Brief Strategic and Systemic Therapy European Review N.

1 - 2004

Historic Notes on
Brief Strategic Therapy
Giorgio Nardone ¹

Abstract

This is a short exposition of the historic milestones of Brief Strategic

therapy and its evolution over the years. The first model of brief strategic
therapy was formulated by the famous group of scientists of the Mental
Research Institute in collaboration with Milton Erickson. Brief Strategic
Therapy has developed from its first formulations till the present day,
initially in trends marked by some important authors' ideas and charismatic
personality, then it underwent change, by developing more differentiated
models, which, even though they all kept a common theoretical base, they
came to differentiate themselves and characterize different clinical models
and intervention techniques.

¹ Centro di Terapia Strategica, Arezzo, Italy

Arezzo, 2004 - 65 -
Brief Strategic and Systemic Therapy European Review N. 1 - 2004

The aim of this article is to present a short yet thorough description of the genealogy of
Brief Strategic Therapy. The first model of brief strategic therapy dates back to the first
works of Mental Research Institute group in Palo Alto (Watzlawick et al., 1974; Weakland
et al., 1974). They had carried out research on communication and family therapy
collaborating with Milton Erickson, the Master of hypnotherapy. The result was a
systematic model of brief therapy that could be applied to a wide variety of disorders, with
truly surprising results.
However, the pragmatic tradition and philosophy of stratagems as a key to problem
solving have a much more ancient history. Strategies that still seem modern can be found,
for example, in the persuasive arts of the Sophists, in the ancient practices of Zen
Buddhism, in the Chinese Arts of Stratagems, as well as in the ancient Greek art of Metis7.
From its origins, brief therapy has spread world-wide even though there was a lot of
resistance, especially from the followers of the traditional clinical theories and practice.
Many researchers and therapists have made this approach to human problems and their
solutions well-known internationally (Watzlawick-Weakland-Fisch, 1974; Weakland et al.
1974; De Shazer, 1982a, 1982b, 1984, 1985, 1988a, 1988b; Haley, 1963, 1975; Madanes,
1990, 1995; Nardone, 1991, 1993, 1995; Nardone, Watzlawick, 1999, 2001; Omer, 1992,
1994; Cade-O'Hanlon, 1993; Bloom, 1995; Watzlawick, Nardone, 1997; Nardone, 2000;
Nardone, Rocchi, Giannotti, 2001; Watzlawick, Nardone 2004).
Brief Strategic Therapy has developed, therefore, from its first formulations till today,
initially in trends marked in some important authors' ideas and charismatic personality, then
it changed showing differentiated models, which, even if keeping a common theoretical
base, came to characterize themselves as clinical models and intervention techniques.
To avoid tedious repetitions, as with a lot of books published on the topic, we can
schematize the first evolution of strategic approaches to therapy with a chart, a sort of
genealogical tree of Brief Therapy.8
As seen from the chart, the approach to brief strategic therapy based on procedures of
strategic intervention, from Erickson's first experiences onwards, has a branched evolution
characterized by the greater emphasis given by the authors of the main models to some
specific assumptions or techniques which have marked their features.
The group from the Palo Alto focused their attention on the vicious circle of the
problem persistence, this attention on the part of the same disorders bearers led to the
realization of the need of intervention with maneuvers devised to stop and reorganize
dysfunctional attempted solutions. In the same way the marked connotation on
communicative directivity of Haley's model therapists, and his founding the intervention on
the reorganization of power games into the family hierarchical and communicative
dynamics, or, the attention given by the Milwaukee staff in creating solutions from
"exception" to the problem, independently from its formation and persistency. That first
phase of evolution, which lasted more than twenty years, was followed towards the end of
the 80's and early 90's by a historical period characterized by some authors attempts to
build up approaches that summarized the most significant contributions coming from three
traditional models of brief therapy. After this phase of theoretical and application-oriented
synthesis, the last few years have seen a more specific type of technique development
towards more focused directions.

7
The Greek tradition of cunning intelligence, audacity, and skillful abilities. It is renown for its powers of practical
wisdom.

