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The Indian early medieval age, from 600 to 1200 CE, is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity.
[111]
When Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, attempted to
expand southwards, he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan.[112] When his successor
attempted to expand eastwards, he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal.[112] When the Chalukyas
attempted to expand southwards, they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south, who in turn were
opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farther south.[112] No ruler of this period was able to create
an empire and consistently control lands much beyond their core region.[111] During this time, pastoral
peoples, whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy, were
accommodated within caste society, as were new non-traditional ruling classes. [113] The caste system
consequently began to show regional differences.[113]

In the 6th and 7th centuries, the first devotional hymns were created in the Tamil language.[114] They were
imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all modern
languages of the subcontinent.[114] Indian royalty, big and small, and the temples they patronised drew
citizens in great numbers to the capital cities, which became economic hubs as well. [115] Temple towns of
various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation. [115] By the 8th and 9th
centuries, the effects were felt in Southeast Asia, as South Indian culture and political systems were
exported to lands that became part of modern-
day Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Brunei, Cambodia, Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia.[116] Indian
merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies were involved in this transmission; Southeast Asians took the
initiative as well, with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into
their languages.[116]

After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using swift-horse cavalry and raising vast
armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overran South Asia's north-western plains, leading
eventually to the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206.[117] The sultanate was to control much
of North India and to make many forays into South India. Although at first disruptive for the Indian elites, the
sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject population to its own laws and customs. [118][119] By repeatedly
repulsing Mongol raiders in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West
and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics,
traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic
culture in the north.[120][121] The sultanate's raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India
paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire.[122] Embracing a strong Shaivite tradition and
building upon the military technology of the sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsular India,
[123]
and was to influence South Indian society for long afterwards.[122]

Early modern India

In the early 16th century, northern India, then under mainly Muslim rulers, [124] fell again to the superior
mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors.[125] The resulting Mughal Empire did not
stamp out the local societies it came to rule. Instead, it balanced and pacified them through new
administrative practices[126][127] and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,[128] leading to more systematic,
centralised, and uniform rule.[129] Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity, especially under Akbar, the
Mughals united their far-flung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an
emperor who had near-divine status.[128] The Mughal state's economic policies, deriving most revenues from
agriculture[130] and mandating that taxes be paid in the well-regulated silver currency,[131] caused peasants
and artisans to enter larger markets.[129] The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the
17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion,[129] resulting in greater patronage of painting,
literary forms, textiles, and architecture.[132] Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such
as the Marathas, the Rajputs, and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule,
which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience. [133] Expanding
commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of
southern and eastern India.[133] As the empire disintegrated, many among these elites were able to seek and
control their own affairs.[134]

A distant view of the Taj Mahal from the Agra Fort

 A two mohur Company gold coin, issued in 1835, the obverse inscribed "William IIII, King"

By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly
blurred, a number of European trading companies, including the English East India Company, had
established coastal outposts.[135][136] The East India Company's control of the seas, greater resources, and
more advanced military training and technology led it to increasingly assert its military strength and caused
it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; these factors were crucial in allowing the company to
gain control over the Bengal region by 1765 and sideline the other European companies.[137][135][138][139] Its
further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it
to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s.[140] India was then no longer exporting manufactured goods
as it long had, but was instead supplying the British Empire with raw materials. Many historians consider
this to be the onset of India's colonial period.[135] By this time, with its economic power severely curtailed by
the British parliament and having effectively been made an arm of British administration, the East India
Company began more consciously to enter non-economic arenas,

According to sociologist Stanley Cohen, the spiral starts with some deviant act. Usually the
deviance is criminal, but it can also involve lawful acts considered morally repugnant by a
large segment of society. With the new focus on the issue, hidden or borderline examples that
would not themselves have been newsworthy are reported, confirming the pattern. This
confirmation of the pattern was first documented by Stanley Cohen in Folk Devils and Moral
Panic, a study of the media response to clashes between the Mods and Rockers, two rival
subcultures of the time.[2]

Reported cases of such deviance are often presented as the ones we know about, or the "tip
of the iceberg", an assertion that is nearly impossible to disprove immediately. For a variety of
reasons, the less sensational aspects of the spiraling story that would help the public keep a
rational perspective (such as statistics showing that the behavior or event is actually less
common or less harmful than generally believed) tend to be ignored by the press.

