Environmental Value Systems

• An environmental value system (EVS) is the way that an individual, or any group of people,
perceives the environment and the resources it provides them with
o That includes you - your environmental value system determines the way that you
perceive and evaluate environmental issues, as well as the course of action you
might decide to take regarding these issues
• A person’s or group’s environmental value system is shaped and influenced by a variety of
factors, including cultural, religious, social, political, economic and environmental factors
o These factors act as flows of information into individuals within societies
o Individuals then process and transform this information into their perception of the
environment and how to act on environmental matters

EVS inputs and outputs

• An environmental value system is considered as a system because it is determined by a set

of inputs (i.e. the factors described above) and generates a set of outputs (in the form of the
person’s or group’s perceptions, evaluations, decisions and actions)

Environmental value system categories

• Although there is a very wide spectrum of environmental value systems, environmental

perspectives or worldviews can be broadly divided into three categories. These are:
o Ecocentric environmental value systems (ecocentrism)
o Anthropocentric environmental value systems (anthropocentrism)
o Technocentric environmental value systems (technocentrism)
Ecocentrism
• Ecocentrism is a philosophical and ethical approach that prioritises the intrinsic value of
nature and the environment over human needs and interests
• This approach emphasises that all living organisms and ecosystems have inherent worth and
should be protected for their own sake
• Ecocentrism advocates for sustainable practices that maintain the balance and integrity of
ecosystems and the natural world, rather than exploiting them for human benefit
• This approach is often associated with environmental movements and conservation
efforts that aim to protect biodiversity, ecosystems and natural resources

Anthropocentrism
• Anthropocentrism is a worldview that places human beings at the centre of the
universe, prioritising human needs and interests over those of other living beings and the
environment
• This approach emphasises that humans have the right to use natural resources and ecosystems
for their own benefit
• Although an anthropocentric viewpoint would ideally involve sustainable managing global
systems, in reality, anthropocentrism often results in unsustainable practices such
as overexploitation of natural resources, habitat destruction, and pollution
• This approach only values preserving biodiversity when it can provide economic and
ecological advantages to humans
• This approach is often criticised by environmentalists and conservationists for ignoring the
intrinsic value of nature and its ecosystems

Technocentrism
• Technocentrism is a worldview that places technology and human ingenuity at the centre of
all problem-solving and decision-making processes, often overlooking the impact on the
environment and other living beings
• This approach emphasises the use of technology to overcome environmental problems and
maintain human well-being
• Technocentrism often assumes that all environmental problems can
be solved through technological innovation and economic growth, which may lead to
neglect of the need for conservation and sustainability
• This approach is often criticised by environmentalists for being short-sighted and ignoring
the complex and interconnected nature of environmental issues
Understanding Perspectives

What is a perspective?

• A perspective is how an individual sees and understands a particular situation

o Perspectives are formed based on individual assumptions, values and beliefs
o They are shaped by a combination of personal experiences, cultural background and
societal influences
o For example, perspectives are often informed and justified by various factors
including:
§ Sociocultural norms
§ Scientific understandings
§ Laws
§ Religion
§ Economic conditions
§ Local and global events
§ Lived experience (i.e. events someone has personally experienced during
their lives)
• Perspectives are not fixed and can evolve over time as individuals gain new experiences and
insights

Influence of perspectives

• Perspectives vary widely among individuals and groups, leading to diverse views
on environmental and social issues
o For example, perspectives on climate change may differ based on factors such as
education, political beliefs, cultural background or geographical location
• Perspectives influence people's choices and actions
o For example, someone with an environmentalist perspective might prioritise
sustainability in their lifestyle choices, even if this is more financially costly to them,
while others may prioritise economic considerations (i.e. they may choose things that
are less expensive but also less environmentally friendly)
• Perspectives shape how individuals interpret information and events
o For example, someone with a pessimistic perspective might view an environmental
issue as evidence of inevitable wider ecological collapse, whereas an optimist might
see it as a temporary challenge to overcome and find solutions to
Environmental perspectives
• Different perspectives on environmental issues can lead to contrasting approaches to
conservation and resource management
o For example, those with a more human-based perspective may prioritise human
interests and well-being in environmental decision-making
§ This perspective might support conservation measures that benefit humans
directly, such as clean water initiatives
o In contrast, those with an environmentalist perspective may place great value on the
intrinsic worth of nature and ecosystems
§ Supporters of this perspective may prioritise biodiversity conservation and
ecosystem health, even if it does not directly benefit humans

