3.099 6.

Article

Representing Time-Dynamic
Geospatial Objects on Virtual
Globes Using CZML—Part II:
Impact, Comparison, and Future
Developments

Liangfeng Zhu, Zhiwen Li and Zhongliang Wang

https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi7030102
 International Journal of
Geo-Information

Article
Representing Time-Dynamic Geospatial Objects on
Virtual Globes Using CZML—Part II: Impact,
Comparison, and Future Developments
Liangfeng Zhu 1,2,3, * ID
, Zhiwen Li 1,2 and Zhongliang Wang 1,2
1 Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science (Ministry of Education), East China Normal University,
Shanghai 200241, China; [email protected] (Z.L.); [email protected] (Z.W.)
2 School of Geography Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
3 Shanghai Key Lab for Urban Ecological Processes and Eco-Restoration, East China Normal University,
Shanghai 200241, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-136-7172-1009

Received: 24 January 2018; Accepted: 12 March 2018; Published: 14 March 2018

Abstract: This is the second and final part of our Cesium Markup Language (CZML) study. Here, we
describe the relevant applications, academic influence, and future developments of CZML. Since its
emergence in 2011, CZML has become widely used in the geoscientific environment. It is also having
a positive impact on geoscience. Numerous applications use CZML for generating time-dynamic
geovisualization, facilitating data interoperability, and promoting spatial data infrastructures. In this
paper, we give an overview of the available tools and services, representative applications, as well as
the role that CZML plays for geoscientific research. Furthermore, we also discuss key similarities and
differences between CZML and KML (Keyhole Markup Language), and outline some of the future
improvements for CZML’s research and development.

Keywords: CZML; KML; time-dynamic visualization; geospatial object; interoperability

1. Introduction
In recent years, the importance of time-dynamic geospatial objects and their virtual globe-based
applications has been rapidly increasing [1–15]. At present, the most favorite schema for describing
custom geospatial objects is the Keyhole Markup Language (KML) [16–18]. However, KML is
designed for the purpose of expressing geographic annotation and visualization [18]. It has several
serious limitations because it lacks advanced capability and the necessary flexibility in representing
time-dynamic geospatial objects [2,3,19–21]. Its shortcomings have become more obvious as scientific
users struggle to visualize and analyze time-dynamic geospatial data on virtual globes. The need for
providing a more modern, universal, and web-friendly schema to describe time-dynamic geospatial
objects on virtual globes becomes paramount. Cesium Markup Language (CZML), which is a JSON
(JavaScript Object Notation)-based markup language, is designed as an alternative schema that allows
users to easily describe time-varying objects [22,23]. As an emerging specification for the representation
and exchange of time-dynamic geospatial objects on virtual globes, CZML has substantial advantages.
In the accompanying first paper of our series, we described the overall structure of CZML, and explored
two key issues and the associated solutions for representing time-dynamic geospatial objects using
CZML: the first is how to use CZML properties to describe time-varying characteristics of geospatial
objects, and the second is how to use CZML to support streaming data. In this final part, we concentrate
on the implementation and applications of CZML in the geospatial industry.
In subsequent sections, we present the relevant applications, academic influence, and future
developments of CZML. We give an overview of the available tools and services, representative

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 102; doi:10.3390/ijgi7030102 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijgi

ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 102 2 of 18

applications, as well as the constructive role that CZML plays for geoscientific research. Then, we
discuss key similarities and differences between CZML and KML, and outline some of the future
improvements for CZML’s research and development.

2. Impact: Tools, Applications, and the Role of CZML

As a general purposed scene description language for data-driven visualization, CZML has
produced a positive effect on the representation, analysis, and exchange of time-dynamic geospatial
objects since its emergence in 2011. By integrating with a variety of applications that focus on the
dynamic, interactive representation of geospatial objects, CZML has facilitated the development of
geovisualization. It also advances the progress of spatial data infrastructures and data interoperability,
since it can be conveniently transformed into other data formats [24,25].

