1, Definition of Function (P.T.U. B.C.A. 12004) A subset fof X_x.Y,is called a function from X y © Y such that (x, y) € for we say | ptX and Y be two non-empty sets, _y iffor every x X, there exists a yf? ‘ For example : X= {1, 2, 3,4}, Y= {a, b,c, d} then subset f= {(1, a), (2, 5), 3,2 9 isa finetion from X to Y ~: for each x € X, we have y € ¥ such that y=/(2)- above function is also represented by following figure. . x Y 4 Definition of Function X and Y be two.non-empty sets, Then a rule f which associates each element of {with a unique element is called a function from X to Y. sed for functions are mappings or transformations. We denote this v appins : rdomain of f : "fan element y Y is associated with an element x of X under the rule f, then y is d the image of x under the rule f, denoted by f(x). | The set consisting of images of al the elements of X under fis called Image set ot inge of fand is written as Ry or-ranf. : 8 Ry {fGe)3x EX) =/OK) or Ry = (7:9 =/C8) wheres EX} =f00 _ Clearly 0K) CY | _Inabove example Dy = {1, 2,3, 4} . Ry= {a, b, c} and co-domain is {a, 6, ¢, 4}. 4 © scanned with OKEN Scanner230 SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMA( TICS (Pp, Note. Difference between Relation and Function ™ Function is a special case of that of a relation. A relation may relate each g the domain to more than one element of the range, but a function relates each gg the domain to one and only one element of the co-domain. It should be noted that every function is a relation but every relation jg ps function, i Consider X = {1, 2, 3, 4,}, ¥ = (5,6, 7} XX Y= {(1,5), (1,0), (1, 7), 2,5) 2, 6), 2 7, B; 5), 8, 6) 3,0 4, 5), 4,644.5 Let R be a subset of X x Y where R= {(1, 5); (2, 6), (25 7), (3, 6), (4, 5)} J Here R isnot a fancton’from X to Y as 2 © X is associated t0 two dite, elements 6, 7 of Y and fora function no two distinct ordered pairs have the same gy element. But R is a relation as R CX x Y. Again take R= {(1, 5), (2, 2, G, 6), (4, 5)}. In this case R is a function from X jy as each element of X appears inthe first element in one and only one ordered pairing x is also a relation from X to Y. Remark : (/) To every x € X, J a unique y Y such that y = f(x). The unique elem, y € Y is also called the value of fat x and is denoted by f(). (ii) Different element of X may be associated with the same element of Y. en Me (ii) There may be elements of Y which are not associated with any element of x, (iv) We refer to a function as fand not as f(x) which is the value of function fats, However, by an abuse of language it has become customary to call f(x) as function instead of f (%) Since f(x) or y depends upon the choice of x, x is called independent varie and y is called dependent variable, g,y=f(2)=2, x is independent variable and y is dependent variable. (vi) Functions are generally denoted by’, g, h, Examples. The rule shown in the figure is not a function as each element of X is ax associated, Here 5 € X has no image in Y. x EE yy, fe goah eooan |< Fig. i) The rule shown in the figure is not'a function as 1 X is associated with ™* than one element namely a and of Y. i ! 4 © scanned with OKEN Scanneri | puncrioss 231 Fig. 2 | qa The rule shown in the figure is a function as each element of X is associated gia unique element of Y, RSs 4 t—6 8 10 Fig. 3 (h) The rule shown in the figure is a function as each element of X is associated ‘nique element of Y. : Fig. 4 (9) The rule shown inthe figure is a function as each element of X is associated with iique element of Y. © scanned with OKEN ScannerTYPES OF FUNCTIONS ONE-ONE FUNCTION OR INJECTIVE FUNCTION (0.1.0. BCA. 1, 2004, 2005, 2949 A function f from x aC js snid to be one-one (abbreviated 1-1) iff x FD, f (x4) # f(a) W 21 22 X, or equivalently fen)", (m) > xy Vx, 1 EX. In other words if different elements of X under the rule fhave different images jp y, then fis called one-one function. Function shown in fig. 3 is one-one function. * MANY-ONE FUNCTION A function which is not 1-1 is called many-one function, Function in fig. 4 is many. one function. ONTO FUNCTION O ECTIVE FUNCTION (P.T.U.B.CA.T 2004) AA function f from X to Y is called onto iff every element of Y is an image of a lea one element