As a result, minor problems begin to look serious and rare events begin to seem common.
Members of the public are motivated to keep informed on these events, leading to high
readership for the stories, feeding the spiral. The resulting publicity has the potential to
increase the deviant behavior by glamorizing it, or by making it seem common or acceptable.
In the next stage, public concern typically forces the police and the law enforcement system to
focus more resources on dealing with the specific deviancy than it warrants.

Judges and magistrates then come under public pressure to deal out harsher sentences and
politicians pass new laws to increase their popularity by giving the impression that they are
dealing with the perceived threat. The responses by those in authority tend to reinforce the
public's fear, while the media continue to report police and other law enforcement activity,
amplifying the spiral.

The theory does not contend that moral panics always include the deviancy amplification
spiral.

Eileen Barker asserts that the controversy surrounding certain new religious movements can
turn violent in a deviancy amplification spiral.[3] In his autobiography, Lincoln Steffens details
how news reporting can be used to create the impression of a crime wave where there is
none, in the chapter "I Make a Crime Wave".

Button and Tunley[4] have also presented a theory that offers the opposite to deviancy
amplification, which they call deviancy attenuation. In this, they argue using the case of fraud
that there are some large problems which those in positions of power are able to seemingly
attenuate through not accurately measuring them, leading to statistics which underestimate
the problem, leading to fewer resources dedicated to them, reinforcing the belief of those in
power that they are not a problem.

See also
C) A member variable that is declared within a method
D) A member variable that cannot be modified

6. What represents an instance of a class in Object-Oriented Programming?

A) Attributes
B) Methods
C) Objects
D) Constructors

7. In Object-Oriented Programming, what is message passing?

A) The process of creating new instances of a class
B) The process of calling methods on objects
C) The process of destroying objects
D) The process of modifying class attributes

8. What is the purpose of a constructor in Object-Oriented Programming?

A) To create static members
B) To initialize the state of an object
C) To destroy objects
D) To modify class attributes

9. What is the term for the process of destroying objects in Object-Oriented Programming?
A) Construction
B) Destructive method
C) Destructor
D) Garbage collection

10. When identifying classes in Object-Oriented Programming, what are candidates for classes?
A) Methods
B) Attributes
C) Shared behavior and state
D) Message passing strategies

Unit 3: Relationships – Inheritance

1. In Object-Oriented Programming, what is the primary purpose of inheritance?
A) To create new objects
B) To define the state and behavior of an object
C) To enable code reuse and establish a hierarchical relationship
D) To encapsulate data

2. What term best describes the relationship between a subclass and its superclass in inheritance?
A) Has-a
B) Is-a
 C) Association
D) Aggregation

3. Which of the following is an example of an "is-a" relationship?

A) A car has an engine
B) A dog is a mammal
C) A library is composed of books
D) A person owns a house

4. What is association in Object-Oriented Programming?

A) A relationship where one class is a part of another class
B) A relationship where objects of one class are connected to objects of another class
C) A relationship between a superclass and its subclass
D) A relationship between static members of a class

5. What term is used to describe a stronger form of association where one class "owns" objects of
another class?
A) Inheritance
B) Aggregation
C) Composition
D) Encapsulation

6. What is aggregation in Object-Oriented Programming?

A) A relationship where one class inherits from another class
B) A relationship where objects of one class are part of objects of another class
C) A relationship between an interface and its implementations
D) A relationship between static members of a class

7. What is an abstract class in Object-Oriented Programming?

A) A class that cannot be instantiated but can be subclassed
B) A class that is fully implemented and can be instantiated
C) A class that contains only abstract methods
D) A class that cannot have any subclasses

8. What is an interface in Object-Oriented Programming?

A) A concrete class with no implementation details
B) A blueprint for a class that defines a set of methods that must be implemented
C) A class that cannot have any methods
D) A class that cannot be instantiated or subclassed