2.1. Tools and Services

In general, the users of CZML can process CZML data in the same way that they deal with JSON
data. All the current major JSON tools, such as JSONUtil [26], simplejson [27], and fastJSON [28], are
also available to read and write CZML. In addition to those general purposed JSON tools, there are
some tools that claim to support the functionality of CZML especially. All of those tools are open-source
products that can be obtained from GitHub [29]. Most of those tools are libraries that are designed
for the purpose of reading, writing, and converting CZML data using one or more programming
languages. Moreover, there are several plugins and services that support CZML by providing import
and/or export interfaces. The most important of them are listed in Table 1. Among these tools, Systems
Tool Kit (STK), which is a sophisticated modeling and visualization system for aerospace and defense
applications, claims to support the functionality of CZML completely, and provides an option to
export three-dimensional (3D)/four-dimensional (4D) simulation scenarios to CZML-formatted files.
The created CZML files can be drag-and-dropped directly into other CZML clients to be shared with
the world [25]. These tools and services prove that CZML has the potentiality for data interoperability.
At present, CZML-formatted geospatial objects can only be viewed in web browsers running
the Cesium virtual globe, but they also have the potential to be visualized in other online or offline
two-dimensional (2D)/3D clients [22]. If they so choose, users ought to create their own clients that are
compatible with CZML. In the official website of Cesium [30], there is an online application, termed
Cesium Viewer [31], for loading and displaying CZML files. Users can simply drag-and-drop a CZML
file from their desktops into Cesium Viewer, and the viewer will automatically load and visualize
geospatial objects described in the file. Moreover, Cesium Sandcastle [32], a live code editor and
example gallery for the Cesium virtual globe, provides dozens of demos and examples of CZML.
It allows for users to write and run CZML code without leaving the web browser, and easily see how
changes in CZML affect the display on the virtual globe. Beginners of CZML can learn and experiment
with CZML using this interactive prototyping tool freely.
With the increased attention paid to the time-dynamic geospatial objects, as well as the wide
spread of the CZML specification and the rapid growth of the ecosystem for open-source CZML tools,
it is likely that more and more virtual globe clients would support CZML in the foreseeable future.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 102 3 of 18

Table 1. Tools and services supporting Cesium Markup Language (CZML).

Tool and Service Description Developer URLs

Libraries for CZML
czml-writer A library for writing CZML content using .NET and Java. Analytical Graphics, Inc. https://github.com/AnalyticalGraphicsInc/czml-writer
czml-Python An open source python library to read and write CZML files. Christian Ledermann https://github.com/cleder/czml
json2czml A data conversion tool for converting GeoJSON into CZML. Umetsu Hidehiro https://github.com/hideume/json2czml
A python program to produce CZML files from CARTHE
carthe_czml mjturtora https://github.com/mjturtora/carthe_czml
GLAD drifter data.
gpx2czml A javascript module that converts gpx data to CZML data. KernYoo https://github.com/trustyoo86/gpx2czml
A Java library for converting KML geometry models to
kml2czml workingDog https://github.com/workingDog/kml2czml
CZML models.
TLE2CZML A library for converting TLE (Two-Line Element) lists to CZML. Michael Bowman https://github.com/bowmanmc/tle2czml
A library for reading and writing CZML JSON entities and
ScalaCZML workingDog https://github.com/workingDog/scalaczml
presenting them as Scala objects.
Plugins for CZML
czml_generator A QGIS plugin for creating CZML files. Mátyás Gede https://github.com/samanbey/czml_generator
Systems Tool Kit STK offers an option for exporting 3D/4D simulation scenarios
Analytical Graphics, Inc. https://www.agi.com/products/stk
(STK) to CZML-formatted files.
Services providing CZML
A Python module for scraping tabular data for the tracks of
Eclipse Scraper eclipse events from NASA’s eclipse website and converting Christopher Clark https://github.com/Frencil/eclipsescraper
such events into usable CZML documents.
3D viewers for CZML
A Cesium reference application supporting drag-and-drop a https://cesiumjs.org/Cesium/Build/Apps/CesiumViewer/
Cesium Viewer Analytical Graphics, Inc.
CZML file from the desktop into the viewer. index.html
Examples of CZML
A code editor and example gallery for the Cesium virtual globe,
Cesium Sandcastle Analytical Graphics, Inc. http://cesiumjs.org/Cesium/Apps/Sandcastle/index.html
involving a large number of CZML examples.
A script for the Tracing of the specifc satellite positions based
Offline-satelite-
on the specific time using the CZML and sgp4 libraries and Muhammad Shafay Amjad https://github.com/shafaypro/Offline-satelite-tracking-czmll
tracking-czmll
finding the position.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 102 4 of 18

