3) Discuss about Routing Algorithm and Differentiate Distance vector Routing Link state

Routing.
A routing algorithm is a procedure that lays down the route or path to transfer data packets
from source to the destination. They help in directing Internet traffic efficiently. After a data
packet leaves its source, it can choose among the many different paths to reach its
destination. Routing algorithm mathematically computes the best path, i.e. “least – cost
path” that the packet can be routed through.
Types of Routing Algorithms
Routing algorithms can be broadly categorized into two types, adaptive and nonadaptive
routing algorithms. They can be further categorized as shown in the following diagram –

Adaptive Routing Algorithms

Adaptive routing algorithms, also known as dynamic routing algorithms, makes routing
decisions dynamically depending on the network conditions. It constructs the routing table
depending upon the network traffic and topology. They try to compute the optimized route
depending upon the hop count, transit time and distance.
The three popular types of adaptive routing algorithms are −
 Centralized algorithm − It finds the least-cost path between source and destination
nodes by using global knowledge about the network. So, it is also known as global
routing algorithm.
 Isolated algorithm − This algorithm procures the routing information by using local
information instead of gathering information from other nodes.
 Distributed algorithm − This is a decentralized algorithm that computes the least-
cost path between source and destination iteratively in a distributed manner.
Non – Adaptive Routing Algorithms
Non-adaptive Routing algorithms, also known as static routing algorithms, construct a static
routing table to determine the path through which packets are to be sent. The static routing
table is constructed based upon the routing information stored in the routers when the
network is booted up.
The two types of non – adaptive routing algorithms are −
  Flooding − In flooding, when a data packet arrives at a router, it is sent to all the
outgoing links except the one it has arrived on. Flooding may be uncontrolled,
controlled or selective flooding.
 Random walks − This is a probabilistic algorithm where a data packet is sent by the
router to any one of its neighbours randomly.
Difference between Distance vector routing and Link State routing
Distance Vector Routing –
 It is a dynamic routing algorithm in which each router computes distance between itself
and each possible destination i.e. its immediate neighbors.
 The router share its knowledge about the whole network to its neighbors and
accordingly updates table based on its neighbors.
 The sharing of information with the neighbors takes place at regular intervals.
 It makes use of Bellman Ford Algorithm for making routing tables.
 Problems – Count to infinity problem which can be solved by splitting horizon.
– Good news spread fast and bad news spread slowly.
– Persistent looping problem i.e. loop will be there forever.
Link State Routing –
 It is a dynamic routing algorithm in which each router shares knowledge of its neighbors
with every other router in the network.
 A router sends its information about its neighbors only to all the routers through
flooding.
 Information sharing takes place only whenever there is a change.
 It makes use of Dijkastra’s Algorithm for making routing tables.
 Problems – Heavy traffic due to flooding of packets.
– Flooding can result in infinite looping which can be solved by using Time to live
(TTL) field.
Comparison between Distance Vector Routing and Link State Routing:
4) Discuss Advantages of IPV6 over IPV4 and describe the frame format of IPV.
With IPv6, everything from appliances to automobiles can be interconnected. But an
increased number of IT addresses isn't the only advantage of IPv6 over IPv4. In honor of
World IPv6 Day, here are six more good reasons to make sure your hardware, software, and
services support IPv6.
Network Computing Editors
With IPv6, everything from appliances to automobiles can be interconnected. But an
increased number of IT addresses isn't the only advantage of IPv6 over IPv4. In honor of
World IPv6 Day, here are six more good reasons to make sure your hardware, software, and
services support IPv6.
1. More Efficient Routing
IPv6 reduces the size of routing tables and makes routing more efficient and
hierarchical. IPv6 allows ISPs to aggregate the prefixes of their customers' networks
into a single prefix and announce this one prefix to the IPv6 Internet. In addition, in
IPv6 networks, fragmentation is handled by the source device, rather than the router,
using a protocol for discovery of the path's maximum transmission unit (MTU).
2. More Efficient Packet Processing
IPv6's simplified packet header makes packet processing more efficient. Compared
with IPv4, IPv6 contains no IP-level checksum, so the checksum does not need to be
recalculated at every router hop. Getting rid of the IP-level checksum was possible
because most link-layer technologies already contain checksum and error-control
capabilities. In addition, most transport layers, which handle end-to-end connectivity,
have a checksum that enables error detection.
3. Directed Data Flows
IPv6 supports multicast rather than broadcast. Multicast allows bandwidth-intensive
packet flows (like multimedia streams) to be sent to multiple destinations
