Primary Teachers’ Diploma

Language
Module One
Literacy and Language Education Departments

Prepared by Universities and Colleges of Education in Collaboration with the Ministry of Education,
Directorate of Teacher Education and Specialised Services, Republic of Zambia.
2 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
Rights and permissions

This material for a course in the Primary Teachers’ Diploma at colleges of education in
Zambia is made possible by the support of the American people through the United States
Agency for International Development (USAID) under the Transforming Teacher Education
Activity (Cooperative Agreement No. 72061120CA00006). The contents of this course are the
sole responsibility of the Transforming Teacher Education team and do not necessarily
reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.

2021 Edition

The text and illustrations in this work are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
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Rights and permissions 3

Acknowledgements

Name Institution
Mr. Handili Jimaima Chalimbana University
Mr. Moonga Hakalyambe Examinations Council of Zambia
Ms. Njekwa Mamunye Examinations Council of Zambia
Mr. Shadreck Nkoya Examinations Council of Zambia
Ms. Violet Mutono Examinations Council of Zambia
Mr. William Kapambwe Examinations Council of Zambia
Mr. William Walawala Examinations Council of Zambia
Dr. Adrienne Barnes-Story Florida State University
Dr. Rachel Lindsay Keune-Mincey Florida State University
Ms. Annie Mathatha Ministry of Education-Curriculum Development Centre
Mr. Bostor Mwendende Ministry of Education-Curriculum Development Centre
Ms. Exildah Gondwe Ministry of Education-Curriculum Development Centre
Mr. Jack Chishala Ministry of Education-Curriculum Development Centre
Ms. Josephine Kabila Ministry of Education-Curriculum Development Centre
Mr. Kenneth Jinaina Ministry of Education-Curriculum Development Centre
Ms. Lola Bwalya Kaniki Silungwe Ministry of Education-Curriculum Development Centre
Mr. Nawa Mushiba Ministry of Education-Curriculum Development Centre
Ms. Ruth Mbewe Zulu Ministry of Education-Curriculum Development Centre
Ms. Violet Ng’onga Ministry of Education-Curriculum Development Centre
Mr. Enock Kaluba Ministry of Education-Early Childhood Education
Fr. Anthony Tambatamba Ministry of Education-Teacher Education and Specialised Services
Mr. David Shabukali Ministry of Education-Teacher Education and Specialised Services
Mr. Kenneth Likando Ministry of Education-Teacher Education and Specialised Services
Mr. Luckson Malambo Ministry of Education-Teacher Education and Specialised Services
Mr. Ngosa Kotati Ministry of Education-Teacher Education and Specialised Services
Mr. Richard Chikoye Kasama College of Education
Ms. Theresa Mfula Mubanga Kitwe College of Education
Ms. Gwen Mutolwa Malcolm Moffat College of Education
Mr. Kennedy Kasimba Malcolm Moffat College of Education
Mr. Eddie Mubita Mongu College of Education
Ms. Christine Kombe Chama Solwezi College of Education
Professor Beatrice Matafwali University of Zambia
Dr. Bentry Nkhata University of Zambia
Professor David Sani Mwanza University of Zambia
Dr. Joseph Mwenya Mwansa University of Zambia
Dr. Hambaba Jimaima University of Zambia
Ms. Annie Banda USAID-Let’s Read
Ms. Adonia Ngosa VVOB-Catch Up

4 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Contents

Introduction ............................................................................ 7
Module Learning Outcomes.......................................................... 9

CHAPTER 1

Conceptualisation of Language .................................................... 13

CHAPTER 2

Origins and Design Features of Language ........................................ 27

CHAPTER 3

Functions of Language .............................................................. 49

CHAPTER 4

Language Acquisition and Learning .......................................................... 69

CHAPTER 5

Levels of Linguistic Analysis ........................................................ 85

CHAPTER 6

Branches of Linguistics ............................................................ 133

CHAPTER 7

Language Situation in Zambia .................................................... 165

CHAPTER 8

Zambian Orthography ............................................................. 187

CHAPTER 9

Figures of Speech .................................................................. 211

Module Summary ................................................................... 229

Appendix ............................................................................. 233
Glossary .............................................................................. 237
References .......................................................................... 241

Contents 5
Icons in this module

Icons in this module were developed to visually separate different sections within
each chapter of the module and for the reader to easily understand the function
of the different sections.

Below are the icons and their meanings.

Learning outcomes
This icon notes the learning outcomes for each chapter.

Key terms
This icon notes the chapter key terms and definitions.

Assessment of learning
This icon notes where there is an assessment of learning for the chapter.

Activity
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Sample text
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6 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Introduction

Dear teacher educators and student teachers,

Recent research across Zambia has revealed that while primary school completion rates are
increasing (Ministry of General Education, 2017), literacy skills of children in lower primary
school continue to be low. In fact, the Early Grade Reading Assessment administered in
five provinces in 2018 revealed that one-in-five lower primary school children were unable
to answer questions about stories they hear, and nearly half could not identify any letters
(USAID, 2019). This means that young children are not learning the basic skills necessary
for developing literacy.

One of the factor contributing to these issues is the lack of sufficient teaching and learning
materials in institutions that offer pre-service teacher education programmes. Based on
these findings, the Ministry of Education, with the support of the United States Agency for
International Development (USAID), chose to focus on improving the materials available in
colleges and universities that train primary teachers. This module is one of six modules that
will be developed over the next year — three focused on literacy development and three
focused on language development.

These modules were written by teams consisting of lecturers from the University of
Zambia, Chalimbana University, and colleges of education, with support from staff
from the USAID Transforming Teacher Education activity. They are based on current
knowledge about evidence-based approaches to early grade reading and primary grades
teaching practices. The modules are freely available and may be shared electronically and
reproduced as needed by institutions.

I hope that these modules will be used in all literacy and language education courses
in pre-service primary teacher education diploma programmes nationwide and will support
high-quality teaching and learning. As a teacher myself, I wish you the best in your
careers in education.

Warm regards,

Mr. Joel Kamoko

Permanent Secretary
Ministry of Education

Introduction 7
8 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
Module Learning Outcomes

Chapter 1
Learning outcomes
Topics and outcomes from the National Syllabus:

1.2.1 Meaning of language

1.2.1.1 Define language in various ways

By the end of the chapter, the student teachers will:

1. define language as proposed by various scholars
2. classify the definitions as either formalist or functionalist
3. relate the conceptualisation of language to literacy and language teaching.

Chapter 2
Learning outcomes
Topics and outcomes from the National Syllabus:

1.2.2 Origins of language

1.2.2.1 Demonstrate understanding of the various origins of language

1.2.3 Design features of human language

1.2.3.1 Explain the importance of the characteristics of language

By the end of the chapter, the student teachers will:

1. demonstrate understanding of the various theories of the origin of language
2. distinguish between human and animal language
3. explain the design features of language
4. discuss the implication of the origins of language to literacy and language teaching.

Chapter 3
Learning outcomes
Topics and outcomes from the National Syllabus:

1.2.4 Functions of language

1.2.4.1 Explain the functions of language according to M.A.K Halliday
1.2.4.2 Relate the functions of language to the classroom situation

Module Learning Outcomes 9

By the end of the chapter, the student teachers will:
1. explain Michael Halliday’s functions of language
2. explain how children learn functions in their language development according to Halliday
3. discuss the implications of the functions of language to language and literacy instruction.

Chapter 4
Learning outcomes
Topics and outcomes from the National Syllabus:

1.2.5 Theories of language

1.2.5.1 Analyse the theories of language acquisition and language learning

By the end of the chapter, the student teachers will:

1. distinguish between language acquisition and language learning
2. identify and describe developmental stages of language acquisition
3. compare theories of language acquisition
4. relate theories of language acquisition to the teaching of literacy and language.

Chapter 5
Learning outcomes
Topics and outcomes from the National Syllabus:

1.2.7 Levels of linguistics

1.2.7.1 Identify the levels of linguistics

By the end of the chapter, the student teachers will:

1. define the levels of linguistic analysis
2. analyse the structure of English and Zambian languages according to levels
of linguistic analysis
3. discuss the implications of the levels of linguistic analysis to teaching and learning
within the context of the language and literacy classroom.

10 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Chapter 6
Learning outcomes
Topics and outcomes from the National Syllabus:

1.2.6 Linguistics and its branches

1.2.6.2 Describe the different branches of linguistics

By the end of the chapter, the student teachers will:

1. define the following branches of linguistics: discourse analysis, pragmatics,
psycholinguistics, and sociolinguistics
2. demonstrate understanding of the branches of linguistics by providing examples
of language use
3. apply the concepts of the branches of linguistics to literacy and language teaching
and learning.

Chapter 7
Learning outcomes
Topics and outcomes from the National Syllabus:

1.3.1 Language policy in Zambia

1.3.1.1 Explain the language policy changes in Zambia before and after independence

1.3.2 Language and dialect

1.3.2.1 Distinguish differences between language and dialects, language and ethnicity,
language and gender, language and identity
1.3.2.1 Explain the following terms: mono-lingualism, bi-lingualism, polyglot, multilingualism,
foreign language, official language, local language, familiar language, lingua franca,
register, diglossia, endoglossia, exoglossia, and national official language

By the end of the chapter, the student teachers will:

1. describe the relationship between language and ethnicity
2. explain the following terms: monolingualism, bilingualism, polyglot, foreign language,
official language, local language, familiar language, lingua franca, language register,
diglossia, endoglossia, exoglossia, and heteroglossia
3. distinguish between language and dialect
4. use lexical similarities to determine which of their languages are related
5. demonstrate understanding of the relationship between language and ethnicity

Module Learning Outcomes 11

6. explain the number of languages spoken in the country
7. describe the language situation in Zambia using sociolinguistic terms
8. discuss the implications of the language situation on language policy and language
and literacy education.

Chapter 8
Learning outcomes
Topics and outcomes from the National Syllabus:

1.3 Language situation in Zambia

By the end of the chapter, the student teachers will:

1. define orthography
2. compare the orthographies of the seven regional Zambian languages
3. discuss how orthographies are developed
4. evaluate the relevance and importance of orthographies in teaching literacy.