of X. In other words we can say that for every y € Y, there exist x € X such that y= /(x), Function in fig, 5 is onto, INTO FUNCTION : A function which is not onto is called into. Function in fig. 3 is into function. ee Remark : In case of onto function Ry= Y where as in case of into function Ryis proper subset of Y. Examples. (/) Let X= {1,2, 3, 4}, Y= (2, 4,6, 8, 10} Then the function f depicted by the diagram is 1-1, into 10 © ¥ has no pre-image in X. P Fig. 6 () LeeX= {1, 2,3,4}, ¥ = (4,8, 12, 16} ‘Then the function f depicted by the diagram is one-one onto, x . © scanned with OKEN ScannerFico ny (it) Let X= (1, 2, 3,4, 5,6), Y= (9) Then the function f depicted by the diagram is many-one onto. a Fig. 8 fi BIJECTIVE FUNCTION OR ONE-ONE ONTO FUNCTION eS ———— (P.1.U.B.C.A. 2004) A function which is one-one and onto is called bijective function. It is also called one-one correspondence-——___— » Function shown in figure 5 is one-one onto. REAL VALUED FUNCTION ON REAL VARIABLES Let X, Y be two non-empty subsets of real numbers. Then every function f from X_ ‘Y is called a real valued function on real variables. QUAL FUNCTIONS ‘Two real valued functions fand g are said to be equal iff Dy = Dg and f@)=8@v : INSTANT FUNCTION ‘Afunction f: X + is called.a constant function if f(x) = y for every x € X and for yey. de 3 ag "Function shown in'figure 4 is a constant function. [ENTITY MAPPING : | Let Ix: X->X be defined by, Ix (z) =x Wx EX. | Then Iy:is called the identity mapping on X. HINVERSE ‘MAPPING vee (P.T.U. B.C.A. 1 2004) E Letf;X>¥ be a one-one onto mapping. Then the mapping f“': Y > X which ‘associates fo each element y & Y the unique element x © X such that f(x) = y is called ‘the inverse map of Let X= (1,2,3) Y= (a, 0,0} then f: { (1, a), (2), (3, €)} is one-one as well So f7! exist and is defined by f-!: ¥-+X S71 =(G1),6.24 69). HOD TO CHECK ONE-ONE (INJECTIVE), Let f:X > ¥ be any function, “Takeo arbitrary elements x,,%2 in domain of f Dy. We write it as f= © scanned with OKEN Scanner234 SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMATICS (Py Gi) Solve f (51) =f (2). IEF (1) =F Gp) aH¥es oMly = 9 (Le only ge solution) then we say function is one-one. Otherwise function is not one-one. Then called many one. Note : Many one function (not 1-1) can also bo proved by taking example, Take iy, numbers x, and x) from X such that x, # x2. Show that f(x) =/(x)). itig Example 1. Let f: N+ N defined by f(x) = 2x + 5, Prove that fis one-one. Sol. Let x),x) EN such that f(x) =) > 2x45 =2x, +5 = 2x +5-2x) -5=0 = 2 -x)) =0 - x, = 0 (as2 #0) = x = So fis one-one, Example 2. Let f: Z > Z defined by f(x) = x”. Prove that f is not one-one. : ao (P.T.U.B.C.A. 1 2007) Sol. To show fis not one-one, we take one example. Let us take two integers 2 and —2 then Q)=Qy=4 fay S(-2) = (-2P=4 Since 2 # -2 but f(2)=/(-2) So fis not one-one. METHOD TO CHECK ONTO (SURJECTIVE) Let: X + Y be any function. - (D. -Take one arbitrary elements y in Y. (i) Take y=/(x) iif) Solve this equation and find x in terms of y. (i) Ifcorresponding to every y € Y, there exist x X then fis called onto. If for at least one y © Y, there is nox € X then fis not onto (or into). Example : Check whether: N -> N defined by f(x) =2x+ 5 is onto or not? Sol. We take one element from co-domain of f Let yEN : ifpossible, let y =/(x) set © scanned with OKEN Scannernc 235 Yr2x45 | 2 2emy~5 ores MoS 2 ‘We have to check wheater for every y N, we can find or not x € N (domain) 6-5 1 fo gl Gee go y= 6 has no pre-image ‘fisnot onto. isnot ont? [ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES be 1, A function fis defined on the set of integers as follows I l+x Isx<2 » f@)= 422-1 2sx<4 3x-10 4sx<6 (p Find the domain of the function (i) Find the range of the function (ji) Find the value of f(4) () ‘State whether fis one-one or many one function. l+x Isx<2 fo f= 42x-1 Qsx<4 3x-10 4Sx<6 1 (@ Domain of the function = Dy= {x:x € Is.t. f(z) € 1}, I= set of integers. = (1,2,3,4,5}. © scanned with OKEN ScannerLet A= B= {1,2,3, 4,5 ‘one-to-one and onto (i) fis neither one-to-one nor onto (iii) fis one-one but not onto, (iv) Fis onto but not one-to-one. (PiU. B.C.A-I1, Sep. 2g Sol. (i) Let: A + B defined by f(x) =x, Wx