Social perspectives
• Social perspectives shape attitudes and responses to social issues such as poverty, inequality
and justice
o For example, a collectivist perspective may prioritise the well-being of the
community over individual rights
§ Policies based on this perspective might focus on social welfare programs
and taxes
o In contrast, an individualistic perspective emphasises personal responsibility and
freedom of choice
§ Policies based on this perspective might involve promoting entrepreneurship
and reducing government intervention

Distinction between perspectives and arguments

• It is important to note that a perspective is not the same as an argument

o Arguments are constructs used to support or challenge a particular perspective
o They are logical or reasoned explanations presented to persuade other people of
the validity of a perspective (i.e. that a particular viewpoint is credible and true)
• Arguments can be constructed to defend a personally held perspective or
to criticise and counter an opposing viewpoint
o For example, someone who is advocating for stricter environmental regulations might
present arguments based on scientific evidence to support their perspective
o On the other hand, someone opposing these regulations might present
counterarguments based on economic concerns or individual freedoms
Unit 1.2
The Systems Approach
• A systems approach is the term used to describe a method of simplifying and understanding a
complicated set of interactions
o Systems and the interactions they contain can be environmental or ecological (e.g.
the water cycle or predator-prey relationships), social (e.g. how we live and work)
or economic (e.g. financial transactions or business deals)
• There are two ways of studying systems:
o A reductionist approach means breaking a system down into its parts and studying
each one individually
§ This can be useful for studying specific interactions in detail but it doesn't
show what's going on in the system as a whole
o A holistic approach looks at all of the system's processes and interactions as a whole
• For example, sustainability or sustainable development depends on a highly complex set of
interactions between many different factors
o These include environmental, social and economic factors (sometimes referred to as
the three pillars of sustainability).
o A systems approach is required in order to understand how these different
factors combine and interact with one another, as well as how they all
work together as a whole (the holistic approach)
Components & Interactions in Systems

Storage and flow

• A system is comprised of storages and flows

o The flows provide inputs and outputs of energy and matter
• The flows are processes that may be either:
o Transfers
o Transformations

Transfers and transformations

• These are two fundamental concepts in systems (and systems diagrams) that help to
understand how matter and energy move through a system
• Transfers are the movement of matter or energy from one component of the system to
another without any change in form or quality
o For example, water flowing from a river to a lake is a transfer
• Transformations, on the other hand, involve a change in the form or quality of matter or
energy as it moves through the system
o For example, when sunlight is absorbed by plants, it is transformed into chemical
energy through the process of photosynthesis
• Transfers and transformations are often represented in systems diagrams by arrows that
connect the different components of the system
o Arrows that represent transfers are usually labelled with the quantity of matter or
energy being transferred (e.g., kg of carbon, kJ of energy), while arrows that
represent transformations may include additional information about the process
involved (e.g., photosynthesis, respiration)
• Systems diagrams can help identify the key transfers and transformations that occur within a
system and how they are interconnected
• By understanding these processes, it is possible to identify opportunities to improve
the efficiency or sustainability of the system
• Transfers and transformations can occur at different scales within a system, from the
molecular level to the global level
o For example, at the molecular level, nutrients are transferred between individual
organisms, while at the global level, energy is transferred between different biomes

Systems diagrams

• Systems are often represented as simplified diagrams made up of storages and flows
o Storages are commonly drawn as shapes with defined boundaries (such as a circle or
rectangle)
o Flows are commonly drawn as arrows
§ These arrows represent the various inputs and outputs occurring within a
system
o The size of the shapes and arrows can be representative of the size of the particular
storage or flow (although often they are not drawn this way)
Types of Model
Open & Closed Systems

• There are three main types of systems—these are:

o Open systems
o Closed systems
o Isolated systems
• The category that a system falls into depends on how energy and matter flow between the
system and the surrounding environment
Open systems

• Both energy and matter are exchanged between the system and its surroundings
• Open systems are usually organic (living) systems that interact with their surroundings (the
environment) by taking in energy and new matter (often in the form of biomass), and by also
expelling energy and matter (e.g. through waste products or by organisms leaving a system)
• An example of an open system would be a particular ecosystem or habitat
• Your body is also an example of an open system—energy and matter are exchanged between
you and your environment in the form of food, water, movement and waste