Chapter 9
Learning outcomes
Topics and outcomes from the National Syllabus:

1.15 Figures of speech

1.15.1.1 Use figures of speech in stories or conversations

By the end of the chapter, the student teachers will:

1. define what the expression ‘figures of speech’ means
2. identify and classify figures of speech
3. analyse figures of speech to determine their meanings
4. demonstrate understanding of figures of speech by creating examples

12 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

CHAPTER 1

Conceptualisation
of Language

Chapter 1 – Conceptualisation of Language 13

14 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
 1
Conceptualisation of Language
INTRODUCTION

It is difficult to think about the nature of language because it is an inseparable

part of being human; it differentiates us from other animals. The fact that
language is acquired in infancy almost naturally without instruction and we
only find ourselves using it effortlessly in later life makes us take it for granted.
It is only when we attempt to learn additional languages that we become
aware of how complex and powerful language is. The possession of language
has enabled humans to live in communities: to interact, entertain, and
cooperate with each other, regulate their behaviour, transmit knowledge and
skills that have helped humans not only survive but thrive, and produce great
civilisations. We think and dream with language.

Although language is essentially speech, human beings have been able to

develop written forms of language, enabling them to increase the power of
language as a tool for transmitting knowledge and skills not limited in terms
of time and place. Human beings have used verbal language for some 100,000
years, but the invention of written forms of language is a recent one—around
10,000 to 5,000 years ago—in the ancient civilisations of Egypt, the Middle
East, and China, to name a few. This means that human beings have not had
the time to develop the ability to acquire written language naturally in the
same way that they acquire spoken language. Children have to be taught
to read and write. It is important for teachers of language and literacy to
understand that the foundation of literacy is in oral language. Written symbols
represent language at the sound level, and understanding written language
depends on one’s knowledge of the words of that language and also the same
thinking processes that we use in understanding spoken language.

This chapter aims to introduce students to the ways in which linguists have
thought about language, which we will review, and in the process discuss their
relevance to the teaching of language and literacy in primary schools.

Chapter 1 – Conceptualisation of Language 15

1.1

Learning outcomes

Topics and outcomes from the National Syllabus:

1.2.1 Meaning of language

1.2.1.1 Define language in various ways

By the end of the chapter, the student teachers will:

1 define language as proposed by various scholars

2 classify the definitions as either formalist or functionalist

3 relate the conceptualisation of language to literacy and language teaching.

1.2

Instructional materials
Student module

Activity 1

Written language is not just derived from spoken language, it has developed conventions (rules)
of its own.
Discuss this statement by relating it to the way the two forms of language are taught.

16 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

1.3

Key terms
Literacy
The ability to read and write

Formalist linguistics
Approach to the study of language which focuses on language structures (the form) and
not their meanings; often contrasted with functional linguistics below

Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL)

An approach to linguistics, among functional linguistics, that considers language as a social
semiotic system (as a way of expressing social meanings)

Linguistics
The scientific study of language

Linguistic competence
The knowledge of grammatical rules possessed by a speaker of a language which are used
to construct sentences

Functionalist linguistics
Linguists who have the view that language is used for performing various social functions
(e.g. making requests, orders, apologies, etc.) and that this is more important than focusing
on the form, as in formalist linguistics

Linguistic performance
The use of linguistic rules (grammar) in generating sentences in actual communication

Chapter 1 – Conceptualisation of Language 17

1.4

What is language?
It is interesting to note that the word used to talk about language in some languages is
the same as that which refers to the tongue. This is not surprising because language, as
was noted, is essentially speech and the tongue is the most important speech organ used
to produce various sounds.

Activity 2

What are the various words in your Mother Tongue that refer to ‘language’?
Do the words refer to speech or the tongue?
Some of the words—for example in Nyanja, cilankhulo or ‘language’—have a verb form kulankhula
‘to speak’. Is this found in other languages?

The word language in English came from the old French word langue, based on the
Latin word lingua meaning ‘tongue’. We can see that language was thought of as
speech. However, speech itself is not just a meaningless stream of noise, but it consists
of sounds grouped together in units called words and these words are put together to
make sentences that express thoughts, feelings, and so on. So, language can be thought
of as consisting of various systems that work together to communicate meaning, e.g.
the sound system (phonological system), the morphological system (word system), and
the syntactic system (sentence system). For example, the Oxford Dictionary (2010)
defines language as ‘the method of human communication, either spoken or written,
consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way’. The ‘structured
and conventional way’ refers to the fact that words are put together according to the
grammatical rules followed in that language. Sign language is also a language in its own
right, which is non-verbal as it is expressed through visual signs that are also organised
or structured in ways that are acceptable to the users (that is what we mean by
conventional). Children born with hearing impairments acquire sign language in very
similar ways to the way the spoken language is acquired.

We often see some biases in definitions of language towards one of the systems mentioned
above and also towards either an emphasis on the actual language structures or the uses
to which the structures are put in communication. We discuss these issues below.

18 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

1.4.1
Meaning of language from the formalist perspective
Formalism is an approach to the study of written or spoken texts which focuses on
the actual language structures (the form) rather than on what they are used for in
communication. For a formalist the expression May I leave the room? can be looked at
in terms of the parts of speech involved: verbs, pronouns, and noun phrases, and also
how these are put together according to the rules of that language—for example by
using the verb-subject inversion. This is when we start a question with the verb (in this
case a modal verb) ‘may’ then followed by the subject ‘I’. Thus, formalists focus on the
structural aspects of language. They study language structure, or syntax, as an
independent system of language without referring to meaning. They are, however,
concerned with grammatical acceptableness, that is, working out which strings of words
are acceptable to the native speaker or not.

Edward Bloomfield’s (1914) definition of language is typical of this formalist approach to

language study. He wrote that ‘[t]he totality of the utterances that can be made in a speech
community is the language of that speech community’. As can be noted here, the emphasis
is on the utterances, that is, either words, phrases, or sentences people produce without
taking into consideration what they mean or the purposes for which they are produced.

This tradition of thinking about language was taken up by the most famous linguist of
modern times, Noam Chomsky, whose major interest is in understanding how children
acquire the knowledge of grammar and how this knowledge can be understood. Chomsky
introduced what is known as transformational generative grammar. For him too, language
is ‘a set (finite and infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of
a finite set of elements’ (Chomsky, 1957). Chomsky’s claim here is that people can
construct sentences of any length using a limited set of elements which we can think of as
words. Language, as in the case of Bloomfield, is seen to be a set of sentences people are
capable of producing. Chomsky claimed that people possess a set of grammatical rules
in their brains that help them to generate (produce) an infinite (limitless) number of new,
acceptable sentences. He was concerned with what is considered to be the most important
design feature of language: the fact that language is a very creative (generative) thing.

Human brains are so productive that a child can produce at any time a sentence that has
never been uttered or heard before. Looking at this definition of language, you notice that it
considers sentences as the basis of a language and meaning is ignored. Chomsky separated
knowledge of language (that is the rules that make up the grammar), which he called
linguistic competence, from the use to which this grammar is put in communication, which

Chapter 1 – Conceptualisation of Language 19

he called linguistic performance. His interest was in describing linguistic competence. He
gave the famous sentence below to show that a sentence can be grammatically correct
without being meaningful (Chomsky, 1957):

Colourless green ideas sleep furiously.

This example shows how generative or creative language is: the fact that we can dream up
‘correct’ sentences that do not make sense.

Later he gave further examples to underscore the importance of structure. His argument
was that sentences might appear on the surface to be very similar, as can be seen in the
two sentences below (Chomsky, 1965):

a. John is eager to please.

b. John is easy to please.

In the first one, it is John who pleases other people while in the second, it is John whom
other people can please. The two sentences show the importance of form or structure.
He argues that the two sentences have a deep structure where John can be the subject or
object of the verb (that is, the one who performs the action of the verb or the one who
receives the action of the verb, respectively). The implications of this thinking on the
teaching of language and literacy are discussed in section 1.5 below.

Activity 3: Learning outcome 1

a. Explain the meaning of language according to Chomsky.

b. What are the disadvantages of viewing language from a formalist perspective?
c. What does it mean when one says that the above definitions of language neglect meaning?
d. How can teachers include meaning when teaching language from a formalist perspective?

20 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

1.4.2
Meaning of language from the functionalist perspective
Functional approaches take the idea that the main purpose of language is communication
and that grammars have in large part been shaped to reflect communicative needs
(Tomasello, 1998). In this sense, functional linguistics is deeply concerned with the
purposes of language use. Functional linguists see connections between elements of a
language, for example, May I use your pen? and their functions, for example, asking for
permission. Thus, the focus is on prioritising and privileging communication (Iscan,
2007; Rifat, 2000; Varder et al., 1998). Arising from this, the following beliefs are held
about language:

• Language use is functional.

• The function of language is to make meanings.
• These meanings are influenced by the social and cultural context in which
they are exchanged.
• The process of using language is a semiotic process, that is, a process of
making meaning.

At the heart of functional linguistics is the view of language as a social semiotic system
(Halliday, 1978) or roughly, a meaning making system. To this end, it is believed that
language use is functional, semantic, contextual, and semiotic. Halliday (1978) described
language as a semiotic system, ‘not in the sense of a system of signs, but a system of
resource for meaning’. And so, for Halliday, language was ‘a meaning potential’. Halliday
argues that every act of language is an act of meaning and ‘to mean is to act semiotically’.
According to Halliday, ‘the internal organisation of language is not arbitrary but embodies
a positive reflection of the functions that language has evolved to serve in the life of social
man’. Apart from Halliday, there are other scholars who have defined language from the
functionalist point of view, which is as follows:

Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions,

and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols (Sapir, 1921, p. 8).

There are two terms in this definition that call for discussion, and these terms are
human and non-instinctive. Language, as Sapir rightly said, is human. It is not instinctive
or involuntary, as is the case with some animal communication systems. And more
importantly, language is for communicating ideas, emotions, and desires. The importance
of communication is highlighted in any functionalist definition of language because
language performs social functions of communication. Consider the following:

Chapter 1 – Conceptualisation of Language 21

 ‘A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group
co-operates’ (Bloch & Trager, 1942, p. 5).

