahavir Chakra is written in both Hindi and and Jawaharlal Nehru
English with two Lotus flowers. 3. Pt. Govind Ballabh Pant 1957
Its lace is half white and half orange in colour. 4. Dr. Dhondo Keshav Karve 1958
Veer Chakra: 5. Bidhan Chandra Roy and Rajarshi Purushottam Das 1961
This medal is made of circular and standard silver. Tandon
A five-pointed embossed star is engraved on its façade. 6. Dr. Rajendra Prasad 1962
The state emblem (including the motto) is engraved in the 7. Dr. Zakir Hussain and Dr. Pandurang Vaman Kane 1963
central part. 8. Lal Bahadur Shastri* 1966
Veer Chakra is written in Hindi and English with two Lotus 9. Indira Gandhi 1971
flowers in the back. 10. Varahgiri Venkata Giri 1975
Its lace is half blue and half orange in colour. 11. Kumaraswamy Kamaraj* 1976
Ashoka Chakra: 12. Mother Teresa 1980
Circular, a facade of the Ashoka Chakra is engraved in the
13. Acharya Vinoba Bhave* 1983
centre on its obverse, with a lotus garland around it, on the
14. Khan Abul Gaffar Khan 1987
reverse the word Ashoka Chakra in Hindi and English is
15. Marudur Gopalan Ramachandran* 1988
inscribed.
16. Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar* and Nelson Mandela 1990
Its lace is green and divided into two equal parts by an
17. Rajiv Gandhi*, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel* and 1991
orange vertical line. Morarji Desai
Kirti Chakra: 18. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad*, JRD Tata and Satyajit 1992
It is circular in shape and made of standard silver. Its facade Ray
is engraved with a replica of the Ashoka Chakra surrounded 19. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, Gulzarilal Nandaand Aruna 1997
by a lotus rosary. It is engraved in Hindi and English on Asaf Ali*
the back. 20. M.S. Subbulakshmi and C. Subrahmanyam 1998
Green colour ribbon divided into three equal parts by two 21. Pt. Ravi Shankar, Prof. Amartya Sen andGopinath 1999
orange vertical lines. Bardoloi*, Jayaprakash Narayan*
Shaurya Chakra: 22. Lata Mangeshkar, Ustad Bismillah Khan 2001
It is circular in shape and is made of bronze. Its facade is 23. Bhimsen Joshi 2009
engraved with a replica of the Ashoka Chakra surrounded 24. Sachin Tendulkar and Chintamani Nagesh 2014
by a lotus rosary. The back side has the Shaurya Chakra Ramchandra Rao (CNR Rao)
written in Hindi and English. 25. Atal Bihari Vajpayee and MadanMohan Malviya* 2015
Its lace is green and divided by three orange vertical lines 26. Pranab Mukherjee, Bhupen Hazarika* and Nanaji 2019
Deshmukh
into equal parts.
27. Karpoori Thakur*, M.S. Swaminathan*, P.V. 2024
Jawaharlal Nehru Award:
Narasimha Rao*, Lal Krishna Advani*, Chaudhary
This award was instituted in 1965. Charan Singh*
` 25 lakhs and a citation are provided under this award. * = Posthumous
It is administered by the Indian Council for International
Cultural Relations. Jnanpith Award Honoured Litterateur
Gandhi Peace Prize: Writer Work & Glory Year
This award is being given since 1995 by the Government 1. G. Shankar Kurup Odakkujal (Malayalam) 1965
of India to a person who played a significant role in World 2. Tarashankar Ganadevata (Bangla) 1966
Peace. Bandopadhyay
One crore and a citation are provided under this award. 3. K.V. Puttappa and Ramayana Darshanam 1967
Jnanpith Award is the highest award of India in the field of Umashankar Joshi (Kannada) (Gujarati)
literature. Nishith
439
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4. Sumitranandan Pant Chidambra (Hindi) 1968 29. Dr. Sitakant Odia Literature 1993
5. Firaq Gorakhpuri Gul - A - Nagma (Urdu) 1969 Mahapatra
6. Vishwanath Srimad Ramayana 1970 30. U.R. Ananthamurthi Kannada Literature 1994
Satyanarayana Kalpavriksham 31. M.T. Vasudevan Malayalam Literature 1995
(Telugu) Nair
7. Vishnu De Smriti Satta Bhavisht 1971 32. Shrimati Bangla Literature 1996
(Bangla) Mahasweta Devi
8. Ramdhari Singh 'Urvashi (Hindi) 1972 33. Ali Sardar Jafri Urdu Literature 1997
Dinkar 34. Girish Karnad Kannada Literature 1998
9. Gopinath Mohanti Matimtal (Oriya) 1973 35. Nirmal Verma and Hindi and Punjabi 1999
and D.R, Bendre Nakutanti (Kannada)
respectively Gurudayal Singh Literature respectively
10. Vishnu Sakha Yayati (Marathi) 1974 36. Indira Goswami Assamese Literature 2000
Khandekar 37. Rajendra Keshavlal Gujarati Literature 2001
11. P.V. Akilandam Chittapavai (Tamil) 1975 Shah
12. Shrimati Ashapurna First Prathruti (Bengali) 1976 38. D.Jayakantan Tamil Literature 2002
Devi. (First Lady) 39. Vinda Karandikar Marathi Literature 2003
13. Dr. K.Sivaram Mookazjia Kansuguv 1977 40. Rahman Rahi Kashmiri Literature 2004
Karanth. (Kannada)
41. Kunwar Narayan Hindi Literature 2005
14. Dr. Sachchidananda Kitni Navon Mein Kitni 1978
Hiranand Vatsyayan Bar (Hindi) 42. Rabindra Kelekar Konkani & Sanskrit 2006
'Agyeya' and Satyavrat Literature
Shastri
15. Dr. Virendra Kumar Mrityunjay (Assamese) 1979
Bhattacharya 43. O.N.V. Kurup Malayalam Literature 2007
16. S.K. Pottetak Oru Desatinte Katha 1980 44. Shaharyar Urdu Literature 2008
(Malayalam) 45. Amarkant and Hindi Literature 2009
17. Amrita Pritam Kagaz Te Canvas 1981 Shrilal Shukla
(Punjabi) 46. Chandrasekhar Kannada Literature 2010
18. Mahadevi Verma Yama (Hindi) 1982 Kambar
19. Venkatesh Iyengar Chikkavir Rajendra 1983 47. Pratibha Ray Odia Literature 2011
(Kannada) 48. Dr. Rawuri Telugu Literature 2012
20. Thaka-zhi Kayar (Malayalam) 1984 Bhardwaj
Shivshankar 49. Kedarnath Singh Hindi Literature 2013
Pillai 50. Bhalchandra Marathi Literature 2014
21. Pannalal Patel Manavini Bhavai 1985 Nemade
(Gujarati) 51. Raghuveer Gujarati Literature 2015
22. Sachchidanand Oriya Literature 1986 Chaudhary
Rautare 52. Shankha Ghosh Bangla Literature 2016
23. Vishnu Vaman Marathi Literature 1987 53. Krishna Sobti Hindi Literature 2017
Shirwadkar 54. Amitav Ghosh (First English Literature 2018
24. Dr. C.Narayan Telugu Literature 1988 Prize Winner for
Reddy English Literature)
25. Qurratulain Hyder Urdu Literature 1989 55. Akkitham Achuthan Malayalam Literature 2019
26. Vinayak Krishna Kannada 1990 Namboothiri
Gokak 56. Nilmani Phookan Assamese Literature 2021
Literature 57. Damodar Maujo Konkani Literature 2022
27. Subhash Bangla Literature 1991 58. Swami Rambhadra Sanskrit Literature 2023
Mukhopadhyay Charya
28. Naresh Mehta Hindi Literature 1992 57. Gulzar Urdu Literature 2023
440
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Dadasaheb Phalke Awardees 44. Pran 2012