2.2. Applications
As a new encoding schema originally designed for the Cesium virtual globe specifically,
the development of CZML has kept pace with the growth of Cesium. Cesium was founded by Analytical
Graphics, Inc. (AGI) in 2011 as an open-source JavaScript library for creating 3D virtual globes and 2D
maps in a web browser without a plugin. It can be run cross-platform, cross-browser, and cross-device
because it utilizes the Web Graphics Library (WebGL) to provide hardware acceleration and plugin
independence. Users of Cesium can integrate, visualize, and analyze a variety of geospatial information,
such as global high-resolution terrain and imagery, many standard vector data, and 3D models [33,34].
For a complete presentation of the major benefits of Cesium, the reader is referred to the Cesium
website (http://cesiumjs.org) [30].
Up to now, Google Earth has been regarded as the most popular virtual globe in both public
and scientific communities. One of the reasons for Google Earth’s success is that it offers users the
capability to customize and interact with their own geospatial data through KML and the Google Earth
application programming interface (API) [35,36]. At present, there are plenty of Google Earth-based
applications that utilize KML to create dynamic, interactive displays of geospatial information.
However, due to the increasing incompatibility of the Google Earth API with modern web browsers,
Google decided to retire the Google Earth API [1,37], and it did not provide any clear alternatives
for the established web-based 3D visual globe applications. Therefore, many Google Earth-based
applications are facing the problem of transition. Nowadays, an increasing number of Google Earth
API developers are migrating to Cesium from Google Earth [38–40]. This technological trend also
provides a great opportunity for CZML to expand its power rapidly, thus helping to shape the future
development of the CZML ecosystem.
CZML has first-class treatment of time-dynamic data and is usually kept in step with Cesium
capabilities. In recent years, more and more virtual globe developers began using CZML to represent
time-dynamic geospatial objects. Accompanied by the Cesium virtual globe, CZML has facilitated
and enabled the building of numerous applications in many fields, such as geospatial, aerospace,
sports, environmental science, defense industry, and more. These applications primarily use CZML
to generate dynamic data visualizations on virtual globes. Here, we bring together a cross-selection
of the most representative examples of how CZML is being used for representing time-dynamic
geospatial objects explicitly. The focus is on applications in which three specific features of CZML
are essential: representing time-dynamic trajectories of moving objects, recording and rendering
complicated geometry objects, as well as expressing 3D/4D thematic information.

2.2.1. Representing Time-Dynamic Trajectories of Moving Objects

Representing moving object trajectories is an important application field of CZML, supporting
specific tasks, such as capturing and recording the real-time position of objects that are moving in
space over time, as well as interpolating and visualizing the path of individual moving objects. There
are a wide variety of CZML applications to reflect the spatio-temporal variation process of different
kinds of moving objects, such as human beings, animals, aircraft, and satellites.
Among these applications, some are targeted to represent human trajectory. For example, Cycling
the Alps, which is an online application that has been migrated from Google Earth to Cesium [41],
allows for users to explore the routes of all cycling climbs in the Alps mountain range with many
different visual features through a bike tour (Figure 1a). In this application, CZML is employed
together with Cesium to create the start and finish points, and dynamic routes when users travel in
between. Powder Tacks [42] is an application to integrate GPS ski track location data with videos taken
on a ski trip to Salt Lake City, UT. In this application, the skier’s trajectories derived from the raw
GPS track data are automatically converted into CZML path properties. A series of CZML billboard
properties are used to indicate the skier’s current position and the location of available videos. Videos
taken during the trip are synchronized with the skier’s position and play alongside the animating
visualization (Figure 1b). Camera flights provide smooth transitions to the next location when a user
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 102 5 of 18

selects a new video to watch. Similarly, Relive the Day 10 Battle [43] is an online application that
is designed for the purpose of tracking the Red Bull X-Alps 2015 (an intense, multi-day hiking and
the athletes’
paragliding race across the Alps), as well as displaying the athletes’ progress, evaluating theirprogress,
stats and
monitoring their rankings (Figure 1c). In this application, CZML is used to represent racer’s locations,
represent
and Cesiumracer’s locations,
is used and Cesium
for showing them onisaused for
3D virtual globe.

(a)

(b)

Figure 1. Cont.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 102 6 of 18

(c)

Figure 1. CZML can be used to represent human trajectory, e.g., (a) exploring the routes of cycling
climbs through a bike tour (image adapted from Cycling the Alps [41]); (b) integrating GPS ski track
location data with videos taken on a ski trip (image adapted from Powder Tacks [42]); or, (c) tracking
the athletes’
the athletes’progress,
progress,evaluating
evaluating their
their stats,
stats, andand monitoring
monitoring theirtheir rankings
rankings (image
(image adapted from Relive
the Day 10 Battle [43]).

In addition to its use for representing human beings, CZML can be used to provide relevant
information on trains, aircraft, satellites, and other moving objects. For example, Geoglyph Rail [44],
ines and more than 100 countries’ railways,
which is an online train simulator with over 300 train lines and more than 100 countries’ railways,
uses CZML to write the data for each train trip (Figure 2a). ATO Visualizer [45], an online application
for interactive visualization of Air Tasking Orders (ATOs), utilizes CZML to list air sorties for a fixed
24-h period, containing positions and mission information about a large number of aircraft (Figure 2b).
ADAM [46] is a project to represent 3D virtual drone flights, and to visualize the images and the
flight data captured by the onboard instruments in an interactive way (Figure 2c). In this application,
CZML is used to record the positions, orientations, and time data for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV).
Real-time CZML data are dynamically updated by a geographic data server (GeoServer) to improve
the visualization performance on clients. SpaceBook [47], which is a Cesium-based service, provides an
interactive, easy-to-use interface to monitor the performance and safety of satellites in a timely manner
while tracking the activity of neighboring resident space objects (RSOs). More than 16,000 space objects
being tracked by the United States (US) government, including their positions, status, and trending
information are recorded in CZML format, incrementally loaded, and displayed into the Cesium virtual
globe in real time, taking advantage of the streamability of CZML (Figure 2d). Orbital Predictor [48] is
an online application that offers users the capability to visualize the orbits of groups of satellites, and to
plan imaging campaigns. The satellites’ orbits are generated from the satellites’ two-line element sets
The satellites’ orbits are generated from the satellites’ two
and are encoded in the CZML file format (Figure 2e). Similarly, EarthKAM Explorer [49] adopts CZML
to represent the International Space Station (ISS) EarthKAM and its orbit information on a global scene
(Figure 2f). It also uses CZML generated from the EarthKAM data to visualize polygons where satellite
images were taken. In EclipseTracks [50], an interactive solar eclipse track modeling system, NASA
eclipse tables are transmuted into valid CZML documents to predict and render the track of solar
eclipses occurring about once every 18 months.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 102 7 of 18