‘A system of conventional, spoken, or written symbols by means of which human beings, as

members of a social group and participants in its culture, communicate’ (Britannica, vol. 13).

‘Language is a set of human habits, the purpose of which is to give expressions to thoughts
and feelings’ (Jespersen, 1919, p. 12).

‘The institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of
habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols’ (Hall, 1960, p. 158).

Activity 4: Learning outcomes 1–3

In pairs or in small groups:

1. Form two groups, one of functionalists and the other of formalists, to debate the advantages
and disadvantages of these two approaches to language.
2. Give three definitions of language according to functional linguistics.
3. What are the advantages of teaching language using the functional perspective?
4. What are the weaknesses of solely focusing on functions when teaching language?

22 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

1.5

Implications of conceptualisation of language

to literacy and language instruction
In both language and literacy teaching, we can see influences of the two approaches to
language. To begin with, let’s consider the formalist approach. This has been the traditional
method of teaching language, where the emphasis has been on teaching grammatical rules
and ensuring that learners practise those rules by constructing isolated sentences that have
very little meaning out of context. The focus is on making learners produce correct
sentences and not on how to use those sentences in social interaction.

Since formalists look upon language as a construct of grammatical rules, the teacher must
have knowledge of the rules in order to adequately teach literacy and language. It is these
rules that must be applied to show the learner that elements in sentences are not just
strung together haphazardly but with the guidance of rules. In short, language is rule
governed and language teaching follows rule explanation. The examples in section 1.4.1
from Chomsky showed the importance of form, or the rules in sentence construction.

The criticism of this way of teaching language is that it neglects meaning. People don’t just
walk about uttering grammatically correct sentences that have no meaning, such as the
‘colorless green ideas’ one. They would be considered abnormal. Therefore, the point is that
while rules are necessary, they should be explained, exemplified, and practised within a
social context in which language is used. When this happens, it means that both form and
function have been considered.

The focus on form is also seen in the teaching of literacy through, for example, synthetic
phonics. When teachers just teach learners a list of letter sounds without showing how
they blend into meaningful words, this might appear to be mechanical and meaningless. It
may be boring to the learners. In the Primary Learning Programme (PLP) there is an
attempt to connect the letter sounds that are learnt to meaningful units such as syllables,
words, and sentences, rapidly. For example, when children learn the letter m they are
made to form syllables with it: ma, me, and so on. Then they use these syllables to form
words in their language. This links the form to meaning and gives the learners a sense of
achievement that they can write real words. The language experience approach and whole
language literacy teaching methods focus on meaning at the expense of form.

From the functional linguistic definitions above, language is viewed as a tool for
communicating ideas and emotions. Halliday views language development in children as
learning how to mean. He suggests that learning a language is learning the uses of
language and the meaning potential associated with the structures, words, and sounds.

Chapter 1 – Conceptualisation of Language 23

The implication of this view of language is that language teaching should be done with the
aim of allowing learners to communicate, since language is viewed as communication.
Thus, language teaching should be done in social contexts to enable learners to express
themselves to perform different communicative functions context by context. This is
sometimes done through role play or drama, where learners imagine themselves in some
social contexts of communication and they learn to use appropriate language for such
contexts. As you teach language, the primary focus should not be on correctness but
appropriateness and expressiveness of ideas or thoughts to communicate meaning. This is
important for teachers of language to bear in mind. Often teachers focus only on rule
explanation and ignore the use of language in social situations. Functional linguistics is
a reminder to language teachers that the goal of language use is communication, and it
should be taught as such.

To facilitate learning, Schulze (2015) proposes that teachers need to hold a broad and
extensive understanding of language and the specific academic language demands of their
respective content areas. Interestingly, globalisation and increasingly diverse learning
environments around the world have drawn attention to the need for educators to be
prepared in linguistic competencies (Lucas & Villegas, 2013).

From the discussions in the two approaches to language, one would ask a question as
to which approach would best be suited to create a backdrop in the teaching of literacy
and language. There is no one single approach deemed as the best. Owing to this, both
approaches, well understood by the teacher as to how they conceptualise language, provide
a sound basis upon which to anchor the teaching of literacy and language. As explained
earlier, this means that teachers should focus on both form and function when teaching
language. From a literacy point of view, since language is fluid and is a resource for meaning
making, this means that multilingual language practices such as translanguaging become
useful. Translanguaging pedagogies help to bridge the gap between learners whose Mother
Tongue (L1) is different than the language of instruction (LOI). Teachers encourage the
use of learners’ L1 and provide multilingual resources to support learning. Arising from
discussion in this chapter, the following conclusions about language and the nature of
language can be drawn:

a. Language is multimodal.

b. Language and language teaching is a combination of both form and function.

c. Language use is context sensitive and must be taught within the social/cultural
settings of the users of the language.

24 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

d. The function of language is communication (meaning making) and the use of
grammar helps in clarifying and specifying meaning.

e. The goal of teaching language is to develop communicative competence, the ability to

use language in interactions correctly and appropriately in different social contexts by
learners.

f. Since languages are fluid and are not bound entities, teachers should have the
freedom to use multiple languages and language forms to communicate in the
classroom without thinking that one language is interfering with the other.

Activity 5: Learning outcome 3

a. Discuss why it is important to teach language by focusing on both form and function.
b. How should teachers view language in order to respond to linguistic diversity in their classrooms?
c. Design a lesson procedure on how you can teach a structure topic of your choice and show
how you will focus on both form and function.

1.6

Chapter summary
This chapter is an introduction to the meaning of language and the various ways that
language theorists or scholars have defined and approached language. Broadly, linguists
view language through formalist or functionalist perspectives. With respect to both
approaches, it is evident that they are both worthy and important to literacy and language
teaching and learning. In the following chapters some of the topics touched upon in this
chapter will be further developed.

Chapter 1 – Conceptualisation of Language 25

1.7

Assessment of learning
1. What is the difference between the conceptualisation of language by the
formalists and that of the functionalists?

2. How do both formal and functional linguistics affect language teaching and
learning respectively?

3. In your own words, what is language?

4. What is the relationship between language and literacy?

5. An approach to language teaching involves an understanding of what a

language is, among other issues. In what ways does this help in thinking
about language teaching?

26 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

CHAPTER 2

Origins and the

Design Features
of Language

Chapter 2 – Origins and the Design Features of Language 27

28 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
 2
Origins and the Design Features
of Language
INTRODUCTION

The previous chapter presented two broad views of what language is and
the implications of these views to language teaching. In this chapter, we
move backwards and consider how human language evolved and spread
and what makes it different from other systems of communication such as
animal communication. For the purposes of this chapter, the origins of
language have been discussed from two broad viewpoints: the nonlinguistic
evidence (myths, religion, and scientific inquiry) and the linguistic evidence
(comparative linguistics, language typology). It is important that student
teachers demonstrate understanding of the origins of language to have the
necessary working knowledge of the evidence pointing to how language
evolved and continues to evolve today. The information discussed herein will
shed more light on how languages are organised and compared and how
language families are created. Arising from this evidence, the student
teachers will be able to generalise about the structure of language and
formulate possible pedagogical (instructional) approaches that would
enhance language and literary teaching and learning.

Origins Evidence Specific

of language evidence

Myth/religion
Nonlinguistic
evidence
Scientific
Origins
of language

Linguistic Language
evidence typology

Chapter 2 – Origins and the Design Features of Language 29

2.1

Learning outcomes

Topics and outcomes from the National Syllabus:

1.2.2 Origins of language

1.2.2.1 Demonstrate understanding of the various origins of language

1.2.3 Design features of human language

1.2.3.1 Explain the importance of the characteristics of language

By the end of the chapter, the student teachers will:

1 demonstrate understanding of the various theories of the origin of language

2 distinguish between human and animal language

3 explain the design features of language

4 discuss the implication of the origins of language to literacy and language teaching.

2.2

Instructional materials
Student module

30 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

2.3

Key terms
Nonlinguistic evidence
Evidence on the origin of language not based on linguistics such as myths, religion,
anthropology, archaeology, etc.

Divine Source Theory

A belief that language comes from a divine (a God or gods) source

Linguistic evidence
Evidence of the origins of language that comes from considering similarities in language
structures across languages (typology) and comparative linguistics

Monogenesis
The position that language has one (mono) origin (genesis)

Polygenesis
The view that language has many (poly) origins (genesis)

Comparative linguistics
A field of linguistics which studies the similarities and differences between languages and
their possible origins

Design features of language

Features of human language that make it unique, i.e. differentiates human language from
other forms of communication

Activity 1: Learning outcome 2

For what purposes do animals, including humans, communicate with each other?
What are the similarities and differences between the ways animals and humans communicate?

Chapter 2 – Origins and the Design Features of Language 31

2.4

Origins of language
Most animals communicate in some way or fashion whether that is through vocal
communication, tactile, chemical, or visual signaling (Tallerman & Gibson, 2012). Yet, what
sets humans apart from all other animal species is that they have the capacity for
language; possessing a ‘vocal-auditory channel’ that is ‘characterized by voluntary control
and is a culturally shared system for communicating within a population’ (Fedurek &
Slocombe, 2011, p. 154). Humans communicate through language that is verbal, gestural,
and written. Knowing that all animals communicate but that humans do so in a distinctly
unique way, has led scholars to investigate the origins of language and its relationship with
animal communication.

Yet, there is no consensus on the origins of language. This has much to do with the
nature of spoken language. Unless it is recorded, it disappears the instant it is uttered.
Lack of written records which are only available from approximately 10,000 to 5,000
years ago means that we cannot tell how long before man had been able to use verbal or
spoken language. However, by evaluating fossil evidence of early man in archaeology,
particularly with respect to the study of the sizes of cranial cavities (bones that host the
brain) and reconstructions of vocal tracts of hominids or primitive man and comparing
them to modern man (homo sapiens), scholars are able to suggest that the earliest forms
of human language could have emerged around 160,000 years ago (White et al., 2003).
This is the period when early man appears to have similar vocal tracts and brain capacity
to modern man, which suggests that that was the time when early man started using
articulatory language.