Person Year 45. Gulzar (Sampurn Singh Kalra) 2013
1. Devika Rani Roerich 1969 46. Shashi Kapoor (Balbir Raj) 2014
2. Virendranath Sarkar 1970 47. Manoj Kumar 2015
3. Prithviraj Kapoor 1971 48. Kasinathuni Vishwanath 2016
4. Pankaj Mullick 1972
49. Vinod Khanna 2017
5. Sulochana (Ruby Myers) 1973
50. Amitabh Bachchan 2018
6. B.N. Reddy 1974
51. Rajni Kanth 2019
7. Dhiren Nath Ganguly 1975
52. Asha Parekh 2020
8. Kanan Devi 1976
9. Nitin Bose 1977 53. Ms. Waheeda Rehman 2021
10. Raichandra Boral 1978
Major Indian Writers and Their Books
11. Sohrab Modi 1979
12 P. Jairaj 1980 Writers Books
13. Naushad Ali 1981 Asvaghosha Buddhachritam
14. L.V. Prasad 1982 Banabhatta Kadambari
15. Durga Khote 1983 Firdausi Shahnamah
16. Satyajit Ray 1984 Shudrak Mrichakatikam (Clay Toy)
17. V. Shantaram 1985 Vatsyayana Kamasutra
18. B.Nagi Reddy 1986 Pliny Natural History
19. Raj Kapoor 1987
Dandi Dashkumarcharitam, Avanti Sundari
20 Ashok Kumar 1988
Amar Singh Amarkosh
21. Lata Mangeshkar 1989
Surdas Sahitya- Lehri,Sursagar
22. Akkineni Nageswara Rao 1990
23. Bhalji Pendharkar 1991 Jimutavahan Daibagh
24. Bhupen Hazarika 1992 Gulbadan Begum Humayun-nama
25. Majrooh Sultanpuri 1993 Bhrartruhari Neeti- Shatak
26. Dilip Kumar 1994 Nirad C. Hinduism, A Passage to England, The
27. Dr. Rajkumar 1995 Chaudhary Autobiography of an Unknown Indian,
28. Shivaji Ganesan 1996 Culture in the Vanity Bag
29. Kavi Pradeep 1997 Vishnu Sharma Panchatantra
30. BR Chopra 1998 Raskhan Premavatika
31. Hrishikesh Mukherjee 1999 Rabindra Nath Chitrangada, Geetanjali, Bisarjan, The
32 Asha Bhosle 2000 Tagore Gardener, The Hungry Stones, Gora,
33. Yash Chopra 2001 Chandalika
34. Dev Anand 2002 Maithilisharan Bharat - Bharati
35. Mrinal Sen 2003 Gupta
36. Adoor Gopalakrishnan 2004 Amrita Pritam Kagaz Te Canvas, Pinjar, Rasidi Ticket
37. Shyam Benegal 2005 Khushwant Singh Indira Gandhi Returns, The Company
38. Tapan Sinha 2006 of Women, Train to Pakistan.
39. Manna Dey 2007 Vijay Tendulkar Sakharam Binder, Khamosh ! Adalat
40. V.K.Murthy 2008 Jarri Hai
41. D.Ramanaidu 2009 Vedvyas Shrimad Bhagvad Gita, Mahabharata
42 K. Balachander 2010 Indira Gandhi Eternal India
43. Soumitra Chatterjee 2011 Jaishankar Prasad Kamayani, Aansu, Lahar, Kankal, Titali
441
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Arvind Ghosh The Life Divine, Essays on Geeta, Ramdhari Singh Kurukshetra, Urvashi
Letters on Yoga 'Dinkar'
Suryakant Tripathi Anamika, Parimal, Kukurmuta R. K Narayan The Dark Room, Malgudi Days, The
'Nirala' Guide, My Days, The Financial Expert
Mahadevi Varma Yama, Neehar,Neerja, Atit Ke Devkinandan Chandrakanta
Chalchitra, Smriti ki Rekhayein Khatri
Nayantara Sehgal A Vice for Freedom, Rich Like Us Sarat chandra Devdas, Charitraheen, Srikanth
V.S. Naipaul An Area of Darkness, In a Free State, Chattopadhyay
A Bend in the River R.C. Dutta The Economic History of India
Visakhadatta Mudrarakshaas Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Waiting for a Visa
Panini Ashtadhyayi
Dr. S. Indian Philosophy Latest Famous Books and Its Authors
Radhakrishnan Books Authors
Vigyaneshwar Mitakshara The Race of my life Milkha Singh
Kalhan Rajatarangini Freedom in Exile Dalai Lama
Chanakya Arthashastra The Discomfort of Evening Marieke Lucas Rijneveld
Kalidas Kumarasambhavam, Raghuvansham, One Arranged Murder Chetan Bhagat
Abhigyan Shakuntalam Five Point Someone Chetan Bhagat
Jayadev Geet Govind
Amazing Ayodhya Neena Roy
Bhavabhuti Malati Madhav, Uttararamcharitam
Hurda Atharva Pandit
Malik Mo. Jayasi Padmavat
Quaterlife Devika Rege
Abul Fazl Aine Akbari, Akbarnama
The winner's Mindset Shane Watson
Kabirdas Bijak, Ramani, Sabad
India-the Road to Renaissance Bhimeswara Challa
Alberuni Kitab-ul-Hind
: A Vision and an Agenda
Mulk Raj Anand Quli, Confession of a Lover,
"Knife" - A harrowing Tale Salman Rushdie
Untouchable
of Resilience and the fight for
Kuldip Nayar The Judgment, Distant Neighbours, Free speech
India-The Critical Years, In Jail, India
The conspiracy Gotabaya Rajapaksa
After Nehru, Beyond the Lines (Auto-
Basic Structure and Republic P.S. Sreedharan Pillai
biography)
Kazi Nazrul Islam Agniveena Sculpted Stones : Mysteries Ashwin Prabhu
of Mamallapuram
Swami Shivanand Practice of Brahmacharya, Philosophy
of Dreams, Japyoga Ek Samandar Mere Andar Sanjeev Joshi
Prem Chand Godan, Gaban Karmabhoomi, Rang- Assam's Brave heart Lachit Arup Kumar Dutta
Barphukan
bhumi, Sevasadan, Nirmala
B.M. Kaul The Untold Story, Confrontation with Resolved : Uniting Nations in Ban-Ki-Moon
a Divided World
Pakistan
Agyey Kitni Navon men Kitni baar, Shekhar : Cooking to save your life Abhijit Banerjee
Ek Jivani, Apne-Apne Ajnabi, Nadi Ke Lal Salaam Smriti Irani
Dweep, Hari ghas par Kshan Bhar, Are Veer Savarkar : The man Uday Mahurkar and
yayawar Rahega Yad? who could
Sarojini Naidu The Golden Threshold, The Broken have prevented partition Chirayu Pandit
Wing Actually I Met them : A Gulzar
Yashpal Dada Comrade, Jhutha Sach, Meri Teri Memoir
Uski Baat Hit Refresh Satya Nadella, Greg Shaw,
Sumitranandan Kala Aur Budha Chand, Gramya, Jill Tracie, Nichols
Pant Pallav, Chidambara A Century Is Not Enough Sourav Ganguly
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Unstoppable:My Life So Far Maria Sharapova Blind Man Of Hindoostan : General K. Sundarji
Exam Warriors Narendra Modi Indo-Pak Nuclear War
The English Patient Michael Ondaatje The God Of Small Things Arundhati Roy
Inheritence of Loss Kiran Desai (SSC CHSL 2017) Kargil From Surprise to General V.P. Malik
Victory
Golden Girl P.T. Usha (MPPCS Pre, 2013)
Rediscovery of India Meghnad Desai
Leila Prayaag Akbar
(UPPCS Pre, 2010
Skyfire Arun Raman
My country my life Lal Krishna Advani
Swapnpash Manisha Kulshresth [UK PSC (Mains), 2006]
India Positive, Half Chetan Bhagat Wings of Fire Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
Girlfriend, 2 States, Five (SSC CHSL, 2017)
Points Someone
The God of Small Things Arundhati Rai (CPO SI, 2022)
Meluha’s Mritunjay, Naga's Amish Tripathi
Mother Teresa Naveen Chawla
Secret
Netaji and Gandhi B.K. Ahluwalia & Shashi
The Accidental Prime Sanjay Baru
Minister Ahluwalia
India Towards Anarchy N.S. Saxena
We Are Displaced Malala Yousafzai
(1967-92)
The Stolen Light Veda Mehta
The Golden Gate, A Suitable Vikram Seth
A River Sutra Geeta Mehta
Boy
My Frozen Turbulence in Jagmohan
The Insider P.V. Narasimha Rao
Kashmir
Indian Controversies: Essays Arun Shourie
The Degeneration of India T.N. Seshan
on Religion in Politics
Sansad Upanishad M.F. Hussain
The Brief History of Time Stephen Hawking
Rajiv Sonia Gandhi
Mission to India Stanley Kalpage
Sanskar U.R. Ananthamurthy
Doctor of the East Benazir Bhutto
The Rediscovery of India Meghnad Desai
First Person Vladimir Putin
A Brush with Life Satish Gujral
Peace has no Alternative Mikhail Gorbachev
My Country My Life Lal Krishna Advani
Living History Hillary Clinton
Half a Life V.S. Naipal
Another Life Derek Walcott
Straight From the Heart Kapil Dev
Lajja Tasleema Nasreen
A New World Amit Chaudhary Mother Teresa Down Derek O'Brien, Sunil K. Dutt
Somnath: The Many Vices of Romila Thapar Memory Lane
a History
Long Walk to Freedom Nelson Mandela
The Namesake, Interpreter of Jhumpa Lahiri
The Satanic Varses, Salman Rushdie
Maladies
Midnights Children
Burial at Sea Khushwant Singh
The Perils of Democracy P.C. Alexander
Fasting, Feasting Anita Desai
Freedom from fear Aung San Suu Kyi
Let's Kill Gandhi Tushar A. Gandhi
The Longest Race Tom Alter
Ignited Minds A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
City Of Joy Dominic Lapier
Heads and Tales Maneka Gandhi
How I Play Golf Tiger Woods
Towards a Hunger-Free M.S. Swaminathan
World The Path To Power Margaret Thatcher
Seshan: An Antiment Story K. Govindan Kutty Can Pakistan Survive Tariq Ali
Sansad Meen Teen Dashak Atal Bihari Vajpayee The Invisible Man H.G. Wales