Closed systems

• Energy, but not matter, is exchanged between the system and its surroundings
• Closed systems are usually inorganic (non-living)
• The Earth (and the atmosphere surrounding it) could be viewed as a closed system
o The main input of energy occurs via solar radiation
o The main output of energy occurs via heat (re-radiation of infrared waves from the
Earth’s surface)
o Matter is recycled completely within the system
o Although, technically, very small amounts of matter enter and leave the system (in
the form of meteorites, spaceships or satellites), these are considered negligible
• Global geochemical cycles are approximated to closed systems due to the continuous
recycling and redistribution of elements and compounds within the Earth's various natural
"reservoirs", such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere
o The overall quantities of elements remain relatively constant over geological
timescales
 o For example, carbon moves between the atmosphere, oceans and terrestrial
ecosystems through processes like photosynthesis, respiration and oceanic absorption,
maintaining a dynamic equilibrium
o The Earth's geochemical cycles operate on vast scales and with long-term stability,
resembling closed systems on a global scale
• Artificial and experimental ecological closed systems can also exist
o For example, sealed terrariums, containing just the right balance of water and living
organisms (such as mosses, ferns, bacteria, fungi or invertebrates), can sometimes
survive for many years as totally closed systems if light and heat energy are allowed
to be exchanged across the glass boundary
• Biosphere 2 was an attempt to create a larger-scale artificially closed system
o It was a self-contained experimental research facility designed to simulate Earth's
ecosystems in a closed environment

Isolated systems

• Neither energy nor matter are exchanged between the system and its surroundings
• Isolated systems do not exist naturally; they are more of a theoretical concept (although the
entire Universe could be considered to be an isolated system!)

Models

• A model is a simplified version of reality

• A model is often used to represent a system
o The model can then be analysed or tested to learn more about how the system works
and to predict how the system might respond to change
o For example, weather models are used to predict how our weather systems change
over time, allowing us to create weather forecasts
• Some models can be very simple, such as a child’s model car, while others can be highly
complex and require the power of supercomputers, such as the computer models that are
currently being used to predict how our climate will change in the future
o To some extent, due to their very nature, all models involve some level
of approximation or simplification, and therefore some loss of accuracy (even the
very powerful and complex models)
• Models have a variety of strengths and weaknesses
Stable Equilibrium

• An equilibrium refers to a state of balance occurring between the separate components of a

system
• Open systems (such as ecosystems) usually exist in a stable equilibrium
o This means they generally stay in the same state over time
o A stable equilibrium allows a system to return to its original state following
a disturbance
o This state of balance is maintained by stabilising negative feedback loops

Stable equilibria

• The main type of stable equilibrium is known as steady-state equilibrium

o A steady-state equilibrium occurs when the system shows no major changes over a
longer time period, even though there are often small, oscillating changes occurring
within the system over shorter time periods
o These slight fluctuations usually occur within closely defined limits and the system
always returns to its average state
o Most open systems in nature are in steady-state equilibrium
§ For example, a forest has constant inputs and outputs of energy and matter,
which change over time
§ As a result, there are short-term changes in the population dynamics of
communities of organisms living within the forest, with different species
increasing and decreasing in abundance
§ Overall, however, the forest remains stable in the long-term
• Another type of stable equilibrium is static equilibrium
 o There are no inputs or outputs (of energy or matter) to the system and therefore the
system shows no change over time
o No natural systems are in static equilibrium—all natural systems (e.g. ecosystems)
have inputs and outputs of energy and matter
o Inanimate objects such as a chair or a desk could be said to be in static equilibrium

Stable vs unstable equilibria

• A system can also be in an unstable equilibrium
o Even a small disturbance to a system in unstable equilibrium can cause the system to
suddenly shift to a new system state or average state (i.e. a new equilibrium is
reached)
Negative & Positive Feedback

• Most systems involve feedback loops

• These feedback mechanisms are what cause systems to react in response to disturbances
• Feedback loops allow systems to self-regulate

• There are two types of feedback loops:

o Negative feedback
o Positive feedback

Negative feedback

• Negative feedback is any mechanism in a system that counteracts a change away from
equilibrium
• Negative feedback loops occur when the output of a process within a
system inhibits or reverses that same process in a way that brings the system back to its
average state
• In this way, negative feedback is stabilising—it counteracts deviation from equilibrium
 • Negative feedback loops stabilise systems

Positive feedback

• Positive feedback is any mechanism in a system that leads

to additional and increased change away from equilibrium
 o Positive feedback loops occur when the output of a process within a system feeds
back into the system in a way that moves the system increasingly away from its
average state
o In this way, positive feedback is destabilising—it amplifies deviation from
equilibrium and drives systems towards a tipping point where the state of the system
suddenly shifts to a new equilibrium
o Positive feedback loops destabilise systems