Scholars have also turned to other sources of evidence apart from archeology to suggest
the origin of language. In the sections below, two sources of evidence are discussed: the
nonlinguistic evidence and the linguistic evidence. The conclusion from the synthesised
evidence of both the nonlinguistic and the linguistic evidence points to two positions:
monogenesis (single origin) and polygenesis (multiple origins) of language.

32 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

2.4.1
Nonlinguistic evidence: Theological and mythical
As it is extremely difficult to be sure about the origins of language, societies have turned to
other ways of explaining how language may have come about: religious or mythical
explanations. Since the origins of language are befogged in mystery, discussions on
language origins are not bereft of religious accounts and myths, and these (religious
accounts and myths) have contributed to the growth and expansion of the scholarship on
the subject. They are regarded as available alternative explanations, however inconclusive
they seem. In what follows, some of the religious accounts and myths are discussed.
Generally, theological and mythical accounts of the origins of language are that all human
articulated languages developed from a single source as a divine gift from a deity (a god);
this is a monogenetic perspective. Such accounts are also referred to as Divine Source
Theory (Linguisticsunimet, 2009). Some of these stories or myths of the origin of language
are presented below:

a. Garden of Eden: A creation story in the Bible, which holds that God handed down
languageto Adam when he instructed him to name all creatures immediately after creation.

b. Tower of Babel: A story based on the book of Genesis which believes that humans spoke
one language from creation until God was displeased with humans who had embarked on
building a tower that would reach heaven. God confounded humans by giving them many
languages, and they decided to disperse in language groups across the globe. That, it is
argued, was the beginning of multilingualism.

c. Thoth: An Egyptian belief that a god named Thoth created language which was then
handed down to mankind.

d. Nebu: A Babylonian belief that a god named Nebu created language and handed it down
to mankind.

e. Brahma: A Hindu belief that a god named Brahma created language and handed it down
to mankind.

While myths or theological explanations regarding the origins of language may be

inconclusive, it is interesting to consider how cultures in different parts of the world have all
tried to make sense of the phenomena of language and that many cultures do believe
language to be divinely sourced. This underscores the importance of language to human
beings. Next, we’ll review other theories of the origins of language that are not theologically
or mythically based.

Chapter 2 – Origins and the Design Features of Language 33

Activity 2: Learning outcome 1

In pairs or in a small group:

Are you familiar with any of the divine source beliefs about the origins of language in your culture?
If so, share your background knowledge with your peer(s).
Can you see any similarities in the stories from different language groups?

2.4.2
Other theories on the origins of language
A number of theories by linguists have been proposed to explain the origins of language.
In what follows, six different theories and their criticisms are discussed: 1) Ding-Dong
Theory; 2) Sing-Song Theory; Bow-Wow Theory; 4) Pooh-Pooh Theory; 5) Yo-He-Ho
Theory; and 6) Ta-Ta Theory.

2.4.2.1
Ding-Dong theory

In this theory, first proposed but later abandoned by a linguist named Max Müller
(Jespersen, 1922) language originated from a primitive man naming objects. It is argued
that there is a natural link between words and what they mean or refer to in the real
word. For example, some words resemble sounds made by objects or living things in the
environment. Such words are called onomatopoeic words. As the name presupposes,
‘ding-dong’ is an imitation of the sound of a bell. Words such as splash mimic the
action of splashed water. While this is true for such words, the theory has been criticised.
Critics argue that there are far too few words in the real word which show any association
between their sound and their meaning. Words such as go, come, walk etc. do not show any
natural links with their meaning.

34 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

2.4.2.2
Sing-Song theory

It is held that language developed from the inarticulate chants of primitive man (Jespersen,
1922). In other words, language need not have started with saying words; it could have
begun with whole melodies arising from emotions and feelings. Jespersen (1922) noted that
when a young heart was moved in love, the outbursts of emotion could have led to
verbalisation. He said, ‘Out of the full heart the mouth sings!’ (p. 434). Similarly, pent up
feelings of hate from oppression could have easily resulted in song-like expressions and
eventually into speech, especially when repelling an unjust aggressor. In the environment
such as this, it was easy to see that nature dictates accents, cries, and lamentations. Which
is why, Jespersen remarks that earlier forms of language were singable and passionate
before they became simple and methodical. However plausible the argument, scholars have
levelled criticisms against this theory. They argue that language is not restricted to the
suggested topics of expressions of feelings of love and hate despite the evidence from the
power of music in information transfer. While modern man uses song to communicate
ideas, feelings, and attitudes, it is not entirely convincing to reduce the complex subject of
language to mere song and feelings.

2.4.2.3
Bow-Wow theory

Like the ding-dong theory, proponents of this theory see language as having developed from
primitive man imitating natural sounds in the environment, like hearing dogs bark (bow-
wow is the English onomatopoeic word for imitating a barking dog) (Jespersen, 1922).
Thus, primitive man made sense of his environment based on imitation and transferred
this to his communicative needs. This suggests again that the earliest forms of speech
were built on onomatopoeic words. However, as mentioned before, the critics believe that
imitation of natural environments could not have possibly given rise to language as we
know it today.

2.4.2.4
Pooh-Pooh theory

Also referred to as the interjectional theory, this theory believes that language emanated
from interjections expressing emotions (Jespersen, 1922). These are instinctive cries of pain
or joy—Ooh! Eh! Ah! Ouch! Bingo! However, critics argue that the vocabulary available

Chapter 2 – Origins and the Design Features of Language 35

in languages we know today is too complex to have been derived from such a limited set of
interjections. Besides, the class of interjections remains small and fossilised, meaning that
they are learnt just like other words.

2.4.2.5
Yo-He-Ho theory

In this theory, set forth by Ludwig Noiré, language is believed to have been derived from
instinctive sounds from communal work (D’Alonzo, 2016) like what is heard in the
involuntary grunts during heaving and hauling. That the ‘unique sociability of humans
implies cooperation, and in turn cooperation involves language’ (D’Alonzo, 2016, para. 3).
The criticism here, however, is that for people to work together, they possibly already
have a language to bring them together. Besides, it is highly improbable that the complex
language structure we know today could have emerged from mere involuntary grunts,
as there are few such words in natural language.

2.4.2.6
Ta-Ta theory

The proponents of this theory, most often associated with Richard Paget, hold that language
developed from man’s use of gestures (Adamu, 2015). As man began to use tools, his hands
became occupied; as a result, man began gesturing with lips, tongue, teeth and visible parts
of the body that form the speech sounds of language. Put differently, the theory assumes
that man first spoke because his hands were full and was forced to communicate through
means other than gestures. Again, as has been said about the other theories, the
explanation offered here is not conclusive as language is more complex than a mere shift
from gestures to verbalisation.

Activity 3

In pairs or in a small group:

What do the above theories on the origins of language have in common?
What questions do you have about the origins of language?

36 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

2.4.3
Summary of nonlinguistic theories on the origins of language
Humans have been interested in language’s origins for thousands and thousands of
years. In this pursuit, there have been many who have relied on myths and theology to
guide their beliefs while there have also been some language theorists who have drawn
a connection between language and its primitive purposes in expressing the human
experience. In the following section, linguistic evidence emanating from the field of
linguistics itself is explored.

2.5

Linguistic evidence
Linguistic evidence of the possible origins of language comes from comparative linguistics.
Comparative linguists try to reconstruct the original or ancestral language(s) (known as
proto-language) that existing languages may have evolved from. They look for similarities
and differences among language structures such as cognate words (similar words),
morphological and syntactic features. This evidence can be used to decide whether
languages developed from a single proto-language (monogenesis) or from multiple proto-
languages (polygenesis). Languages with similar words and morphological and syntactic
features can be grouped into language families, and may be said to have come from a
common ancestor. Such language families have been reconstructed as the Indo-European,
Afro-Asiatic, Niger-Congo (in which a sub-family of Bantu languages is found), Nilo-Saharan,
Sino-Tibetan and so on. According to Nichols (2012), monogenesis is plausible ‘if, at some
very early stage in the evolution of language, the communicative system was not even pre-
language but a set of innate calls that were not learnt but instinctive; in this case the entire
species uses the same set of calls’ (p. 6). With time, the language users within this
population may have ‘reached a critical mass’ with the set calls developing into a pre-
language and consequently dialects and ‘mutually unintelligible pre-languages’ (Nichols,
2012, p. 6).

However, polygenesis is more widely accepted. From what is described above, comparative
linguists have reconstructed from the 7,139 languages spoken in the world (Ethnologue,
2021) a number of language families connected to different protolanguages. This has led to
the belief that monogenesis is unlikely (Ke & Holland, 2006; Nichols, 2012), and the
evidence from fields such as archaeology, psychology, evolutionary biology, anatomy and
physiology, anthropology, and ethology supports the theory of polygenesis. The table below
summarises some of what these fields have contributed to our understanding of the origins
of language.

Chapter 2 – Origins and the Design Features of Language 37

Table 2.1 Contributions of scientific fields to the origins of language

Gcientific field Description Contribution

Archaeology the study of ancient remains The size of the human skull (cranial cavity),
may indicate the development of the
human brain and the capacity for primitive
man to handle complex forms of language
over time.

Psychology the study of the human mind Man has evolved from a primitive man
to a more developed being and can
acquire language.

Evolutionary Biology the study of the origins of This view holds that humans
species and their evolution communicate with language as a need,
because of needing to adapt that it’s necessary for survival.
to their environment

Anatomy and the study of the parts of the Humans possess the organs of speech,
Physiology body and how the body works and there are specific areas of the brain
associated with language.

Ethology the study of animal behaviour Man, as an animal, is a social being,

necessitating the need to communicate
with language.

Anthropology the study of human societies Since the existence of man, culture
and their culture has been an integral part of society
transmitted through language.

Activity 4: Learning outcome 1

What is the key difference between the two broad theories on the origins of language—
monogenesis and polygenesis?
Why do most language theorists support polygenesis?

