Introduction

Almost all mental tasks, including text comprehension, social communication,

problem-solving, and decision-making, depend on reasoning (Hayes et al., 2018; Krawczyk,

2018c). The ability to reason cognitively is considered the pinnacle of human intellectual

capacity. The two most prevalent types of reasoning processes are inductive, where a rule can

be deduced from an example (some all), and deductive, which is a conclusion based on a rule

and its premises (every/all some). There is ongoing discussion regarding whether inductive

and deductive reasoning are different processes or if they are both underpinned by a single,

unified brain process (Lassiter & Goodman, 2015). Understanding the brain mechanisms

underlying reasoning is essential given the basic role that reasoning plays in human life. This

will help us better understand how the cognitive processes results in both accurate as well as

inaccurate conclusions (Evans, 2019).

There are two distinct brain networks involved in task-based control; these are the

frontoparietal as well as cingulo opercular networks (CONs). The dorso lateral prefrontal

cortex (DLPFC) as well as the intra-parietal sulcus are parts of the fronto parietal network

(FPN), which facilitates quick control as well as remembers information pertinent to a single

or small number of attempts. Conversely, the slow CON facilitates extended set maintenance

action during task time, goal-controlled behavior, multitasking, flexible working memory, as

well as conflict assessment processes. Cohen et al. (2020) identified the anterior prefrontal

cortex, thalamus, front insula, frontal operculum, as well as dorsal anterior cingulate as

constituents of the CON. Various brain networks might be engaged based on the cognitive

processes required to finish a task (Godwin & others, 2017).

Inductive Reasoning and Neural Correlates

Determining a rule or pattern from examples that satisfy the rule is known as

inductive reasoning. In this intricate procedure, instances of the rule are gathered and
preserved, a hypothesis is developed based on these examples, other examples are integrated,

and additional observations are used to validate the theory (Crescentini et al., 2011). It has

been frequently shown that the left prefrontal cortex is an essential node for inductive

thinking, hence providing support to the ROBBIA paradigm. Studies on patients with lesions,

split-brain patients, as well as healthy persons (Crescentini et al., 2011) have all shown this.

Inductive reasoning stimulated areas in the posterior regions of the brain, including

the anterior cingulate cortex right orbito frontal cortex, bilateral ventrolateral prefrontal

cortex), medial prefrontal cortex, plus additional, beyond the needs for working memory

(which the baseline tasks controlled for). A portion of these regions became active when the

individual domains were the center of attention. The bilateral ventro lateral pre-frontal cortex

exhibited activations in spatial domain. Conversely, the verbal domain exhibited activations

in the left ventrolateral PFC and medial PFC, it coincided with the activation of the left

hemisphere shown in the spatial domain. The statistics point to two points. First, regardless of

domain, the left prefrontal cortex is essential to inductive thinking. Second, the brain areas

used for reasoning are influenced by both method and domain.

The conjunction analysis's findings showed that the left ventro lateral pre-frontal

cortex is more important for this procedure, even if inductive thinking stimulated a network

of frontal as well as temporal brain regions. The hypothesis that task domain alone was the

source of the lateralization to the left shown in the speaking task was ruled out by the left

PFC's activation in both the spatial as well as verbal domains. Moreover, left PFC activity is

comparable with findings from earlier research on the inductive reasoning (Crescentini et al.,

2011, Jia et al., 2011). The crucial involvement of the left pre frontal cortex while using

inductive reasoning lends additional credence to the ROBBIA executive function model

(quoted in Babcock & Vallesi, 2015).

According to the Fangmeier et al. (2006), deductive thinking is essential to science,

human civilization, and solving issues in day-to-day living. Deductive reasoning begins with

premises and works from there to arrive at a conclusion (or conclusions) that make sense

logically based on previously held ideas, assumptions, observations, and/or suppositions that

aren't stated explicitly in the premises. Since reasoning is one of the higher cognitive

functions of humans, psychology and philosophy have vigorously investigated the mental

processes that underlie reasoning. The number of studies examining the neurological

underpinnings of deductive reasoning has expanded since the development of neuroimaging

tools. The question of whether deductive reasoning is primarily based on Visuo spatial

mechanisms (Mental Model Theory, MMT) or language models (Mental Logic Theory,

MLT) has been the subject of cognitive studies. The results of these studies have been

conflicting and ambiguous because of interference from a variety of experimental factors

(cited in Wang et al., 2020).

Three categories of publications were examined in a prior qualitative analysis of the

literature on neuro-imaging and deductive reasoning: relational, categorical, and the

propositional arguments. This offered a first explanation for the differences in outcomes

brought about by various lines of reasoning. By using multilevel kernel density analysis

(MKDA), the review discovered a bi-lateral but primarily for general deductive thinking in

all tests, the left-centered fronto-parietal network is utilized. (Wertheim et al., 2020).

Effective thinking, however, is mostly dependent on using logical principles in deductive

reasoning and integrating logical relations, or premises. Therefore, the most advantageous

strategy could be to find brain activation patterns different from deductive reasoning's the

exterior form of representation, as this would likely highlight the areas of the brain in the

center that support deductive reasoning ideas. In this work, we applied the activation
likelihood estimation has been proposed recently. (ALE) approach to evaluate the collected

data.

Implications and Significance

Research on the neurological correlates of deductive and inductive reasoning

processes has important ramifications for our comprehension of how people think. One

significant significance of these findings is that they highlight the range and richness of

cognitive functions present in the human brain. While prefrontal regions are engaged in both

inductive and deductive reasoning, how these regions depend on one another highlights the

brain's ability to allocate resources and adapt to a wide range of cognitive tasks. This

demonstrates that thought is not a single process but rather a group of related ones, each with

its distinct brain signature. Our knowledge of the neural foundations of working memory and

cognitive control is also improved by these findings. As shown by its involvement in both

thinking processes, the left prefrontal cortex is critical in coordinating higher-order cognitive

executive functions, and cognitive flexibility can be gained from knowledge of how different

cognitive operations are carried out. Understanding how different cognitive processes rely on

specialized and shared brain networks would help research on executive functions and

cognitive flexibility.

Conclusion

Cognitive control is mediated by two task-based brain networks: the cingulo-

opercular and fronto-parietal networks. These two brain networks provide guidance on how

to use executive functions and cognitive skills, which are required to complete cognitive

activities, particularly higher-order ones like reasoning tasks. Different cognitive skills would

be required for the two distinct kinds of thinking activities, one requiring bottom-up as well

as one requiring top-down cognitive control: inductive and deductive. These skills would

affect the fronto parietal as well as cingulo opercular brain networks' functioning. There are
similarities and variations in the brain circuits that underpin both deductive and inductive

reasoning processes, as revealed by our main argument questioning whether these processes

have different neurological substrates. Although the prefrontal cortex is involved in both

thinking processes, highlighting the shared working memory and cognitive control, they also

show distinct neuronal signatures. Deductive reasoning makes use of the left lateral prefrontal

cortex and left parietal cortex, whereas inductive reasoning favors the left anterior frontal

cortex. These differences highlight how the human brain may adapt and specialize to meet

different cognitive demands.

In conclusion, even though the neurological bases of inductive and deductive reasoning

processes are similar, their minute variances in activation patterns imply that distinct aspects

of thinking are supported by distinct brain regions. This evidence confirms the complexity of

the human mind and adds to our understanding of human cognition. It also sheds light on

how the brain architecture supporting reasoning functions is organized.