34 Semiconductors

whereas only 50 mV is required for the «-type sample. This reduction of voltage
by a factor of 28,000 exactly equals the decrease in resistivity (from 2.30 x
10 to l/o- = 8.33 fl-cm). Yet the dramatic increase in the number of free
5

electrons (1.45 x 10 10 to 5 x 10
14
cm -3 ) occurs when only silicon atom in
1

100 million is replaced by an impurity atom!

It is possible to add donors to a p-type crystal or, conversely, to add ac-

ceptors to fi-type material. If equal concentrations of donors and acceptors

permeate the semiconductor, the semiconductor remains intrinsic. The hole of
the acceptor combines with the conduction electron of the donor to give no
additional free carriers. Thus, from Eq. (1-25) with ND = NA we observe that
,

p = n, and from Eq. (1-24), n 2 = nj, or n = n, = intrinsic concentration.

An extension of the preceding argument indicates that if the concentration
of donor atoms added to a p-type semiconductor exceeds the acceptor con-
centration (N D > N
A ), the specimen is changed from a p-type to an /?-type
semiconductor. Conversely, the addition of a sufficient number of acceptors
to an H-type sample results in a p-type semiconductor. This is precisely what
is done in fabricating IC transistors. To determine the carrier concentrations
under these circumstances, N
D is replaced by D - N N
A in Eqs. (1-26) and
(1-27) when p-type material is changed to an «-type semiconductor. Similarly,
when an /?-type semiconductor is converted to p type, N
A in Eqs. (1-28) and
(1-29) is replaced by NA - D N .

Generation and Recombination of Charges In an intrinsic semiconductor the number of

holes is equal to the number of free electrons. Thermal agitation, however,
continues to generate g new hole-electron pairs per unit volume per second,
while other hole-electron pairs disappear as a result of recombination; in other
words, free electrons fall into empty covalent bonds, resulting in the loss of a
pair of mobile carriers. On an average, a hole (an electron) will exist for tp (t„)
seconds before recombination. This time is called the mean lifetime of the hole
(electron). These parameters are very important in semiconductor devices be-
cause they indicate the time required for electron and hole concentrations which
have been caused to change to return to their equilibrium concentrations.

1-5 VARIATIONS IN THE PROPERTIES OF SILICON The conductivity of a semicon-

ductor, given in Eq. (1-22), depends on both hole and electron concentration
and mobility. Because semiconductor devices are subject to a wide range of
operating temperatures, the variations of these parameters with temperature
are important.

Intrinsic Concentration With increasing temperature, the density of hole-electron pairs in-
creases in an intrinsic semiconductor. Theoretically it is found that the intrinsic
concentration n, varies with T as

nf = A Ve- E^kT (1-30)

 1-6 Diffusion 35

where EG0 is the energy gap (the energy required to break a covalent bond) at
K in electron volts, k is the Boltzmann constant in electron volts per degree
kelvin (eV/K), and A is a constant independent of T.
The increase in nj with temperature also has an effect on the charge densities
in extrinsic semiconductors. For example, consider an «-type sample with a
donor concentration N D which is subjected to a temperature increase from 300
to 400 K. The electron density n at 400 K does not change appreciably from
its value at 300 K because the ionized donor impurities contribute nearly all

of the carriers. However, the mass-action law indicates that the hole concen-
tration p increases. Similarly, for /?-type semiconductors, n increases with
modest rises in temperature, and p — NA remains constant.

Mobility The variation with temperature (100 to 400 K) of electron and hole mobilities
is proportional to T~'". For silicon, m = 2.5 for electrons and 2.7 for holes.
Mobility /x decreases with temperature because more carriers are present and
these carriers are more energetic at higher temperatures. Each of these facts
results in an increased number of collisions and \x decreases.
Mobilities are also functions of the electric field intensity and doping levels.
In rt-type silicon, /x is constant at a given temperature only if % < 10 3 V/cm.
For % > 10 V/cm, p.„4
is inversely proportional to % and drift velocities approach
7 3 4
10 cm/s (the saturation velocity). Between 10 and 10 V/cm, \x n varies ap-
proximately as %~ m .