38 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

2.6

Design features of language:

What differentiates human communication
from animal communication
In this section, we’ll investigate the design features of language. In other words, features of
the way human language works or is organised that makes it different from other forms of
communication. First, we’ll look at the design features as put forth by Charles Hockett. His
original list included thirteen design features which he believed were universal features of
all the world’s languages (Hockett, 1960). Later, he expanded this list to include sixteen
features; these are included in Table 2.2 with the final three features at the end of the list.
After this, we’ll explore the work of a more recent comparative linguist, Ray Jackendoff.

Chapter 2 – Origins and the Design Features of Language 39

Table 2.2 Hockett’s design features of human language

Feature Description

Vocal-Auditory Language allows us to speak and listen freely without necessarily using other
Channel means of communication like gestures or body language.

Rapid Fading Language disappears after it is spoken, thus making writing an important tool
for making language permanent.

Broadcast Sound is omnidirectional; we have no control over the sound of our speech
Transmission and in terms of the extent of the broadcast and direction. However, speech can
Directional be traced back to the speaker unidirectionally.
Reception
Interchangeability We can reproduce language if we can understand it.

Total/Complete We can hear what we are saying when we say it and are able to correct our
Feedback speech as needed.

Specialisation The essential nature of language is that it is meant to mean something,

to provide a signal.

Semanticity Words have meanings which are tied to things in the real world.
Arbitrariness Words in a language have no direct association with their referents (the
objects/people they refer to in the real or imaginary world); words are simply
agreed upon by language users.
Discreteness Words in a language are separable, they do not blend into each other; they
tend to have discernible boundaries.

Displacement Language allows humans to talk about things not present at the time of
speaking or place.

Productivity/ Language uses a limited (finite) number of elements, e.g. sounds, words to
Creativity talk about an unlimited (infinite) number of ideas, emotions, etc.

Traditional/Cultural Learning of language is transmitted through language from generation to

Transmission generation, but language can change over time.

Duality of Human language can be analysed at two levels: sound level (meaningless
Patterning units) and word level (meaningful units). For example, the words here consist
of letters (sounds) that individually don’t make sense but when patterned
together (e.g. cat) we have a meaningful word.
Prevarication Language doesn’t always convey truth; we can use language to lie or make
hypothetical statements.

Learnability Languages are learnable. They, of course, are learnt easier in childhood.

Reflexiveness We can use language to talk about language (metalanguage: words like verb, noun,
subject, etc. are metalinguistic words as they enable us to talk about language).

40 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Although some of the design features are shared with other forms of animal communication,
they may be different qualitatively; other features such as productivity, duality of patterning,
etc. may not be found in animal communication. Certainly, humans’ ability to communicate
with language is extraordinary.

Jackendoff (2002) has conceived of these design features as innovations. His articulation of
the innovations is slightly different in that they’re presented through a series of eight
stages, adding more depth to the topic for a more comprehensive understanding (see Table
2.3 below) (Jackendoff, 2002; Zuidema & Verhagen, 2010). An explanation of the table
follows the table.

Table 2.3 Jackendoff’s innovative features of language through stages

Stage Innovation

I The use of symbols in a non-situation-specific manner

II The ability to use and acquire an open, unlimited class of symbols

III A generative, combinatorial phonological system (like Hockett’s Productivity/Creature feature)

IV The ability to build larger utterances from a ‘concatenation’ or series of symbols

V The beginnings of a phase structure/word order: horse white eat hay

VI A hierarchical phase structure with more elaboration: tall horse with white mane eat yellow hay

VII Developed vocabulary for relational concepts (i.e. adverbs, prepositions)

VIII Development of inflectional morphology and grammatical functions

Chapter 2 – Origins and the Design Features of Language 41

Jackendoff’s (2002) stages of innovation demonstrate language in a developmental way
while also showing that language has unique features. The stages originate from the use
of symbols which further evolve into a larger and open class of symbols and then into
a system of sounds that are capable of combination and regeneration. This leads to the
construction of larger utterances of speech, resulting in ‘protolanguage’. Language then
continues to evolve its word structure until a more complex word structure develops along
with vocabulary that can relate aspects of time and space. The final stage adds inflectional
morphology and grammatical functions resulting in the modern language we have today
(Jackendoff, 2002; Zuidema & Verhagen, 2010).

Activity 5: Learning outcomes 3 and 4

Review the design features as outlined by Hockett (1960) and Jackendoff (2002). How have these
comparative linguists contributed uniquely to what we understand about language?
At this point, how do you think this information applies to literacy and language teaching
and learning?

2.6.1
Implications of the design features of language to literacy
and language
As a general principle, knowledge about the design features of language helps us to
appreciate that language is a special form of communication unlike the communication
systems of other animals. Moreover, these features of human language are universal.
Regardless of ethnicity or culture, we all possess the ability to learn and use language to
interact with the world. For the purposes of this section, the following design features have
a direct bearing on classroom activities and uptake of language. First, the interchangeability
and learnability of language entails that irrespective of the learners’ linguistic background,
when exposed to the medium of instruction, whether English or any local language, such
learners can learn said language. Similarly, the design feature of reflexiveness provide us
with a metalanguage, a language to talk about language. Having a metalanguage gives
us the tools to develop metalinguistic awareness. We are able to step aside and study
language as an object. As briefly discussed in the first chapter, systemic functional linguists

42 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

study how the form of a language relates to its meaning. Systemic functional linguistics has
direct application for the classroom, which will be made more evident in the next chapter
on the functions of language. Yet, human language is even more complex than this. Other
manifestations of language are discussed next.

2.7

Other manifestations of language

Building on the discussion about the design features of language, in this section we wish
to show the different ways in which language appears or manifests in the real world.
The essence of this is to demonstrate that spoken language is not the only mode of
communication. There are other ways language takes form. This is because ‘when we
study human language, we are approaching what some might call the ‘human essence’,
the distinctive qualities of mind that are, so far as we know, unique to man’ (Chomsky,
2006). This means that part of what a student teacher must know about language is its
manifestation, as well as having the linguistic knowledge about the languages concerned.
Linguistic knowledge entails, among other things, having the capacity:

• to produce sounds that signify certain meanings

• to understand or interpret the sounds produced by others
• to appreciate both contextual and non-contextual utterances in communication
• to know which sounds are found in that language and which sounds are not

The above is what speakers of a language know although they might not explain it; it is tacit
knowledge. This tacit knowledge of both the phonetic and phonemic systems of a particular
language is dealt with in chapter 5 on the levels of linguistic analysis.

In thinking about language, we turn to Crystal’s (1997) classification of the various

manifestations of language. Crystal (1997) lists five different manifestations of language
as shown below.

Auditory-vocal Visual Tactile Olfactory Gustatory

(hearing/sound-based) (sight-based) (touch-based) (smell-based) (taste-based)

For the purposes of this module, only the first three are discussed.

Chapter 2 – Origins and the Design Features of Language 43

2.7.1
Auditory-vocal channel
As one of the major ways in which language manifests, the auditory-vocal system permits
humans to use speech, which is transmitted by sound using the organs of speech. In this
respect, language manifests as linguistic signals/signs such as words and utterances. From
chapter 1 through chapter 5, the definition of language has been offered and the majority
of the definitions see language as the spoken mode. Similarly, in the module, especially the
chapter on the origins of language, most of the theories are skewed towards the spoken
mode. The point to underscore here is that even if a learner cannot read or write, at least
he or she can use the spoken mode of communication, as long as such a learner has no
hearing impairment. Thus, most children come to the classroom with some linguistic
resource, which the teacher should use as a stepping-stone for teaching and learning.

2.7.2
Sign language
The second known manifestation of language visually is sign language. Linguists agree that
sign language is a language par excellence, which, in the absence of the spoken mode,
becomes a communicative tool. For, sign language has the capacity to express the same
complex and highly structured messages as speech. In fact, Crystal (1997) reminds us that
sign language has its own grammar: all levels of linguistic analysis, e.g. syntax, morphology,
or the lexicon. There are even different dialects of sign language: American Sign Language
(ASL), British Sign Language (BSL), and Zambian Sign Language (ZSL). The acquisition
of sign language is also very similar in terms of stages to verbal languages. The essence of
recognising sign language as a legitimate language type lies in the effort to call for
inclusivity by inviting teachers to exploit other available semiotic resources for meaning
making within the classroom.

2.7.3
Written system
We note that while this is arguably a language skill which is learnt as a literacy skill, it has
some biological foundation, as evidenced from dyslexics (see chapter 5, Psycholinguistics
and the module on literacy). Suffice it to say that the written language system is another
manifestation of language which has developed its own conventions, as noted in chapter 1.
In chapter 8, we will also learn that there are different writing systems based on different
levels of linguistic analysis: word, syllable, and phoneme. Learners connect what they know
about the spoken language to the graphic or written form.

44 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

2.7.4
Tactile mode
Also referred to as Deaf-blind language system, tactile is another important manifestation
of language. In this chapter we restrict the discussion to braille. Braille is a sophisticated
writing system which requires touch to read off the messages. Like sign language, braille
can be used to convey any message on any topic. Thus, braille has the capability to convey
highly complex and detailed messages, provided the language (or code) used is known by
all in the community of practice. This includes the capacity to communicate in detail about
the past, future, here and now, there and then (see the design feature of displacement in
this chapter).

Activity 6: Learning outcome 4

In what ways are some of the manifestations of language used in literacy teaching? Ask students if they
have come across literacy methods that employ, for example, some signing, e.g. Jolly phonics,
where children associate some gestures of hands with letter sounds. What are the advantages or
disadvantages of doing this?

Chapter 2 – Origins and the Design Features of Language 45

2.8

Chapter summary
In this chapter, we have built on our knowledge about language by exploring what language
theorists and linguists have discovered so far about the origins of language and the design
features of language, including the many other manifestations of language. One could argue
that the answer to the origins of language remains inconclusive because there is much that
we cannot know about how and when language emerged. Some rely on myths and
theological hypotheses grounded in monogenesis, whereas others contend that
there is no possible way other than polygenesis. Regardless of the claims on the origins of
language, human language is unique compared to other forms of animal communication.
The evidence from both nonlinguistics and linguistics shows that for humankind to adapt
to this ever-changing environment, they needed to develop the ability to use language.
Furthermore, the evidence from human anatomy and physiology, especially the presence
of organs of speech and the brain areas of language, affirms the claim that man was and is
indeed a homo loquens—a speaking man.

