Week 4

Stages of Development

Lawrence Kohlberg - outlines a series of stages through which individuals progress in understanding and applying
moral principles.

1. Pre conventional Level - (early childhood) moral reasoning is primarily based external consequences.
1st: obedience and punishment; actions are judged to avoid punisment.
2nd: Instrumental relativist orientation, focuses on self interest & reciprocity; considers action to satisfy their
needs.
2. The conventional Level - (adolescence) , social-oriented perpective ;
3rd: individual seeks approval & avoid disapproval.
4th: maintain social order by following rules.
3. Post conventional / principled level - (adulthood)
5th: social contract and human right, individual recognize importance of social agreement & just society.
6th: Universal ethical principles, development of personal moral code based on justice, equality & human
dignity.

Week 5

Human Acts - actions chosen with rationality and moral agency. It is not instinctive or automatic behaviors but
involves a reflective & deliberate human will.

Acts of Human - behaviors that lack the intentional and voluntary aspects with human acts. Instinctive, impulsive or
reflexive, driven more by biological or external factor rather than conscious choice.

Reason - is a cornerstone of moral philosophy, providing the capacity for individuals to engage in rational
deliberation and ethical decision-making. Reason allows us to assess consequences, recognize principles, and
consider the perspectives of others.

Impartiality - or the ability to approach moral judgments without undue bias or favoritism, is essential for constructing
a morally sound framework. It involves treating all individuals equally and applying moral principles consistently
across different situations.

WEEK 7

Cultural influence - refers to the impact that a culture, including cultural norms, values, beliefs, and practices, has on
the behaviors and perceptions of individuals who belong to or interact with it.

The cognitive process - involves obtaining information, processing it, and storing it in the memory to be accessed
again.

Neuroscience illuminates the biological foundations of morality. The complex interaction between the prefrontal brain
and limbic system reveals the emotional and cognitive factors influencing our moral judgments.

Deontology - is the moral philosophy that judges an act as moral or good based on the intentions of the individual
committing the act and the duties the person is obligated to uphold.

Consequentialism - is simply the view that normative properties depend only on consequences. Virtue ethics
emphasize the role of character and virtue in moral philosophy rather than either doing one's duty or acting to bring
about good consequences.

Cultural relativism - is to understand a culture on its terms and not to make judgments using the standards of one's
own culture.
Evolutionary psychology - is a scientific discipline that approaches human cognition, emotions, and behavior
through a lens that incorporates the effects of evolution over time.

WEEK 8

Golden mean -, in philosophy, an approach to ethics that emphasizes finding the appropriate medium, or middle
ground, between extremes. The phrase golden mean is most frequently applied to the ethical ideas described by the
ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle in his treatise Nicomachean Ethics.

The Nicomachean Ethics considers the nature of human action and ethics, rooted in the concept of eudaimonia,
often translated as happiness. Virtue ethics is the quest to understand and live a life of moral character. This
character-based approach to morality assumes that we acquire virtue through practice. Aristotle’s ethics was
centered around the pursuit of eudaimonia, meaning happiness or flourishing. Aristotle believed we could achieve
eudaimonia by using reason excellently in everything we do.

WEEK 9

According to St. Thomas,

Justice - is a virtue that enables us to render to each person what is his or her right, what is due to each person,
what each person ought to receive. To act well, we need to make good judgments about how we should behave.
This is precisely the sort of habit associated with prudence, which Aquinas defines as “wisdom concerning human
affairs”. Aquinas holds that acquired virtue can be a life of continuous growth and progress. An infused virtue is given
to you by God, and an acquired virtue is one that we cultivate through our efforts.

Natural law - is a theory in ethics and philosophy that says human beings possess intrinsic values that govern their
reasoning and behavior. Natural law maintains that these rules of right and wrong are inherent in people and are not
created by society or court judges. Prudence and temperance, courage is a cardinal virtue.

WEEK 10

The main focus of the philosopher Immanuel Kant's writings, including the "Critique of Practical Reason" and the
"Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals," is his deontological ethics.

A categorical Imperative - is a rule of conduct that is unconditional or absolute for all agents, the validity or claim of
which does not depend on any desire or end. The Categorical Imperative is a rule for testing rules of conduct. It will
exclude as immoral any rule of conduct that implies that one person may do something but another, in relevantly
similar circumstances, may not.

Autonomy - stands for the ideal of free will: a human will be driven to action, not by appetite or desire, but by
identification with a 'higher' or rational self. Autonomy is the capacity to think, decide, and act freely and
independently based on such thoughts and decisions.

According to Kant, the only thing that is good in itself is “goodwill.” The will is what drives our actions and grounds the
intention of our actions. The will is what drives our actions and grounds the intention of our actions. It is good when it
acts from duty. Kant thinks goodwill is the only intrinsically valuable thing.

WEEK 11
Rights theory - is a fundamental component of political and ethical philosophy that offers a framework for
comprehending and defending people's liberties and rights in modern society.
Rights - are specific claims or privileges that are unique to each individual, as opposed to moral principles, which
may guide decisions or acts based on concepts of duty or goodness.

Natural rights theory - holds that individuals have certain rights–such as the rights to life, liberty, and property–in
virtue of their human nature.

Human rights - the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every person in the world, from birth until death. It
applies to everyone regardless of their race, sex, skin color, nationality, etc. Human rights attach to all persons
equally, under their humanity, irrespective of race, nationality, or membership in any particular social group. Human
rights are universal and moral.

Deontological ethics places a special emphasis on the relationship between duty and the morality of human actions.
In deontological ethics, an action is said to be morally good if the intention behind the action is in terms of rules and
laws, not the result of the action is good. The rightness and wrongness of an action depend on its accordance with
moral norms, regardless of the consequence.

Positive rights - require action or provision by others to ensure that individuals can access certain benefits or
resources. Positive rights provide the right holder with a claim against another person or the state for some good,
service, or treatment. Group or collective rights encompass a wide range of principles and guarantees aimed at
safeguarding the integrity, autonomy, and well-being of the group.

Negative rights - involve non-interference and entail that individuals have the right to be free from certain actions or
interference by others. Contemporary thinkers enrich rights theory by engaging with diverse perspectives and
adapting principles to address evolving social, political, and ethical challenges. Negative right restrains other persons
or governments by limiting their actions toward or against the right holder.

Different kinds of rights are natural rights, moral rights, and legal rights.

Civil rights - are a class of rights that protect individuals’ freedom from infringement by governments, social
organizations, and private individuals, and which ensure one’s ability to participate in the civil and political life of the
society and state without discrimination or repression.

Economic rights - are those rights that provide economic security to the people. These empower all citizens to make
proper use of their civil and political rights. The basic needs of every person are related to food, clothing, shelter, and
medical treatment.

Legal rights- are those rights that are accepted and enforced by the state. Any defilement of any legal right is
punished by law. These rights are codified in legal statutes, constitutions, treaties, and regulations, and they are
typically enforceable through the legal system.

Moral rights - are based on ethical principles and moral values rather than on legal statutes. These rights derive
from philosophical or religious beliefs about what is morally right or wrong, just or unjust, fair or unfair.