9. Which of the following is NOT a type of inheritance?

A) Single inheritance
B) Multiple inheritance
C) Multilevel inheritance
D) Horizontal inheritance

10. Which relationship in Object-Oriented Programming allows for the reusability of code by enabling
a subclass to inherit features from a superclass?
A) Aggregation
 B) Association
C) Inheritance
D) Composition

Unit 4: Polymorphism
1. What is polymorphism in Object-Oriented Programming?
A) The process of hiding the implementation details of an object's state
B) The process of creating duplicate objects
C) The ability of a method to do different things based on the object it is acting upon
D) The process of defining multiple constructors for a class

2. Which of the following best describes method overriding in C++?

A) Providing multiple implementations of the same method within a class
B) Redefining a method in a subclass with the same signature as a method in the superclass
C) Providing different implementations of a method with different signatures
D) Creating a new method with the same name but different parameters

3. What is method overloading in C++?

A) Providing multiple implementations of the same method within a class
B) Redefining a method in a subclass with the same signature as a method in the superclass
C) Providing different implementations of a method with different signatures
D) Creating a new method with the same name but different parameters

4. In method overloading, what determines which version of a method will be called?

A) The return type of the method
B) The name of the method
C) The number and types of parameters passed to the method
D) The access modifier of the method

5. What is static polymorphism?

A) Polymorphism that is resolved at compile time
B) Polymorphism that is resolved at runtime
C) Polymorphism that involves method overloading
D) Polymorphism that involves method overriding

6. Which type of polymorphism is achieved through method overloading?

A) Static polymorphism
B) Dynamic polymorphism
C) Compile-time polymorphism
D) Runtime polymorphism

7. What is runtime polymorphism?

A) Polymorphism that is resolved at compile time
B) Polymorphism that is resolved at runtime
 C) Polymorphism that involves method overloading
D) Polymorphism that involves method overriding

8. Which keyword is used to denote method overriding in C++?

A) override
B) virtual
C) super
D) @Override

9. In C++, can a subclass method override a superclass method with a broader access modifier?
A) Yes
B) No

10. Which of the following statements about polymorphism is true?

A) Polymorphism is achieved only through inheritance
B) Polymorphism allows objects of different types to be treated as objects of a single type
C) Polymorphism is limited to method overloading
D) Polymorphism is resolved at compile-time only

Unit 5:
1. Which of the following best describes a String in C++?
A) A primitive data-type
B) An array of characters
C) An object that represents a sequence of characters
D) A class that cannot be instantiated

2. In C++, how are exceptions handled?

A) Using if-else statements
B) Using try-catch blocks
C) Using loops
D) Using switch statements

3. What is the purpose of multi-threading in C++?

A) To improve code readability
B) To allow for parallel execution of tasks
C) To simplify exception handling
D) To enforce data encapsulation

4. Which of the following is NOT a data collection in C++?

A) ArrayList
B) HashMap
C) String
D) LinkedList

5. In a Library Management System, what data collection might be used to store information about
books and their availability?
A) ArrayList
B) HashSet
C) TreeMap
 D) LinkedList

6. What is an ATM (Automated Teller Machine) an example of in terms of Object-Oriented

Programming?
A) A data collection
B) A multi-threaded application
C) A case study
D) An exceptional handling scenario

7. How are exceptions typically handled in ATM systems?

A) By printing the exception message to the console
B) By terminating the program
C) By catching the exception and displaying an error message to the user
D) By ignoring the exception and continuing execution

8. What is the purpose of multi-threading in the context of an ATM system?

A) To allow multiple users to access the system simultaneously
B) To improve the security of the system
C) To simplify exception handling
D) To enforce data encapsulation

9. Which data collection in C++ stores elements in key-value pairs?

A) ArrayList
B) HashMap
C) TreeSet
D) Stack

10. In a Library Management System, what data collection might be used to store information about
library members and their borrowed books?
A) HashSet
B) LinkedList
C) TreeMap
D) HashMap