Unit 1

Types of Questions

question type function form

yes / no question to ask for general information Should we buy her a present?
Are you enjoying the party?

question word question to ask for specific information How many children does your sister have?
What do you do?

negative question - to show surprise Why didn’t you like the film?
- we expect the speaker to agree Isn’t this a beautiful place?

subject question to ask about the subject Who lives in that house?
How many people were injured in the accident?

indirect question to be polite Could you tell me what time the train leaves?
Do you know if I can sit here?

tag question to check information You won’t forget, will you?

She can speak Italian, can’t she?
 So / Neither
Used in responses showing your similar attitude, action, or state in comparison with what your conversation partner has said.
The auxiliary verb in your response is the same as in the phrase to which you are responding.
If there is no auxiliary verb in the phrase to which you are responding (i.e., the main verb is in present simple or past simple), use
do / does / did in your response.
So + auxiliary + S Neither + auxiliary + S
(= Me too) (= Me neither)
Agree with positive comment Agree with negative comment
- I am a student. - I am not hungry.
- So am I. - Neither am I.

- I like oranges. - I don’t know him.

- So do I. - Neither do I.

- I was there yesterday. - I didn’t call them.

- So was I. - Neither did I.

- I visited India last year. - I wasn’t laughing.

- So did I. - Neither was I.

- I will see him tomorrow. - I won’t go there.

- So will I. - Neither will I.
 Unit 2

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Continuous

meaning

general life experiences, recent changes, states in actions in progress from past to now, processes which
progress from past to now have just finished, repeated actions

focus on the result: How many / much …? focus on the process: How long…?

active and stative verbs active verbs

form

Have / Has + V3 Have / Has + been + Ving

Have you ever written a blog? I’ve been learning French for the last three years.
My computer’s crashed! I smell tobacco. Have you been smoking?
I’ve known Miriam since I was a child. How long have you been taking these supplements?
 Adjectives as Nouns

meaning
people considered together as a group

form

adjective + noun Homeless people need more support from the government.

the + adjective The homeless need more support from the government.

examples

- specific groups in society: the young, the old, the sick, the blind, the unemployed, etc.
- nationality adjectives: the British, the Japanese, the Dutch, etc.
* nationality nouns take s: 99 % of (the) Turks identify as Muslims.
 Unit 3
Narrative Tenses

past simple - finished action / series of actions in We arrived at the airport and checked in.
now
the past

past continuous - background action At nine o’clock most people on the plane were reading or
~~~~~~~~~~~ now - action in progress at a particular were trying to sleep.
moment in the past

past simple + - common combination of tenses We were having dinner when the plane hit some
~~~~~~~~~~~ now
past continuous turbulence.

past perfect - significant time / logic gap between When we arrived at the airport, we suddenly realized that
now
two actions in the past we had left one of the suitcases in the taxi.