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure 2. CZML can be used to provide relevant information on trains, aircraft, satellites and other
moving objects. (a) A train trip (image adapted from Geoglyph Rail [44]); (b) Air sorties (image adapted
from Air Tasking Orders (ATO) Visualizer [45]); (c) three-dimensional (3D) virtual drone flights (image
adapted from ADAM [46]); (d) A large number of resident space objects (RSOs) (image adapted from
SpaceBook [47]); (e) The orbits of groups of satellites (image adapted from Orbital Predictor [48]);
(f) The International Space Station (ISS) EarthKAM and its orbit information (image adapted from
EarthKAM Explorer [49]).

2.2.2. Recording and Rendering Complicated Geometry Objects

CZML can serve as an effective tool to record and render geometry objects, like points, lines,
polygons, and 3D models, because it is convenient to describe complicated geometric shapes. One such
example is Taipei 3D City Navigation [51], which hosts a variety of 3D models, including 300,000+
buildings, 200,000+ trees, 100,000+ road lamps, and 20,000+ traffic lights. Those 3D models are
grouped into a set of CZML files, according to their geo-locations and building volumes (Figure 3a).
A scheme similar to the region/LOD used in KML is employed to render the models efficiently.
Similar applications of CZML that require the geometry properties of CZML are Nanaimo Buildings
(Figure 3b) [52], and Old Town of Girona (Figure 4) [53].
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 102 8 of 18

(a)

(b)

Figure 3. CZML can be used to record and render complicated geometric shapes. (a) A variety of 3D
textured models in the virtual 3D Taipei city (image adapted from Taipei 3D City Navigation [51]); and,
(b) A styled layer of buildings in Nanaimo, BC, Canada (image adapted from Nanaimo Buildings [52]).

(a) (b)

Figure 4. A CZML application in the Old Town of Girona, a historical section of Catalonia, Spain. It is
a good example of combining data collected from different data sources, in different formats and from
different origins, and converting them to a unified CZML format. (a) A cube view of the buildings
within Girona and their usage (zoning); and, (b) Standard 3D models with photographic textures.
Images adapted from the Old Town of Girona [53].
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 102 9 of 18

2.2.3. Expressing 3D/4D Thematic Information

CZML is also applicable to present thematic information because it has a variety of visual
variables to dynamically express 3D/4D data, as well as the capability of incremental streaming
for time-dynamic visualization. One such example is 4D Statistics Maps [54], which is an online
application aimedtotoimprove
application aimed improve users’
users’ ability
ability to understand
to understand complexcomplex information
information and geovisual
and geovisual analytics
by dynamically displaying changing data, such as population change over time (Figure 5a). In the
Hiroshima Archive [55], a digital archive for visualizing the specific locations of survivors at the time of
the Hiroshima atomic bombing and their movements afterwards, CZML is used to express the victims’
victims’ spatial distribution
spatial distribution and migration,
and migration, as well asas thewell as the
impact impact
of the of on
disaster theregional
disaster development
on regional
through detailed text description, vivid animations, photographs, and panorama pictures (Figure 5b).
Other similar applications of CZML include the Nagasaki Archive [56], Okinawa Archive [57],
East Japan Earthquake Archive [58], and Indian Ocean Tsunami Archive [59].

(a) (b)

Figure 5. CZML can be used to dynamically express 3D/four-dimensional (4D) thematic information,
e.g., (a) displaying time-sequential population data (image adapted from 4D Statistics Maps [54]);
the victims’ spatial
or, (b) visualizing the victims’ spatial distribution and migration at the time of the Hiroshima atomic
bombing (image adapted from Hiroshima Archive [55]).

Moreover, some of the user-created applications of CZML are illustrated in Cesium Demos [60] and
the AGI website [61]. These practical applications indicate that CZML is well-suited for representing
time-dynamic geospatial objects when they are integrated into a virtual globe platform.

