THE HISTORIES BY HERODOTUS REVIEWER Persia.

He launched an attack on the Persian Empire, but it

CHARACTERS was Lydia, not Persia, that was ultimately destroyed.
Cyrus the Great, the Persian King, decisively defeated
CYRUS - also known as "Cyrus the Great," was the founder of Croesus, capturing him and planning to burn him alive.
the first Persian Empire. He waged successful military However, Croesus, remembering Solon's words, cried out the
campaigns against the Medians, Lydians, and Babylonians to Athenian's name upon the pyre. Touched by his remorse,
create the greatest empire in the world. Cyrus spared Croesus's life, marking a turning point in the
CAMBYSES I - was the father of Cyrus the Great. As ruler of Persian Empire's rise to power. The Rise of Cyrus the Great
Persia, he was initially a servant of Astyages, king of Media. and the Persian Empire Herodotus then shifts his focus to the
CAMBYSES II - succeeded his father, Cyrus, as king of Persia. history of the Persians, tracing their origins back to the
He invaded Egypt but eventually went mad. Median Empire. He recounts the story of Cyrus's birth and his
CROESUS - was the king of Lydia who misunderstood the early life, highlighting the prophecy that he would overthrow
oracle at Delphi and lost his kingdom to Cyrus as a result. the Median King Astyages. Cyrus, raised in secret after a
Thereafter, he served Cyrus. failed attempt on his life, eventually rose to power, leading a
EPHIALTES - was a Greek who betrayed his countrymen at rebellion against the Medes and ultimately conquering their
Thermopylae. empire.
EURYBIADES - was a Spartan naval commander of the Greek Herodotus describes Cyrus's military campaigns, his
fleet at Artemisium and Salamis. expansion of the Persian Empire, and his eventual death in
HARPAGUS - was the servant of Astyages who refused to battle. He also explores the Persian customs and values,
murder Cyrus as a child and secretly let him live. When his highlighting their respect for truthfulness and their embrace
deceit was revealed, Astyages had Harpagus's own son of foreign cultures.
cooked and served to him.
DARIUS - was the fourth ruler of the Persian Empire. He BOOK 2 (EUTERPE) SUMMARY
defeated many rebels, conquered Egypt, invaded the Indus
Valley in India, and was the first Persian ruler to invade Herodotus begins by describing the geography of Egypt,
Greece. focusing on the Nile River, the lifeblood of the civilization. He
XERXES - was the son of Darius and ruler of the Persian marvels at the river's annual floods, which bring fertility to
Empire. He was successful in capturing and destroying the land and sustain the Egyptian people. He explores various
Athens, but his navy was defeated at the Battle of Salamis. theories about the source of the Nile's floods, acknowledging
THEMISTOCLES - was an Athenian statesman who began the the limitations of his knowledge but demonstrating a
construction of Athens's navy and masterminded the victory thoughtful and inquisitive approach to understanding natural
at Salamis. He helped secure the rise of Athens as a naval phenomena.
power, but he was eventually exiled. Herodotus then delves into the wonders of ancient Egypt,
ARISTAGORAS - was the leader of the Ionian revolt against highlighting the pyramids, the Sphinx, and other monumental
Darius. structures that captured the imagination of the ancient
ARTYAGES - was the king of Media and a rival of Cyrus who Greeks. He emphasizes the vastness and antiquity of Egyptian
ordered Cyrus killed as a child. He was ultimately defeated by civilization, showcasing its cultural and economic wealth. He
Cyrus. even claims to have personally measured the pyramids,
HISTIAEUS - was the commander of the Ionian Greeks and adding a personal touch to his account and reinforcing his
part of Darius's army. credibility as a meticulous researcher.
LEONIDAS - Leonidas was the king of Sparta who led the Herodotus then turns his attention to the customs and beliefs
doomed defense of Thermopylae. of the Egyptians, contrasting their practices with those of the
MARDONIUS - Mardonius was a Persian general and the Greeks. He describes their religious rituals, festivals, and
commander of Persian forces after Salamis. beliefs about the afterlife, highlighting the unique and often
OTANES - Otanes was a wealthy Persian who uncovered the perplexing aspects of their culture. He also provides insights
magi's plot. into their social hierarchy, their reverence for animals, and
MILTIADES - Miltiades was the leading Athenian commander their methods of mummification.
at the Battle of Marathon. He explores the Egyptian concept of the afterlife, their belief
SMERDIS - Smerdis was the brother of Cambyses. He in the cyclical nature of time, and their complex system of
attempted to rule after Cambyses's death but was replaced deities and rituals. He describes the Egyptian practice of
by Darius. embalming and mummifying the dead, showcasing their
SOLON - Solon was an Athenian statesman who drew up the elaborate preparations for the afterlife and their belief in the
city's laws. He visited Lydia in Asia Minor and advised preservation of the soul.