443
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Major Foreign Authors and Their Books

7 International Organizations
Authors Books
1. Pliny Natural History United Nations :
2. H. W. Longfellow The Song of Hiawatha, Poems on Establishment of the United Nations including 51 Countries
Slavery of the world took place on October 24, 1945.
3. Dante Divine Comedy Therefore, on 24 October every year, United Nations Day
4. Homer Iliad, Odyssey is celebrated across the world.
5. Albert Einstein The World as I See It, Relativity,
The contemporary President of the United States of
The Special and the General
Theory America, Franklin D. Roosevelt named United Nations.
6. Seymour M. Harsh The Price of Power Currently, the number of member countries of the United
7. Winston Churchill The Gathering Storm (The Sec-ond Nations is 193.
World War Volume I) South Sudan is the 193rd member of the United Nations.
8. Newton The Principia United Nations headquarter is located on Manhattan Island
9. Plato The Republic in New York City.
10. Maxim Gorky The Mother, The Life Of a Useless Working languages of the United Nations are French,
11. Adolf Hitler Mein Kampf English, Arabic, Chinese, Russian and Spanish.
12. Aristotle Politics, Poetics The flag of the United Nations is light blue, with the symbol
13. Russo The Social Contract of the United Nations in white colour.
14. Charles Darwin The Descent of Man,On the Origin The symbol of the United Nations has two curved olive
of Species branches opened upwards and the world map between them.
15. Edward Thomson A Farewell to India The General Assembly approves the budget of the United
16. Adam Smith The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Nations. This is mentioned in Article 17 of the United
An Inquiry into the Nature and
Nations' Charter.
Causes of the Wealth of Nations
17. Arthur Hailey Airport, Hotel, Wheels The United Nations regular budget is approved every
18. Henry Miller Tropic of Cancer, Black Spring second year.
19. John Milton Paradise Lost There are 6 parts of the United Nations - General Assembly,
20. Gunnar Myrdal Asian Drama, An American Security Council, Economic and Social Council, Trust
Dilemma, Against the Stream Council, International Court of Justice and Secretariat.
21. George Orwell Animal Farm, Nineteen Eighty- The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague,
four Netherlands.
22. Z.A. Bhutto Great Tragedy, The Myth of Additionally, the offices of all other organs of the United
Independence Nations are located in New York.
23. Mao - Tse - Tung On Contradiction General Assembly:
24. A.L. Basham The Wonder That Was India United Nations General Assembly is also called the world's
25. E.M. Forster A Passage to India parliament.
26. Katherine Mayo Mother India Member States of the United Nations are represented in the
27. Diana Mosley A Life of Contrasts
General Assembly.
28. Harold Macmillan Riding the Storm (1956-59), The
All member countries of the United Nations can send a
Middle Way
maximum of 5 representatives to the General Assembly,
29. Leo Tolstoy War and Peace
but the vote of all the representatives of one country is
30. J.K. Galbraith The Nature of Mass Poverty,
considered to be the same.
31. Charles Dickens Oliver Twist, David Copperfield,
A Tale of Two Cities. The regular session of the General Assembly starts on the
32. Shakespeare Hamlet, Othello, A Midsummer third Tuesday of September every year.
Night's Dream, As You Like It At the time of holding the regular session, the General
33. George Bernard Caesar and Cleopatra, Man and Assembly elects a Speaker, 21 Deputy speakers.
Shaw Superman, Arms and the Man. Special sessions may also be organized by the General
34. Herold J. Laski A Grammar of Politics Assembly at the request of the Security Council.
444
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The appointment of the General Secretary of the General It is noteworthy that it suspended its operations on
Assembly, passing the budget of the United Nations, November 1, 1994 as the territories included in it were
granting membership to new countries, and the appointment either declared completely independent or merged with
of judges to the International Court of Justice on the other countries.
recommendation of the Security Council are the functions Secretariat:
of the United Nations General Assembly. The Chief of the United Nations Secretariat is General
United Nations Security Council (UNSC): Secretary.
The Security Council is the main organ of the United The Secretary-General is appointed for 5 years on the
Nations. recommendation of the Security Council. Any person can
The main function of the Security Council is to maintain be appointed to the post of Secretary General more than
international peace and security. once.
Security Council consists of 5 permanent and 10 temporary International Court of Justice:
members i.e 15 members in total. International Court was established in 1945.
To decide on a subject in the Security Council, 9 out of 15 It is the principal judicial body of the United Nations.
member states should get the support and five out of these Its headquarter is located in The Hague (Netherlands).
9 supporting members must be permanent members. The number of judges in the International Court of Justice
If a permanent member does not want to support a subject, is 15. But no member country has more than one judge.
he / she may also be absent at the time of voting.
Judges are appointed for 9 years and 5 judges retire
Permanent members of the Security Council consensus on
after every 3 years. International Court of Judges among
any subject is common consent and disagreement on the
themselves elects one chairman and one vice-chairman for
same is termed as veto power.
three years.
If a permanent member country does not agree on any
The minimum quorum number of judges for conducting
subject, it can exercise the prohibition and in this case, the
proceedings in the International Court of Justice is 9.
proposal will not be accepted.
United States of America, U.K., China, Russia and France International Organizations, Headquarters
are permanent members of the Security Council. and Years of Establishment
Elects temporary members of the Security Council for two Organization Headquarter Year
years by its two-thirds majority by the General Assembly. International Telecommunica- Geneva (Switzerland) 1865
United Nations Economic and Social Council: tion Union (ITU)
The Economic and Social Council is a permanent Universal Postal Union (UPU) Bern (Switzerland) 1874
institution. International Labor Organiza- Geneva (Switzerland) 1919
tion (ILO)
The current number of members of the Economic and Social
Council is 54. World Health Organization Geneva (Switzerland) 1948
(WHO) World Meteorological
The members of the Economic and Social Council have a
Organization (WMO) Geneva (Switzerland) 1950
tenure of 3 years.
World Intellectual Property Geneva (Switzerland) 1967
One-third of its members are relieved every year. Released Organization (WIPO)
members may also be re-elected.
World Trade Organization 1995
The Economic Social Council caters to various standing (WTO) Geneva (Switzerland)
committees, special institutions and commissions such as International Monetary Fund Washington D.C. 1944
the Population and Traffic Commission, the Economic (IMF) (USA)
Employment Commission and the United Nations World Bank Washington D.C. 1944
Children's Crisis Fund. (USA)
United Nations Trusteeship Council: International Atomic Energy Vienna (Austria) 1957
Agency (IAEA)
It was established in 1945.
The United Nations had accepted The Trust System. United Nations Industrial Vienna (Austria) 1966
Development Organization
The basic principle of the Trust System is that the (UNIDO)
developed countries had to take care of the interests of the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Vienna (Austria) 1996
residents of the underdeveloped and primitive condition, Ban Treaty Organization
considering the trust or non-security. (CTBT)
445
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World Tourism Organization Madrid (Spain) 1975 Federation Internationale de Zurich (Switzerland) 1904
(UNWTO) Football Association (FIFA)
International Civil Aviation Montreal (Canada) 1944 International Cricket Council Dubai (UAE) 1909
Organization (ICAO) (ICC)
United Nations Food and Agri- Rome (Italy) 1945 International Hockey Federation Lausanne (Switzerland) 1924
culture Organization (UNFAO) (FIH)
International Agricultural De- Rome (Italy) 1977 World Chess Federation (FIDE) Lausanne (Switzerland) 1924
velopment Fund (IFAD) International Nature Conserva- Gland(Switzerland) 1948
UNESCO Paris (France) 1946 tion Union (IUCN)