2.3. The Role of CZML in Geoscientific Research

Representation and analysis of geospatial objects on virtual globes are particularly useful as they
can help earth scientists to make new inferences about the Earth, to produce new knowledge, and to
promote new scientific discoveries [34,62,63]. Nowadays, there are plenty of exploratory studies on
how best to model and visualize 2D/3D geospatial information (such as maps, images, and 3D models)
–
on virtual globes [64–66]. Visualizing and analyzing geospatial objects in four dimensions (x, y, z,
– –
and time), however, is still a relatively new field [4–15,67–70]. With the increased attention being paid
to the fourth dimension of the Earth space, and the significant improvements to acquire spatio-temporal
data, more and more people are getting interested in the representation and analysis of time-dynamic
geospatial objects on virtual globes [71,72]. 4D visualization enables users to view and analyze
time-dynamic objects with any other time-dependent or time-independent spatial dataset in a natural
and intuitive way. This would dramatically improve the efficiency of exploring relationships hidden
behind the complex and large volume of geospatial data, and lead to an increased comprehensive
understanding of the Earth [63].
CZML is especially designed for the purpose of representing time-dynamic geospatial objects on
virtual globes. It adopts a distinctive, but efficient, compact method to record, describe, and transmit 4D
spatio-temporal information. It is a preferred data format for visualizing and analyzing time-varying
data in the network environment, and is supported in numerous virtual globe applications and
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 102 10 of 18

geospatial software products (cf. Section 2.2). Geoscientific research can benefit from CZML, since its
capabilities to accurately represent the geometrical, graphical, and semantic aspects of time-varying
geospatial objects, and since progressive model transmission over the Internet is supported by the
streamable structure and data-driven visualization provided by CZML (cf. the accompanying first
paper of our series). Geoscientists, researchers, and CZML developers have used CZML to showcase
their scientific data and results to the public in visually appealing ways, to help explain scientific
phenomena, and to explore the relationships among time-varying geospatial objects. With the increased
audience and the in-depth identification for the advantages and conveniences of CZML, more and more
tools, services, Earth browsers, and data sources that support CZML will appear. If CZML could evolve
into a full-fledged international standard for representing time-dynamic geospatial objects, it will
promote the visualization and analysis of geospatial objects, encourage interoperability and sharing of
geospatial information, and eventually change the way we interact with 4D spatio-temporal data.

3. Comparison with KML

KML is the most influential language in the field of representation, visualization, and analysis
of geospatial objects on virtual globes. In this section, CZML is compared to KML, helping us to
make a comprehensive understanding about the characteristics of CZML. KML and CZML share a
number of similarities with each other, as well as some important differences. Both CZML and KML
are open, non-proprietary data formats for representing geospatial objects and describing scenes in
their respective clients, and can be generated by a wide variety of applications, and possibly even
written by hand. Additionally, both are meant to be sufficiently client-agnostic that other compatible
clients can render the scene described therein [22]. However, CZML has a number of important
characteristics, some of that distinguish it from KML. As listed in Table 2, CZML is different from KML
in five aspects: goals and purposes, grammatical rules, information expressions, data characteristics,
as well as supports and applications.

Table 2. Differences between CZML and Keyhole Markup Language (KML).

Criteria Description KML CZML

Encode and transport representations Encoding representations of
Goals and purposes Design goals of geographic data for display in time-dynamic geospatial objects
2D/3D earth browsers. on 3D virtual globes.
Grammatical basis XML JSON
Grammatical rules Object-oriented Yes No
Namespace supported Yes No
A tag-based structure with nested Enumerating a collection of
Expression modes
elements and attributes. name/value pairs.
Information Six primitive geometry elements and Fifteen geometry properties with
Geometry supported
expressions two multiple geometry elements. additional sub-properties.
Offering very limited capabilities to Both the geometry, appearance
Time-varying
represent time-dynamic and the semantics of geospatial
information
geographical objects. objects can be changed over time.
Data volume Large, verbose, and slow. Less, concise, and fast.
Data characteristics Flexible. Offering three ways to add Weaker. Only one way to deal
Expansibility
custom data to a KML Feature. with custom data.
Streamability supported No Yes
OGC recommendation Yes No
Supports and
applications Google Earth, Cesium and other
Supporting platforms Cesium
comparable earth browsers.

3.1. Goals and Purposes

The greatest difference between CZML and KML is their design goals. KML is used to encode and
transport representations of geographic data mainly for display in 2D/3D Earth browsers. The purpose
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 102 11 of 18