Arezzo, 2004 - 66 -
Brief Strategic and Systemic Therapy European Review N. 1 - 2004

Graph 1. The genealogy

Arezzo, 2004 - 67 -
Brief Strategic and Systemic Therapy European Review N. 1 - 2004

In particular, we notice the tendency to the applied study of specific strategies of

therapy which were not only single techniques for recurrent forms of resistance to change,
but strategic plans of an articulate therapeutic sequence ad hoc studied for particular
pathologies. Also for that reason, we believe schematizing by a further development of the
preceding genealogical tree useful.
From the second chart we can have the schematized representation of how from Haley-
Madanes approach the therapy for sexual abuses and disorders related to violence has
developed; from De Shazer's Model we can observe the evolution of the treatment for drug
and alcohol addicts, from Palo Alto former viewpoint and synthetic approaches, the author
has got an evolution of the therapeutic protocols for phobic-obsessive and eating disorders
developed.
At this point, after having summarized simply what the development of brief therapy
has been, from its first Ericksonian rough formulations to the building of real theoretical-
applied models and their following evolutions, we can go deeply into the topic of the
present written: that is, the exposition of the model of advanced brief strategic-solution
therapy, developed by the author at C. T. S. in Arezzo, this work, carried out first under J.
Weakland and P. Watzlawick's supervision and then oriented by a specific methodology of
research, towards the formation of an advanced approach characterized by the setting up of
specific protocols of treatment for particular pathologies.
Since 1985, evolving by means of empirical-experimental method the Centro di
Terapia Strategica (Strategic Therapy Center) in Arezzo, Italy, has conducted research for
the development of advanced models of strategic solution-oriented brief therapy. The most
important result has been the formulation of protocols for the treatment of specific,
widespread types of mental disorders, phobic-obsessive diseases and eating disorders
(Nardone-Watzlawick 1993, Nardone et alt 1999) with the scientifically recognized highest
efficacy and efficiency actually found within the psychotherapy field (87% of solved cases
in 7 sessions median duration of therapy).
The key idea was to develop from general models of therapy, specific protocols of
treatment for particular pathologies, that is, fixed sequences of therapeutic maneuvers with
heuristic and predictive power, capable to guide the therapist to the breaking, through
particular therapeutic stratagems, the specific pathological rigidity. Then after this first big
change, the protocols lead the perceptive-reactive system to the reorganization in a
functional balance. This laborious and prolonged work, applied to thousands of cases in a
period of over ten years, focused on the pinpointing of the best way to solve some specific
problems led us then to new assumptions as regards both the structure of Problem Solving
procedures and the features of therapeutic communication too, in their development step by
step, from the beginning to therapy conclusion.
In other words, the strategy adapts itself tactic by tactic to the answers deriving from
the interventions acted: as in a chess game, we proceeds with an opening followed by
moves that depend how our adversary plays.
If the adversary's strategy, that is the modality of disorder persistence, appears among
the well known ones, we will be able to attempt a formalized sequence of checkmate in few
moves that is a specific protocol of treatment. The measurement of effects, in this case, will
not be only between the beginning and the end of the therapy, but it will be directed to
every single phase of therapeutic process, because as in a strictly mathematics model, we
look for the possible answers to every single maneuvers, which are then checked, with the
empirical-experimental procedure.

Arezzo, 2004 - 68 -
Brief Strategic and Systemic Therapy European Review N. 1 - 2004

Graph 2.

Arezzo, 2004 - 69 -
Brief Strategic and Systemic Therapy European Review N. 1 - 2004

Such methodology leads to reduce certain possibility of answer into a maximum of two
or three for every single intervention, allowing, in this way, to then device the next move
for each varying answer. Therefore we go on with a gradual measurement of effects and
predictive value of every single maneuver and not only of the whole therapeutic process.
This way of conducting the therapy as a systematic process of research also leads to a
more advanced understanding of the modes of persistence of those specific disorders. This
in turns lead to further improvements of solution strategies, in a sort of evolutionary spiral
nourished by the interaction between empirical interventions and epistemological
reflections which lead to the construction of specific, innovative strategies (Nardone
Watzlawick, 2004).
In our study of the various forms of psychological disorders, this methodology turned
out to be an important instrument of knowledge in fact, the data gathered during our
research intervention enabled us to produce an epistemological and operative model of the
formation and persistence of the pathologies under study.
This methodology, whose primary aim was the devising of an effective and efficient
clinical intervention, thus enabled us to acquire further information on the disorders in
question, thus opening new perspectives of knowledge.
Applied research on this subject (Nardone, Watzlawick 1990; Nardone, 1993, 1995;
Fiorenza, Nardone, 1995, Nardone, Milanese, Verbitz, 1999) has enabled us to detect a
series of specific models of rigid interaction between the subject and reality. These models
lead to the formation of specific typologies of psychological disorders which are
maintained by reiterated dysfunctional attempts to solve the problem. This leads to the
formation of what we call a pathogenic “system of perceptions and reactions”8 which
expresses itself as an obstinate perseverance in using supposedly productive strategies that
have worked for similar problems in the past, but that now, instead, make the problem
reverberate (Nardone, Watzlawick, 1990).
Therefore the evolved model of the strategic approach goes beyond the nosographic
classifications of psychiatry and clinical psychology9 by adopting a model of categorization
of problems in which the construct “perceptive-reactive” system replaces the traditional
categories of mental pathology.10
This goes against the current tendencies of many therapists who, having initially
rejected the usual nosographic classifications, now seem to want to resume their use. This is

