PHILOSOPHICAL SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT AND EDUCATION

(I) IDEALISM AND EDUCATION

Definition and meaning of Idealism
The main tenant of idealism is that ideas and knowledge are the truest reality. Many things in the
world change but ideas and knowledge are enduring. Idealism was often referred to as “idea-
ism”. Idealists believe that ideas can change lives. The most important part of a person is the
mind.it is to be nourished and developed. Idealist Proponents include: Socrates, Plato, Descartes,
Kant, Hegel and Royce Bishop George Berkeley etc.
Aims of Education
 The purpose of education is to contribute to the development of the mind and self of the
learner.
 It emphasizes intellectual activities, moral judgments, aesthetic judgments, self-
realization, individual freedom, individual possibility and self-control in order to achieve
this development.
 Education outcome: a literate person with good moral character in order to better serve
society.
 The school has a responsibility to find and to train future leaders
 Education should maintain and transmit of the established values of the past
The Concept of Student
 The Idealistic pupil is characterized by that admirable trait, the will to perfection.
Whatever he does, he does as well as she can.
 He is ambitious to deserve honors in scholarship.
 He wants to grow in knowledge and wisdom, to appreciate the aesthetic things in life to
deserve approbation, and to be a worthy person.
 He strives for perfection because the ideal person is perfect.
The Concept of Teacher
 The teacher must be excellent, in order to serve as an example for the student, both
intellectually and morally.
 Is the most important element in the school to train learners on perfection.
 Excel in knowledge and in human insight into the needs and capacities of the learner.
 Demonstrates moral excellence in personal conduct and convictions.
 Exercises great creative skill in providing opportunities for the learner’s mind to
discover, analyze, unify, synthesize and create applications of knowledge to life and
behavior.
 Serves as a living ideal model for the student by teaching through example and guidance
the lifelong habits of patience, tolerance and perseverance towards a goal. He thus
represents, to some degree, what the student can become.
 In teaching, teacher’s role is to be a skillful questioner who encourages students to think
and ask more questions in an environment that is suitable for learning.
The curriculum
 The ideal curriculum teaches children to think.
 Teachers should help students explore texts foe ideas about the purposes of life, family
the nature of peer pressures, and the problems of growing up.
 Idealists believe that ideas can change lives: classical literature, history and biographies
can be used and explored to help solve problems in today’s world.

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  Ideal curriculum selects subject matter that deals with ideal man and ideal society:
subjects essential for the realization of mental and moral development.
 Idealists rely on the world of the mind; their curriculum has little contact with the
experiential universe characterized by field trips and empirical or sensory data.
 The curricular emphasizes subject matter of mind: literature, history philosophy, and
religion.
Instructional Methodology
 All thinking begins with a thesis opinion) where all points of view are looked at.
 It’s dialectic, a process where ideas are put into battle against each other, with the most
significant idea winning the battle.
 At the end of the discussion, the ideas or opinions will begin to synthesize as they work
closer to truth.
 Knowledge can be attained through skillful questioning.
 Idealist education involves teaching the whole rather than its parts.
 The idealist is not concerned with turning out students with technical skills but to have a
broad view and understanding of the world in which they live.
 Idealism emphasizes the role of the teacher, a skillful questioner
 The lecture method in an idealist’s education system, it is considered more of a way to
convey information and to help students comprehend ideas.
 Idealists thus prefer project based learning as a form self-directed learning activity where
learning can occur without a teacher’s presence.
 Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through lecture, discussion and Socratic
dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help students discover and clarify
knowledge).
 Imitation should be of some exemplary person or persons who by their behavior give
evidence that they are close to the nature of reality.
Common criticisms of this philosophical school.
 Sets Unobtainable Goals: if perfection is unreachable there is very little desire on the part
of most to become perfect.
 Ignores the Physical Self: The body cannot be ignored. To try to separate mental activity
from the physical and to try to place Ideas in a realm unrelated to the existent world
becomes nothing more than an exercise in futility.
 Deemphasizes Experience: Many ideas cannot have meaning apart from experience: to
deny the validity of this experience is to make the universe sterile.
 Leads to Totalitarianism: Some of the critiques of idealism is that is discourages the
progress of science and our modern discovery.
 Emphasizes Humanities: humanities oriented outlook, may lead to rejection of the whole
concept of technological society which is mechanistic and “scientifically” oriented.
 Overlooks possibility of Error: it fails to take into account the possibility that it may be in
error. This is especially true of idealism since its truth is immutable and unchanging.

