SSC Tier 2 -

NITTO

Lecture 11
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#Echo: It is a reflection of sound

#Law of reflection:

• 1st Law of reflection:

+ Angle of Incidence Equals Angle of Reflection
+ The angle at which a ray of light strikes a surface (angle of incidence) is equal to the angle at which it bounces o (angle of
reflection).

• 2nd Law of reflection: Incident Ray, Reflected Ray, and Normal Lie in the Same Plane: All three lines lie in the same plane.

Applications: Mirrors, telescopes, microscopes, and other optical instruments.

#Law of Refraction (Snell's Law):

• Incident Ray, Refracted Ray, and Normal Lie in the Same Plane: The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal to the
interface at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
• Snell's Law: The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant for a given pair of
media. This constant is called the refractive index.

#Learning points:
• Multiple reflections of sound: Reverberation(Sthethoscope)
• Lightwave and sound waves are both mechanical waves
• Dierence:
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#Dierence:
• Hypotonic Solution: The solute concentration is lower than that of the cell. Water moves into the cell, causing it
to swell.
• Isotonic Solution: Equal solute concentration as the cell. There is no net water movement.
• Hypertonic Solution: Higher solute concentration than the cell. Water moves out of the cell, causing it to shrink.

#Blood:
• Fluid Connective Tissue: Composed of plasma, red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets.
• Plasma: Liquid component, primarily water, containing proteins, nutrients, hormones, and waste products.
• RBCs: Transport oxygen to tissues and remove carbon dioxide. Contain hemoglobin.
• WBCs: Immune cells, protect against infections. Types include neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils,
and basophils.
• Platelets: Involved in blood cloing.
• Blood Groups: A, B, AB, and O. Based on the presence or absence of antigens on RBCs.
• Rh Factor: Positive or negative, determines compatibility for blood transfusions.

#Learning points:
• Bones:
+ Longest bone: Femur
+ Shortest bone: Stapes
+ Strongest bone: Femur
+ Cartilage is present in bone joints like the ear and nose.
+ The bone matrix is composed of Calcium and Phospores.
+ An adult human skeleton typically has 206 bones.
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#Blood Pressure:
• Force of Blood: The force exerted by blood against the walls of blood vessels.
• Measured in mmHg: Millimeters of mercury.
• Measured in mmHg: Millimeters of mercury.
deoxygenated L
• Normal Range: Typically 120/80 mmHg. 1
oxygenated
• High Blood Pressure (Hypertension): Can lead to serious health problems like heart disease and stroke.
• Low Blood Pressure (Hypotension): Can cause dizziness and fainting.

#Circulation in the Human Body:

• Double Circulation: The human heart pumps blood in two separate loops:
• Pulmonary Circulation: Blood is pumped to the lungs for oxygenation.
• Systemic Circulation: Oxygenated blood is pumped to the body's tissues.
• Heart: A muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body.
• Blood Vessels:
+ Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart.
+ Veins: Carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart.
+ Capillaries: Tiny blood vessels that exchange gases and nutrients with tissues.
+ Blood: A fluid connective tissue that transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products.

#Alveoli: Gas Exchange: Site of gas exchange between the lungs and bloodstream.

#Steps of Blood Circulation:

• Deoxygenated Blood Entry: Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium from the body through the superior and inferior vena cava.
• Right Atrium to Right Ventricle: The right atrium contracts, pumping blood into the right ventricle.
• To the Lungs: The right ventricle contracts, pumping deoxygenated blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery.
• Oxygenation in Lungs: In the lungs, blood picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide.
• Oxygenated Blood Return: Oxygenated blood returns to the le atrium through the pulmonary veins.
• Le Atrium to Le Ventricle: The le atrium contracts, pumping oxygenated blood into the le ventricle.
• To the Body: The le ventricle, the strongest chamber, contracts, pumping oxygenated blood into the aorta.
• Body Circulation: Oxygenated blood is distributed to all body tissues through arteries, where it delivers oxygen and nutrients and picks up
carbon dioxide and waste products.
• Return to Heart: Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through veins, completing the cycle.
J
#Learning points:
• Fish has 2 heart chambers largest artery
• Aves(Birds) has 4 heart chambers
• Reptiles has 3 heart chambers
• Crocodile has 4 heart cambers
• An artificial heart is called a Pacemaker
• Systole: The phase of the cardiac cycle when the heart muscle contracts.
• Diastole: The phase of the cardiac cycle when the heart muscle relaxes.
• Heart measured by Sphygmomanometer
• Minerals for maintaining heart rhythm are Potassium
• Minerals help in muscle contraction Calcium and Magnesium
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#Land Biome:
• Large Geographical Area: Characterized by specific climate conditions and dominant plant and
animal life.
• Climate-Based Classification: Determined by temperature and precipitation paerns.
• Major Land Biomes:
+ Tundra: Cold, treeless region with permafrost.
+ Taiga (Boreal Forest): Coniferous forests with long, cold winters.
+ Temperate Deciduous Forest: Forests with trees that lose their leaves in winter.
+ Grassland: Grass-dominated ecosystems with few trees.
+ Desert: Dry regions with lile rainfall.
+ Tropical Rainforest: Warm, humid forests with high biodiversity.
+ Tropical Savanna: Grasslands with scaered trees and a dry season.
#Mediterranean Forest:
• Climate: Characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters.
• Vegetation: Adapted to drought, with small, leathery leaves to reduce water loss.
• Plant Life: Includes oaks, pines, olive trees, and drought-resistant shrubs.
• Wildlife: Diverse, including deer, wild boar, foxes, and various bird species.
• Fire-Adapted: Many plants are adapted to frequent fires.
• Location: Found in regions around the Mediterranean Sea, California, central Chile, and southwestern
Australia.