46 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

2.9

Assessment of learning
1. Describe the two opposing perspectives on the origins of language.

2. Explain at least three other nonlinguistic theories on the origins of language.

3. What makes human language different from animal language? Provide examples from
the text to support your answer.

4. Reflection: What new information have you learnt about language, and how will you
use this information to inform your teaching?

Chapter 2 – Origins and the Design Features of Language 47

48 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
CHAPTER 3

Functions
of Language

Chapter 3 – Functions of Language 49

50 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
 3
Functions of Language
INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapters we have referred in one way or another

to functions of language. We have seen that language has
been used by human beings to cooperate, regulate behaviour,
entertain and so on. In short, it can be said that language has
enabled human beings to reach the technological and social
advances that they have attained because they have been able
to communicate and pass on ideas, skills, express emotions and
so on with each other. In this chapter we focus on the functions
that language performs in the social life of people. By function
we mean the uses to which stretches of language are put in
communication. We also saw that in language teaching, the
focus should be on both form and function so that learners are
able to see how they can express various language functions
with different forms of language.

Chapter 3 – Functions of Language 51

3.1

Learning outcomes

Topics and outcomes from the National Syllabus:

1.2.4 Functions of language

1.2.4.1 Explain the functions of language according to M.A.K. Halliday
1.2.4.2 Relate the functions of language to the classroom situation

By the end of the chapter, the student teachers will:

1 explain Michael Halliday’s functions of language

2 explain how children learn functions in their language development according to Halliday

3 discuss the implications of the functions of language to language and literacy instruction.

3.2

Instructional materials
Student module

52 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

3.3

Key terms
Systemic functional linguistics
Systemic-Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a theory of language centred around the notion
of language function. SFL places the function of language as central in terms of what
language does and how it does it.

Systemic functional grammar

This is a type of grammar concerned with the social and pragmatic functions of language,
relating these to both formal syntactic properties and prosodic properties.

Metalanguage
Metalanguage refers to any language or symbolic system used to discuss, describe, or
analyse another language. This is different from object language, which is the language being
discussed by metalanguage.

Ideational metafunction
A function of language that interprets our material experiences (external world), mental
experiences (inner world), and relational experiences (identification and classification of
experiences) (Schleppegrell, 2013). In other words, the ideational metafunction refers to
what is being talked about.

Interpersonal metafunction
An appraisal system from which attitudes are represented according to their polarity
(positive, negative, neutral) and force (intensely, softly). Put differently, the interpersonal
metafunction refers to the relationships that exist between the speaker and his addressee
as well as between the speaker and his own message.

Textual metafunction
The textual metafunction is that part of the meaning potential which makes a text into
a text and involves phenomena such as thematic structure, information structure, and
coherence.

Register
Register refers to how a language user varies his or her speech according to local or
situational aspects such as where the language is being used, for what purposes,
how it’s organised or presented, and whether there is interaction between a speaker
and an audience.

Chapter 3 – Functions of Language 53

Genre
How language is organised to express various social purposes in such forms as poetry,
essays, stories and so on.

Tenor
Tenor refers to the participants in a particular discourse, how they relate to each other
and their purposes in discourse.

Field
Field denotes the subject matter or content being discussed in written and spoken
discourse. In other words, field refers to the presentation of ideas as they are represented
through the grammar of language (e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions and other
parts of speech) (Schleppegrell, 2004) and how this grammar reflects the participants,
processes, circumstances, and connections within language (Humphrey, 2020).

Mode
Mode refers to the channel of communication, such as monologic/dialogic or spoken/
written, including visual contact.

54 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

3.4

Children’s language development

Whole grammars have been developed to capture the way language is used to express
various social functions, taking into consideration social-cultural contexts. In this chapter, we
will consider how functions are classified and explained in one such grammar called systemic
functional grammar. In particular, we present Michael Halliday’s work on the functions of
language. We will not, however, discuss how the grammar works because that is outside the
scope of this chapter. You may consult the references if you want to delve deeper into this
topic.

Systemic functional linguists view language as a social semiotic system, which means
that language is a meaning-making system understood through its relationship with its
environment or sociocultural context (Halliday, 2014). Michael Halliday’s greatest
contributions are seen in his proposal of functions of language and how they relate to
children’s language development, for instance how they learn how to mean.

According to Halliday (1978), although infants are unable to speak in the sense of not using
words, they have a linguistic system. From a functional perspective, Halliday claimed that
any consistent use of vocal noises and/or gestures by infants, if they can consistently be
interpreted, can be considered to be instances of language. When a child produces a sound
for the purpose of practising its articulation, this is not language, but if the sound produced
is meant to attract the caregiver’s attention—to communicate a meaning—this is language
(Halliday, 1978: 19). Of course, a child will eventually acquire a mother tongue.

Halliday (1978) studied his own infant child, Nigel, and based on his findings, proposed three
phases of language development. Phase one was the child’s initial functional linguistic
system from 6 to 18 months. This was the phase where the child produced vocal noises and
gestures, some of which were interpretable. The second phase was the transition from the
child’s first language to the adult language (the mother tongue) which lasted from 18 to
24 months. The third phase, which was the learning of the mother tongue, followed from
2 years onwards (Thwaite, 2019). Halliday was able to formulate a list of the functions of
his child’s language. He called these micro-functions to differentiate them from the
macro-functions, the category into which he later proposed to classify language functions in
general. Table 3.1 below gives the full list of the functions. Halliday claimed that these
functions did not all appear at once in the child’s ‘language’ but grew from at first just two
functions (and one or two meanings) for example at 9 months, to four at 10 and a half
months (with at least 12 meanings). At the beginning of the second phase, around 16 and a
half months, Nigel had six functions and could express 50 meanings. Therefore, the use of
functions and the ability to express meaning increased with age—or as Halliday put it, as
the child learnt how to mean.

Chapter 3 – Functions of Language 55

Table 3.1 Phase 1: Seven microfunctions of children’s language development

Language function Definition Meaning

Instrumental used to have his/her needs met ‘I want/I would like…’

Regulatory used to get caregivers to attend Do this

to her/him

Interactional used to develop social relationships, Me and you

desire to interact

Personal child’s awareness of how language Here I am

forms his/her individuality, a process
of self-awareness

Heuristic used for exploring and learning ‘How does…?’

about the world; knows the ‘What is…?’
difference between a question and
an answer

Imaginative language used for the creation ‘Let’s pretend/play…’

of one’s environment hides behind his/her palm

Representational/ awareness of how language is used I want to show/tell you…

Informative to convey a message that may
include the ‘processes, persons,
objects, abstractions, qualities,
state, and relations of the real world’
(Halliday, 2004, p. 276)

Although these functions follow a developmental sequence, the sequence is not entirely
linear. Halliday found that the instrumental, regulatory, interactional, and personal functions
appeared before the heuristic function, and all the preceding functions came before the
informative/representational. In Phase II of children’s language development, grammar
emerges when children acquire the vocabulary of the language. This leads to increased
complexity in the previous functions, including the combination of functions and the ability
to interact through dialogue. Thwaite (2019) described this phase as transitioning towards
‘multifunctional utterances’ that are ‘organised into macrofunctions’ (p. 46). When a
child has mastered grammar and dialogue, they move to Phase III, the adult system of
language. This will be discussed below. Some important implications of Halliday’s ideas
about language development are that children acquire what Halliday referred to as meaning

56 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

potential. Even in the pre-linguistic stage, before they can use words, children are motivated
to convey some meaning or intension through the vocal noises they make. Later language
development builds on this foundation of meaning making. They start using it to learn, as
in the heuristic function: children ask questions insensately as soon as they start speaking
the mother tongue. Teachers in early grades can exploit this natural curiosity children have
to learn by making them ask and express their ideas and experiences in speech and later in
writing instead of always being subjected to listening to the teacher. Children have also to
learn how to interact appropriately with peers and adults.

Activity 1: Learning outcomes 2 and 3

1. Summarise children’s language development by using the descriptions of the seven microfunctions.
2. Compare your summary with a partner and add to your summary if needed.
3. Then reflect and share your answers to the following questions:
a. What are the implications of weak language skills upon entering the primary grades?
b. What are the implications of children who enter the classroom having a different mother
tongue (MT) than most of the children in class?

3.4.1
Metafunctions of language
In the third phase of language development, children enter the realm of adult language.
To understand the macro (big) functions of language Halliday used to classify how adults
mean or use language to perform social functions, we should introduce a few terms from
systemic functional linguistics (SFL). The context in which language occurs can be the
situational context, for example one where people are physically present talking to each
other (say a sitting room) or it can be the wider cultural context. We will come back to the
latter in the discussion of genre. The situational context has the following three features:
what is happening, who is taking part, and what role language is playing in this. These three
features determine the meanings intended and how those meanings are expressed. This is
what is called register. For example, a group of teachers meeting to discuss literacy teaching
will certainly use the type of language (vocabulary or even phrasing) that is in keeping with
literacy education. If the context was a court room, one would expect to hear more legal
language and so on. Language varies according to these contexts of use: register is the
connection between the situational factors and language forms.

Chapter 3 – Functions of Language 57

The three features of the context: what is happening, who are taking part, and what is
the role of language are referred to as the field, the tenor and the mode, in systemic
functional grammar, respectively. These same features can be associated individually
with the way language functions at a global level. Language that focuses on representing
what is happening, or the field, the subject matter of the discussion, for example, is
referred to as the ideational metafunction of language. That which is used to refer to the
contextual feature of tenor, the participants who are interacting, is called the interpersonal
metafunction. And finally, the function related to the role of language, how it is organised,
is related to the mode and is the textual metafunction.

Figure 3.1 provides a conceptual representation of what has been discussed here. It shows
the relationships of the three features of register: field, tenor, and mode to the
metafunctions of language: ideational, interpersonal, and textual, respectively. These are
shown to be part of the situational context, the inner ring. In the outer ring we have the
cultural context in which genre is found. We discuss below the metafunctions and the
related concepts in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 Metafunctions of language and contexts

58 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

3.4.2
The ideational metafunction (experiential) and field register
The ideational metafunction is concerned with the ways in which we interpret our
experiences of reality, the external material, and our inner mental worlds with ‘what kind
of activities are undertaken, how participants in these activities are described, how
they are classified and what they are composed of’ (Martin & Rose, 2003, p. 66). Halliday
(1975) referred to the ideational function as ‘language about something’ or the content
function of language.