simultaneously, saving network bandwidth. Disinterested hosts no longer must process
broadcast packets. In addition, the IPv6 header has a new field, named Flow Label, that
can identify packets belonging to the same flow.
4. Simplified Network Configuration
Address auto-configuration (address assignment) is built in to IPv6. A router will send
the prefix of the local link in its router advertisements. A host can generate its own IP
address by appending its link-layer (MAC) address, converted into Extended Universal
Identifier (EUI) 64-bit format, to the 64 bits of the local link prefix.
5. Support For New Services
By eliminating Network Address Translation (NAT), true end-to-end connectivity at the
IP layer is restored, enabling new and valuable services. Peer-to-peer networks are
easier to create and maintain, and services such as VoIP and Quality of Service (QoS)
become more robust.
6. Security
IPSec, which provides confidentiality, authentication and data integrity, is baked into in
IPv6. Because of their potential to carry malware, IPv4 ICMP packets are often blocked
by corporate firewalls, but ICMPv6, the implementation of the Internet Control
Message Protocol for IPv6, may be permitted because IPSec can be applied to the
ICMPv6 packets.
6) Discuss about TCP Services, TCP header format. And Describe Flow control, Error
control in TCP Protocol
TCP
TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol. It is a transport layer protocol that facilitates
the transmission of packets from source to destination. It is a connection-oriented protocol
that means it establishes the connection prior to the communication that occurs between
the computing devices in a network. This protocol is used with an IP protocol, so together,
they are referred to as a TCP/IP.
The main functionality of the TCP is to take the data from the application layer. Then it
divides the data into a several packets, provides numbering to these packets, and finally
transmits these packets to the destination. The TCP, on the other side, will reassemble the
packets and transmits them to the application layer. As we know that TCP is a connection-
oriented protocol, so the connection will remain established until the communication is not
completed between the sender and the receiver.
Features of TCP protocol
The following are the features of a TCP protocol:
o Transport Layer Protocol
TCP is a transport layer protocol as it is used in transmitting the data from the sender to the
receiver.
o Reliable
TCP is a reliable protocol as it follows the flow and error control mechanism. It also supports
the acknowledgment mechanism, which checks the state and sound arrival of the data. In
the acknowledgment mechanism, the receiver sends either positive or negative
acknowledgment to the sender so that the sender can get to know whether the data packet
has been received or needs to resend.
o Order of the data is maintained
This protocol ensures that the data reaches the intended receiver in the same order in
which it is sent. It orders and numbers each segment so that the TCP layer on the
destination side can reassemble them based on their ordering.
o Connection-oriented
It is a connection-oriented service that means the data exchange occurs only after the
connection establishment. When the data transfer is completed, then the connection will
get terminated.
o Full duplex
It is a full-duplex means that the data can transfer in both directions at the same time.
o Stream-oriented
TCP is a stream-oriented protocol as it allows the sender to send the data in the form of a
stream of bytes and also allows the receiver to accept the data in the form of a stream of
bytes. TCP creates an environment in which both the sender and receiver are connected by
an imaginary tube known as a virtual circuit. This virtual circuit carries the stream of bytes
across the internet.
Need of Transport Control Protocol
In the layered architecture of a network model, the whole task is divided into smaller tasks.
Each task is assigned to a particular layer that processes the task. In the TCP/IP model, five
layers are application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link layer, and physical
layer. The transport layer has a critical role in providing end-to-end communication to the
directly application processes. It creates 65,000 ports so that the multiple applications can
be accessed at the same time. It takes the data from the upper layer, and it divides the data
into smaller packets and then transmits them to the network layer.
Working of TCP
In TCP, the connection is established by using three-way handshaking. The client sends the
segment with its sequence number. The server, in return, sends its segment with its own
sequence number as well as the acknowledgement sequence, which is one more than the
client sequence number. When the client receives the acknowledgment of its segment, then
it sends the acknowledgment to the server. In this way, the connection is established
between the client and the server.
Advantages of TCP
o It provides a connection-oriented reliable service, which means that it guarantees
the delivery of data packets. If the data packet is lost across the network, then the
TCP will resend the lost packets.
o It provides a flow control mechanism using a sliding window protocol.
o It provides error detection by using checksum and error control by using Go Back or
ARP protocol.