International Maritime London (UK) 1958 Internet Corporation for As- Los Angeles, (USA) 1998
signed Names and Numbers
Organization (IMO) (ICANN)
Chemical Weapons Prohibition The Hague (Nether- 1997 Doctors Without Borders Me- Geneva (Switzerland) 1971
Organization(OPCW) lands) decins Sans Frontiers (MSF)
United Nations (UN) New York (USA) 1945 International Shooting Sports Munich (Germany) 1907
Federation (ISSF)
United Nations Children's Fund New York (USA) 1946
(UNICEF) New Development Bank (NDB) Shanghai (China) 2014
United Nations Population Fund New York (USA) 1969 United Nations Environment (Kenya) Nairobi 1972
(UNFPA) Program (UNEP)
Asian Development Bank Manila (Philippines) 1966
United Nations Trade and Geneva (Switzerland) 1964
(ADB)
Development Conference
(UNCTAD) International Organization for Geneva (Switzerland) 1951
Migration (IOM)
International Committee of the Geneva (Switzerland) 1863
Red Cross : ICRC) World Wildlife Conservation Gland (Switzerland) 1961
Fund (WWF)
International Organization for Geneva (Switzerland) 1947
Standardization (ISO) Greenepeace Amsterdam (Nether- 1971
lands)
Organization for Economic Paris (France) 1961
Cooperation and Development Indian Judges in the International Court of Justice:
(OECD) 1. Benegal Narasimha Rao (1952-53)
Organization of Petroleum Ex- Vienna (Austria) 1960 2. Nagendra Singh, Judge of the International
porting Countries (OPEC) Court of Justice 1973–88 as a Vice-chairman,
Amnesty International (AI) London (UK) 1961 1976-79 as a Chairman till 1985-88).
North Atlantic Treaty Organiza- Brussels (Belgium) 1949 3. Raghunandan Swaroop Pathak (1989-91)
tion (NATO) 4. Dalbir Bhandari (2012-till now)
Transparency International (TI) Berlin (Germany) 1993 United Nations Union Secretary-Generals
International Renewable Energy Abu Dhabi (U.A.E.) 2009 Name Country Tenure
Agency(IRENA)
1. Trigwe Lee Norway February 1946 to
South Asian Association for Kathmandu (Nepal) 1985 November 1952
Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
2. Deg Hammersold Sweden April 1953 to
Association Southeast Asian Jakarta (Indonesia) 1967 September 1961
Nations (ASEAN) 3. U Thant Myanmar November 1961 to
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooper- Singapore 1989 December 1971
ation (APEC) 4. Kurt Waldheim Austria January1972 to
Organization of Islamic Cooper- Jeddah (Saudi Arabia) 1969 December 1981
ation (OIC) 5. Javier Perez de Cuellar Peru January, 1982 to
Indian Ocean Rim Association Eben (Mauritius) 1997 December, 1991
for Regional Cooperation (IOR- 6. Boutros Boutras Ghali Egypt Jan. 1992 to Dec. 1996
ARC) 7. Kofi Annan Ghana Jan. 1997 to Dec. 2006
International Olympic Commit- Lausanne (Switzerland) 1894 8. Ban-Ki Moon South Korea January 2007 to
tee (IOC). December 2016
World Economic Forum (WEF) Geneva (Switzerland) 1971 9. Antonio Guterres Portugal January 2017 till now
446
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The 28th country of the European Union was Croatia which