Croesus on happiness. Herodotus then presents a brief history of Egypt, focusing on
PAUSANIANS - Pausanias was the Spartan military the reigns of various pharaohs, including Psammetichus I,
commander at Plataea. who reigned in the 7th century BC. He recounts stories of the
pharaohs, their achievements, and their struggles,
highlighting the long and complex history of Egypt. He also
BOOK 1 (CLIO) SUMMARY explores the role of foreign influences, such as the Assyrians
and the Greeks, in shaping Egypt's destiny.
Begins with the reign of Croesus, the wealthy and powerful He recounts the story of Psammetichus I's experiment to
King of Lydia, who ruled in the 6th century BC. Croesus, determine the origin of language, showcasing the Egyptians'
known for his vast riches and his ambition, sought to expand fascination with their own history and their belief in their
his empire, making the Greek city-states of Ionia his subjects. own antiquity. He also describes the reign of Amasis II, the
Herodotus describes Croesus's encounter with Solon, the last pharaoh before the Persian conquest, highlighting his
Athenian statesman and philosopher, who famously relationship with the Greeks and his role in shaping the
cautioned Croesus against excessive ambition, reminding him political landscape of the eastern Mediterranean.
that true happiness can only be judged at the end of one's life.
Croesus, however, dismissed Solon's advice, choosing instead BOOK 3 (THALIA) SUMMARY
to pursue his expansionist goals.
Driven by a desire to secure his empire from the rising power Begins by describing Cambyses's early life and his ambition
of Persia, Croesus consulted the Oracle of Delphi, seeking to conquer Egypt. He recounts Cambyses's preparations for
guidance on his future actions. The Oracle, in her cryptic the invasion, his strategic planning, and his eventual
pronouncements, warned Croesus that if he attacked a great conquest of Egypt. He describes the capture of Memphis, the
empire, he would destroy his own. Misinterpreting the Egyptian capital, and the subsequent subjugation of the
prophecy, Croesus believed that the Oracle was referring to Egyptian people.
Herodotus explores the motivations behind Cambyses's resources to their Persian enemies as they retreat. With
conquest, highlighting his desire to expand the Persian these and other tricks, the Scythians drain the Persians of the
Empire and his ambition to surpass his father's will to fight, and Darius is eventually convinced to march
achievements. He also describes Cambyses's interactions home. The Ionians have waited for over 60 days at this point.
with the Egyptian priests and his attempts to understand Scythians arrive and try to convince the Ionians to go home.
their culture and beliefs. The Ionians trick the Scythians by pretending to dismantle
However, Herodotus's account of Cambyses's reign takes a the bridge, and Darius is able to escape Scythia.
dark turn. He describes Cambyses's increasing paranoia, his While Darius’s campaign against Scythia is ongoing, he leaves
descent into madness, and his eventual death. He recounts a general, Megabazus, on the Hellespont to subdue the people
various accounts of Cambyses's erratic behavior, including of that region. Another Persian army is on its way to Libya.
his murder of his brother Smerdis and his sister, his Many of the inhabitants of Libya are Greek colonists, and
desecration of Egyptian temples, and his increasingly erratic Herodotus describes these states as well as the nomads who
actions. live in the deserts. The Persian invasion meets with mixed
Herodotus attributes Cambyses's madness to divine success. The Persians are unable to conquer the city of
punishment for his hubris and his disrespect for the gods. He Cyrene, despite not facing any armed resistance. Their
also suggests that Cambyses's actions were driven by a desire advance reaches as far as the city Euesperides.
to consolidate his power and eliminate potential rivals. Megabazus, who had been left in command of the Persian
Following Cambyses's death, a group of Magi, Persian priests, army on the Hellespont, is ordered to conquer Thrace.
seized control of the throne, claiming that Smerdis, Herodotus proceeds to describe Thrace. He considers it to be
Cambyses's brother, had returned from exile. However, this the most populous region of the world, save India. The
Smerdis was actually a Magus who had impersonated the Thracians marry multiple wives and sell their own children.