(II) REALISM AND EDUCATION

According to Realism, the external world of objects is not imaginary. It really exists, "Our
experience is not independent but determines reaction to the external objects. Experiences are

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influenced by the external world which has real existence. According to realists, the external
world is a solid Reality, whether known or unknown to man. Reality is already in existence and
in the invention of man. It exists independently of being known to perceive by, or related to
mind. Man can only comprehend it, through senses. One should dip below the surface to know
the reality. Proponents include: Mills, Comenius, Russel, Locke, Rouseau etc. Realism believes
that, the individual doesn't make reality, he only discovers it. Its main tenets (beliefs) are:
 Realism believes in the world which we see of perceive to be real.
 Realists believe in the present life.
 They believe that the truth of life and aim of life are in the development from the present
unsystematic life.
 Knowledge is real and can be assimilated by the human beings.
 The realists distinguish between ‘appearance' and ‘reality'.
 Realism believes that there is an objective reality apart from that which is presented to
the consciousness.
Realism and Aims of Education
 Realists do not believe in general and common aims of education. The aim of education
should be to teach truth rather than beauty, to understand the present practical life.
 The purpose of education is to prepare the practical man of the world.
 Neo-realists aim at developing all round development of the objects with the
development of their organs.
Realism and Curricula
 Classical literature should be studied: not study its form and style but, its content and
ideas contained.
 Essential subject from ancient times: natural sciences and contemporary social life and on
humanistic feelings including subjects like physics and psychology, sociology,
economics, Ethics, Politics, history, Geography, agriculture varied arts, languages.
Realism and methods of teaching
 Education should proceed from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract. Things
before rules and words.
 Students to be taught to analyze rather than to construct.
 Vernacular to be the medium of instruction.
 The order of nature to be sought and followed.
During teaching, realists argue that:
1. Repetition is necessary for retention.
2. Individual's experience and spirit of inquiry is more important than authority.
3. No unintelligent cramming. Put more emphasis on questioning and understanding.
4. Methods of scientific thinking (Inductive).
5. Method of travel of journey method – field trips (give real experiences of varied aspects of life
improve knowledge and mental faculties)

Realism and the Teacher

 A teacher should be such that he himself is educated and well versed with the customs of
belief and rights and duties of people, and the trends of all ages and places.

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  He must have full mastery of the knowledge of present life.
 He must guide the student towards the hard realities of life. He is neither pessimist, nor
optimist.
 He must be able to expose children to the problems of life and the world around.
A teacher should always keep in mind:
1. Re-capitulation is necessary to make the knowledge permanent.
2. One subject should be taught at one time.
3. No pressure or coercion be brought upon the child.
4. The practice of cramming should be given up.
5. The uniformity should be the basic principle in all things.
6. Things should be introduced first and then the words.
7. The entire knowledge should be gained after experience.
8. The knowledge should be imparted on the basis of organs.
9. Straight forward method should be adopted for teaching.
10. There should be a co-relation between utility in daily life and education.
11. The child should be told the utility of whatever is taught.
12. The simple rules should be defined.
13. All the subjects should be taught in proper order.
14. Various organs of education should be taught in chronological order.
15. The topic should not be given up unless the students understand it well.
16. To find out the interest of the child and to teach accordingly.

Realism and the child/ student

 Realism in education recognizes the importance of the child.
 The child is a real unit which has real existence.
 He has some feelings; some desires and some powers.
 Child can reach near reality through learning by reason.
 Child has to be given as much freedom as possible.
 The child is to be enabled to proceed on the basis of facts.
 The child can learn only when he follows the laws of learning.
 The child is to be understood a creature of the real world there is no sense in making him
a God (perfect).
 He has to be trained to become human.
Realism and school organization
 School organization would be based on the real needs of society. It should be
established d at a place where it is not needed.
 The opening of science classes in every school is must. Only academic and literary
subjects are not sufficient to fulfill the needs of the society.
 Realism doesn't oppose co-education. Sex-drive is a real feeling. It is a natural
happening so it cannot be rejected.
 School is the mirror of the society. It is a miniature form of society and it presents the
real picture of the society
Realism and discipline
 Discipline is necessary in order to enable the child to adjust himself to his environment
and concentrate on his work.