EA. ) ie f= {(1, 1), 2,2), 3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5)} fis one-to-one and onto, (ii) Let f: A» B defined by f(x) = 1, Vx € A. {2.2.0.4 0,6, 0} Clearly fis neither one-to-one nor onto. (iii) None exists, Reason is that as A and |B Contains equal number of elements, Soit we define one-one function from A to B, then it will be onto also. (@) None exists, Again A and B contain equal numberof elements. So if we dey ‘onto function from A to B, then it will be one-one also. Example 3, Let A= {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = x, y,2} how many functions f : A = B sa 1()=f(2) =x? Give reason. (PbiU., B.C.A-I, April 299 Sol. A= (1, 2, 3,4}, B= {x,y, 2} Since S() =fQ)=x We know ina function f: A> B Every element of A is uniquely associated to an element of B. It is given that image of 1 and 2 is x. : Image of 3 canbexoryorz, Similarly image of 4 can be x ory oz. ie, 3 and 4 can have image in 3 ways each. So, total number of functions = 1 x 1 x 3 x 3=9. Example 4. Consider f: N -> Zio defined by f(a) = the remainder after dividing 10 intoa what is (23) ? Describe the set of elements of N whose image is zero, (Pbi.U.B.C.A. April 2006) Sol. f:N ~ Zyo defined by f(a) = the remainder after dividing 10 intoa, Clearly’ "Zio = {0, 1,2, 3,4, 5, 6,7, 8, 9} oy £23) =3 [because when we divide 23 by 10, we get 3 as remind] ‘The set of elements of N whose image is zero is : (10, 20, 36, ..} = 10 k KEN, Example 5. Under what condition a constant function can be (/) one-to-one (i). Lhe function. (Pbi.U, B.C.A. April: © scanned with OKEN Scanneroy whl FRR, f(x) D/=R-{0} Ry =R- {0} “Let x1, x, ER (x, #0, 2, #9) yao 237 A + B to be on ne, different clements of A must have different images For, ich is possible if A coy He jo clement mains only one element. So, f is one-one iff domain 0 forf: A+B : oe of A, ie s Gama every element of B must be an image of at least “ont ¢ pages contains on ri ay fo-domain contains only one element, nly one element, So, condition for onto is > gyample 6: Prove that iA isa set then identity function I on A fs one-one onto. (P.T.U, B.C.A.-1 2006) a 1:A> Aisdefined by IG) =x, Vx A Tis one-one : Let xj %2 EA such that 1())=1(x) my Fp Tis one-one. © Tis onto: Let yeA Ifpossible, let x © A such that y =I) xay so VyEA, a x=yEA suchthat —y =I) Jis onto. Hence I is one-one onto. xample 7. Is function f : R > R defined by S@)= + is bijective in its domain. (P.T.U., B.C.A--1 2007) x S(%) = £02) at eet) © scanned with OKEN Scanner238 SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMATICS (py ta 80 f is one-one, Let yER Ifpossible, y= f(x) 5 ! a 2 1 or see y Now V yER (y#0) 3 xER st. y= f@) 80 f is onto, JF is one-one and onto, 80 f is bijective in its domain. Example 8. Prove that the function f: C > R, defined by f(@ =| | is neither nor onto. (PbiLU. B.C.A. 2005, 2019) Sol. fC Rk F@ =z] Let 2)=2+3i2=2-3/ = ney F@i)=|2) = 449 = VIB f=x+iy, [el= etsy | S@)=|22| = (449 = VB Here S@) =f@). But 2 #2 30, fis not one-one. ; ‘Onto : again let - 3 ER. : But there does not exist any complex number such that. f(@) = -3, So, fis not onto. Example 9. For a function g : R -» R, determine whether the following functions ae one to-one and onto. Ifthe function is not onto, determine range g (R). @O g@rxt7 (i) g@av ts, wee (Pbi.U,, B.CA-II, April 2009) Sol. g:R>R @ 8G) =x+7 © scanned with OKEN Scannerpn —— ne-one Let x, x ER or such that § 0%) = g (x,) = My t7 = ay 47 2 . gisone-one, onto:Let = y ER such that ¥=s@) 2 Yuxt7 > xayn7 soVy €RAx ER such that y= g(x) Hence g is onto. @ g@) ax +x gisnot one-one as ¢(0)= 0? +0=0 g(-1) =(-1P +(-1)=0 But O#-1 Again let yER such that y =a) > pox ex = x 4tx-y=0 fory= — 2 we have x? +x+2=0. Hence D= ? ~4ac=1-4%1xX2=-7<0 Sox will be imaginary so g is not onto. Range of g: we have x?