o It eliminates the congestion by using a network congestion avoidance algorithm that
includes various schemes such as additive increase/multiplicative decrease (AIMD),
slow start, and congestion window.
Disadvantage of TCP
It increases a large amount of overhead as each segment gets its own TCP header, so
fragmentation by the router increases the overhead.
TCP Header format
 o Source port: It defines the port of the application, which is sending the data. So, this
field contains the source port address, which is 16 bits.
o Destination port: It defines the port of the application on the receiving side. So, this
field contains the destination port address, which is 16 bits.
o Sequence number: This field contains the sequence number of data bytes in a
particular session.
o Acknowledgment number: When the ACK flag is set, then this contains the next
sequence number of the data byte and works as an acknowledgment for the
previous data received. For example, if the receiver receives the segment number 'x',
then it responds 'x+1' as an acknowledgment number.
o HLEN: It specifies the length of the header indicated by the 4-byte words in the
header. The size of the header lies between 20 and 60 bytes. Therefore, the value of
this field would lie between 5 and 15.
o Reserved: It is a 4-bit field reserved for future use, and by default, all are set to zero.
o Flags
There are six control bits or flags:
1. URG: It represents an urgent pointer. If it is set, then the data is processed
urgently.
2. ACK: If the ACK is set to 0, then it means that the data packet does not
contain an acknowledgment.
3. PSH: If this field is set, then it requests the receiving device to push the data
to the receiving application without buffering it.
4. RST: If it is set, then it requests to restart a connection.
5. SYN: It is used to establish a connection between the hosts.
6. FIN: It is used to release a connection, and no further data exchange will
happen.
o Window size
It is a 16-bit field. It contains the size of data that the receiver can accept. This field is
used for the flow control between the sender and receiver and also determines the
amount of buffer allocated by the receiver for a segment. The value of this field is
determined by the receiver.
o Checksum
It is a 16-bit field. This field is optional in UDP, but in the case of TCP/IP, this field is
mandatory.
o Urgent pointer
It is a pointer that points to the urgent data byte if the URG flag is set to 1. It defines
a value that will be added to the sequence number to get the sequence number of
the last urgent byte.
o Options
It provides additional options. The optional field is represented in 32-bits. If this field
contains the data less than 32-bit, then padding is required to obtain the remaining
bits.
. Error handling in TCP
TCP includes mechanisms for detecting corrupted segments, lost segments, out-of-order
segments and duplicated segments.
Error control in TCP is achieved through use of three simple techniques:
 Checksum
 Acknowledgement
 Retransmission
1. Checksum
 Each segment includes a checksum field used to check for corrupted segment.
 TCP uses a 16-bit checksum.
 Corrupted segment is discarded by the destination and is considered lost.
 TCP checksum is a weak check by modern standards which uses CRC method.
2. Acknowledgement
 TCP confirms the receipt of data segments.
 Control segments that carry no data but consume a sequence number are also
acknowledged.
 ACK segments are never acknowledged.
3. Retransmission
 A segment is retransmitted on two occasions:
i. When a retransmission timer expires
ii. When the sender receives three duplicate ACKs
 There is no retransmission for ACK segments
 Retransmission after RTO
i. TCP maintains one RTO timer for all outstanding (sent, but not acknowledged)
segments.
ii. When the timer matures, the earliest outstanding segment is retransmitted.
iii. Value of RTO is dynamic and updated based on RTT.
 Retransmission in TCP can be Fast retransmission or Adaptive retransmission.
Flow control in TCP
TCP uses an end-to-end flow control protocol to avoid having the sender send data too fast
for the TCP receiver. It uses sliding window protocol for this.
In each TCP segment, the receiver specifies in the receive window field the amount of
additionally received data that it is willing to buffer for the connection.
The size of the window is determined by the lesser of two values: rwnd or cwnd
i. rwnd
It is the number of bytes the receiver can accept before its buffer overflows.
ii. cwnd
It is the value determined by the network to avoid congestion.
8) Define congestion control? Discuss of congestion control in Transport layer.
Definition: Congestion control is a method used for monitoring the process of regulating the
total amount of data entering the network so as to keep traffic levels at an acceptable value.
This is done in order to avoid the telecommunication network reaching what is termed w:
congestive collapse.
Congestion control mostly applies to the packet-switching networks. A wide variety of
approaches have been proposed, however, the "objective is to maintain the number of
packets within the network below the level at which performance falls off dramatically."
There are two transport layer protocols where congestion control is implemented;

 Transmission Control Protocol

 User Datagram Protocol
In the TCP there are several congestion control algorithms strategies used:

 slow start
 exponential backoff