of KML includes not only the presentation of graphical data on the globe, but also the control of the
user’s navigation in the sense of where to go and where to look [18]. KML does not pay much
attention to geospatial objects that are changing over time. Time-dynamic geospatial objects present a
significant challenge to KML because they require representing the time-varying geometry, appearance,
and semantics of the most relevant objects in the Earth space. Although KML allows for users to
associate a time element with any KML Feature for restricting the visibility of the dataset to a given time
period or point in time, it lacks sufficient capabilities to compactly represent time series data. In KML,
only one time element could be associated with a given KML Feature, except for the KML:Track and
kml:MultiTrack elements [16]. In order to represent a time-dynamic geospatial objects, users have to
duplicate the object many times to create a set (sometimes dozens) of KML objects, each containing
a time element [36]. This leads to very large data redundancy, and greatly reduces the visualization
performance in the virtual globe clients. Therefore, KML is complicated and cumbersome when it is
used to From
scenes. describe
thetime-dynamic
very beginning,geospatial
CZML’sobjects.
goal has been to represent geospatial objects
CZML is specifically designed for describing time-dynamic geospatial objects and graphical
scenes. From the very beginning, CZML’s goal has been to represent geospatial objects, along with their
properties that vary over time. It wants to be more than just traditional geometrical positions/extents,
it wants to describe the semantics and appearance of geospatial objects, as well as how they change
with time. CZML has first-class treatment of time and tuned for representing dynamic data accurately
and conveniently. By tying the application to the delivery and processing of time-varying data sets,
CZML takes
objects to theadvantage of the
user. CZML’s unique characteristics
performance is superior of
toCZML
that ofproperties,
KML whensuch as time
it comes to intervals and
time tags, to finely present a wide range of time-dynamic geospatial objects to the user. CZML’s
performance is superior to that of KML when it comes to dealing with dynamic data. As shown in
Figure 6, when describing time-varying characteristics of geospatial objects, CZML is significantly more
compact than KML, with much more functionality and a greater saving on memory and process time.

(a) (b)

Figure 6. KML (a) vs. CZML (b) snippets for describing the same path of a moving object over
a specified period of time. (a) In KML, the time positions of a kml:Track element are captured in
an array of kml:when elements and the space coordinates are captured in an equal-length array of
kml:coord elements; (b) In CZML, a series of time-tagged samples are used to compactly represent the
time-stamped positions of the path.
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 102 12 of 18

3.2. Grammatical Rules

Another difference between CZML and KML are the grammatical rules. KML uses a standardized
syntax conforming to XML, and utilizes certain geometry elements that are derived from GML
(Geography Markup Language) [73]. It represents a hierarchical data system where geographical
objects can be populated in a tag-based structure with nested elements and attributes. Therefore,
the KML document has a relatively complicated structure with large size and high redundancy.
In contrast, CZML is a JSON-based schema and file format, and follows general rules for JSON. It uses
collections of name/value pairs to enumerate the details of geographical objects. When compared
with KML, CZML is significantly more lightweight in file size, clearer, and more compact in structure,
and more convenient to read and write.
CZML is better than KML in terms of the syntactic complexity and learning difficulty. It is easy to
parse because a CZML document only contains an array, and each element in the array is a CZML
packet. CZML-formatted geospatial objects are fully defined by JavaScript objects, so CZML properties
can be directly parsed by the browser JavaScript engine without any extra middle-ware layer. KML is
more complicated than CZML. A KML document has a hierarchical structure with nested elements.
Each KML element must be spelled exactly, as shown in the KML specification, and with the same
capitalization [74]. Moreover, KML child elements must appear in the same order as listed within
their parent element in the KML specification [74]. Those rules greatly increase the complexity when
parsing a KML document.
KML is object-oriented, and all KML elements are derived from kml:Object, which is an abstract
base class that provides the id attribute. CZML does not possess any prominent object-oriented
characteristic (like hierarchy or inheritance). There is no clear abstraction or class tree for the CZML
properties and their sub-properties.
KML supports namespaces, which provide a simple method for qualifying element and attribute
names used in KML documents by associating them with namespaces that were identified by URI
references. This is an effective mechanism for supporting new features that contain information beyond
what is available in the standard KML specification. CZML does not support namespaces, but it also
can be extended with custom properties using some sort of identifier.

3.3. Information Expressions

CZML and KML differ not only in the objectives and grammars, but also in the way in which
they express information. The KML document is structured by nested tags. Comments can appear
in the KML code. CZML is derived from JSON. It uses a clear and self-evident document, which
consists of a number of name/value pairs, to describe time-varying properties of geospatial objects.
Comments are not allowed in the CZML code. Both KML and CZML support styling inside the format
and embedding CSS-like methods, which can be used to style geometry elements, page elements,
and to control the size and appearance of the description balloon.
In KML, geographical objects are generalized as points, lines, polygons, and other types of
geometric elements. OGC KML 2.3 supports six types of primitive geometry elements derived from the
abstract kml:Geometry element, including kml:Point, kml:LineString, kml:Track, kml:LinearRing,
kml:Polygon, and kml:Model [16,66]. Multiple discrete geometric primitives can be combined
together to create more complicated geometries like the kml:MultiGeometry and kml:MultiTrack
elements [16,17]. This approach provides great flexibility and lets users construct almost any geometry
that they could dream of. However, it also leads to tremendous inconvenience: the vast majority of
geometrical shapes cannot be directly represented in KML, even if they are regular and frequently-used.
For instance, when representing a rectangle, users of KML are required to pre-calculate the geographic
coordinates of all vertices in that rectangle. CZML overcomes this limitation through providing a
more advanced graphics abstraction mechanism and more geometry primitives. It is highly capable of
supporting 15 geometry properties, and each property contains plenty of additional sub-properties
to control the visual appearance and the graphical style of geospatial objects. In CZML, it is easy to
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 102 13 of 18