3
By perceptive-reactive system we mean an individual’s redundant modalities of perception and raction towards
reality. These are expressed in the functioning of the three independent fundamental typologies of relationship:
between Self and Self, Self and others, and Self and the world (Nardone, 1991).
4
We should not underestimate the concrete pathologizing power of psychopathological and psychiatric labeling
(Watzlawick, 1981; Nardone, 1994; Pagliaro, 1995) i.e. the “self-fulfilling prophecy” produced by the diagnosis
in the person who receives it and the persons around him. Diagnostic abels, being performative linguistic acts
(Austin, 1962), eventually create the reality that they are supposedly describing. Moreover, in the field of eating
disorders, we also have the problem of the enormous popular diffusion of psychodiagnostic constructs, which has
lead to a growing emphasis on these disorders. The great interest and alarm that these disorders produce due to
their continuous publicization have made the symptom an important attention-getting vehicle for the persons who
suffer from it.
5
In the case of phobic-obsessive disorders (Agoraphobia, Panic Attacks, Compulsive Fixations and Hypocondria),
for example, we observed a series of specific and redundant dysfunctional attempted solutions: the tendency to
avoid fear-laden situations, constant requests for help and protection from relatives and friends, attempts to control
one’s spontaneous physical reactions as well as the surrounding environment. The relationship with self, others
and the world of those persons who suffer from these disorders appears to be completely based on the above
mentioned mechanisms of perception and reaction.

Arezzo, 2004 - 70 -
Brief Strategic and Systemic Therapy European Review N. 1 - 2004

the case, for example, of Selvini Palazzoli et al. (1998), who divide anorexics into four
typologies that correspond to four personality disorders listed in DSM-IV: dependent,
borderline, obsessive-compulsive, and narcissistic. From our point of view, classification is
just another attempt to force the facts to make them fit one’s theory of reference, because it
turns out to lack any concrete value from the operative point of view.
In light of these theoretical-epistemological assumptions, it seems essential to make
what we call an “operative” diagnosis (or “diagnosis-intervention”) when defining a
problem, instead of a merely “descriptive” diagnosis. Descriptive perspectives such as that
of the DSM and most diagnostic manuals give a static concept of the problem, a kind of
“photograph” that lists all the essential characteristics of a disorder. However, this
classification gives no operative suggestions as to how the problem functions or how it can
be solved.
By operative description, we mean a cybernetic-constructivist type of description of the
modalities of persistence of the problem, i.e. the problem how feeds itself through a
complex network of perceptive and reactive retroactions between the subject and his or her
personal and interpersonal reality (Nardone, Watzlawick, 1990).
On that basis, we maintain that it is possible to know a reality by intervening on it,
because the only epistemological variable that we can control is our strategy, i.e. our
“attempted solution” that, when it works, enables us to understand how the problem
persisted and maintained itself.
The final result of such a hard empirical-experimental process, guided by models of
Mathematics Logic, is a model of advanced therapy, because it can be checked and verified,
which then, due to its formalization can be repeated and didactically transferred.
Finally, such a model is not only effective and efficient but even predictive, this last
feature enables a therapeutic typology to develop from home-made and artistic practice to
advanced technology, without reducing or losing that rate of artistic creativity necessary to
its constant innovation process, that in this case, happens respecting the criterion of
scientific rigor making such a therapy truly reliable.
All we affirmed is valid for the study of the intervention structure and its constitutive
logic, but another explanation is necessary about the adaptation of the intervention to every
single person, family and socio-cultural context.
As on this subject every criterion of control and "predictability" gets away. As indeed
Erickson affirmed, every person owns unique and unrepeatable features, such as his
interaction with himself, the others and the world always represents something original.
Consequently every human interaction, even the therapeutic one, results in being
unique and unrepeatable, within this the therapist has to adapt his logic and language to the
patient's one proceeding, in that way, in the investigation of the features of the problem to
be solved, until the revealing of his/her specific modality of persistence. Once the
peculiarities of the problem persistence are known, he will able to use the logic of problem
solving which seems more suitable, following in its constitution and application to the
model above related; but formulating every single maneuver adapting it to the patient's
logic and language. In this way, the therapeutic intervention truly keeps its capacity to
adapt to every new person's peculiarity and situation, but keeping even the strategic rigor to
the level of the intervention structure. To further clarify this important concept, it is useful
to underline all that it is possible to rearrange is the strategy, to the level of intervention
structure which adapts to the structure of the problem and to its persistence, what always
changes is the therapeutic interaction, the relationship with the patient and the type of