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  A disciplined student is one who does not withdraw from the cruelties, tyrannies,
hardships and shortcomings pervading the world. Realism has vehemently opposed
withdrawal from life. One has to adjust oneself to this material world.
Criticisms of realism
 The realist claims to be objective. Objectivity in knowledge is nothing but the partnership
of personal knowledge. Knowledge is always subjective.
 The realist recognizes the origin of knowledge from the datum achieved by senses and
asserts that only objects are main and it is through their contact that knowledge is
acquired.
 The realist does not accept the existence of transcendental (not based on experience or
reason) being.
 Realism admits real feelings and needs of life on the one hand, gives no place to
imagination and sentiment, on the other.
The realist is satisfied simply by the fulfillment of the needs of daily life and be does not

(III) EXISTENTIALISM AND EDUCATION

The philosophy of existentialism has not displayed any particular interest in education.
Therefore, it has been observed that the educational implications are derived and deduced from
their philosophy rather than that are developed by existentialists
Existentialism sprang from a strong rejection of traditional philosophy and therefore, educational
existentialism sprang from a strong rejection of the traditional, essentialist approach to education.
Existentialism rejects the existence of any source of objective, authoritative truth about
metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Instead, individuals are responsible for determining for
themselves what is “true” or “false,” “right” or “wrong,” “beautiful” or “ugly.”
Proponents: Jean Paul Sartre, Karl Jaspers, Soren Kierkegaard, Martin Heidegger among
many.
Aims and Objectives of Education
 Existentialism is concerned principally with liberal education, freeing man from his isolation
and his anonymity, freeing his mind from the confusions that prevent him from seeing his
situations and his powers.
 Existentialist wants to educate the “whole child,” not just one side.
 The existentialist emphasizes those situations such as tragedy, guilt, suffering, and, death
which happen to the individual rather than the group.
 Education should make man subjective and should make him conscious for his individuality
or ‘self’.
 The purpose of education is to build character, to optimize potential and creativity and to
enhance the quality of life through knowledge.
 Education is that which helps an individual to realize the best that he is capable of.
 Education for happiness is a dangerous doctrine because there can be no happiness without
pain and no ecstasy without suffering.”
 Every individual is unique. Education must develop in him this uniqueness. It must cater to
individual differences.

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 The most important aim in education is the becoming of a human person as one who lives
and makes decisions about what he will do and be.
 Education should train men to make better choices and also give the man the idea that since
his choices are never perfect, the consequences cannot be predicted.
Curriculum of Existentialism
 The staffs, rather than the students, influence the curriculum.
 Humanities are commonly given tremendous emphasis. They provide students with
vicarious experiences that will help unleash their own creativity and self-expression.
 Vocational education is regarded more as a means of teaching students about themselves and
their potential than of earning a livelihood.
 Existentialism encourages individual creativity and imagination more than copying and
imitating established models.
 In an existentialist curriculum, students are given a wide variety of options from which to
choose.
 Existence of individuals must constitute the “core of studies” both in and out of school. They
view subjects such as science and mathematics as impersonal, cold, and dry.
 The central place is given to ‘humanities’, poetry, drama, music, art, novels etc. as they exert
the human impact in revealing man’s inherent quilt, sin, suffering, tragedy, death, hate and
love. Humanities have spiritual power. Art represent a priori (cause effect) power of human
nature. History should be taught in order to help the students to change the course of history
and to mould future.
 Scientific subjects and mathematics should be included in the curriculum but they should not
be given more stress, as they deal with objective knowledge. ‘Self-knowledge precedes
universal knowledge.
Instructional Methodology
 Existentialist methods focus on the individual. Learning is self-paced, self-directed, and
includes a great deal of individual contact with the teacher, who relates to each student
openly and honestly.
 On self-respecting existentialist would employ the traditional lecture-recite-assign-test
method. Any method which fosters group thinking or group action would be alien to the
existentialist.
 Science should be considered a personal, human activity in which the student relives the
great moment of discovery in the history of science. It should not be taught as an exercise in
laboratory technique nor as a cold lifeless body of content to be mastered. The existential
way to teach science is to have the students live it.
 Existentialists favor the Socratic Approach to teaching. Socratic ‘Problem Method’ should be
accepted if the problem originates in the life of the one who has to work out the solutions.
 They reject the group method, because in-group dynamic, the superiority of the group
decision over individual decision is prominent. There is a danger of losing unique
individualism and free choice.
 Methods of teaching must develop the creative abilities in children.
Concept of Teacher