8 World's Major Organizations joined the European Union on 1st July 2013, but after the
expulsion from the membership of this union by the United
Commonwealth of the World:
Kingdom (on 31 January 2020), Croatia is now the 27th
Commonwealth means ‘Group of Nations' or 'Union'.
country of this union.
The Commonwealth is an organization of countries under
It is noteworthy that on 23 June 2016, referendums were
the British Empire in the past. held in the United Kingdom and Gibraltar on the question of
Commonwealth was established in 1926. whether or not to remain in the European Union. The result
In 1949, the modern Commonwealth was formed and India of which came in favour of being free from the European
was made a member of the Commonwealth. Union.
Currently, the number of member states of the
Commonwealth is 56. Organizations of the European Union and
Commonwealth headquarter is located in 'London' (UK). Their Headquarters
India is the largest country of the Commonwealth in terms Organization Headquarter
of population. 1. European Parliament Strasbourg (France)
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization - (NATO): 2. European Council Strasbourg (France)
NATO was established on April 4, 1949. 3. Council of the European Union Brussels
It was established by Article 5 of the Washington Treaty 4. European Commission Brussels
on the principle of 'collective security'.
5. Court of the European Union Luxembourg
Currently, NATO has 32nd independent member countries.
6. European Central Bank Frankfurt
Sweden is the 32nd member country of NATO.
7. European Court of Auditors Luxembourg
NATO headquarter is located in Brussels (Belgium).
An armed attack against one or more NATO members is 8. European Economic & Social Brussels
Committee
considered an attack against all member states.
European Union: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
Inner Six 'countries of Europe (France, Netherlands, (OECD):
Belgium, Italy, Germany and Luxembourg) established European Organization for Economic Cooperation was
the European Economic Community 'on 1st January 1958, established in 1948.
through the Treaty of Rome. In 1961, the European Organization for Economic
The European Economic Community was later renamed Cooperation was converted into an Organization for
the European Union. Economic Cooperation and Development.
The headquarter of the Organization for Economic
Establishment of the European Union on 1 November 1993
Cooperation and Development is located in Paris.
in Maastricht (Netherlands).
The Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Headquarter of the European Union is located in Brussels
Development has 38 member countries.
(Belgium).
On 25th of May, 2021 Costa Rica formally became 38th
The total number of member countries in the European
member of OECD.
Union is 27.
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries - OPEC:
The European Union started the circulation of the euro
OPEC was established in 1960 in Baghdad.
currency on 1st January 2002.
OPEC's founding member countries are - Iraq, Iran, Kuwait,
Euro currency is prevalent in 20 EU member states (France,
Saudi Arabia and Venezuela.
Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, Germany, Luxembourg, OPEC has its headquarter in Vienna, Austria.
Cyprus, Austria, Finland, Greece, Estonia, Latvia, Ireland, OPEC's current number of members is 13 - Algeria, Angola,
Malta, Spain, Slovakia, Portugal, Croatia, Lithuania and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya,
Slovenia). Nigeria, Congo, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and
For the circulation of its currency (Euro) by the European Venezuela.
Union, the European Monetary Institute was established in (Non-Aligned Movement - NAM):
January 1994. In 1961, the first Conference of Non-Aligned Countries
The European Central Bank was established in Frankfurt, was held in Belgrade.
Germany on 1st June 1998 for circulation and control of the The Non-Aligned Movement headquarter is located in
Euro by the European Union. Jakarta, Indonesia.
447
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Currently, the number of Non-Aligned Member States is 120. Its administrative centre is located in Minsk (Belarus).
The country hosting the Non-Aligned Conference presides BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) :
the meeting. Brazil, Russia, India and China established a new economic
Red Cross: organization (BRIC) in 2006.
The Red Cross was founded in 1863 by Henry Dunant. On June 16, 2009 in Yekaterinburg, Russia, the first BRIC
Its headquarter is located in Geneva (Switzerland). summit was held.
The main objective of the Red Cross is to help those who South Africa got consent to be a member of BRICS in 2010
were affected by war or disaster. in its 2nd Summit that was held in Brasilia (Brazil).
World Red Cross and Red Crescent Day is celebrated every South Africa was included in this organisation on 14 April,
year on 8 May, the birthday of Henry Dunant. 2011 at the 3rd BRIC Summit held in China and named
The Red Cross has received the Nobel Peace Prize three 'BRICS'.
times in 1917, 1944 and 1963. 15th BRICS summit was organised in South Africa.
Arab League: The theme of this summit was BRICS and Africa :
Arab League was established on 22 March 1945 in Cairo Partnership for mutually Accelerated Growth sustainable
(Egypt). Development and Inclusive Multilateralism.
Currently, there are 22 member countries in the Arab
Significantly BRICS admitted four new member : Egypt,
League.
Ethiopi, Iran and UAE.
Its headquarter is located in Cairo.
Association of South - East Asian Nations - (ASEAN): List of First Women in /of India
'Association of Southeast Asian Nations' (ASEAN) was Achieve-
First Indian Woman Name
established on 8 August 1967. ment Year
Central Secretariat of ASEAN is located in Jakarta, President Pratibha Devi Singh 2007
Indonesia. Patil
Currently, there are 10 countries involved in ASEAN. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi 1966
India became a full dialogue partner country of ASEAN in Vidyalaya Director Savitri Bai Phule 1848
1996. (Female Teacher)
Asian Development Bank (ADB): Air Force Flight Engineer Hina Jaiswal 2019
Asian Development Bank was established in 1966. Fighter Jet Pilot to take a Avni Chaturvedi 2018
The number of Asian Development Bank member countries solo flight in Mig-21
is 68. Hawk Advance Jet Pilot Mohana Singh 2019
The Asian Development Bank's headquarter is located in Light Sport Aircraft, Who Arohi Pandit, 2019
Manila, Philippines. crossed the Atlantic and
The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation Pacific Ocean
(SAARC): Lok Sabha Speaker Meera Kumar 2009
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation was Rajya Sabha Deputy Violet Hari Alva 1962
established in December 1985. Speaker
Its headquarter is located in Kathmandu, Nepal.
Governor Sarojini Naidu (U.P) 1947
SAARC has 8 member countries - Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka,
UPSC Chairman Rose Million Bathew 1992
Maldives, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Afghanistan.
Mahila shasika Razia Sultan 1236
G-7 (Group. 7):
G-7 was founded in 1975. IAS Anna Rajam Malhotra 1951
Russia joined as the 8th member country at the G-7 summit IPS Kiran Bedi 1972
on June 20-22, 1997 in Denver (Colorado), USA, resulting Chief Minister Sucheta Kripalani 1963
in its name as G-8. (UP)
But, due to the suspension of Russia from membership in Union Health Minister Rajkumari Amrit Kaur 1947
2014, this organization is again known as G-7. Indian National Congress Dr. Annie Besant 1917
The countries included in the G-7 are - America, Canada, President
the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Germany and Japan. Supreme Court Judge. Meera Sahib Fatima 1989
Commonwealth of Independent Nations (CIS) : Bibi
Belarus, Ukraine and Russia jointly established the High Court Chief Justice. Leela Seth (Himachal 1991
'Commonwealth of Independent Nations'. In December 1991. Pradesh)
448
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Sessions Judge Anna Chandy (Kerala) 1948 Rajya Sabha Nominated Nargis Dutt 1980
Ashok Chakra recipient Neerja Bhanot 1987 (Film Actress)

India's Ambassador in Vijayalakshmi Pandit 1953 Sahitya Akademi Award Amrita Pritam 1956
United Nations Winner
Cross the English Channel Aarti Saha 1959 Who reached Antarctica Meher Moose 1976
Nobel Award Mother Teresa 1979 Participate in the Olympic Mary Leela Rao 1956
Everest Victory Bachendri Pal 1984 Games

Miss World Kumari Rita Faria 1966 First Female Actress to Devika Rani Roerich 1969
get Dada Saheb Phalke
Everest Winner Twice Santosh Yadav 1992, 1993
Award
Miss Universe Sushmita Sen 1994
National Women's Jayanti Patnaik 1992
Bharat Ratna Recipient Mrs. Indira Gandhi 1971
Commission Chairman
Jnanpith Award Recipient Ashapurna Devi 1976
Doordarshan News Pratima Puri. 1959
Train Driver Surekha Yadav – Reader
Miss Asia Pacific Zeenat Aman 1970 Olympic Badminton P.V. Sindhu 2016 (Rio
Man Booker Award Arundhati Roy 1997 (Women's Category) Olympic)
recipient Silver Medal
Asian Games wrestling Vinesh Phogat 2018 Olympic Badminton Saina Nehwal 2012 London
Gold Medal (in Women's category) Olympics
Bronze Medal
Outstanding MP Award Sushma Swaraj
recipient Olympic Women's 2016
Arjuna Award Recipient A. Lumsden 1961 Wrestling Bronze Medal Sakshi Malik (Rio Olym-
(Hockey) pics)
Olympic Medal Recipient Karnam Malleshwari 2000, Weight- Women's Foreign Sec- Chokila Iyer 2001
lifting (Bronze retary
Medal) Qualifier in Olympic Deepa Karmakar 2016
Both Arjuna and Rajiv Kunjurani (Grand Old 1990, Gymnastics
Gandhi Khel Award Lady) 1996-97 International Olympics Nita Ambani 2016
Recipients Committee Member
Female Mayor Tara Cherian 1957
(Chennai) Renowned Persons in India
Female Graduate Kamini Roy 1886 Achievement
(Prestige) India’s First Male Name
Year
Female Graduate Kadambini Ganguly 1883 Governor-General of India Lord William 1834
and Chandramukhi Bentinck
Basu
First Viceroy Lord Canning 1858
Pilot in Air Force Harita Kaur Deol 1994
Lieutenant General Punita Arora 2004 Last Viceroy in India Name Lord Mountbatten 1947
Air-Vice Marshal P. Bandopadhyay 2002 First Governor of Lord Mountbatten 1947
Achievement Year
Chairperson of Indian Sushma Chawla 2005
Airlines First and last (Indian) Chakravarathi 1948
First Indian American to Kalpana Chawla (US 1997 Governor-General of Rajagopalachari
go to space Citizen) Independent India