describe and draw various shapes and volumes on the virtual globe. Armed with basic knowledge of
geometry, users can create a variety of complicated graphics by simply using the predefined CZML
geometry properties. Regardless of their geometric definition, all of the CZML geometry properties
have a common set of properties that control their appearance. Moreover, the CZML specification
provides an effective extension mechanism for defining more complicated geometric shapes. Therefore,
it is convenient to express the geometries and appearances of various geospatial objects.
KML has adequate capabilities to represent the trajectory of a moving object over a specified period
of time [2,3,16]. However, its capability in describing time-dynamic objects is still restricted. It would
be very difficult to use KML to represent time-varying properties of geospatial objects, especially
when the properties are interpolatable. CZML has a powerful capability for expressing time-varying
geospatial information, especially in the case of large collections of time-dynamic objects in the network
environment. In CZML, not only can the spatial positions/extents be dynamically updated, but the
semantics and appearance of geospatial objects can also be changed continuously over time. CZML
also provides additional functionality than KML, for example, interpolation of unknown property
values with time. With this functionality, users can create and display time-dynamic visualization
using only a limited number of time-tagged samples. Thus, CZML is more expressive than KML.

3.4. Data Characteristics

KML data are verbose, which is derived from the grammatical characteristics of XML. KML files
can grow very large and can be slow to load [40], especially when representing dynamically-updated
geospatial data. CZML is concise and informative because it is optimized for representing
time-dynamic geospatial objects on the web. For web applications, less data volume means that users
will obtain faster file transfers and better data services. More importantly, CZML is a declarative JSON
schema, which makes it possible to represent time-varying objects for asynchronous browser/server
communication (AJAJ), and to replace XML, which is used by AJAX (cf. the accompanying first paper
of our series). Thus, CZML is more suitable for disseminating and exchanging geospatial information
in the network environment.
KML possesses the characteristic of good expansibility. It has a flexible extension mechanism, so
custom data can be added to a KML Feature as needed for specific use cases [74]. CZML is measurably
weaker than KML in expansibility. All CZML properties and their data types are predefined in the
CZML specification. Custom data that are not defined in the CZML specification cannot be directly
added to CZML packets as new properties. The only way to deal with custom data is to save them
as an HTML snippet, and to embed them into the description property of the CZML packet. Finally,
the custom data are displayed in the descriptive balloons of geospatial objects by default.
KML presents significant hurdles to transmit time-varying data as it lacks the ability of incremental
streaming to the client. Although the interval refresh feature of kml:NetworkLink can be used to refresh
the time-dynamic data automatically, the complete KML dataset needs to be fetched before clients
process and display it. Moreover, it is not allowed to divide a complete KML element into several data
units, which limits KML’s flexibility in data distribution and transmission on the web. In contrast, as a
web-friendly format, CZML is streamable and optimized for custom consumption. It is structured for
efficient, incremental streaming to the client. When describing a time-dynamic geospatial object, users
often have to deal with a great deal of time-dependent sampling data. In CZML, the properties of a
single geospatial object can be broken into a series of CZML packets and streamed using server-sent
events. The entire CZML document need not be present on the client before the scene can be displayed.
This leads to incremental loading and the display of time-varying data, and eventually improves
responsiveness and interactivity for visualizing and analyzing geospatial objects on the client.

3.5. Supports and Applications

KML version 2.2 is an international standard of OGC for the representation and exchange of
geographic data since 2008 [17]. An updated version 2.3 has been approved by the OGC membership
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 102 14 of 18

in October 2015 [16,18]. As an OGC recommendation, KML is widely supported by numerous virtual
globe applications, including Google Earth, Cesium, and other comparable online earth browsers.
Up to now, at least 93 KML implementations are registered in the OGC implementations databases [75],
and the list of virtual globe applications that support KML is growing daily. Nowadays, there is a
wealth of KML-formatted geospatial information shared on the World Wide Web. The wide acceptance
of the KML standard allows for those KML-formatted datasets to be interoperable between different
web mapping systems.
As an emerging specification for representing time-dynamic geospatial objects on virtual globes,
CZML has not yet become part of the official data standards supported by OGC. It is an open format
but currently only used via the Cesium virtual globe. Compared with KML, CZML still lacks adequate
learning materials, data resources, as well as tools and services. However, with the increasing demand
to express time-dynamic geospatial objects, the Cesium team, the governor of CZML, intends to
formalize the CZML specification with a standard body, and to submit it to OGC proposed as an OGC
implementation standard in the near future [22].