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 The teacher’s role is to help students define their own essence by exposing them to various
paths they may take in life and creating an environment in which they may freely choose
their own preferred way.
 In order to exercise one’s freedom in an authentic manner it is necessary that the teacher
develop a critical attitude.
 The teacher’s characteristic of being ‘open’ to possibilities includes a willingness to allow
others to re-evaluate those aspects of one’s understandings that can be articulated. If one
chooses to ‘close’ oneself off from the criticisms of others, one is no longer teacher.
 The teacher should become aware of how s/he relates to the entire curriculum. One is
understood to be ‘in’ truth by critically examining and reflecting upon all which one
understands.
 The teacher should have the ability to make judgments with regards to what is worthwhile
and valuable in them and in others.
 The teacher may indirectly influence students about his values but he should impose his
cherished values on them, test his values become the code of conduct for the students, who
may begin to accept them without thought. Instead of expecting them to imitate he should
help them to be ‘original’ and ‘authentic’.
 The teacher must build positive relationships between himself and his students. He should
avoid applying labels to children (such as ‘lazy’, ‘slow learner’ etc.) for individuals may
indeed come to think of themselves this way.
Concept of Student
 A person can educate himself in many ways such as; by reading, by working, and perhaps,
most important, by living – by willing and acting.
 The existentialists want to give full freedom to the child. Freedom is needed for natural
development. Education should be provided according to the child’s powers and the needs.
The child has to make ‘choices’ and decisions.
 Child thrives better when relieved from intense competition, harsh discipline, and fear of
failure. The Primary emphasis must always be on the child, as learner and not on the learning
programmed. Child needs positive evaluation, not labels.
Concept of School
 The school should provide an atmosphere where the individuals develop in a healthy way.
Any subject in school (even extra activities like athletics, music etc.) can present existential
situations for teaching and the development of human beings.
 Mass teaching and mass testing is not advocated in schools. The schedule must be flexible
and open. Self-government, pupil participation in planning and the encouragement of a free
atmosphere characterize the school.
 The use of programmed instruction, teaching machines and other equipments tend to
decrease the personal contact between teachers and pupils. This impersonality is a hazard to
the individual development and growth of the child’s personality.
 The family should not be considered the chief agency of education. The authoritarian
structure of families has crushed the individuality of the young. Simply because the parents
have provided the biological components of the child, they are not entitled to dictate what the
child shall make of himself.

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 The individual is the sole “agency “of education. The family, Church, and state should
provide an atmosphere conducive to the individual’s creation of his own essence. Their only
role in the educative process in an auxiliary one – a service role. These agencies should
cooperate in “freeing the individual” from the artificial restraints of organized society so that
he will be able to choose and act as he wishes.
Limitations of existentialism
 After studying the philosophy of Existentialism, the question will arise: how can the aims,
curricula and methods in a school depend upon the individual’s choice and freedom?
Organization of such a programmed would be impossible and bring about chaos.
 The teacher’s individual relationship and close understanding of every pupil’s personality
would require a great deal of time and effort.
 Educational standards and practices that manipulate the child’s behaviors in an arbitrary
manner violate the principle of free choice.
 Many teaching practices, testing procedures, and bureaucratic system of classifying children
may be questioned.
 Existentialism lessen the acceptability of this school of thought as a philosophy for modern
man. They offer no social theory for solving the complex problems of our scientific age.
 Existentialist philosophy limits its application to the modern world by neglecting the
scientific mode of knowing in their general theory of knowledge. After all, this is the “age of
science” and complete philosophy of life cannot relegate the philosophy of science to a
position of minor importance.
 Existentialism, at least in its present form, does not provide an adequate basis for educational
theory since most existentialists have given no serious consideration to the development of
the educational implications of their fundamental philosophical tenets.
Merits
 Since existentialism is optimistic, it the preaches the doctrine of action and emphasizes the
concept of freedom, responsibility and choice, it has exerted an increasing appeal to the
educator, who has been shown the new horizons.
 Interest is directed on the ‘man’ – his genuine or authentic self, his choices made with full
responsibility of consequences, and freedom. It describes and diagnoses human weaknesses,
limitations and conflicts
(IV) PRAGMATISM AND EDUCATION
Definition of Pragmatism
Pragmatic means dealing with matters according to their practical significance or immediate
importance. It means a doctrine that evaluates any assertion solely by its practical consequences
and its bearing on human interests. The origin is Greek ‘pragma’ meaning ‘use. Pragmatic
theory states that, truth can be known only through its practical consequences and is thus and
individual or a social matter rather than an absolute. Its major proponent is John Dewey.
Educational Aims of pragmatism
 Pragmatists believe that the aims are always determined by individual not by any
organization or any structure.