Arezzo, 2004 - 71 -
Brief Strategic and Systemic Therapy European Review N. 1 - 2004

communication used. Therefore even when we adopt a protocol of specific treatment, as in

the case of phobic-obsessive disorders and the variations of eating disorders, every
maneuver is always different but it always remains the same, because this one changes in
its communicative way, but it remains the same maneuver at the level of strategic procedure
of problem solving. So in line with G. Bateson’s words (1984), which read “Rigor alone
leads to death due to asphyxia but creativity on its own is sheer folly” we are claiming for
rigor but not for rigidity.

References

Bateson, G. (1984) Mente e Natura, Adelphi, Milano.

Bell-Gadsby, C. & Siewgenb. A. (1996) Reclaiming Herstory: Ericksonian Solution-Focused Therapy for sexual
Abuse.Brunner/Mazel Inc: New York.
Berg I.K. Dolan Y. (2001) Tales of Solutions: A collection of Hope-inspiring Stories. Norton & Company: New
York.
Berg I.K., Miller S. (1992) Working with the Problem Drinker. A Solution-Focused Approach, Norton, New York;
Berg I.K. & Kelly S. (2000) Building Solutions in Child Protective Services: WW Norton and Company, New
York. Books
Bloom, B. (1995) Planned short-term therapy. Allyn & Bacon, Needham Heights.
Cade, B., O’Hanlon, W.H. (1993) A brief guide to Brief Therapy. Norton, New York.
de Shazer, S. (1982a) Patterns of brief family therapy. Guilford, New York.
de Shazer, S. (1982b) Some conceptual distinctions are more useful than others. Family Process, 21, pp. 79-93.
de Shazer, S. (1984) The death of resistance. Family Process, 23 (1), pp. 11-17, 20-21.
de Shazer, S. (1985) Keys to solution in brief therapy. Norton, New York.
de Shazer, S. (1988a) Clues: Investigating solutions in brief therapy. Norton, New York.
de Shazer, S. (1988b) Utilization: The foundation of solutions. In: Zeig, J.K., Lankton, S.R. (Eds) Developing
Ericksonian therapy: State of the art. Brunner/Mazel, New York, pp. 112-124.
de Shazer, S. (1994) Words were originally magic. Norton, New York.
Dolan, Y. (1998) One small step: Moving beyond trauama and therapy to a life of joy. Papier-Mache press:
Watsonville CA.
Duncan B.L., Miller S. D. (2000) The Heroic Client: Doing client-directed outcome-informed therapy. Jossey-
Bass Inc. San Francisco.
Fisch, R., Weakland, J.H., Segal, L. (1982) The Tactics of change: Doing therapy briefly. Jossey-Bass, San
Francisco. Tr. it. Change: le tattiche del cambiamento. Astrolabio, Roma 1983.
Geyerhofer, S., Komori, Y. (1995) Bringing Forth Family Resources in therapy. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie
und Gruppendynamik, 20 (3).
Haley, J. (1963) Strategies of psychotherapy. Grune & Stratton, New York. Tr. it. Strategie della psicoterapia.
Sansoni, Firenze 1985.
Madanes, C. (1990) Sex, love and violence. Norton, New York.
Madanes, C. (1995) The violence of man. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Nardone G., Watzlawick P. (1990), L’Arte del Cambiamento: manuale di terapia strategica e ipnoterapia senza
trance, Ponte alle Grazie, Milano (En. Tr. The Art of Change. Strategic Therapy and Hypnotherapy
Without Trance, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco).
Nardone, G. (1991) Suggestione –> Ristrutturazione = Cambiamento. L'approccio strategico e costruttivista alla
psicoterapia breve. Giuffrè, Milano.
Nardone G. (1993), Paura, Panico, Fobie, Ponte alle Grazie, Milano; (Paur, Panique, Phobies, Du Seuil, 1996).
Nardone, G. (1994) Manuale di sopravvivenza per psicopazienti. Ponte alle Grazie, Firenze.
Nardone, G. (1995) Brief strategic therapy of phobic disorders: A model of therapy and evaluation research. In:
Weakland, J.H., Ray, W.A. (Eds) op.cit., cap. 4.
Nardone G., Salvini A. (1997), “Logica matematica e logiche non ordinarie come guida per il problem-solving
strategico”, in P. Watzlawick, G. Nardone, (a cura di), Terapia breve strategica, Cortina, Milano,
pp.53-61.
Nardone G. (1998), Psicosoluzioni, Rizzoli, Milano; (Psychosolutions, Du Seuil, 1999).
Nardone G., Verbitz T., Milanese R (1999), Le prigioni del cibo. Vomiting, Bulimia, Anoressia: la terapia in tempi
brevi, Ponte alle Grazie, Firenze.