#Boreal Forest (Taiga):

• Largest Terrestrial Biome: Covers vast areas across North America, Europe, and Asia.
• Cold Climate: Long, cold winters and short, cool summers.
• Coniferous Trees: Dominated by coniferous trees like pine, spruce, and fir.
• Low Biodiversity: Fewer plant and animal species compared to other biomes.
• Important Ecological Role: Stores large amounts of carbon, influences global climate paerns, and
provides habitat for various wildlife.
#Learning points:
• Taiga means in Russian (untouched)
• Pheasant and monal birds observed in Temperate forest
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#Dynamo/Generator:
• Principle: Electromagnetic induction
• Conversion: Mechanical energy into electrical energy (DC)

#Motor:
• Principle: Electromagnetic force
• Conversion: Electrical energy into mechanical energy

#Speaker:
• Principle: Electromagnetic induction
• Conversion: Electrical energy into sound energy

#Microphone:
• Principle: Electromagnetic induction
• Conversion: Sound energy into electrical energy

#Learning point:

• Electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831.

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#Oxidation reaction of magnesium:

2Mg + O₂ 2MgO

#Decomposition to form lead oxide, nitrogen dioxide gas, and oxygen gas:

2Pb(NO₃)₂(s) 2PbO(s) + 4NO₂(g) + O₂(g)

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#Loktak Lake
• Location: Manipur, India
• Significance: Largest freshwater lake in Northeast India, home to the unique phumdis (floating islands) and the
endangered Sangai deer.
• Ramsar Site: Designated as a wetland of international importance.
#Barapani Lake
• Location: Meghalaya, India
• Significance: The artificial lake created by the Umiam Dam, is popular for boating and water sports.
#Kolleru Lake
• Location: Andhra Pradesh, India
• Significance: One of the largest freshwater lakes in India, important for fisheries and birdlife.
• Environmental Concerns: Faces threats from pollution and encroachment.
#Pulicat Lake
• Location: Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, India
• Significance: Largest brackish water lake in India, important for fisheries and biodiversity.
• Environmental Concerns: Faces threats from pollution and overfishing.
#Vembanad Lake
• Location: Kerala, India
• Significance: The largest lake in India, known for backwater tourism and fishing.
• Other Names: Ashtamudi Lake, Pombada Lake
#Chilika Lake
• Location: Odisha, India
• Significance: Largest brackish water lake in India, important for biodiversity and fishing.
• Ramsar Site: Designated as a wetland of international importance.
#Sambhar Lake
• Location: Rajasthan, India
• Significance: Largest inland salt lake in India, important for salt production.
• Environmental Concerns: Faces threats from pollution and over-exploitation.
#Learning points:
• Govind Vallabh Pant Sagar Lake (Rihand Reservoir): This is the largest artificial lake in India, created by the Rihand Dam
in Uar Pradesh.
• Dhebar Lake (Jaisamand Lake): Located in Rajasthan, this is the second-largest artificial lake in India.
• The largest oxbow lake in Asia is the Dal Lake in Kashmir, India.
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#Census 2011

• Total Literacy Rate: 74.04%

• Male Literacy Rate: 82.14%
• Female Literacy Rate: 65.46%
• Highest Literacy Rate State: Kerala (94.00%)
• Lowest Literacy Rate State: Bihar (63.82%)
• Maximum Gap in Literacy Rate State: Rajasthan (26.63%)
• Highest Male Literacy Rate State: Kerala (96.20%)
• Highest Female Literacy Rate Rate: Kerala (91.98%)
• Lowest Male Literacy Rate State: Bihar (69.72%)
• Lowest Female Literacy Rate State: Bihar (53.33%) > Rajasthan (52.12%)
• Lowest Literacy Rate UT: Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu (76.24%)
• Highest Literacy Rate UT: Lakshadweep (91.8%)
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#Appreciation and Depreciation of Currency #Investment:

• Appreciation: • FDI (Foreign Direct Investment)

+ Direct investment in a foreign country's economy.