The examples in Table 3.2 should help clarify what is meant by talking about experiences of
the material and mental worlds and relations (cf. Ryshina-Pankova et al., 2021; Humphrey,
2020; Moore et al., 2018; Schleppegrell, 2004).

Table 3.2 Metalanguage and examples for ideational experiences

Experience Metalanguage Examples

Material doing, happening Handili is building a tower while

his mother watches closely.

Mental sensing He feels proud of himself.

His mother thought about how
he reminded her of his father.

Relational being and having He is fortunate that he has the

materials to build his tower.

These are but a handful of examples of the different ways we use language to describe our
experiences. We add another layer to the discussion as we move next to the interpersonal
metafunction and its associated register element, tenor.

Chapter 3 – Functions of Language 59

3.4.3
The interpersonal metafunction (social interaction)
Language allows us to express the details of our experiences, but it also allows us to interact
with our world and others. The interpersonal metafunction serves as the resource for
enacting speech functions such as offering, stating, commanding, questioning, etc. (Halliday,
2014). These involve playing social roles which take into consideration the status of people
interacting and their relationships. Halliday (2014) identified speech roles in the
interpersonal metafunction to be those of either giving or demanding, and this could mean
the giving or demanding of goods and services or information. The table below provides
examples for clarification.

Table 3.3 Examples of speech’s role and functions

Role Goods or services Speech function Information Speech function

giving Would you like offer Banda is giving him statement

this book? the book.

demanding Give him the book! command What is he giving him? question

As can be seen in the table above, the examples of giving and demanding are conveyed
through four speech functions, but there is also a variation in mood as determined by
whether the sentences were statements, commands, or questions. Consider how meaning
changes when you change some of the attitudinal features of the sentences below.

Table 3.4 Tenor variations in sentences that change meaning

Sentence 1 Sentence 2

Would you like this book? Should I give you this book?

Give him the book! Give him the book NOW!

Banda is giving him the book. Banda will probably give him the book.

60 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Moore et al. (2018) described the interpersonal metafunction as an appraisal system from
which attitudes are represented according to their polarity (positive, negative, neutral) and
force (intensely, softly). These examples express the metalanguage of the interpersonal
metafunction and can be taught explicitly to children so that they are not only able to
recognise attitudinal aspects in the speech of others or in text but also learn how they can
use these tools for their own language use.

Activity 2: Learning outcomes 1 and 3

1. With examples, explain the meaning of interpersonal metafunction.

2. With the use of examples, explain the meaning of ideational metafunction.
3. How does the interpersonal metafunction affect the ideational metafunction in language use?
4. Explain how the relationship between ideational and interpersonal metafunctions affect or
influence language teaching in schools.
5. Discuss as a group or class how the seven microfunctions in early childhood are related to
the two metafunctions of language here: ideational and interpersonal.

3.4.4
The textual metafunction
The ideational metafunction and interpersonal metafunction work together to communicate
our human experiences, but it is through the textual metafunction that this communication
is organised to form a cohesive and coherent message through mode (which may be spoken,
written, non-verbal or multimodal) and to communicate purposes (e.g. to persuade, to
explain, to inform, to describe. This means that to communicate meanings, people choose
the appropriate channels of communication—for example, the spoken form of the language
or the written form, and so on. The form the text takes depends on the purpose of the
message. For example, one can give a persuasive political speech, explain things, discuss,
narrate, and so on. These choices depend on socially accepted ways of packaging
information, that is, how to organise information to achieve social purposes. These are the
genres which we discuss briefly below.

Chapter 3 – Functions of Language 61

3.4.4.1
Genre

Martin (2009, 2014) expands on the metafunctions and their contexts by including genre, a
transcendent feature of the metafunctions of language. In a sense, genre fine-tunes
language because it accounts for the cultural aspects that influence language variation and
choice beyond the situational conditions. For example, consider how narrative stories may
be told through short stories, folktales, legends, or myths and how these stories have
specific qualities, structures, or other elements indicative of the culture from which they
are derived. To take folktales as an example, each culture has a way in which these stories
are told: how to begin them—e.g. in Bemba, Pantile akantu is literally: ‘There was a thing’,
equivalent to Once upon a time in English—how to establish the setting, to introduce the
conflict, and to resolve it and so on. When one does not follow the generic accepted format,
people consider that storytelling to be unsuccessful.

There are also accepted ways of organising written texts, such as arguments, reports, etc.,
and even the expected linguistic features which people follow. Genres help to realise the
metafunctions of language discussed above. In a story, for example, there will be ideational
related as well as interpersonal ones.

Activity 3: Learning outcomes 1 and 3

1. How do the ideational and interpersonal metafunctions of language work together?

2. Explain the relationship between field, tenor, and mode in language use.
3. What is the relationship between the textual metafunction of language and genres?
4. What are genres?
5. How would you apply the relationship between ideational, interpersonal, and textual
metafunctions of language to the teaching of language on one hand and literacy on the
other hand in a multilingual classroom?

62 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

3.5

SFL’s applicability to the classroom

Running through a number of chapters in this module have been arguments about which
view of language is more important than the other: the formalist or functionalist. Formalists
pay more attention to the structures of language, such as sounds, words, and how these
combine into grammatically correct sentences. They are not very interested in meaning.
Functionalists, including systemic functionalists, pay more attention to what language is
used for in social life. Their units of meaning are functions such as offering, requesting,
apologising, and so on. The linguistic structures for functionalists are seen as realisations of
meaning or function (how it is expressed). In similar ways, language acquisition was also
seen to follow from what was considered to be ‘language’: formalists saw language
acquisition as basically acquiring rules of how to construct a grammar. Functionalists like
Halliday see language development (he didn’t like to use acquisition because it was like
obtaining an object (Halliday, 1978)) as learning how to mean, to express functions.

For teachers, the two ways of looking at language should be considered complementary.
Language has form and it is used to express meanings or functions. It is therefore important
that teachers develop competence in understanding language structure as well as its
functions in both the first language, or LOI in lower grades, and the second language. They
should also be competent in understanding the metalanguage, words used to describe
language (e.g. verbs, nouns, and so on), to effectively teach language structure. Learners, on
the other hand, have to be helped to develop language awareness in the LOI, which
may be their mother tongue or familiar language. This is important in helping them to
see how the written form works. For example, the orthography (spelling) of a language is
better understood and used when a person knows how it applies to the morphological
system of the language. A case in point is how and why long vowels are represented in the
spelling of Zambian languages. It is also important for children to appreciate the way their
language works as part of being educated. They should not just focus on learning about
other languages without paying attention to their own language and having opportunities to
compare the structures of the MT and the foreign language.

Learners also need to learn about the structure of English as a way of realising the various
meanings they wish to express. We discuss ways in which this is done below.

In terms of language teaching methodology, which will be dealt with in the second-year
modules, systemic functional grammar has helped bring in what has been called the
humanistic approach to language teaching. The traditional methods of language teaching
paid more attention to correct learning and use of language structures in isolation.

Chapter 3 – Functions of Language 63

Learners memorised rules and wrote sentences that were decontextualised, which were
meaningless but grammatically correct. Functional linguistics made educationists aware of
the importance of seeing language as a social tool for expressing meanings in social
interactions. Language is contextualised; it occurs among people in different social
situations. Therefore, children have to learn languages through similar social interactions:
learning has to be made meaningful. This is often done by using role plays and drama
activities. This brought in communicative language teaching and the related concept of
communicative competence. Language involves an understanding of the sociolinguistic
context in which it exists and works, an understanding of the pragmatics of language use—
how people use language in different social situations and how they manage their
conversations or interactions. This type of teaching requires teachers to empower learners
to take charge of their learning, to be learner-centred, in that they have to communicate
and not just listen to teachers explaining language facts. The syllabus has also to change
from listing language forms to listing language functions and how these are realised in
language forms (exponents). Structures are taught as ways of expressing various meanings,
taking into consideration situational factors—for example, how does one apologise to a
headmistress or to a friend? What type of language is used to do this?

In terms of literacy, systemic functional grammar has helped to improve the teaching of
composition by linking it directly to the idea of conveying different meanings. For example,
teachers now have to focus on teaching compositions that are used to narrate, persuade,
inform, discuss, explain, and so on. Learners have to be made familiar with genres: that
pieces of writing have a generic form (how information is presented) as well as language
features. Stories are different from essays, poetry, and so on. In literacy teaching too,
systemic functional grammar has brought in some emphasis on using meaningful texts to
teach reading instead of focusing on phonics alone. It has led to what is called balanced
literacy instruction.

Troyan et al. (2019) drew from some of the literature on SFL (Derewianka, 2011; Eggins,
2004; Halliday, 2014) to create questions that teachers could use to bring learners’ attention
to the metalanguage of a specific genre. Their work with some minor adaptations is outlined
in the tables below. They are attempting to apply concepts from SFL to these different text
types.

64 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Table 3.5 Sample questions for narratives for each metafunction and their
associated unit of analysis

Metafunction
and register Questions Unit of analysis

Ideational: What happened at the beginning, process (verbs)

FIELD middle, and end of the story?

Who is…doing, saying, participant/nouns

sensing, being?

What is it like? attributes/adjectives

What are the details of the story? circumstance (adverbs/adverb

groups, prepositional phrases,
noun groups)

Interpersonal: What attitude is expressed positive vs. negative

TENOR by the character(s)?

What is the intensity of the attitude word choice

expressed by the (character(s)?

Textual: How is the text structured? theme-rheme (problem/solution,

MODE chronological order)

How do the illustrations add images

meaning to the text?

Consider how language varies from narrative to expository text when the author’s purpose
may be to explain the process of an event (life cycle of a butterfly) or compare and contrast
two topics of interest (the similarities and differences between two Zambian tribes).