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  The aim for education is to teach children to be comfortable in their learning
environment: the environment is not a preparation for life but life. Educators should thus
know the things that motivate and interest children and plan accordingly.
 Helping of the child to develop in such a way as to contribute to his continued growth.

Three characteristics of good educational aims by John Dewey:

1. An educational aim must be founded upon the intrinsic activates and needs (including original
instinct and acquired habits) of the given individual to be educated.
2. An aim must be capable of translation into a method of cooperation with the activities of those
undergoing instruction.
3. Educators have to be on their guard against ends that are alleged to be general and ultimate.
Pragmatists’ sole aim in education is to provide the conditions that make growth possible.

The concept of Student

 The student is an experiencing organism capable of using intelligence to resolve its
problems. As a thinking organism his experiences and his reflections upon those
experiences become a part of him determining his likes, dislikes, and the future direction
of his learning.
 The student is a whole organism constantly interacting with the environment. The school
is both a part of this environment and a special manmade environment designed to
provide the best possible educative experience to the learner.
 The whole organism which is the child consists of the biological child, the psychological
child, and the social child. The experiencing organism that is the learner brings to school
with him all the meanings, values, and experiences that constitute his personality: his self.
The concept of Teacher
 The role of the teacher is important in successfully educating children.
 The teacher must capture the child’s interest and build on the natural motivation that
exists.
 Teachers need to vary their teaching methods to accommodate each individual learning
style because not all children learn at the same pace or are at the same point.
 Teacher should organize knowledge and relate it to current experiences.
 The teacher, for the pragmatist, is a member of the learning group who serves in the
capacity of helper, guide, and arranger of experiences. He is as involved in the educative
process as are the students.
 The pragmatic teacher does not abdicate responsibility. Uses child centered approach not
lasses faire (free style)
 The teacher is responsible for wiring with the students and helping them develop their
own projects that arise out of the felt needs of the students rather than those of the
teacher.
Curriculum Framework
 Any educative experience is the subject matter of the pragmatist’s curriculum: any
experience contributing to growth.
 The curriculum is learner- centered. In changes and shifts as the needs of the learners
vary.
 Pragmatists see subject matter as an arbitrary and wasteful system to which all learners
have been forced to conform.

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  They reject this system in order to center the subject matter on the problems and needs of the
learner.
Instructional Methodology
 Methods range from almost complete laissez- the relatively structured.
 The project method is the most common.
 Classroom discussion in a free and open atmosphere is encouraged, as well as individual
problem solving research. All of this may well involve a tremendous amount of reading,
studying, and traditional subject matter mastery.
 The curriculum for the pragmatic philosophy supports a connection between knowledge
and experience. It is important for children to connect the two so learning can become
meaningful.
 Pragmatic method is rooted in the psychological needs of the students rather than in the
logical order of the subject matter.
 The teacher will as well as possible help the learners at each stage of the effort:
(i) To initiate the activity (to form or choose the purpose);
(ii) To plan how to carry the activity forward,
(iii) To execute to plan:
(iv) To evaluate progress during the activity and the result at the end. While all this is
going forward the teacher will also
(v) Encourage the learners to think up and note suggestions or new leads for other
and further work;
(vi) Help them to formulate these suggestions both for clarification of thinking and for
later recall and possible use (perhaps writing them in a book or on the board for
future reference);
(vii) Help pupils criticize their thinking en route or at the close, as may see wise; and
finally
(viii) Look back over the whole process to pick up and fix important kinds of learning
as well as draw lessons for the future from both successes and failures.
Criticism to pragmatism
Weak Ontology: the whole structure of the pragmatic position is relatively unstable due to its
lack of a sound ontological base.
Anti-Intellectualism: the main area of concern for pragmatists is the marketplace of daily life
thus not rationalistic.
Theory of Truth: all other major philosophical systems are concerned with the nature of truth,
but pragmatism challenges the existence of this core making it a dangerous and radical
philosophy.
School as Instrument of Social Change: Traditionally the school has been viewed as society’s
instrument for the preservation and continuation of our cultural heritage but pragmatists argue
that, the school and the whole process of education should be an instrument of social change.

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