+x-y =0 y should be such that D = 0 1=4x1 x(-y)20 [t4y20 orye-t yER R= {ren.v2-4} © scanned with OKEN ScannerExample 10. (a) Give an example of a map (J) which is, one to one but not onto, (2 which is not one to one but onto, (if) which is neither one to one nor onto. (b) Define the following functions on integers by SH" k+ 1 a (He 2 kand h(k)= [4]. (® Which of these are one to one ? (ii) Which of these are onto ? (P.T.U. BC.A-12005) Sol, (i) Consider the function f; N -» N defined by f(x) =? then fis one-one but not onto function. For one-one Let nj, m @ N be such that Som) = f(r) > nf =n? > nm [m = + m but as m EN so reject negative] Ff is one-one For onto Since 2 € N but 3 EN such that F(”) =2 ie, w=2 [There is no natural number whose square is 2} Sis not onto (ii) Consider the function f:Z -» N U {0} defined by S)=\n| then fis not one-one function but onto. For one-one Let ny, mz © Z be such that S(m) =f(m) > [mil =| m2] > mrtm ‘is not one-one function For example 5,-5 €Z SG) =5, f(-5)=5 So fis not one-one. For onto Since N U {0} © Z for any n © NU {0}, n EZ such that f(r) =|nl=n is onto © scanned with OKEN Scannersages ider the fun SO) =|" | or one-one: Let m,n, & Z:be such that ) 1Z + NU {0} defined by [m2] = [ni] m atm ° {is not one-one function For onto : Since 2 EN U {0} but 3 m Z such that L@) =2 fis not onto. @ Given fH=k+1, g@=2kand wuo=[4] Let hy ka © I such that (&) B kat ky he ‘fis one-one function ‘Again, let (hu) = 8 (ha) a4 2h =2k 2 kk his one-one function ‘Again, let (1) = 4 (ka) i i not necessary ie, ky = ky not necessary For example if ky = 4, k2=5 (ky) = (s] a ky = (i -2 kh th one-one. ¥ © scanned with OKEN Scanner2a SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMATICS (Ppy, u (ii) onto (a) Let y € Z (Integer) such that yaf® * yoked > key-l for all y © Z, there exist & € Z such that y = /(4) so fis onto () Again tety EZ such that y=e® = y =k Z > pez 2 now fory=5 k =i €Z:s0g isnot onto. © Let yez such that y = h(k) ore - ystcyet 2 > 2y Sk<2yt2 80 for every y © Z we have at two values of. k,2yand2y + 1 such that y= h(k) So his onto. Example 11. Specify the types (one-to-one or onto or both or neither) of the following function : @ f:N->N and f(i)=J(mod 4) (i) g:NXN-N such that g(x, y)=x+y (i) X=R, Y= (x: ERandx>0} ands (PbiLU., B.C.A-II, April 2007) Sol.) f:N>N ‘One-one: f(j)=J (mod 4) i [/(/) = (mod 4) means J is remainder when j is divided by 4] ‘Fis not one-one £3) =3 (mod 4) =3 SM) =7 (mod 4) =3 Now . f@)=s() / But / 347 | so, f is not one-one. { © scanned with OKEN Scanner| onto + Again. fis not onto (jean be 0, 1,2, 3 only for 5 EN there is no such that /() = 5, Go giNXNN such that 8(%)) = x+y one-one : Let (%.1)s(%35.02) EN % N such that g (x,,94) 4 (fg32) | | i ° A AY, = Qty, which does not implies x, = x), y,= yy eg 2G D~10 g(7,3) =10 But G,7) # (7,3) so, g is not one-one. ‘onto: Now for 1 EN there does not exist (x, y) © N x N such that g (x, )) = 1 so, g is not onto. (i) f£@) = |x] One-one : Let %,x) ER such that f(x) =f (2) [x] Slag] @ xp 2a) ox, =— x s0,fis not one-one. For example f(3)= 3 and f(~3)= 3. But3 # — 3 Onto: Let y € {x:x © Randx>0} ie y>0,y ERthenV yER 3 x€R such that = f@) =y 80, fis onto. “Brample 12, Let f¢R XR > RX Robe defined by f(y) = (+ -Y)- that fis bijection. So f:RXR + RX Resuch that #9) = @+2¥-2) Let f(x,y) =/(u, ») (ety, x-y)= (uty, H-2) xty=uty a) Biol 2- y= +) - Adding (1yand@), 22-2" 7 *°™ iH © scanned with OKEN Scanner24s SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMATICS (Pa yy : Subtracting (2) from (1), 2y=2v > y=v Gy) = (uv) +. fisone-one i, fis injective. Let (s, #) be an element of the codomain R x R. We determine (x, y) such that LEHY=69 ng &+y, x-y)=6,0 xtyss (3) and x-y=1 fd) Adding (3) and (4), 2x=s +1 sxe Subtracting (4) from (3),2y=s-1 = y= Since (5 =) is in the domain of £ Fis onto is one-one and onto ‘Fis a bijection. Example 13. Prove that the set, 2P of even positive integers has the same cardinality a, the set P of positive integers. Sol. We know that two sets have the same cardinality if there exists a bijection between them. for proving the requited result, we must find a map from P to 2P and show that this map is a bijection, Define f:P -> 2P such that f(x)=2x Let x,x2 © P and f(x:)=f(x) 2n=2m = =H S@)=f02) > m=x Fis one-one map. Let y € 2P, We will show that there exists an element x € P such that y=/(e): Since y € 2P, S(p)=2p=y each element of 2P comes from some element of P fis onto ‘fis both 1-1 and onto Sis bijection Hence the result, =2p for some p EP © scanned with OKEN Scanner3 e 14, Prove that P, set of positive integers, is countable, 0 ssn tbe countab got