Oscar Award Recipient Bhanu Athaiya 1983 First President Dr Rajendra 1950
Prasad
Asian Games Gold medal Kamaljeet Sandhu 1970
First Muslim President Dr Zakir Hussain 1967
Reached the South Pole Reena Kaushal Dhar- 2009
mashaktu First Vice President Dr Sarvepalli 1952
Who crossed seven major Bula Chaudhary — Radhakrishnan
seas First Prime Minister Pt. Jawaharlal 1947
Crossed Gobi Desert Sucheta Kadethankar 2011 Nehru
Rajya Sabha First Woman V.S. Ramadevi 1993 First Deputy Prime Minister and Sardar Vallabh-
1947
General Secretary Home Minister bhai Patel

449
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First Education Minister Abul Kalam Azad 1947 First British to visit Mughal Sir William 1609
Court Hawkins
First Indian Minister to Resigns Shyama Prasad 1950
from Union Cabinet Mukherjee First American President to visit Dwight David 1959
First Air Commander in-Chief, Sir Thomas 1947 India Eisenhower
Air Marshal Amherst First British Prime Minister to David Harold 1958
First Chief of Army Staff General M.Rajen- 1955 visit India Macmillan
dra Singhji Jadeja First Russian Prime Minister to Nikolai Bulganin 1955
First Speaker of Lok Sabha Ganesh Vasudev 1952 visit India
Mavalankar First Indian Pilot J.R.D. Tata 1929
First Chief Election Sukumar Sen 1950 Olympics Personal Competition Abhinav Bindra 2008
Commissioner (10m Air Rifle, 2008) Medal Beijing
First Chief Justice Harilal J. Kania 1950 Winner for India (in Beijing) Olympics
First Chief Justice of India, Justice Sarosh 2010 First Indian to be British Dadabhai Naoroji 1892
Homi Member Of Parliament
Born in Independent India Kapadia The first Hindi Press Operator Pt. Jugal Kishore 1826
First Indian judge in Interna- Dr Nagendra 1985 in India Shukla
tional Court (Chairman) Singh World Badminton Champion- Prakash Padukone 1983
First in the International Court Sir Benegal 1952 ships First Indian Medal Winner (Bronze Medal)
of Justice Narsing Rao
First President of Indian Vyomesh Chandra 1885 First in India
National Congress Banerjee Achievement
India’s First Name
First Muslim President of the Badruddin Tyabji 1887 Year
Indian National Congress
Nuclear Reactor Apsara 1956
First person to present freedom of Hasrat Mohani 1921
India proposal in the conference Nuclear Submarine INS Chakra 1987
of Indian National Congress First Submarine I.N.S. Kalvari 1967
First Nobel Prize Indian Rabindranath 1913
Aircraft Carrier I.N.S. Vikrant 1961
Recipient Thakur
India's First Nobel Laureate C.V. Raman 1930 Short Distance Missile Prithvi 1988
Scientist (Physics) Asian Games Organized Delhi 1951
First Indian Magsaysay Award Acharya Vinoba 1958
Doordarshan Kendra New Delhi 1959
Recipient Bhave
Stalin Shanti Award recipient Saifuddin Kicthlu 1952 Doordarshan for the first — 1982
First Indian time Broadcasted coloured
programs
Golden Globe Award Winner A.R. Rahman 2009
First Indian Silent Film Raja 1913
Bharat Ratna Awarded to First Khan Abdul 1987 Harishchandra
Foreign Citizen Ghaffar Khan Talkie (Sound) Film Alam Ara 1931
First Indian, honoured with G.Shankar Kurup 1965
Jnanpith Award
India's First Technicolor Jhansi Ki Rani 1953
Film
First Person to be successful in Satyendra Nath 1863
I.C.S. Tagore First Sponsored Serial Hum Log 1984
First Indian born person to Rakesh Sharma 1984 First 3-D Film My Dear 1984
reach in space Kuttichatan
First Indian to cross the English Mihir Sen 1958 India's First Newspaper Bengal Gazette 1780
Channel
First Women's Employment Office Jaipur —
First Indian Palk Strait Swim- Baidyanath 1967
ming Competition Winner India's First Highspeed
The first Chinese Traveller to Fa Hien 405-411AD Rural Broad Band Network Idukki (Kerala) 2015
visit India Launched
450
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India’s Biggest, Largest and Tallest Dams, India's Longest Tributary Yamuna River
Parks, etc. South India's Longest Godavari
River
Longest Road Bridge Bhupen Hazarika Setu (Assam)
Longest Dam Hirakud Dam (Odisha)
Largest Animal Fair Sonpur (Bihar)
India's Highest Gallantry Paramveer Chakra
Highest Tower Fateh Burj (Punjab)
Award
Highest gravitational dam Bhakra Dam (Punjab) India's Highest Honour Bharat Ratna
Largest Desert Thar (Rajasthan) Largest Gurdwara Golden Temple, Amritsar
Largest Cave Temple Kalash Temple (Ellora, Maharashtra) Largest Church Se Cathedral (Goa)
Largest Zoo Arignar Anna Zoological Park Tallest T.V. Tower Rameswaram (Tamil Nadu)
(Chennai)
Longest Coastline State of South India, Andhra Pradesh
Largest Masjid Taj-ul- Masjid (Bhopal) Sonpur
Longest Beach Marina Beach (Chennai)
The Highest Peak Godwin Austin (K - 2)
The most diverting river Kosi River
The Longest Tunnel (Road) Chenani - Nashri tunnel (9.28 km)
Jammu - Kashmir The largest artificial lake Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar

Longest Tunnel (Railway) Pir Panjal (11.215 km) Jammu Deepest river valley Bhagirathi and Alaknanda
Kashmir The highest altitude battle Siachen Glacier
The Largest Delta Sundarbans Delta (West Bengal) ground is situated at

The Largest State of Madhya Pradesh Largest River Island Majuli (Brahmaputra river, Assam)
Forests Largest Planetarium Birla Planetarium (Kolkata)
The Largest Corridor Ramanathaswamy Temple Largest State (area) Rajasthan
(Rameswaram Tamil Nadu)
Largest District (area) Kutch (Gujarat)
The Highest Waterfall Jog or Garasoppa (Karnataka)
(width) Fastest Running Train Vande Bharat (express)

Highest Darwaza Buland Darwaja (Fatehpur Sikri) Largest Fort Chittaurgarh Fort (Rajasthan)

Longest River Ganga River Longest Electrified Rail Built between Cherlopalli in Tunnel
Nellore District and Raipuru Stations
Largest Museum Kolkata Museum (Andhra Pradesh)
Largest Gumbad Gol Gumbad (Bijapur) Radio Station at the All India Radio’s Leh Station
Tallest Statue Statue of Unity (Gujarat) Highest Altitude

Highest Rainfall Place Masynram (Meghalaya) Biggest Bhawan Rashtrapati Bhavan (New Delhi)