Arezzo, 2004 - 72 -
Brief Strategic and Systemic Therapy European Review N. 1 - 2004

Nardone G. (2000), Oltre il limiti della paura, Rizzoli, Milano.

Nardone G., Rocchi, Giannotti, (2001) Modelli di Famiglia. Ponte alle Grazie, Milano.
Nardone G., Watzlawick P. (Eds), (2004), Advanced Brief Therapy. Aronson, Northvale, New Jersey.
Omer, H. (1994) Critical Interventions in Psychotherapy. Norton, New York.
Omer, H. (1992) From the one true to the Infinity of constructed ones. Psychotherapy, 29, pp. 253-261.
Price J. A. (1996) Power and Compassion: Working with Difficult Adolescents and Abused Parents. WW Norton
and Company: New York.
Salvini, A. (1988) Pluralismo teoretico e pragmatismo conoscitivo: assunti metateorici in psicologia della
personalità. in Fiona, E., Pedrabissi, I., Salvini, A. Pluralismo teoretico e pragmatismo conoscitivo
in psicologia della personalità. Giuffrè, Milano.
Selvini Palazzoli M., Cirillo S., Selvini M., Sorrentino A.M. (1998), Ragazze anoressiche e bulimiche. La terapia
familiare, Cortina, Milano.
Skorjanec B. (2000), Il linguaggio della terapia breve, Ponte alle Grazie, Firenze.
Watzlawick P., Nardone G. (a cura di), (1997), Terapia breve strategica, Cortina, Milano.
Watzlawick P., Nardone G. (2000), Le strategie de La Terapia Breve, Edition du Seuil.
Watzlawick, P. (1977) Die Möglichkeit des Andersseins: zur Technick der therapeutischen Kommunikation.
Verlag Hans Huber, Bern.
Watzlawick, P. (1981) (Ed.) Die erfundene Wirklichkei. Piper, München.
Watzlawick, P. (1990) Therapy is what you say it is. In: Zeig, J.K., Gilligan, S.G. (Eds) Brief therapy: Myths,
methods and metaphors. Brunner/Mazel, New York, pp. 55-61.
Watzlawick, P., Beavin, J.H., Jackson, Don D. (1967) Pragmatics of Human Communication. A study of
Interactional Patterns, Pathologies and Paradoxes. Norton, New York.
Watzlawick, P., Weakland, J.H., Fisch, R. (1974) Change: principles of problem formation and problem solution.
Norton, New York.
Weakland, J.H., Fisch, R., Watzlawick, P., Bodin, A.M. (1974) Brief Therapy: Focused Problem Resolution.
Family Process, 13 (2), pp. 141-168.

Address reprint requests to:

Giorgio Nardone
Centro di Terapia Strategica
Arezzo, Italia
[email protected]

Arezzo, 2004 - 73 -