Game Search Algorithms in AI

In artificial intelligence (AI), game search algorithms are used to make decisions in two-
player games (like chess, tic-tac-toe, checkers, etc.), as well as in single-player games like
puzzles. These algorithms help AI agents evaluate possible moves, simulate the outcome of
those moves, and select the best action based on certain criteria.

The primary goal of game search algorithms is to evaluate a large number of potential game
states efficiently, given that the number of possible states grows exponentially with the number
of moves.

Key Concepts in Game Search

1. Game Tree: A game tree represents all the possible moves in a game, starting from
the initial game state (root node). Each node in the tree represents a game state, and the
edges represent moves from one state to another. Each level of the tree corresponds to
a player's move (player 1's move, player 2's move, etc.).
2. Minimax Algorithm: This is a classic game tree search algorithm used to minimize
the possible loss for a worst-case scenario (i.e., minimizing the maximum loss). The
algorithm assumes that both players act rationally.
3. Alpha-Beta Pruning: This is an optimization technique for the Minimax algorithm that
reduces the number of nodes to evaluate in the game tree by "pruning" branches that
cannot affect the final decision.
4. Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS): A probabilistic algorithm used in more complex
games, like Go, to simulate and evaluate the best moves based on random sampling.
5. Heuristics: A heuristic function evaluates the desirability of a game state. For
example, in chess, heuristics might evaluate the board based on material count, piece
positions, and other features.

1. Minimax Algorithm

The Minimax algorithm is a decision rule for minimizing the possible loss for a worst-case
scenario. When dealing with two players, the algorithm tries to minimize the possible
maximum loss for the player using it (usually called the "maximizer"), while the opponent (the
"minimizer") tries to maximize the loss.

 Maximizing Player (Max): This player tries to maximize their score. In games like
chess, this could represent the AI.
 Minimizing Player (Min): This player tries to minimize the score of the maximizing
player. In chess, this could represent the opponent.

Steps in Minimax Algorithm:

1. Generate the game tree: Start from the initial game state and generate all possible
future states (moves).
2. Evaluate leaf nodes: The leaf nodes of the tree represent terminal game states (win,
loss, or draw).
3. Backpropagate values: The algorithm starts at the leaf nodes and propagates values
back up the tree.
 o If it’s the maximizing player’s turn, the node takes the maximum value of its
child nodes.
o If it’s the minimizing player’s turn, the node takes the minimum value of its
child nodes.
4. Choose the best move: The root node’s value gives the best move for the maximizing
player.

Minimax Pseudocode:

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function Minimax(node, depth, maximizingPlayer):
if depth == 0 or node is a terminal node:
return Evaluate(node) // Evaluate the board state

if maximizingPlayer:
maxEval = -∞
for each child of node:
eval = Minimax(child, depth - 1, false)
maxEval = max(maxEval, eval)
return maxEval
else:
minEval = ∞
for each child of node:
eval = Minimax(child, depth - 1, true)
minEval = min(minEval, eval)
return minEval

2. Alpha-Beta Pruning

Alpha-Beta Pruning is an optimization technique for the Minimax algorithm. It helps reduce
the number of nodes evaluated in the search tree. The idea is that we can prune branches of
the tree that won't affect the final decision. This is possible because we already have enough
information to know that the branch will not influence the final move.

 Alpha: The best value found so far for the maximizer (maximizing player).
 Beta: The best value found so far for the minimizer (minimizing player).

The pruning happens when the following conditions are met:

 If the maximizer’s value is greater than or equal to beta, the current branch can be
pruned.
 If the minimizer’s value is less than or equal to alpha, the current branch can be pruned.

Alpha-Beta Pruning Pseudocode:

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function AlphaBeta(node, depth, alpha, beta, maximizingPlayer):
if depth == 0 or node is a terminal node:
 return Evaluate(node) // Evaluate the board state

if maximizingPlayer:
maxEval = -∞
for each child of node:
eval = AlphaBeta(child, depth - 1, alpha, beta, false)
maxEval = max(maxEval, eval)
alpha = max(alpha, eval)
if beta <= alpha:
break // Beta cutoff
return maxEval
else:
minEval = ∞
for each child of node:
eval = AlphaBeta(child, depth - 1, alpha, beta, true)
minEval = min(minEval, eval)
beta = min(beta, eval)
if beta <= alpha:
break // Alpha cutoff
return minEval

3. Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS)

Monte Carlo Tree Search is a heuristic search algorithm for decision-making in games. It
works by building a tree of game states incrementally through random simulations, which helps
the AI choose the best move based on these simulations.

MCTS is particularly useful for games with large state spaces like Go or Magic: The
Gathering, where traditional search methods like Minimax would be too slow.

MCTS consists of four key steps:

1. Selection: Start from the root and recursively select the child node with the highest
potential until a leaf node is reached.
2. Expansion: If the leaf node is not terminal, expand the tree by adding a new node.
3. Simulation: Simulate a random playthrough from the newly expanded node to a
terminal state.
4. Backpropagation: Update the node’s statistics based on the simulation result (win or
loss).

MCTS Example:

 Suppose you are playing a game where you need to make a move. MCTS would
simulate random games (rollouts) from the current position and gather statistics on the
number of wins or losses. The AI would then pick the move that has the highest win
rate based on these simulations.

4. Heuristic Evaluation Functions

In complex games like chess or checkers, evaluating every possible game state using brute
force search is impractical. Instead, heuristic evaluation functions are used to evaluate a game
state based on various features, such as:

 Material advantage: Counting the number of pieces or resources owned by a player.

 Position: The arrangement of pieces on the board. For example, in chess, control of the
center is often considered valuable.
 Mobility: The number of available moves a player can make.
 King safety: In chess, how safe the king is from being attacked.

Applications of Game Search Algorithms

1. Chess: The most famous example where Minimax (with Alpha-Beta Pruning) is used.
Programs like Stockfish use these algorithms to evaluate millions of positions per
second.
2. Checkers: A classic game that uses Minimax and Alpha-Beta Pruning for optimal
decision-making.
3. Tic-Tac-Toe: A simpler example, often used to teach the basics of game search
algorithms.
4. Go: A more complex game where MCTS is often used because of the game's vast state
space. AlphaGo, the AI that defeated world champions, used a combination of deep
neural networks and MCTS.
5. Board Games (e.g., Connect Four): Games with relatively smaller search spaces can
efficiently use Minimax and Alpha-Beta pruning.

Comparison of Game Search Algorithms

Algorithm Strengths Weaknesses

Optimal, easy to understand, Computationally expensive
Minimax
guarantees best move (exponential complexity)
Efficient, prunes unimportant Still suffers from exponential
Alpha-Beta
branches complexity without good heuristics
Can handle large state spaces,
Monte Carlo Tree Not guaranteed to find optimal
works well in complex games like
Search (MCTS) solution, dependent on simulations
Go
Fast evaluation of large state Approximate and depends heavily
Heuristic Search
spaces, practical in many games on the quality of the heuristic

Conclusion

Game search algorithms are foundational for decision-making in AI, especially in games where
multiple actions and counter-actions need to be evaluated. The choice of algorithm depends on
the complexity of the game and the available computational resources:

 Minimax with Alpha-Beta Pruning works well for games with small to moderate state
spaces (like chess).
 MCTS is more effective for games with vast state spaces (like Go).
 Heuristic evaluation functions and machine learning techniques can further enhance
the performance of game-playing agents.
These algorithms have been used in AI research for decades and continue to play an important
role in game theory and decision-making systems.