Longest Canal Indira Gandhi Canal (Rajasthan) Largest Exhibition Ground Pragati Maidan Complex (New
Delhi)
Largest Stadium Narendra Modi Stadium,
Largest Post Office Mumbai G.P.O.
Ahmedabad (Gujarat)
The Highest Located Hikkim (Himachal Pradesh)
Most Populous City Mumbai (Maharashtra)
Post Office
State with the most urban Maharashtra
area The longest distance Vivek Express (Dibrugarh to
covering train Kanyakumari)
Longest Rail Route Dibrugarh to Kanyakumari.
Largest Natural Port Mumbai (Maharashtra)
First Country/Person in the World
Longest National National Highway (NH - 27 EW)
Highway First Name in the World
Everest - Summit winner Sherpa Tenzin Norgay
State with the Longest Gujarat
(India) and Edmund Hillary
Coastline
(New Zealand)
Largest-Coastal Saltwater Chilka Lake (Odisha) First person to reach North Pole Robert Pieri (U.S.A.)
Lakes
First-person to reach Southern Roald Amundsen (Norway)
Sweet Water Largest Lake Wular Lake (Jammu and Kashmir) Pole
451
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The world's first religion Sanatan Dharma The first woman Prime Minister of Benazir Bhutto (Pakistan)
a Muslim country
The first woman to reach the Ann Bancroft
North Pole The first woman Prime Minister of S. Bandaranaike (Sri Lanka)
any country in the world
The first country to print a book China
The first woman to go to space Valentina Tereshkova (then
The first country to issue paper China
the Soviet Union)
currency
The first woman to reach the Junko Tbei (Japan)
The first country to start a civil China
summit of Everest
service competition
The first person to invade India Alexander
The first President of the United George Washington
States of America The first woman President of any Maria Estella Martinez
country Cartes de Peron (Argentina)
Britain's first Prime Minister Robbert Walpole
The first woman to reach the Carolyn Mickelson
United Nations first Secretary- Trygve Lie (Norway)
continent of Antarctica
General
The first person to draw a map of Anaximander
The first country to make Prussia
the Earth
education mandatory
The oldest first person to reach the Richard Bass
The first country to win Football Uruguay
summit of Everest
World Cup
The first Asian to win Wimbledon Ramanathan Krishnan
The first country to make United States of America
Boys' Singles title
Constitution
The first Nobel Prize to be Sali Prudhomme
First Governor-General of Mohammed Ali Jinnah awarded in literature
Pakistan
The first Nobel Prize in the field of Henry Dunant and Frédéric
The first conference of the Non- Belgrade peace was awarded to Passy
Aligned Movement
The first Nobel Prize in Physics W.W. C. Röntgen
The first European to reach China Marco Polo awarded to
The first person to fly in the world Right Brothers The first Nobel Prize in Chemistry J.H. Vant Hoff
The first person to travel by sea Ferdinand Magellan awarded to
around the world The first Nobel Prize in Reigner Frisch and John
The first country to send humans United States of America Economics awarded to Tinbergen
to the moon
First Woman to swim English Gertrude Ederle
The first country to launch an Prime Minister Soviet Union Channel
artificial satellite into space
The first country in the world Netherlands
The first country to host the Greece where the person was given the
modern Olympic Games right to die
The first President of the Republic Dr. Sun Yat-sen The first country to issue Bank Sweden
of China Note
The first city on which the atomic Hiroshima (Japan) The first country to provide Saudi Arabia
bomb was dropped citizenship to Robot (Sofia)
The country with the most animals India First country to legalise equal pay Iceland
The world's first university Taxila University
The first person to land on the Neil Armstrong (U.S.) World's Largest, Smallest, Lengthiest and Highest
moon The Largest Continent in the Asia
The first person to reach space Major Yuri Gagarin (Russia) World

First-person to float in space Alexey Leonov (Russia) The Smallest Continent Australia

The first space shuttle to be sent Colombia The Largest Ocean Pacific Ocean
into space The Deepest Ocean Pacific Ocean
The first woman Prime Minister of Margaret Thatcher The Largest City (in terms of Tokyo-Yokohama (Japan)
England area)

452
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The Largest Country (in terms Russia Highest Dam Nurek (Tajikistan)
of area)
Largest Dam (concrete) Jinping Eye Dam (China)
The Smallest Country (in terms Vatican City
of area) Longest Railway Platform Siddharoodha Swamiji Rail-
way Station (Karnataka)
Most Populous Country China
Largest Railway Station Grand Central
Highest Electoral Number India
Terminal (New York)
Minimum Population Density Antarctica
Highest population density Monaco Longest Railroad Trans Siberian Railroad
country The High Altitude Railway Tanggula (China)
Most Populous City Tokyo (Japan) Station

Least Populous City Vatican City Largest Rail Tunnel Goatyard Basetnal
(Switzerland)
The country with longest shared Canada
border Longest Road Tunnel Laerdal (Norway)
Shortest Border Country Vatican City Highest Road Umling La Pass (India)
Maximum Boundary Country Russia Longest Road Bridge Bang na Expressway
Largest Island Greenland (Thailand)

Largest Peninsula Arab Peninsula Longest Highway Pan - American highway

Largest Island - Group Country Indonesia Highest Capital La Paz (Bolivia)
Largest River - Island Majuli (Brahmaputra River, Largest Desert Sahara (Africa)
Assam)
Asia's Largest Desert Gobi (Mongolia)
Largest Delta Sundarbans (India)
Coldest Territory Vostok (Antarctica)
Longest River Nile river (Egypt)
Largest Mosque Mosque Al-Haram (Mecca,
Largest River (wide and Amazon (South America)
Saudi Arabia)
volume)
Highest Masjid Jama el-Jazeera (Djamaa- el-
Largest Sea South China Sea
Djazair) Algeria’
Largest Sub-sea Hudson sub-sea
Largest Cathedral Vesilica of St. Peter's Vatican
Smallest Bird Humming bird City (Italy)
Longest tributary Medira (a tributary of Amazon) Tallest Building Burj Khalifa (Dubai)
Busiest Commercial River Rhine river
Longest Wall China Wall
Busiest Canal Kiel canal
Largest Stadium Rungrado1stof May Stadium
Largest Lake Caspian Sea (North Korea)
Largest Freshwater Lake Superior lake (U.S.) Largest Clock Tower Abraaj Al Bait
Deepest Lake Baikal lake (Russia) Largest Seaport Shanghai (China)
Most High Altitude Lake Titicaca (S.America)
Bigger Airport based on Number Heartsfield - Jackson Atlanta
(sailing)
of Passengers International Airport
Highest Waterfall Salto Angel (Venezuela)
Largest Airport King Fahd, Dammam (Saudi
The Widest Waterfall The Khon Falls (Laos) Arabia)
The Largest Gulf The Gulf of Mexico Most Intelligent Animal Chimpanzee
The Highest Mountain Peak Mount Everest Most Gigantic Temple Temple of Angkor wat
The Highest Mountain Ranges The Himalayas (Asia) (Cambodia)
The Longest Mountain Range The Andes (South America) Largest Library Library of Congress
The Highest Plateau Pamir (Tibet) Plateau (Washington (U.S.A.)
Establishment - 1800)
The Highest Volcano Ojos del Salada (Argentina -
Located on the border of Chile) Largest Epic Mahabharata

Most Massive Active Volcano Mauna - Kea (Hawaiian Largest Park North-East Greenland National
Islands) Park

453
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Largest Planetarium Shanghai (China) Major Signs and Symbols

Largest Castle Forbidden City Beijing (China) Red Cross Medical Assistance and Symbol of
The Tallest Tree Sequoia TreeCalifornia Hospital
The Tallest Animal Giraffe Red Flag Revolution or Danger
The Largest Animal Blue whale Black Flag Protest Flag
The Largest Bird Ostrich
Yellow Flag Vehicle Carrying People with
Infectious Diseases
International Boundaries
Inverted Flag Symbol of Crisis
McMahon Line India and China
Tilted Flag National symbol of mourning
Radcliffe Line India and Pakistan
White Flag Agreement or Dedication symbol
38th Parallel Line North Korea and Korea
Red Triangle Family Planning Symbol
Maginot Line Germany & France
Pigeon Birds Peace Symbol
49th Parallel Line U.S.A. & Canada
Red Light Danger or Traffic Stop Symbol
Mannerheim Line Russia & Finland
Green Light Traffic Go Sign Symbol
Durand Line Pakistan & Afghanistan,
Blindfold and Black Justice Symbol
Stripe on Female Arm
Political Parties of Various Countries for Scales in Hand
U.S.A. Republican Party, Democratic Party Blackfold on Arms Mourning, protest and grief symbol
Israel Meretz Party, Labor Party, Likud Party, Hadash The two bones cross- Lightening the threat
Party, Shas Party, Blue and White Party ing each other and the
France The Republics. Socialist Party, skull above it
LA REPUBLICEN MARCHE! Chakra Symbol of progress
Australia Liberal Party of Australia, National Party of
Australia, Liberal National Party Major Countries and Their National Symbols
Bangladesh Bangladesh National Party, Awami League, Country Symbol
Jatiya Party
India Sarnath Ashoka Pillar Front Part
Nepal Communist Party, Nepali Congress Party,
Belgium Golden Lion
Rashtriya Janata Party Nepal
Sri Lanka Lion
China Chinese Communist Party, China
Turkiye Moon- Star
Democratic League
Denmark Lion
Sri Lanka United National Party, Freedom Party
Norway Lion
S. Africa African National Congress, National Party,
Bangladesh Water Lilly
Inkatha Freedom Party, Economic Freedom
Fighter Netherlands Lion
U.K Conservative and Unionist Party, Labor Party, U.K. Rose Flower
Liberal Democratic Party USA Eagle
Russia United Russia Party, Rodina, Communist Party, Japan Chrysanthemum
Liberal Democratic Party
Canada Maple Leaf
India Indian National Congress, Bharatiya Janata
Party, All India Trinamool Congress Australia Kangaroo
Pakistan Muslim League, Pakistan People's Party Russia Double Headed Eagle
454
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Government Documents of Major Countries MIBOR : Mumbai interbank offered Rate