dead prince. Herodotus recounts the deception of the Magi, Megabazus's campaigns are successful and, on Darius’s
their successful reign, and their eventual downfall. orders, he removes several tribes from the region and
He describes the Magi's attempt to establish their rule by transports them to Persia. Megabazus moves on to
suppressing dissent and consolidating their power. He also Macedonia. The Persians demand that the Macedonians
highlights the growing discontent among the Persian people, submit by requesting a tribute of earth and water. The
who were suspicious of the Magi's claims and their rule. Macedonians do not refuse initially, but they subsequently
Herodotus then describes the rise of Darius I, a member of murder the Persian envoys.
the Achaemenid dynasty, who challenged the Magi's Histiaeus, who had kept the bridge open for Darius in Scythia,
authority and eventually overthrew them. Darius, a skilled is awarded a position as one of Darius's personal advisors.
military leader and a shrewd politician, consolidated his
power and established a new dynasty. He also embarked on a BOOK 5 (TERPSICHORE) SUMMARY
series of campaigns to expand the Persian Empire, laying the
foundation for the empire's future expansion. The book opens with a description of the Persian Empire's
Herodotus recounts Darius's military campaigns, his expansion under Darius I, focusing on his conquest of Thrace
administrative reforms, and his efforts to stabilize the and the Greek cities on the northern coast of the Aegean Sea.
empire. He also describes Darius's interactions with the However, the main focus of Book V is the Ionian Revolt,
Greeks, highlighting the growing tensions between the two which was sparked by the ambition of Aristagoras, the tyrant
civilizations that would eventually lead to the Greco-Persian of Miletus, a Greek city in Ionia.
Wars. Aristagoras, seeking to expand his own power and influence,
attempted to conquer the island of Naxos, a wealthy and
BOOK 4 (MELPOMENE) SUMMARY powerful Greek city-state. He sought the support of the
Persian satrap, Artaphernes, but his plan backfired.
Darius, fresh from ending the Babylonian revolt, invades Artaphernes, suspicious of Aristagoras's motives, refused to
Scythia. As with Egypt, Herodotus gives his narrative over to provide him with the necessary resources. This rejection
a description of the Scythian lands and people. He considers ignited Aristagoras's desire for independence, leading him to
multiple accounts of the origins of the Scythians and instigate the Ionian Revolt.
concludes they must be descended from the Greek hero Aristagoras, seeking to rally the Ionian cities against Persian
Heracles (Hercules). He resumes describing the region of the rule, appealed to the Athenians for support. The Athenians,
Black Sea, which is where Darius's campaign against the motivated by a desire to protect their own interests and to
Scythians will take place. He considers the inhabitants, weaken the Persian Empire, agreed to send twenty warships
except the Scythians, to be the most "unlearned" inhabitants to aid the Ionians. This Athenian intervention marked a
of the world. He is in awe at the Scythians' skill in warfare turning point in the conflict, setting the stage for the full-
and describes their warlike customs, including the drinking scale war between Greece and Persia.
of human blood, usually from a warrior's first victim. Oaths, The Ionians, with Athenian support, launched a successful
too, are sealed by drinking the blood, mixed with wine, of the attack on Sardis, the capital of Lydia, burning the city. This
parties the oath will bind. Herodotus describes the rivers of act of defiance, a symbolic blow against the Persian Empire,
the land, which he considers the only notable geographical further fueled the flames of rebellion. However, the Ionians'
features of Scythia. victory was short-lived. The Persians, under the leadership of
Darius marches to fight the Scythians. On his way, he erects a Artaphernes, quickly retaliated, crushing the Ionian forces
series of pillars marking his passage. He fights and defeats a and reasserting their control over the region.
people called the Getae, and adds them to his great army. Herodotus also uses the Ionian Revolt to explore the rise of
Darius orders his army to cross the Danube River using a democracy in Athens. He describes the political landscape of
bridge. Confident in his success, he then orders the bridge to Athens, highlighting the rivalry between the aristocratic
be destroyed. The commander of the Ionian Greeks, faction and the democratic faction. He recounts the story of
Histiaeus, who is part of Darius's army, cautions Darius to Cleisthenes, the Athenian statesman who introduced
reconsider, arguing that it is an unwise move to cut off their democratic reforms, and his role in strengthening Athenian
line of retreat. Darius agrees and orders the Ionians to guard democracy.
the bridge and await his return. The Ionians are to wait by Herodotus emphasizes the importance of Athenian
the bridge for 60 days. If Darius has not returned by that democracy in the context of the Ionian Revolt, suggesting
time, they are free to destroy the bridge and return to their that the Athenian people's commitment to freedom and self-
home country. governance motivated their support for the Ionians. He also
The Scythians hold a council to decide what action they highlights the role of Athenian democracy in fostering a
should take in the face of Darius's invasion. They decide to sense of unity and purpose among the Greek city-states,
raise armies but not fight the Persian armies directly. which would be crucial in their eventual victory over the
Instead, they lure Darius's army deeper and deeper into the Persians.