+ The value of a currency increases relative to another.
+ Long-term commitment.
+ Imports become cheaper. + Involves ownership and control of assets.
+ Examples: Seing up factories, and buying businesses.
+ Exports become more expensive.
• FPI (Foreign Porolio Investment)
• Depreciation: + Investment in financial assets of a foreign country.
+ The value of a currency decreases relative to another. + Short-term to medium-term.
+ No ownership or control of assets.
+ Imports become more expensive. + Examples: Buying stocks, and bonds.
+ Exports become cheaper.
#Contractionary Monetary Policy:
#Monetary Policy:
• Also known as Tight/Hawking Monetary Policy
• Controlled by the central bank (like the RBI in India). • Used to slow down economic growth.
• Involves managing money supply and interest rates. • Reduces money supply in the economy.
• Tools: Open market operations, reserve requirements, discount • Aims to control inflation.
rate. • Tools:
• Goal: Price stability, economic growth, and full employment. + Increasing interest rates
+ Selling government securities
+ Increasing reserve requirements
#Fiscal Policy:
#Expansionary Monetary Policy:
• Controlled by the government.
• Goal: To stimulate economic growth.
• Involves managing government spending and taxation. • Tools:
+ Lowering interest rates: Encourages borrowing and
• Tools: Government spending, tax rates. spending.
+ Increasing money supply: Boosts liquidity and
• Goal: Economic growth, job creation, and social welfare. investment.
+ Open market operations: Buying government
securities to inject money.
• Eects:
+ Increased economic activity.
+ Lower unemployment.
+ Potential for inflation.
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Inflation: General rise in prices:

• Demand-pull Inflation: Occurs when aggregate demand exceeds aggregate supply.
• Cost-push Inflation/Supply side Inflation: Inflation caused by an increase in the cost of
production (inputs).

#Learning point:
• Phillips Curve:
• Inverse relationship: Lower unemployment is associated with higher inflation, and vice versa.
• Concept of Money Illusion and MV=PT Equation given by Irving Fisher
+ M: Money supply
+ V: Velocity of money (how quickly money changes hands)
+ P: Price level
+ T: Volume of transactions
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Solve using NITTO

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Ravana Phadi cave:

• Location: Aihole, Karnataka

• Era: Early Chalukya dynasty (6th century CE)

• Architecture: Rock-cut cave temple

• Features:

+ Intricate carvings and sculptures

+ Depictions of Hindu deities like Shiva, Vishnu, and Durga

+ A notable sculpture of Nataraja (dancing Shiva)

#Learning point:

• Durga Temple located at Aihole

• Hoysala created star shaped temple.

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Solve using NITTO

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#Amino Acids:

• Building blocks of proteins.

• Structure: Contains an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a side chain (R group).

• Types: Essential (must be obtained from the diet) and non-essential (synthesized by the body).

• Functions:

+ Protein synthesis
+ Neurotransmier production
+ Energy source
• Essential Amino acid: The body cannot synthesize on its own
• Examples: Histidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Threonine, Tryptophan, Valine

#Learning points:

• Diseases caused by protein deficiency are Kwashiorkor and Marasmus

• Kwashiorkor: Protein malnutrition that primarily aects children. Characterized by edema (swelling), muscle
wasting, growth retardation, and changes in skin and hair pigmentation.
• Marasmus: Malnutrition is caused by a deficiency of both protein and calories. It leads to severe weight loss, muscle
wasting, and growth retardation.
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#Right to religious freedom:

• Article 25: Guarantees freedom of conscience and the right to profess, practice, and propagate
religion.
• Article 26: Allows individuals to manage their religious aairs and maintain religious institutions.
• Article 27: Prohibits the state from compelling anyone to pay taxes for the promotion of any
particular religion.
• Article 28: Ensures no religious instruction is provided in state-funded educational institutions.
• Limitations: Rights are subject to public order, morality, and health
#Article 26 of the Indian Constitution provides the right to freedom of religion.
• Right to Manage Religious Aairs: Individuals can establish and maintain institutions for religious and
charitable purposes.
• Right to Administer: They have the right to manage their aairs in maers of religion.
• Freedom from Interference: The state cannot interfere in the management of religious institutions.
• Restrictions: The right is subject to public order, morality, and health.
#Article 20 of the Indian Constitution protects in respect of conviction for oenses.
• No Ex Post Facto Law: No person can be convicted for an act that was not an oense at the time it
was commied.
• No Double Jeopardy: A person cannot be prosecuted and punished for the same oense more than
once.
• Right Against Self-Incrimination: No individual is compelled to testify against themselves in criminal
cases.
#Article 76 of the Indian Constitution establishes the oice of the Aorney General of India.
• The Aorney General (AG) is the chief legal advisor to the Government of India.
• The AG is appointed by the President of India and must be qualified to be a Supreme Court judge.
• AG has the right to speak and participate in Parliamentary proceedings but cannot vote.
• Duties include advising the government on legal maers and representing it in the Supreme Court.
• Holds oice at the pleasure of the President and has no fixed tenure
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#Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur Belt
• Location: Spread across Chhaisgarh and Maharashtra.
• Significance: Rich in high-grade hematite iron ore deposits.
• Key Areas:
+ Bailadila Range (Chhaisgarh)
+ Chandrapur District (Maharashtra)
• Export: Iron ore from this belt is exported to countries like Japan and South Korea.
• Transportation: Visakhapatnam Port is a major port for exporting iron ore from this region.
#Iron
• Magnetite and Hematite
+ Magnetite
-> Chemical Formula: Fe3O4
-> Properties: Magnetic, black color, high iron content.
-> Uses: Primary iron ore for steel production.
+ Hematite
-> Chemical Formula: Fe2O3
-> Properties: Non-magnetic, reddish-brown color, high iron content.
-> Uses: Major iron ore for steel production.
#Coal:
• Also known as Buried Sunshine/black diamond
• Tertiary coal present in Meghalaya
• Coking coal is called Anthracite
• Brown coal is called Lignite

#Learning points:
• Manganese is a ferrous mineral
• The topmost producer of Manganese is MP
• Mica is a non metallic mineral
• The topmost producer of Mica is Andhara Pardesh (Nellor)
• Bauxite: it’s the ore of aluminum
• The valance of aluminium is 3
• The topmost producer of Bauxite in Odisha
• The most famous uranium mine in India is the Jaduguda Mine, Purbi Singhbhum district of Jharkhand
• The largest uranium mine is Tummalapalle Mine in Kadapa district, Andhra Pradesh, India
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#Sisodiya Rulers:
• Dynasty: Ruled the kingdom of Mewar in Rajasthan.
• Notable Rulers:
+ Rana Hammir: Founder of the Sisodia dynasty.
+ Maharana Kumbha: A great patron of arts and literature, built the Vijay Stambh.
+ Maharana Sanga: Fought the Bale of Khanwa against Babur.
+ Maharana Pratap: Known for his resistance against the Mughals.
+ Legacy: Renowned for their valor, courage, and resistance against foreign invaders.

#Rana Sanga vs. Babur

• Bale of Khanwa: A decisive bale fought in 1527 between the Mughal forces led by Babur and the Rajput
confederation led by Rana Sanga.
• Mughal Victory: Babur's army, with its superior artillery and tactics, defeated the larger Rajput forces.
• Significance: This victory solidified the Mughal Empire's dominance in North India.
• Rana Sanga's Legacy: Despite the defeat, Rana Sanga is remembered as a valiant warrior and a symbol of
Rajput resistance against foreign invaders.
#Maharana Pratap vs. Akbar
• Bale of Haldighati (1576): Bale between the forces of Maharana Pratap of Mewar and the Mughal Emperor
Akbar.
• Mughal Superiority: Akbar's forces, though numerically superior, failed to decisively defeat Mewar.
• Strategic Retreat: Maharana Pratap, despite facing heavy losses, successfully retreated, preserving his army
and continuing the resistance.
• Legacy: Maharana Pratap is revered as a symbol of Rajput valor and Indian nationalism.
#Learning points:
• Mughal Emperor Jahangir, Guru Arjan Dev, the fih of the ten Sikh Gurus, was martyred in 1606.
• Guru Arjan Dev:
+ Fih Sikh Guru: Succeeded Guru Ram Das.
+ Construction of the Golden Temple: Completed the construction of the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) in
Amritsar.
+ Compilation of Adi Granth: Compiled the Adi Granth, the holy scripture of Sikhism.
+ Martyrdom: Persecuted and martyred by Mughal Emperor Jahangir for refusing to convert to Islam.
+ Legacy: Revered for his spiritual leadership, devotion, and sacrifice.