Green Book Government Publication of Italy and Iran MEDP : Micro Enterprise Development Programme
Orange Book Government of Netherlands, Report FDI : Foreign Direct Investment
White Book Government of Portugal, China and Germany, NEIDS : North East Industrial Development Scheme
Government Publication AKIC : Amritsar Kolkata Industrial Corridor
White Paper UK and Government of India Report on a NIMZs : National Investment and Manufacturing Zones
special subject DMIC : Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor
Blue Book Official Report of the British Government EPS : Employee Pension Scheme
Gray Book Official Report of Belgium and Japan UTs : Union Territories
Government DIPP : Department of Industrial Policy & Promotion
Yellow Book Report of the Government of France IIUS : Industrial Infrastructure Upgradation Scheme
Joint Paper Report of two or more Governments Joint MIIUS : Modified Industrial Infrastructure Upgradation
Paper or Publication Scheme
SPVs: : Special Purpose Vehicles
Important Word Abbreviations
CLE : Council for Leather Exports
ITLU : ISRO Technical Liaision Unit
CPCB : Central Pollution Control Board
LMTPA : Lakh Metric Tonne Per Annum
GSDP : Green Skill Development Programme
PMBJP : Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Janaushadhi Pariyojna
UNFCCC : United Nations Framework Convention on
MEIS : Merchandise Exports from India Scheme Climate Change
FFS : Fund of Funds for Startups
GSLV : Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Important Indices and India's Performance
IMD : India Meteorological Department Top India's
Indices
HADR : Humanitarian Aid Distress Relief Country Ranking
NCMC : National Crisis Management Committee World Press Freedom Index, 2024 Norway 159th
SME : Small and Medium Enterprises Economic Freedom Index, 2024 Singapore 126th
CDSCO : Central Drugs Standard Control Organization Global Food Security Index, 2022 Finland 68th
GCNEP : Global Centre for Nuclear Energy Partnership
Global Hunger Index, 2022 Belarus 111th
AI : Artificial Intelligence
Global Innovation Index, 2023 Switzerland 40th
ITSSO : Investigation Tracking System for Sexual
Offences Global Peace Index, 2023 Iceland 116th
ERSS : Emergency Response Support System World Competitiveness Index, Singapore 39th
PMJVK : Pradhan Mantri Jan Vikas Karyakram 2024
NMF : National Maritime Foundation
India : As Sovereign Country
NDDTS : National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre
India is a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic
PRIs : Panchayati Raj Institutions
Republic with a Parliamentary form of government which is
PM-JAY : Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana federal in structure with unitary features. There is a Council
IBBI : Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India of Ministers with the Prime Minster as its head to advice
DDRS : Deendayal Disabled Rehabilitation Scheme the President who is the constitutional head of the country.
DRDO : Defence Research & Development Organization Similarly in states there is a Council of Ministers with
CEA : Central Electricity Authority the Chief Minister as its head, who advices the Governor.
This section provides insight of Indian governance and
IIP : Index of Industrial Production
administration at the Central, State as well as local level.
IPR : Intellectual Property Rights
Information about the Constitution of India, Parliament and
RIDF : Rural Infrastructure Development Fund Legislature, Union administration, State, District and Local
HDL : High Density Lipo protein Administration is given.
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States Governors, Chief Ministers and Capitals

(1 August, 2024)
State Governor Chief Minister Capital
Andhra Pradesh Justice (Retd.) S. Abdul Nazeer Nara Chandrababu Naidu Hyderabad
Arunachal Pradesh Lt. General Kaiwalya Trivikram Parnaik Pema Khandu Itanagar
Assam Lakshman Prasad Acharya Shri Himanta Biswa Sarma Dispur
Bihar Rajendra Vishwanath Arlekar Nitish Kumar Patna
Chhattisgarh Ramen Deka Vishnu Deo Sai Raipur
Goa P.S. Sreedharan Pillai Pramod Sawant Panaji
Gujarat Acharya Dev Vrat Bhupendra Patel Gandhinagar
Haryana Bandaru Dattatraya Nayab Singh Saini Chandigarh
Himachal Pradesh Shiv Pratap Shukla Sukhvinder Singh Sukhn Shimla
Jharkhand Santosh Kumar Gangwar Hemant Soren Ranchi
Karnataka Thaawarchand Gehlot Siddharamaian Bengaluru
Kerala Arif Mohammed Khan Pinarai Vijayan Thiruvananthapuram
Madhya Pradesh Mangubhai Chhaganbhai Patel Mohan Yadav Bhopal
Maharashtra C.P. Radhakrishnan Eknath Shinde Mumbai
Manipur Lakshman Prasad Acharya (Additional Charge) N. Biren Singh Imphal
Meghalaya C.H. Vijayashankar Conrad Kongkal Sangma. Shillong
Mizoram Dr. Kambhampati Haribabu P.U. Lalduhoma Aizawl
Nagaland La. Ganesan Neiphiu Rio Kohima
Odisha Raghubar Das Mohan Charan Manjhi Bhubaneswar
Punjab Gulab Chand Kataria Bhagwant Mann Chandigarh
Rajasthan Haribhau Kisanrao Badge Bhajan Lal Sharma Jaipur
Sikkim Om Prakash Mathur Prem Singh Tamang (Golay) Gangtok
Tamil Nadu R.N. Ravi M.K. Stalin Chennai
Tripura Indra Sena Reddy Nallu Manik Shaha Agartala
Telangana Jishnu Dev Varma A. Revanth Reddy Hyderabad
Uttar Pradesh Anandiben Patel Yogi Adityanath Lucknow
Uttarakhand Lt. Gen. Gurmit Singh Pushkar Singh Dhami Dehradun
West Bengal Dr. C.V. Ananda Bose Mamta Banerjee Kolkata

Union Territories : Governors / Administrators, Chief Ministers and Capitals

Union Territories Lt. Governors / Administrators Chief Minister Capital
Jammu and Kashmir Manoj Sinha (Lt. Governor) — Srinagar (Summer),
Jammu (Winter)
Ladakh B.D. Mishra (Lt. Governor) — Leh
Delhi (N.C.T.) Vinay Kumar Saxena (Lt. Governor) Arvind Kejriwal New Delhi
Puducherry K. Kailashnathan (Lt. Governor) N. Rangasamy Puducherry
Andaman and Nicobar Islands Devendra Kumar Joshi (Lt. Governor) (Lt. Governor) Port Blair
Chandigarh (UT) Gulab Chand Kataria (Administrator) — Chandigarh
Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Praful Patel (Administrator) — Daman
Daman and Diu
Lakshadweep Praful Patel (Administrator) — Kavaratti
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