country, trampling pasture and blocking up wells to deny
BOOK 6 (ERATO) SUMMARY outnumbered and outmaneuvered, fight bravely to the last
man.
begins with Darius I's determination to punish Athens for
supporting the Ionian Revolt. He assembles a massive army BOOK 8 (URANIA) SUMMARY
and fleet, placing his generals, Datis and Artaphernes, in
command. The Persian forces first target Eretria, a Greek begins with a detailed list of the Greek ships that gathered at
city-state that had also aided the Ionians, and after a six-day Artemision, a narrow strait in Euboea, to defend against the
siege, they conquer and destroy the city. Persian fleet. Herodotus emphasizes the Spartan leadership,
The Persians then set their sights on Athens, landing at with Eurybiades in command, but also highlights the
Marathon, a coastal plain north of Athens. The Athenians, Athenian influence, particularly Themistocles, who played a
outnumbered but determined to defend their city, assemble key role in rallying the Greek forces.
an army under the leadership of ten generals, including The Greeks, outnumbered by the Persians, initially planned
Miltiades. Herodotus recounts the Athenian preparations for to retreat from Artemision. However, Themistocles, bribed
battle, their strategic planning, and their eventual victory at by the Euboeans, convinced the Greek commanders to stay
Marathon. and fight. This decision was crucial, as it allowed the Greeks
Herodotus provides a detailed account of the Battle of to hold off the Persians for a time, delaying their advance and
Marathon, emphasizing the Athenian strategy and the giving the Spartans at Thermopylae a chance to make their
bravery of their soldiers. He describes the Athenian phalanx, stand.
a tightly packed formation of hoplites (heavily armed Herodotus recounts the first encounter between the Greek
infantry), and their decisive charge against the Persian and Persian fleets, highlighting the Persian strategy to
forces. He highlights the role of Miltiades, who convinced the surround the Greeks. He also describes the actions of Skyllias,
Athenian generals to attack the Persians, and the crucial a skilled diver who deserted the Persians and informed the
contribution of the Plataeans, a neighboring city-state that Greeks of the Persian plans, allowing them to anticipate the
joined the Athenians in their defense. Persian attack.
The Athenian victory at Marathon was a resounding success, The Greeks, despite being outnumbered, inflicted significant
resulting in the defeat of the Persian army and the retreat of damage on the Persian fleet during the battle. However, news
their fleet. Herodotus attributes the Athenian victory to their of the Spartan defeat at Thermopylae forced the Greeks to
superior military tactics, their courage, and their unwavering retreat from Artemision, leaving the Persians to advance
commitment to defending their freedom. He also emphasizes towards Athens.
the role of divine intervention, suggesting that the Athenians The Persians, under Xerxes's command, marched through
were favored by the gods in their struggle against the Boeotia and Attica, eventually reaching Athens. The
Persians. Athenians, unable to defend their city against the
overwhelming Persian forces, evacuated to Salamis.
BOOK 7 (POLYMNIA) SUMMARY Herodotus describes the burning of Athens by the Persians,
emphasizing the destruction of the city and the loss of the
Darius I's fury over the Athenian attack on Sardis during the Athenian sanctuary on the Acropolis.
Ionian Revolt. He vows revenge and plans a massive invasion The Greek fleet, now anchored at Salamis, was in a
of Greece. However, Darius dies before he can carry out his precarious position. The Peloponnesians, fearing for their
plans, and his son, Xerxes, ascends to the throne. Xerxes, own safety, were preparing to retreat to the Peloponnese,
influenced by his advisors, decides to pursue his father's leaving the Athenians and their allies vulnerable.
ambition and conquer all of Greece. Themistocles, recognizing the danger, convinced the Greek
Xerxes assembles the largest army and fleet the world had commanders to stay and fight at Salamis.
ever seen, drawing soldiers and ships from across the Herodotus recounts the events leading up to the Battle of
Persian Empire. Herodotus provides a detailed list of the Salamis, highlighting Themistocles's strategic brilliance. He
various contingents, highlighting their unique customs, describes how Themistocles sent a message to Xerxes, falsely
weaponry, and modes of transport. He also describes the claiming that the Greeks were planning to flee, thereby
logistical challenges of moving such a vast force, emphasizing convincing the Persians to attack the Greek fleet at Salamis.
the sheer scale of Xerxes's ambition. The Battle of Salamis was a decisive victory for the Greeks.