set is table if it has same cardinality as set of natural numbers N. et fi N PP such that fe) = 24 1 peta tN such that fe) =) ytl=atl > xyex 2 f.. _fisone-one map pet y EP. Let y=Sa) qhen s+ 1=y % x=Y-1EN now f@) =S(V- D=y-ltt=y =, for eachy © P, there exist x © N such that f(x) =y f is onto f isboth 1-1 and onto {isa bijective map «Nand P have same cardinality 2 Pis countable. " ,rt-2. Composition of Functions Let fbe a function from X to Y and let g be a function from Y to Z. Let X € ex. - Then the image of x under f ‘i.e., f(@) isin Y. Now g: ¥ > Zand f(x) & Y, therefore we anfind the image of f(x) under g ie, we can find g[_f()] which will be in Z. Also) | jsunigue and consequently g [ f(x)] is unique. Thus we have a rule which assigns 0 | ekement x € X a unique element g [@]e Z. In this way, we have a function from X to {This function is called the function of a function or composite function of g and fand isdenoted by g of. Let X = {1, 3, 5}, Y= (3, 9, 15, 21}, Z= (2, 8, 14, 20} ' | __ Letf be a function from X to Y and gbe @ function from Y to Z such that F={1,3,G, 95 1D} 8= {G, 2), (9 8) (15: 14), (21, 20)} then g of= {(1, 2), 3,8) (5 M)} © scanned with OKEN Scanner246 SPECTRUM DISCRETE MA Temust be noted that @ . gofis defined only when RyC Dg. @)_Itis possible that one of fog may be defined while the other may not be defined, Gif) g ofand fo g both may be defined but may not be equal. COMPOSITE FUNCTION : Let /be a function with domain X and range in Y and letg bbe a function with domain Y and range in Z. The function with domain X and range in 7 which maps an element x € X, into g (f(x)), is called the composite of the functions and g and is written as g of. PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS (Pbi.U. B.C.A, 2009) Let, g; h be three functions and at be a real number, then @ (fog)oh =fo(goh) (Associative Law) Gi) fo@+h)=fog+foh Distributive Law) (i) @fJogza.(fog) (Scalar multiplication) (iv) fog # gof(Non- Commutative) Art-3, Equality of Maps ‘Two maps fand g are called equal maps if (Domain of = Domain of g (_f@)=g (Vx E common domain of fand g Art-4. Show that the composition of maps is associative” Proof. Let f: A> B, g:B->C, h: C+D be mapping then ho (g of) and (hog) of are both maps from A to D . domain of ho (gof)=domain of (hog) of [Each A] ...(1) Lett xEA then (hog) of) @)=(hog)(S@)=h(g(F0)) and (ho(gof)) @)=h(gof)@)=h(g(F@) + (hog of)@)=(hoGof)@) VxEA -@) . from (1) and (2) we get, ho@of)=(hog)of Hence composition of maps is associative, Art-5, If f: A > B and g: B > C are both one + one maps, then g of'is also one- one. Proof. Since f: A > B and g: B -> C are maps therefore g o fis a map from A to C. Let X12 € A such that (gf) @h=(gof) Gr > g (f@))=8(/@)) > LG) =f), since g is one-one > x)= since f is one-one *” gofisaone-one map. © scanned with OKEN Scanneroo 241 c ol sce figare onto yet cE CbOMY element then 3H EY such at g()=6 ‘Again for this bE B, Fsome ae A such that pea » gof@ =8(f(a))=¢(b)=c ‘thus for EC, 3 a€ Asuch that gof(a=e pence g0/: A> Cis onto :A>Bandg:B+C it f:A> g are both . fis also both one-one and onto ie, bi + Care both onto maps, then g of i also onto. g being onto) (+. fis onto) ‘one-one and onto maps ie., bijective maps jective map. . (Pbi.U. M.Sc.L.T, 2010; Pbi. U. B.C.A. 2012) Combining Art.S and Art-6, we get required result, g If f:A>Bandg:B> C are two maps such that g 0 f'is one- one. Then fis ‘ne but g may not be one-one. since f: A> B, g:B > Care maps « gofiA> Cisamap. Also go fis given to be one- one map. | fpossible, suppose that fis not one-one oe Ax, x2 © A such that xy # x, butf(x,) =/(29). But Se) =f (m2) > 8 (f(1))=8 (fe) > gof(e)=g ofl) myx, © A such that x, # xp, but(gof)(1)=(gof) (x) gofis not one-one, which is against the given hypothesis that g o fis one-one. | Thus our supposition is wrong J is one-one _ We, now give an example to illustrate that if g 0 fis one-one, then g may not be “Met A= (1,2),B= (4, 5,6), C= (7,89, 10) © let f= { (1,4), 2,6} and g= (4,7), 6, 8) 6,8) __ then fand g are functions from A to B and from B to C respectively. Haye Ry = {4,6} SDg={4,5,6) : Ry SDg : a © scanned with OKEN Scanner\specTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMATICS (Pp