Conductivity The conductivity of an semiconductor increases with increasing tem-

intrinsic

perature because the increase in hole-electron pairs is greater than the decrease
in their mobilities. For extrinsic semiconductors, in the temperature range 100
to 600 K, the number of majority carriers is nearly constant but diminished
mobility causes the conductivity to decrease with temperature.

1 -6 DIFFUSION In addition to a conduction current, the transport of charges in a semiconductor

may be accounted for by a mechanism called diffusion (not ordinarily encoun-
tered in metals). The essential features of diffusion are now discussed.

It is possible to have a nonuniform concentration of particles in a semicon-

ductor. As indicated in Fig. 1-9, the concentration/? of holes varies with distance

FIGURE 1-9 P(u) P(u)

Representation of a I

nonuniform hole den-

I

Diffusion current
I

sity and the resultant density

diffusion current den-
sity.
36 Semiconductors

x semiconductor, and there exists a concentration gradient dpldx in the

in the
density of carriers. The existence of a gradient implies that if an imaginary
surface (indicated by dashed line) is drawn in the semiconductor, the density
of holes immediately on one side of the surface is larger than the density on
the other side. The holes are in a random motion as a result of their thermal
energy. Accordingly, holes will continue to move back and forth across this
surface. We may then expect that, in a given time interval, more holes will
cross the surface from the side of greater concentration to the side of smaller
concentration than in the reverse direction. This net transport of holes across
the surface constitutes a current in the positive x direction. It should be noted
that this net transport of charge is not the result of mutual repulsion among
charges of like sign, but is simply the result of a statistical phenomenon. This
diffusion is exactly analogous to that which occurs in a contained neutral gas
if a concentration gradient exists.
1

The diffusion hole-current density Jp is

proportional to the concentration gradient and is given by

Jp = -qD p ^- A/m 2 (1-31)

ax

where Dp (in square meters per second) is called the diffusion constant for
holes. Since p in Fig. 1-9 decreases with increasing .v, dpidx is negative and

the minus sign in Eq. (1-31) is needed, so that Jp will be positive in the positive

x direction. A similar equation exists for diffusion electron current density [p

is replaced by aj, and the minus sign is replaced by a plus sign in Eq. (1-31)].

The Einstein Relationship Since both diffusion and mobility are statistical thermodynamic
phenomena. D and p are not independent. The relationship between them is

given by the Einstein equation

^=^ = VT (1-32)
Pp Pn

where V T is the "volt equivalent of temperature." defined by

V 7T =— = —— V (1-33)
q 11 .600

where k is the Boltzmann constant in joules per Kelvin. Note the distinction
between k and k: the latter is the Boltzmann constant in electron volts per
Kelvin. (Values of k and k are given in App. A-l. From Sec. 1-3 it follows
that it = 1.60 x 10
-19
*.) At room temperature (300 K), V T = 0.0259 V,
and p = 38. 6D. (Measured values of p. and computed values of D for silicon
are given in Table 1-1.)

'It is also the process by which the scent of flowers can permeate a room.
 1-7 Graded Semiconductors 37

Total Current It is possible for both a potential gradient and a concentration gradient to exist
simultaneously within a semiconductor. In such a situation the total hole current
is the sum of the drift current [Eq. (1-16.), with n replaced by p] and the diffusion

current [Eq. (1-31)]. or

Jp = qp. p p% - qD p — A/m 2 (1-34)

Similarly, the net electron current is

dn
Jn = qix n n% + qD„ -j1 A/m 2 (1-35)
dx

1-7 GRADED SEMICONDUCTORS The semiconductor sample shown l-10a has a in Fig.
hole concentration that is a function of x: that graded (non-
is, the doping is

uniform). The electron density must also vary with x, a consequence of the
mass-action law. Let us assume thermal equilibrium and that no carriers are
injected into the sample from any external source (zero excitation). Under
these conditions there can be no steady charge motion, only the random motion
due to thermal agitation. Hence the total hole current must be zero; also, the
total electron current is zero. Since p is not constant, we expect a nonzero
hole diffusion current. For the total hole current to vanish, a hole drift current
must exist which is equal and opposite to the diffusion current. However, a
conduction current requires an electric field, and we conclude that, as a result
of the nonuniform doping, an electric field is generated within the semicon-
ductor. We shall now find this field and the corresponding potential variation
throughout the bar.
Setting Jp = in Eq. (1-34) and using the Einstein relationship Dp = p, p VT
[Eq. (1-32)], we obtain

V/m (1-36)
p dx

FIGURE 1-10 Junction

(a) A graded semicon- n type
ductor; p(x) is not con-
stant, (b) A pn junction
in which/? and n are uni-
formly doped with im-
purity concentrations
Pit i?2
NA and ND , respec-
tively.