News of the impending Persian invasion spreads fear Herodotus describes the chaotic nature of the battle,
throughout Greece. The Greek city-states, despite their highlighting the Persian disorganization and the Greek
internal rivalries, recognize the threat posed by the Persians tactical superiority. He also recounts the heroic actions of
and begin to prepare for war. Herodotus describes the efforts Artemisia, a female Persian commander, who distinguished
of the Greek leaders to unite their forces, highlighting the herself in battle, even though she was ultimately fighting
challenges of coordinating a unified response from against her own people.
independent city-states.
The Greeks send envoys to various city-states, seeking BOOK 9 (CALLIOPE) SUMMARY
alliances and support. While some city-states, like Syracuse
and Crete, refuse to participate, others, like Athens and The book opens with the Persian forces, under the command
Sparta, pledge their support to the common cause. Herodotus of Mardonius, regrouping after their defeat at Salamis.
emphasizes the importance of Athenian leadership in rallying Mardonius, determined to avenge Xerxes's defeat, marches
the Greeks, recognizing their strategic importance and their his army north, seeking to confront the Greeks in a decisive
commitment to defending their freedom. battle. The Greeks, under the leadership of Pausanias, the
The Greeks, realizing the Persians' overwhelming numbers, Spartan regent, assemble their forces at Plataea, a plain in
decide to defend the narrow pass of Thermopylae, a strategic Boeotia.
bottleneck that could slow the Persian advance. Herodotus Herodotus provides a detailed account of the preparations
recounts the preparations for the battle, highlighting the for the Battle of Plataea, highlighting the Greek strategy and
Greek strategy and the bravery of their soldiers. the bravery of their soldiers. He describes the Athenian
He describes the Spartan contingent, led by King Leonidas, contingent, led by Aristides, and their crucial role in the
and their unwavering commitment to defending the pass. He battle, as well as the Spartan forces, who were eager to
also recounts the story of the Persian scout who is astonished avenge the loss at Thermopylae. He also recounts the story of
by the Spartans' calm demeanor and their meticulous the Oracle at Delphi, who foretold the Greek victory, but
grooming, a testament to their courage and their willingness warned them against fighting before the full moon.
to face death with honor. The Greeks, despite their initial hesitation, eventually engage
The Greeks hold off the Persians for three days, inflicting the Persians in a fierce battle. Herodotus describes the
heavy casualties on the enemy. However, a traitor, Ephialtes, chaotic nature of the battle, highlighting the Persian
reveals a secret path through the mountains, allowing the disorganization and the Greek tactical superiority. He also
Persians to flank the Greek forces. Leonidas and his Spartans, recounts the heroic actions of individual Greek soldiers,
including the Athenian soldier, Arimnestus, who single-
handedly killed a Persian general.
The Greek victory at Plataea was decisive, resulting in the
defeat of the Persian army and the death of Mardonius.
Herodotus attributes the Greek victory to their superior
military tactics, their courage, and their unwavering
commitment to defending their freedom. He also emphasizes
the role of divine intervention, suggesting that the Greeks
were favored by the gods in their struggle against the
Persians.
The book then shifts its focus to the Battle of Mycale, a naval
battle that took place in Ionia, near the city of Mycale. The
Greeks, having learned of the Persian army's defeat at
Plataea, decided to attack the Persian fleet, which was
anchored off the coast of Mycale.
Herodotus recounts the Greek preparations for the battle,
highlighting the Athenian leadership and their strategic
planning. He also describes the Persian fleet, which was still a
formidable force, despite its losses at Salamis. The Greeks,
under the command of Leotychides, the Spartan king,
launched a surprise attack on the Persian fleet, catching them
off guard.
The Greek victory at Mycale was decisive, resulting in the
destruction of the Persian fleet and the liberation of the
Ionian cities. Herodotus highlights the significance of this
victory, emphasizing that it marked the end of the Persian
threat to Greece and the beginning of a new era of Greek
dominance in the Aegean Sea.
The book then explores the aftermath of the Greco-Persian
Wars, highlighting the political and social changes that
reshaped the Greek world. Herodotus recounts the efforts of
the Greek city-states to rebuild their cities and economies,
and the challenges they faced in adjusting to a new era of
peace and prosperity.
He also describes the growing rivalry between Athens and
Sparta, two of the most powerful city-states in Greece.
Herodotus highlights the Athenian ambition for power and
influence, and the Spartan desire to maintain their traditional
dominance. He also recounts the story of Themistocles, the
Athenian statesman who had played a key role in the Greek
victory, and his eventual downfall, highlighting the dangers
of ambition and the fragility of political power.