gof()=g (f))=8@)=7 gofQ)=8(f2))=8(6)=8 se gof={(.7)(2,8)} Here, g 0,fis one-one map since different elements of A have different image, But g is not one-one since g(5)=g(6)=8. But 5# 6 Art-9. If/: A B and g: B > C are two maps such that g 0 fis onto then g is onto but y may not be onto. Proof. Since f: A > B and g: B -> C are maps, so g 0 fis a map from A to C. We arg given that g of: A > Cis onto, We now prove that g is onto Letz EC, Since g of: A C is onto, so x € A such that g of (x) =z = a(f@)=2 oo 8 (y) =z where y= f(x) Since x € A and fis a map from A to B Therefore f(x) €B > yes for given z © C, we have determined y © B such'that g(y)= z g:B-Cisonto Now, we show by an example that if g o fis onto, then fmay not be onto Let A={1,2},B= (4, 5,6};C={7} Let f={(1,4), @, 6}-and g= (4, 7), (5,7), (6, 7)} ‘Then fis a function‘from A to B and g isa function from B to C gofisa function from A to\C such that g of = { (1,7), (2, D} Here, g of is onto. But fis not onto since 5 belonging:to B has no pre-image in'A under the map is \ Art-10. If f:A>B and g:B > Care two maps such that g of: A> C is both one- ‘one and onto map then fis one-one and g is onto, Proof. Combining Art-8, and Art-9, we get required result, Art-11. Invertible Function A function f defined from X to Y is said to be invertible if there exists a function § from Y to X such that g of = Ix and fo g = ly, where Ix is an identity mapping on X and Iy is an identity mapping on Y. Note: fand g are called inverse of each other, © scanned with OKEN Scannerproof. Letx be any clement of X and let /(x) =y,y € Y since f:X* Yandly: y+ a4 lxof:X+Y Now (ly of) 0) = Iv (f)) = Wy) =y=say¥x eX a Wofet Again I: X > X and f: X-+ a folxiX*Y Now (fo In) @) =f (Ix) =/@) Vx EX no folk=f 13. Let f: X + Y be one-one onto. Then the inverse map of fis unique. proof. Let g: ¥ > X and h: Y¥ + X be two inverse maps of ~~ Letybe an arbitrary element of Y. Let g(y=m and hQy)=x “Since g is an inverse map of f o san P: Seay -—Agaiti isan inverse map off oe KO)=2 ae S@)=» From (1) and (2), we get, f(x) = (2) + fis one-one te SON = C2), = ma % BO)=hO)VVEY eek inverse map of fis unique. 14, A functiori f: X > Y is invertible iff/is one-one and onto. f. (f) Assume that f: X -> Y is invertible Ba function g: Y > X such that fog=lyand gof=lx ‘We will prove that fis one-one and onto, 'o prove that fs one-one let €Xn EX (P.T.U, B.C.A. F 2003) (1) (2) © scanned with OKEN Scanner: a MATHEMATICS (Pay. yy >= s(Fe0)=8(/e) > Wof)G)=Wof) (x) = lvea= lx) > =x SFO) =f) = m=mVai,m EX Sis one-one, To prove fis onto To each ye Y, there exists x © X such that g (y) =x. > Fe) =s@) = (fox) (Y=f@) > kO)-se) > yas) Sis onto. Gi) Assume that f: X > Y is one-one and onto, We are to show that fis invertible, Since fis one-one and onto to cachy & Y, there exists one and only one x € X such that f(x) =y. we can define a function g : Y > X such that g (y) =x ifff(@)=y» Now © of) @)=g(f@))=g0)=%,VxEX gof=lx Again (f08)(»)=S(g() =f) =y, Vy EY fog=ly ‘is invertible and g is inverse of f. Art-15. Ifa function f; X + Y be one-one and onto then J” is also one-one and onto. Proof. -- f:X + Y is one-one and onto Sf 1Y >Xexistsandf” of=Iy,fof'=ly To prove f ' is one-one Lety, € Y,y EY. Now fn)=S" On) 2 POD SF Od) = (oF )On= (FoF on > Wy(n1) =Iy (92) MP POLO) = y*nVineY ~1 is one-one. © scanned with OKEN Scanner251 “poproves fs onto To cach x X, there exists y € Y such that y= /(x) oes oer Z OTF) = Hor one eee SON Ike) 2S (yex . f isonto Py ¢ or. °: fis invertible and its inverse is f st ys 16. Letf: X > Y and g: ¥ + Zand let /; g be one~ “XZ conwoand(gofy'=f-' og! Jf, g be one-one onto, Then g of: X > Zis (Pbi. U. M.Sc.