(a) (b)
38 Semiconductors

If the doping concentration p(x) is known, this equation allows the built-in field

%{x) to be calculated. From % = -dV/dx, we can calculate the potential as

dV = -V T — (1-37)
P
Integration of Eq. (1-36) from.*,, where the concentration \sp\ and the potential
is V!, to x 2 where p = p 2 and V = V2 , yields

V,, = v, - v, = VT \ n — V (1-38)
Pz

Note that the potential difference between two points depends only on the
concentration at these two points and is independent of their separation .v : -
x\. Equation (1-38) may be expressed in the form

Pi = p 2 e +V2,/VT d-39)

This is the Boltzmann relationship of kinetic gas theory.

Mass-Action Law Starting with J n = and proceeding as above, we obtain the Boltzmann
equation for electrons:

„, = n2€
v2,/vT
(M0)
Multiplication of Eq. (1-39) by Eq. (1-40) gives

n\P\ = H2p 2 (1-41)

This equation states that the product npis a constant independent of .v, and

hence the amount of doping, under thermal equilibrium. For an intrinsic semi-
conductor, n = p = and np = nf, which is the law of mass action intro-
/!,-,

duced in Eq. (1-24).

An Open-Circuited Step-Graded Junction Consider the special case indicated in Fig. \-\0b.
The left p type with a constant concentration NA whereas
half of the bar is ,

the right half is n type with a uniform density ND The dashed plane is a .

metallurgical (pn) junction separating the two sections with different concen-
tration. This type of doping, where the density changes abruptly from p to n
type, is called step grading, and the junction is located at the plane where the
concentration is zero. As described earlier, theory indicates that there is a built-
in potential between these two sections called the contact difference ofpotential
V . Equation (1-38) allows us to calculate V as

V = V,, = VT \n^ V (1-42)

PnO

because p x
= p p0 = thermal-equilibrium hole concentration in the p side and
Pi - Pno - thermal equilibrium hole concentration in the n side. From Eq.
 Review Questions 39

(1-28), p p0 NA , and from Eq. (1-27) p„ = n}IND , so that

NaNd ,
V = VT In
T
(1-43)
m
The same expressionfor V is obtained from an analysis corresponding to
that given above and based on equating the total electron current /„ to zero
(Prob. 1-18). The pn junction is studied in detail in Chap. 2.

REFERENCES 1 Shockley, W.: "Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors," D. Van Nostrand, Prin-
ceton, N.J. (reprinted), 1963.

2 Yang. E. S.: "Fundamentals of Semiconductor Devices," McGraw-Hill Book Com-

pany, New York, 1978.

3 Sze, S. M.: "Physics of Semiconductor Devices," 2d ed., John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1979.

4 Adler, R. B., A. C. Smith, and R. L. Longini: "Introduction to Semiconductor

Physics," vol. I, SEEC, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1965.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1-1 Define electric field intensity.

1-2 Define potential energy.

1-3 Define an electron volt.

1-4 What is meant by the electron-gas description of a metal?

1-5 Define mobility.

1-6 Define conductivity.

1-7 Why does an intrinsic semiconductor behave as an insulator at K?

1-8 What is a hole? How does it contribute to conduction?

1-9 (a) What is the intrinsic concentration of holes?

{b) What is the relationship between the density in Rev. l-9a and the electron
concentration?

1-10 What is the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?

1-11 Show a two-dimensional representation of a silicon crystal containing a donor

impurity atom.

1-12 Repeat Rev. 1-11 for an acceptor impurity atom.

1-13 What type of semiconductor results when silicon is doped with {a) donor and (b)
acceptor impurities?

1-14 State the mass-action law.

1-15 A semiconductor has donor and acceptor concentrations of D and A respec- N N ,

tively. What relationships must be used to determine the electron n and hole p
concentrations?