3.6. Summary
When compared with KML, the key advantages of CZML are that: it is compact, easy to learn, use,
and parse; it is convenient to accurately describe geospatial objects varying with time; it is optimized
for client consumption; and, it supports efficient, incremental streaming to the client. The results of the
above-mentioned comparison indicate that CZML is complementary to KML as the optimum data
format for expressing time-dynamic objects on web-based virtual globe applications.

4. Discussion and Future Developments

As shown in the previous sections, CZML is very successful in both visual representation and
data transmission of time-dynamic geospatial objects. It has been broadly accepted by the geospatial
industry as a means to create time-dynamic displays. At present, an increasing number of geospatial
objects are represented in CZML or corresponding databases. However, the currently available
CZML specification still has limitations and, thus, future improvements are required to make CZML
more efficient.
Firstly, more advanced data extension mechanisms should be introduced to support custom
data. Although the current CZML specification offers the description property to preserve custom data,
the custom data must be saved as HTML snippets, and, thus, cannot be used by external computer
applications. In contrast, KML offers three ways to add custom data to a KML Feature: the kml:Data
element allows users to add untyped name/value pairs to the user data associated with a given
Feature; the kml:Schema and kml:SchemaData elements allow for users to add typed data to a Feature;
arbitrary XML data allows users to preserve user data within a KML file [74]. Users of KML can choose
an appropriate approach to add their data, depending on the kind of data, as well as how they plan
to use the data in their KML presentations. Obviously, CZML should draw on the experience of the
extended mechanism in KML. Planned future developments for CZML should include the ability to
freely capture, add, and process custom data that can be used for certain data entity tasks, such as
statistical analysis and semantic modelling.
Secondly, to effectively distribute time-dynamic geospatial data, more advanced technologies for
streaming and updating CZML should be explored. While CZML can be incrementally streamed to the
client, streaming CZML is limited to only transmitting a single document or data source. At present,
dynamically loading multiple CZML documents via external links is not allowed. In the future, CZML
should be expanded to support the distribution of both internal data and external links, which is similar
to the KML update feature [16,17,74]. An external link can reference a CZML document on a local or
remote network. This reference causes CZML clients to fetch the linked CZML document, and transmit
and display it in the 3D viewer of a virtual globe. By using external links, massive time-dynamic
ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 102 15 of 18

geospatial information can be distributed into multiple CZML documents. Each document can be
shared with multiple end users, and each user can refresh the most recent data automatically.
Lastly, more CZML clients should be developed in order to provide more robust supports to
CZML. At present, KML performs better than CZML in code debugging and error prompt. In most of
the KML clients, users can enable error checking mode to locate misplaced KML elements or other
errors. However, Cesium, the only virtual globe client that supports CZML currently, cannot generate
error messages to report invalid CZML properties, which creates major difficulties in editing and
modifying CZML codes. Future opportunities for extension of CZML functionality should include
letting Cesium remedy this performance issue through providing a sophisticated error-checking mode.

5. Conclusions
CZML makes it possible to combine time together with geospatial properties for geoscientific
research and better understanding of geospatial objects around us. It is intended to be a base schema
that defines time-varying aspects that are common to the most relevant applications of 3D geospatial
objects. Nowadays, CZML has been widely embraced by the geospatial industry. For users that need
to represent time-dynamic objects in their online virtual globe applications, CZML should be their
first choice. Scientific users benefit from CZML, which makes time-varying geospatial objects more
accessible to a wide audience within the geoscientific community. It is clear that CZML is transforming
our ability to represent and visualize 4D spatio-temporal information on virtual globes.
CZML is an emerging specification and an ongoing development. It is supported by a vibrant
and active community of developers. The CZML community expects to use CZML for a number of
ongoing and new geoscience research projects that are broadly centered on time-dynamic geospatial
objects, and finally intends to propose CZML as an OGC standard. All of the stakeholders in fields
related to time-dynamic geospatial objects are encouraged to contribute to CZML, particularly to
participate in the CZML community that promotes the improvement of the CZML specification, to
develop more virtual globe applications that support CZML, to construct new tools that read, write,
visualize, and convert CZML data, or to conduct usability study on the efficiency and user satisfaction
of CZML.

Acknowledgments: The research leading to this paper was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No. 41672327), the Natural Science Foundation of Shanghai Municipality (Grant No.
16ZR1408900), the Project of Shanghai Science and Technology Committee (Grant No. 17DZ1202804 &
17DZ1202805), and the Social Science Foundation of Shanghai (Grant No. 2014BCK002). We would like to
thank the members of the Cesium team and community for their persistent engagement in developing CZML.
Furthermore, we gratefully thank the editor and four anonymous reviewers for their useful comments that
improved the quality of the manuscript.
Author Contributions: Liangfeng Zhu was in charge of the research work and wrote the paper. Zhiwen Li and
Zhongliang Wang supervised the research work and the manuscript conception. All authors participated to the
improvement of the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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