-1.T. Dec. 2009) pr (Here f: X » Y and g: Y + Zare 1-1 functions. Now g of'is a function from X to Z. Lets, EX EX. _ Now(gof)(x1)=(g0f) (a) 2 g(f@))=8(S@)) [gis one-one] @ fe)=SG) [- fis one-one] = 4am of) (1) = CoN) eu =mV a2 EX s gofisi-1. (i) Here f:X > Y and g: Y > Zare onto functions. +. gofis defined from X to Z ‘+ gis an onto mapping from Y > Z ‘+ toeachz € Z, there exists y € Y such that g() =z. a as fis an onto mapping from XtoY. tocach y € Y, there exists x © X such that f(x) = to each z € Z, there exists x € X such that z=gQ)=8(F@))=GNO gofis onto. Nowf:X + Y and g: Y + Zare one-one and onto. P7:Y+Xandg?: 1 z-» ¥ exist and the function f~' o gis defined from Z "|X > Z is one-one and onto. © scanned with OKEN Scanner252 SPECTRUM DISCRETE. MATHEMATICS (Pp; “ (gef) © Now (foe "oof =f oe 'ox)of =f'olyof=f 'o(lyof) =f of=lx Again (gof)o(f'og') =g0(fof og! =golyog'=(golyog'=gog'=|, (Flog )o(gofy=lxand(gof)o(f og')=Iz (gof) =flog! Example 15, Let A= {1, 2,3, 4,5). Letf: A > A and g: A+ A be defined by £O)=3,$@)=5,fG)=3,f)= 1,6) =2, 8(1)=4,2@)=1,8)=1,84)=2,86)=3. Find (g of) and (fo g). Sol. (fo g)(1)=F(g (1) =/(4) =1 (Fos) @=f(gQ)) =s0) =3 (fog) @)=£(e(3)) =/0) =3 (fos) ()=S(e (4) =/@) =5 (Fea) (5)=S(g()) =) =3 Gos) ()=8 (F0)) =2@)=1 oN @=g (62) =8(5) =3 of) G)=8 (/G)) =2@)=1 Gof @)=8 (FA) =2() =4 Gof) (5)=8 (FS) =g@)=1 fog and go fare not equal in general, Example 16. Iff, g: R + R are defined respectively by S@)=H 43x41, g(x)=2x-3 find formulae for () fog (if) gof (ili) fof (w)gog. Sol. Here f(x) =x +3x+1,¢(2)=2x-3 @ (fog) @)=f(g@) =f2x-3) =(2x-37+3Qx-3)+1 =4x-12x4+9+6x-941 -4P-6x+1 det d from Z to X. © scanned with OKEN ScannerWBN =2( FQ) F843 EHD 4 gx 41-3 "2462423922 46x-1 Wi) SONW=F( Fe) "SG? 43x41) HO H3xt PAR e ae DEL HBH9P E16 OH 6 HETIL EST BHO 4 Me 15K 45 @) Gog) @)=2(e@) (x-3) =2(2x-3)-3=4x-6-3=4x-9 1 iple 17. If f(x) = Tox then what is LF 7@)}] 2 (Pbi. U. B.C.A. 2012) a 1 Hee f@)= > A) 1 HIO}= (of) = lex nate LY} == : =1f@) _ . fygon =F) [y of a lex- -l APY @)}] =. xample 18, Let fand g be functions from R to R defined by f(x) = [x] and g(x) = |x | mine whether fo g=g of: (PiU, B.C.A-II, April 2005) Sol. Given f(x) = [x] and g(x) =| Foxx) =flge)) =f(1x1= C121] gofe) =g[/@)=8(@) =F! © scanned with OKEN Scanner254 SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMATICS (py, Now fog #gof. As fog(-3.2)=fLg(-3.2)]=/G.2) =3 gof(-3.2)=8Lf(-3.2)] = 8(-4)=4. Example 19, Let f: R > Rand g: R > R be two functions on real number dep, S() = 2x +3, g(x) =a" show that fog # gof (Pbi.U,, B.C, Ame Sol. Sf) 22x43 goer ) fog) =f(e) =f6") =2043 g of (x) = a(f()) = 2x +3) =Qr+3) fog #gof Example 20. Let A= {1, 2,3}. Define f: A > A by f(1)=2, f(2)=1, £3) =3, Find f?, f*, (Pbi.U., B.C.A. 2009) So. 7) = fF) =fQ)=1 LO=SFAD =f) 2 £@)-SL@)=fG)=3 P7340, 0,2, 2),,3} FOLLO)=PO=1 FOL PAMD=/@=2 LO=-FLFO=/@)=3 SG, D226, 3) Example 21. f(x) = x? +3x+1,g(x)=2x+3 fg: RR. Find formulae for fo gand gof. (bi. U.B.C.A., 2012) Sol. Sincef:R*R and g:R>R fog:R>R and gof:R>R fog) =Se@) =f{(2x+3) = (2x43)? +3 Qx+3)+1= 4x2 494 12x46x4941 = 4x7 +18x+19 sof) = 8) = (2 +3x4l) = 207 43x41)43 = 25? H6x45 | } | i © scanned with OKEN Scannerpros 22, If the mapping of fand g are given by He ssa FH Mls D6Q, 3). (4, 1) g= (2,3), 5,1),(1,3)) then write down the mapping fo g and : 2011 fos) ~S@@)=s0)-5 gos. (Pi, U. M.Sc. ) F08(5) =fe(S)=f(I)=2 S080) =f (I) =/@)=5 £08 ={2,5), (5, 2), (1, 5)} gof(l) =8F())=g2)=3 gof@) =g(/G3))=g(5)=1 sof) =8F(@)=g(1)=3 E gof = {(1,3) (3, 1) (4,3)} | pample 23. Let f: R > R be real valued function defined by f(x) = 27, x ER. Is f | iqvertible ? Give reasons. 01 First we check weather f is a bijection or not. sol For this let us check /to be one-one. Let 142 ER such that =f (1) =f(2) > xp =x 2 ay TEX, xy = xy OF x = Xp. So fis not 1-1. Hence fis not a bijection. fis not invertible, Example 24, Let f: R > R defined by (x)= a+b, a, b,x € Rand a # 0, Show that f is invertible and find the inverse of f. (Pbi.U., B.C.A-II, April 2005) So f@)=ar+b, a HER a#0 One-one : Let x,2, ER such that f(a) =F (22) > ae, +b = a, +b ay = Oy neh [v ae] © scanned with OKEN Scanner286. SPECTRUM DISCRI Onto: Let yER ‘such that y = f(x) > yrarth MATHEMATICS Pm, v, ° yell a “ Bat0.VyER a xER such that y=se) Hence fis onto. Since fis one-one and onto so is invertible, Now we find inverse of By definition x= ¢-"(y) if y=y(x) mb : = x2 = fg) Losing a or F@ 2, Example 25. Define inverse function and find inverse ofthe function y=—3x-47, Sol. Definition : (Already given in Art-11,) Let f(x)=-3x+7 FRR Let x,x) €R st. £%) = fy) 3x47 = 34,47 3x, +7-3x,-7 =0 -3(x,-%) =0 x =m 0 f is one-one Let yeER st y= SG) > y=-3x+7 = xely 3 VyeR3xER © scanned with OKEN Scannerpms st y7SO) sofis onto. fisone-one and onto sof! : R» Rexists, py definitions = $-"() if