Other examples of positive feedback

• Positive feedback loops amplify changes within a system
o They can lead to either an increase or a decrease in a system component.
• Example: population decline
o Population decline reduces reproductive potential
o Reduced reproductive potential further decreases the population
 o This amplifying loop accelerates the decline
• Example: population growth
o Population growth increases reproductive potential
o Increased reproductive potential triggers further population growth
o This positive feedback loop accelerates population expansion

Tipping Points

• A tipping point is a critical threshold within a system

o If a tipping point is reached, any further small change in the system will have
significant knock-on effects and cause a system to move away from its average state
(away from equilibrium)
o In ecosystems and other ecological systems, tipping points are very important, as they
represent the point beyond which serious, irreversible damage and change to the
system can occur
o Positive feedback loops can push an ecological system towards and past its tipping
point, at which point a new equilibrium is likely to be reached
§ This is sometimes known as a regime shift to an alternative stable state
§ Eutrophication is a classic example of an ecological system reaching a
tipping point and accelerating towards a new state

A system reaching and passing a tipping point, moving to an alternative stable state
• The diagram above shows the following:
o (A) The system is subject to some kind of pressure
o (B) This pressure pushes the system towards a tipping point
o (C) The system’s tipping point (critical threshold) is reached—like a ball balancing
on a hill, at this stage even a minor push is enough to cross the tipping point
o (D) Positive feedback loops accelerate the shift into a new state (E)
o The change to the new state is often irreversible or a high cost is required to return the
system back to its previous state, which is illustrated in the figure as a ball being in a
deep valley (E) with a long uphill climb back to the previous state (F)
• Tipping points can be difficult to predict for the following reasons:
o There are often delays of varying lengths involved in feedback loops, which add to
the complexity of modelling systems
o Not all components or processes within a system will change abruptly at the same
time
o It may be impossible to identify a tipping point until after it has been passed
o Activities in one part of the globe may lead to a system reaching a tipping point
elsewhere on the planet (e.g. the burning of fossil fuels by industrialised countries is
 leading to global warming, which is pushing the Amazon basin towards a tipping
point of desertification)—continued monitoring, research and scientific
communication are required to identify these links
• The melting of polar ice caps and glaciers is another example of how human activities can
push the Earth's systems beyond their limits and towards environmental tippin

Resilience

• Any system, ecological, social or economic, has a certain amount of resilience

o This resilience refers to the system’s ability to maintain stability and avoid tipping
points
• Diversity and the size of storages within systems can contribute to their resilience and affect
their speed of response to change
• Systems with higher diversity and larger storage are less likely to reach tipping points
o For example, highly complex ecosystems like rainforests have high diversity in terms
of the complexity of their food webs
§ If a disturbance occurs within one of these food webs, the animals and plants
have many different ways to respond to the change, maintaining the stability
of the ecosystem
§ Rainforests also contain large storages in the form of long-lived tree species
and high numbers of dormant seeds
§ These factors promote a steady-state equilibrium in ecosystems like
rainforests
§ In contrast, agricultural crop systems are artificial monocultures, meaning
they only contain a single species
§ This low diversity means they have low resilience—if there is a disturbance
to the system (e.g. a new crop disease or pest species), the system will not be
able to counteract this
o A simple example of how the size of storage affects the relative stability of a system
could be demonstrated by the relative instability of a small pond compared to the
relative stability of a lake
§ In a larger storage system, such as a lake, changes in input or output have less
immediate impacts on the overall system compared to a smaller storage
system like a pond
§ For example, if pollutants enter the lake, they may become more dispersed
and diluted due to its size, reducing the overall impact on water quality,
whereas in a smaller storage system like a pond, pollutants can quickly
accumulate, leading to more immediate and concentrated pollution
§ While evaporation still occurs in a lake, the impact on the overall water level
is less noticeable due to the lake's size, providing a buffer against rapid
drying, whereas for a pond, evaporation can quickly deplete the water
volume, leading to more rapid drying and decreased stability of the system
The resilience of a system affects its ability to avoid moving towards, reaching and passing tipping
points
• Humans can affect the resilience of natural systems by reducing the diversity contained
within them and the size of their storages
o Rainforest ecosystems naturally have very high biodiversity
o When this biodiversity is reduced, through the hunting of species to extinction or the
destruction of habitat through deforestation, the resilience of the rainforest
ecosystem is reduced, making it increasingly vulnerable to further disturbances
o Natural grasslands have high resilience, due to large storages of seeds, nutrients and
root systems underground, allowing them to recover quickly after a disturbance such
as a fire (especially if they contain a diversity of grassland species, including some
which are adapted to regenerate quickly after fires)
o However, when humans convert natural grasslands to agricultural crops, the lack of
diversity and storage (e.g. no underground se