past perfect - action in progress before another We’d been flying for about two hours when suddenly the
~~~~~~~~~~~ now
continuous action in the past captain told us to fasten our seat belts because we were
flying into some bad weather.
 Adverbs
type / function form / examples common position
- adjective + ly
manner accurately, anxiously, badly, beautifully, carefully, - after the verb: We waited anxiously by the phone.
(the way something cautiously, expertly, greedily, loudly, professionally, - in mid position with passive: The driver was seriously injured.
happens) quickly, quietly, etc.
- same form as adjectives
fast, late, hard, right, wrong, straight, tight, etc.
- before the main verb: They always hang out together.
frequency always, usually / normally, often, sometimes, - after to be: It’s often cloudy
(how often something occasionally, hardly ever, never, etc. - in mid position with auxiliary: I would never have thought you were
happens) 30.
- in the beginning for emphasis: Occasionally I meet her for a coffee.

time and place already, at the moment, finally, lately, now, recently, still, - at the end: Have you seen Linda today? Is that your scarf there?
(when and where soon, today, tomorrow, yesterday, yet, at the end of the - place before time: They will be here in half an hour.
something happens) month, once a week, three times a day, etc. - long phrases at the end: Take the medicine three times a day.

nearby, there, here, next door, overseas, upstairs, etc.

degree absolutely, a (little) bit, a lot, awfully, completely, - before adjectives and adverbs: It all happened pretty quickly.
(modify adjectives, enough, extremely, fairly, highly, pretty, quite, rather, - after the verb: He works a lot.
adverbs and verbs) slightly, terribly, utterly, totally, very, etc. - before the verb: John nearly died in a car accident.
comment apparently, basically, luckily, obviously, personally, - at the beginning: Unfortunately the parcel never arrived.
(give opinion) surprisingly, etc.
 Adverbs Often Confused
especially specially
- degree adverb: - manner adverb:
I am especially grateful to my family. He has shirts made specially for him.
- ‘above all’ with noun:
She loves flowers, especially roses.

late lately
- manner adverb: - time adverb:
We arrived late. She says she’s been feeling tired lately.

near nearly
- place adverb: - degree adverb:
The house was near the beach. She’s nearly as tall as her father now.

hard hardly hardly ever

- manner adverb: - degree adverb (‘almost not’): - frequency adverb:
Work hard if you want to succeed. I could hardly see his face. She lives far away, so we hardly ever see
her.

at the end (time / place) in the end (= finally)

At the end of his life, he had no regrets. We were thinking about going to Switzerland, but in the end we went to Austria.
 Unit 4
Future Perfect and Future Continuous

future perfect future continuous

now now ~~~~~~~~~~

- action finished to a certain time in the future - progress at a certain time in the future
(by, in) - fixed plans and arrangements

The decorators will have finished painting by Tuesday. Don’t phone between 7.00 and 8.00 as we’ll be having dinner then.
I’ll be going to supermarket later. Do you want anything?
 zero conditional first conditional

general truth / facts / rules possible / real situations

usually / now in the future
IF (WHEN) IF (IN CASE / UNLESS / AS LONG AS)
If I like a book, I buy it. If I like the book tomorrow, I’ll buy it.
condition result condition result
If I like a book, I buy it. If I like the book tomorrow, I’ll buy it.
- present simple - present simple - present simple - future simple
- present continuous - present continuous - present continuous - future continuous
- present perfect - present perfect - present perfect - future perfect
- modal verb - modal verb - going to
- imperative
- modal verb

If you are listening to the music, you are not listening to me. If you call her at 10.00, she will be working out.
If you haven’t been to New York, you haven’t lived. If you don’t disturb me, I’ll have finished in an hour.
If people are talking all the time, I can’t concentrate. If you’re not going to the party, I’m not going to go either.
If I can’t sleep, I listen to the radio. If I haven’t come back by 9.00, start dinner without me.
When you fly a budget airline, you have to pay for each piece of If the traffic is bad, I may get home late.
luggage. I’ll take an umbrella, in case it rains. (to be ready for situation)
I don’t want to stay in London unless I get a well-paid job. (if not)
 first conditional future time clause

possible / real situations will definitely happen

in the future in the future
IF (IN CASE / UNLESS / AS LONG AS) WHEN / AS SOON AS / BEFORE / UNTIL, etc.
If I like the book tomorrow, I’ll buy it. I’ll give you the book when I finish it.
condition result main clause future time clause
If I like the book tomorrow, I’ll buy it. I’ll give you the book when I finish it.
- present simple - future simple - future simple - present simple
- present continuous - future continuous - future continuous - present continuous
- present perfect - future perfect - future perfect - present perfect
- going to - going to
- imperative - imperative
- modal verb - modal verb

Examples of future time clauses:

I’m not going to buy the new model until the price has gone down a bit.
I’ll be ready as soon as I’ve had a cup of coffee.
Turn the equipment off please before you leave.
 Unit 5
second conditional third conditional

imaginary situations / speculation imaginary situations / speculation

now / in the future in the past

If Anna was here, she would know what to do. If you had come to class more often, you would have done better in exam.

condition result condition result

If Anna was here, she would know what to do. If you had come to class more you would have done better in exam.
- past simple - would + V1 often, - would have + V3
- past continuous - might / could + V1 - past perfect - might have / could have + V3
- would / might / could + be + Ving - past perfect continuous

If I were you, I’d call her immediately. He would have died if he hadn’t been wearing a helmet.
If he were a better player, he would win. If the jacket had been a bit cheaper, I might have bought it.
If we had enough money, we could move to a bigger flat. If we had followed his advice, we could have lost a great deal of money.
If I were a millionaire, I wouldn’t be working here now.
If I was driving now, I might have a car accident.
 Mixed Conditionals

2/3 3/2

If he weren’t so stupid, he wouldn’t have crashed his car. If my parents hadn’t met, I wouldn’t be sitting here now.

condition result condition result

If he weren’t so stupid, he wouldn’t have crushed his car. If my parents hadn’t met, I wouldn’t be sitting here now.
- past simple - would have + V3 - past perfect - would + V1
- past continuous - might have / could have + V3 - past perfect continuous - might / could + V1
- would / might / could + be + Ving

If I were a man, they would have given me this job. She wouldn’t still be working for us if we hadn’t given her a pay-rise.
I would have understood them if I spoke German. I might have a better job now if I hadn’t dropped out of the university.
 Unreal Uses of Past Tenses

unreality / alternative reality

speaker’s feelings about reality: disappointment, annoyance, irritation, criticizing

wish / if only

unreality in the present unreality in the past

past simple past perfect

I wish I could travel more! If only we hadn’t forgotten the map, we’d be there by now.

*annoying people / things

wish / if only + person / thing + would + V1

I wish the bus would come!

 Unit 6
Verb Patterns: Changes in Meaning

to V1 Ving
remember
= remember to do = can remember the situation / experience
Remember to lock the door. I remember locking the door.
forget
= forget to do = forget the situation / experience
I forgot to collect him at the airport. I’ll never forget meeting him for the first time.
stop
= to make a break = to quit
We stopped to smoke. I stopped smoking.
need
= active meaning = passive meaning
We need to update our website. Our website needs updating.
try
= make an effort = suggest solution to a problem
We try to provide our customers with the best If you can’t reach me by email, try calling me.
service.
 Used to and Be / Get used to

meaning form example

past routines / habits / states used to / didn’t use to + V1 When I was a child, I used to swim in the lake in summer.
As a child, I didn’t use to have a dog.

past / present process of get used to + Ving / N When I was in Italy I had to get used to drinking a lot of
adaptation coffee.
I can’t get used to working at night.
I had to get used to her manner of speaking.

past / present new habit be used to + Ving / N I’m now used to eating a lot of fresh vegetables.
As he had worked as a doctor for three years, he was used to
people’s pain.
 Unit 7
Modal Perfect

modal verb + have + V3

modal meaning + finished action in the past

must + have + V3 may / might + have + V3 can’t / couldn’t + have + V3 should / ought to + have + V3

high level of certainty possibility high level of impossibility past criticism

I’m sure … perhaps … I’m sure … not … it was a bad idea …

definitely … maybe … definitely not …
100 % percent …
+/- -
+ +/-

I must have left my phone at Anna’s. I definitely remember having it there.

Somebody might have stolen your wallet when you were getting off the train.
She can’t / couldn’t have gone to bed. It’s only ten o’clock!
We’ve gone the wrong way. We shouldn’t have turned left at the traffic lights.
 Verbs of Senses

look / feel / smell / sound / taste

+ adjective + like + N + as if + clause

You look tired. Tim looks like his father. She looks as if she’s been crying.
These jeans don’t feel comfortable. This material feels like silk – is it? It sounds as if it’s raining.
Passive voice
present simple Murderers are usually sentenced to life imprisonment.
action is more important
to be + V3
present continuous The trial is being held at the moment.

present perfect My car has been stolen.

past simple Jim was arrested last month.

past continuous The cinema was being rebuilt when it was set on fire.

past perfect We saw the one of the windows had been broken.

future simple The prisoner will be released next month.

going to The verdict is going to be given tomorrow.

infinitive (with to) People used to be imprisoned for stealing bread.

infinitive (without to) You can be fined for parking on a yellow line.

gerund He paid a fine to avoid being sent to jail.