y= say 2 ow ste Ee Pat prample 26.15 /0) a invertible in its domain ? If so, find”! i purther verify that (fof) (®) = x, Here f(s) = xtl Dy =set of all reals except —1 Ry = set of all reals except 1 = Let x1 x2 © Dy and f(x1)=f(@2) xy-l_xy-l Do e2 s yemty-lsamtmomcl xtl x41 2x-2m 2 mom Sn) =F 2) ea fle) is 11 in Dy | WER 3 x= ~ TE en emeeye E ley, Leycley ; l+y l-y l-y st. fQ@)=, “(2 2) - Ty Tis l-y l-y the mapping fis onto 7 ‘ fisboth 1-1andonto > f- exists ~ Nowto find, : Let yes@-tt (Cross Multiplying) ot oxyty =x-1 ox-xysytl © scanned with OKEN ScannerSPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMATICg ity I-y lax tf Gp: ed td “ty = LeU. = £105 Tse and Dyas = Set of all reals except 1 Verification : “1 ef fe) ef@-! or Ja =F) laa lex _i-x eae ee eee les =x Gof')@) =x. Example 27, Let /:R > R and g: R > R be real valued functions defined by 3 £(@)= 2x3 - 1,x © Rand g(e) = fo] + ER Show that fand p ie bijective and each is inverse of other. Sol. First we show fand g both are one-one Let x,,x) © R such that (PbiU., BCA, April 2097) FG) =f) and 8(%) =8(x,) ; v3 ry 13 = 2x3-1 and [evs] = [Fors] > 2xf-1-2x341=0 and peed = teen (By Cubing) = 2 (x}-x}) =0 and yy +l=x) +1 = xp-xj = and x +1 =x, -1=0 > xpaxd and x =X ad xy =x ++ Sand g both are one-one functions Now we show and g both are onto functions for this let y € R such that y= (x) and y= g(x) i 173 -1 and y= [Fe] © scanned with OKEN ScannerFUNCTIONS 259 po SSSSSSSSSSSSFhFFF a. v4 = eo and dw foe = (2e!? 2 x a) ljand x= 2y3 1 2 so Wy € R we have x € R such that also V y € R we have, x € R such that yrfe) y= a(x) z. fand g both are onto, Hence fand g both are bijective and. Invertible. 13 z x) 1 = From (1) s 2 3 2 f'o= a) [Sincey=/G) «x =S'O)) “ +1\'3 « re -()"=269 Similarly we can show g~'(x) = /(2). Example 28. f (a) =a+1 <= ifaiseven =) 24 zT if aisodd CA. 12007) Find fog and gof. Sol. fog(a) =f(g@) £41 ifaiseven " an +1 if aisodd 2 242 it giseven 241 ig aisodd 2 gof(a) =f@) © scanned with OKEN ScannereG) if f(a) In even =) 6 (ay iw odd 2 a if a1 is even ancl if a+ 1s odd Sit ais odd 2 = itaiseven Example 29, f, g, hare functions from NtoN U {0} defined as 0 if niseven SM)=n+1, gn =2n, vor{} need Find fo h, (fog) oh. 0 if niseven Sol. . : FO sn+1, bi {? if nis odd Sohn) =f(h(n)) =h(n)+1 _ [041 if niseven 141 if nisodd _ [1 ifniseven 2 if nisodd Sogn) =f((m))=f2n) =2nt1 (fog) oh =fog (h(n) =2hn)+1 2 [2041 if miseven 2141 if nis odd _ [1 ifniseven 3 if nisodd weed © scanned with OKEN Scannergh Fa Z et fiA> > parle 30. Let 1 A» Band g: B+ C be two funetions such that > Cisa bij gofi A> C isa bijective map. Then fis injective and g is surjective. since f:A*B, 8:BC are maps 3 guftA Cisamap. Also g 0 fis given to be bijective ic., g of is one-one, ‘rss, let f be not injective i.e., fis not one-one map cB ands GA such that 2, # xp but f(x)) = f(4,) put f@1)=S02) > 8(f@))=2( fe) > Gof) = Gos) ” xy, %2 © A such that x; # x, but Wof)()=(gof) (2) » go/fis not one-one mapping which is against the given hyothesis that g of is fis injective Now, we show that g is surjective. Let z © Ce any element, Since g of: A+ C is onto _ $0,4 x GA such that (gof)(x)=z 2 s(f@)=2 2 g())=4, where y= f(a) Since x € A and fis a map from A to B 2 f@) EB ie, yEB :. for given z € C, we have determined y B such that g(y)=z g:B*C isonto ie, gis surjective. ple 31. Let X= Y= Z=R and let f: X > Y and g: ¥ + Zare such that _f@)=2x+ 1 and g )=y/3. Verify that (@of'=f7'og™'. (Pbi.U., B.C.A.-II, Sept. 2006) Sixry f@)=2x+1 ‘ 22. 80-3 soft) =8(S@) =g(2x+1) © scanned with OKEN ScannerSPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMATICS (Pp, a oy. 3x-l - gopry- Bt or (gofy' x= > RHS.: fi) =2x41 =1 - yraxtl = 2 a! -1 = P22 on = 2 2 Again so=F red 3 ya3x g @) =3x or gl) =3y Now fog!) = s'(e"@) =f" Gx) _ 3x21 2 so (gofy! = stog". EXERCISE 6 (a) 1, Letamap/: RR be defined by /(x)=,7, Prove that fis neither one-one mt onto, - | | | | 1 2 Let a function /: R ~ R be defined by f (x) = 2x +3 Vx © R. Prove tat | one-one and onto, 3. Provethata function /:R +R, defined by f(x) =x" is one-one onto 4. Let A= {I, 2, 3}, B= {a, 8, c,d} and define fA > . =h £@)~ a. Then show that fig injonives eT A > B by F) = BLO)" © scanned with OKEN Scanner