Chapter 3 – Functions of Language 65

Table 3.6 Sample questions for expository text for each metafunction and their
associated unit of analysis

Metafunction
and register Questions Unit of analysis

Ideational: What is being described? process (verbs)

FIELD

What is it like? attributes/adjectives

What are the details of the topic? circumstance (adverbs/adverb

groups, prepositional phrases,
noun groups)

Interpersonal: How does the author feel positive vs. negative

TENOR about the topic?

What is the author’s intensity of word choice

feelings about the topic?

Textual: How is the text structured? theme/rheme

MODE text structure (compare/contrast;
descriptive, chronological order/
procedural, cause and effect)

How do the features of the text expository text features (headings/

add meaning/help to understand subheadings, captions, photographs,
the meaning of the text? diagrams, timelines)

Activity 4: Learning outcome 3

1. In reviewing Tables 3.5 and 3.6, what similarities and differences do you notice between the
features and structures of narrative and expository text, and what implications does this have
for the classroom?
2. How might you scaffold instruction to help students transition better between different genres?

66 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

3.6

Chapter summary
In this chapter we have seen how language can be viewed as a tool for expressing
meanings. We have seen how Halliday applied this functional perspective the language
development of children, that is, how they learn to express functions, and also adult
language. The adult language is said to express three metafunctions: ideational,
interpersonal, and textual, and how these reflect the features of register: field, tenor
and mode. We have also discussed how SFL has influenced language teaching methods
by changing the focus from language structure to functions of language, thus making
learning more humanistic and explicitly linking reading and writing skills.

Chapter 3 – Functions of Language 67

3.7

Assessment of learning
1. Discuss how the following notions relate to each other:

a. Field and ideational metafunction

b. Tenor and interpersonal metafunction

c. Mode and textual metafunction

2. What are the advantages of teaching metalanguage (the object language being
the metalanguage)?

3. How does the knowledge of language functions help in the teaching of language
on one hand and literacy on the other hand?

4. Apply the concept of metalanguage and object language to the following practices
and methodologies:

a. Translanguaging

b. Grammar translation method

c. Direct method

68 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

CHAPTER 4

Language
Acquisition
and Learning

Chapter 4 – Language Acquisition and Learning 69

70 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
 4
Language Acquisition and Learning
INTRODUCTION

The teaching of language and literacy builds on the acquisition

of the first language. This is the foundation for the development
of listening, speaking, and later reading and writing. The study of
children’s language acquisition has also influenced theories of
learning as well as language teaching. In this chapter, we will
begin by comparing and contrasting the processes of language
acquisition and language learning. Then we will explore theories
of first language acquisition. Theories of language learning are
discussed in the literacy module in chapter 5.

Chapter 4 – Language Acquisition and Learning 71

4.1

Learning outcomes

Topics and outcomes from the National Syllabus:

1.2.5 Theories of language

1.2.5.1 Analyse the theories of language acquisition and language learning

By the end of the chapter, the student teachers will:

1 distinguish between language acquisition and language learning

2 identify and describe developmental stages of language acquisition

3 compare theories of language acquisition

4 relate theories of language acquisition to the teaching of literacy and language.

4.2

Instructional materials
Student module

72 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

4.3

Key terms
Language acquisition
The process of how children become speakers of the language of the community
or family in which they are born

Language learning
The formal or explicit teaching of language to a child or adult

Holophrastic stage
When children appear to use just one word to communicate a whole message

Telegraphic speech
In this phase, children start stringing together two or more words but omit some
such as function words like articles or inflections in Bantu languages.

Behaviourist theory
A psychological theory of language acquisition which states that whatever children
come to learn and know, they gain from the environment around them by imitation
and reinforcement

Nativist theory
A language acquisition theory suggesting that children are born already programmed
to acquire languages

Interactionist theory
A theory of language acquisition that combines behaviourism and nativism,
acknowledging that part of learning language involves imitation and part involves
what the child brings to the learning experience

Chapter 4 – Language Acquisition and Learning 73

4.4

Language acquisition and language learning

The term language acquisition is usually associated with the process of how children
become speakers of the language of the community or family in which they are born. It
thus refers to child language acquisition or first language acquisition. Language
acquisition is a subconscious process. Children are not aware that they are acquiring a
language. It is spontaneous and informal, as children acquire language while interacting
with their caregivers or peers. They also acquire language merely by being exposed to
the environment that uses the language. This informal and natural process requires no
planning, only access to more and more complex language structures. This is why some
language researchers have said it is more to do with what happens to the child rather than
what the child does. Children are not aware of learning grammatical rules, although they
can tell correct uses from incorrect uses of language as they become fluent users of the
language. They may not be able to explain what is wrong in a sentence or phrase, but they
develop an understanding that something is not right because it is different from what they
are used to saying or hearing. Parent and other caregivers do not normally correct a child’s
language, but more often they try to understand what the child is saying and model the
correct way of saying it for the child. For example, if a child points to a pint full of porridge
and says ‘want water’, the parent may correct him and ask ‘you want porridge?’

The term language learning, on the other hand, is used to refer to the formal or explicit
teaching of language to a child or an adult. The formal part here refers to learning in
an institution like a school, where time is allocated and there is a prescribed syllabus and
methodology for teaching the language. The learner is very conscious of learning
vocabulary, dialogue, grammar rules, language structures, etc. in a second or additional
language. There are even assessments designed to measure learning.

Activity 1: Learning outcome 1

Discuss the difference between language acquisition and language learning, and then write your
own definition for each.

74 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

4.4.1
Developmental stages of language acquisition
Although there is some disagreement among researchers regarding how children learn
language, there is general agreement about what happens during the acquisition of
language. Several developmental stages of language acquisition have been identified. What
most of the researchers have noticed about monolingual, first language acquisition, is that
children, no matter where they live or what language they are learning, seem to pass
through very similar stages of language development. Children may pass through each stage
slightly earlier or later than others; however, the order in which these stages occur appears
to be universal.

Table 4.1 below (based on Aitchison, 1983, p. 90; Myhill, 2010, p. 220) is a simplified
outline of some of the milestones achieved by all children when learning to talk. It is
important to point out that children initially have to perceive speech sounds before they
can produce them. Children have to learn to discriminate between sounds they hear, to
tell which sounds are merely environmental noises unrelated to speech. They are also
able to identify the voices of their mothers and even other caregivers.

In Table 4.1, the left-hand column gives the approximate age in months when the
milestones or developmental stage on the right are reached or achieved. From birth to 2
months, the baby cries and this has been said to be a form of communication on the
part of a child as was discussed in chapter 3 in relation to how children learn language
functions by Halliday (2004). For example, the child will mainly vocalise expressions of
discomfort, but this is also the first use of the vocal organs (speech organs). One of the
sounds babies produce in this period is cooing; it is a way of exercising their vocal organs.
Within this early pre-language stage, the child shows signs of wanting to interact with
caregivers by establishing eye contact with a caregiver holding or tending to her/him.
The child also smiles at the caregivers. These are paralinguistic features that in later life
people use to establish rapport with people with whom they are communicating. After 2
months, vocalisations continue and the baby can be heard producing vowel-like sounds.
At about 6 months, the baby will begin to babble, combining vowel sounds with
consonant sounds to create consonant vowel (CV) syllables such as ‘da-da-da’ or ‘ma-
ma-ma’. During this stage, children also make other noises such as blowing saliva
bubbles, gurgling and spluttering, as well as engage in vocal play to manipulate pitch
(squealing and growling), volume (screaming, yelling), and nasal murmurs and snorts.
Children also produce intonation patterns as they babble. They begin to imitate the
intonation patterns of the ambient speech they hear around them. From a distance, this
might sound like language, but upon clearly hearing what is produced, the listener will

Chapter 4 – Language Acquisition and Learning 75

hear no actual words—only rhythmic, syllable-like sequences. No other animal
behaves this way or produces any behaviour similar to babbling. Some researchers
believe this helps the infant gain control of the motor systems of speech to prepare
them for language production.

Table 4.1 Language development milestones

Months Language development milestone

0–2 Crying, eye contact, smiling, cooing

2–6 Vocalisation, especially of vowel sounds

6–10 Babbling, repetitive consonant sounds, syllables (e.g. mamama, dadada, intonation patterns)

9–18 Holophrastic (one-word) stage; development of 10–40 single words or word stems

Vocabulary explosion, beginning of two-word stage; mini-sentences with simple meanings

18–24
(‘want water’)—about 50+ words

24–30 Telegraphic speech, early multi-word, multi-morpheme stage

30–36 Later multi-word stage, articles, prepositions and verb endings

Onset of full sentences, more complex grammar, negation, past, questions, future tense,
48
complex ideas

Infants are able to understand some words in the speech directed at them around the
age of 5 months but it takes them almost a year before they can produce their first words.
These words are normally nouns: the names of objects and people around them. Babies
do not produce these words in full at first, but in a deformed form. Some examples are:

• Omission or deletion of parts of words (e.g. imbwa becomes bwa for ‘dog’).

• Substitution of one fricative with another (e.g. fwiti for ‘sweet’; ncima for nshima).

• Stopping – substituting a stop [p] for a fricative [s] (e.g. isabi becomes ipabi or icabi for ‘fish’).

The single word stage has been called the holophrastic stage because children appear to
use just one word to communicate a whole message. For example, a Bemba child may use
the expression paapa ‘carry on the back’ whose adult target word is mpaapa ‘carry me (on
your back)’ to express that desire to be carried on the mother’s back (Mwansa, 2011,
p. 142). The number of words the children are able to produce at this stage increases
rapidly from a few to some 30 or 40 words.

76 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Activity 2: Learning outcome 2

What is the nature of the children’s early speech as you have experienced it from your siblings or
your own children (if applicable)? What differences do you notice between child and adult
language? Can you classify these linguistically?

In the telegraphic speech phase, children start stringing together two or more words.
This is the beginning of the development of morpho-syntax or grammar. The words used
are typically content words—words that carry their own meanings such as nouns and
verbs. Phrase examples include: daddy gone (Myhill, 2010, p.219) and peela kaka ‘give milk’.
What is noticeable from these two examples is that the children appear to put words
together in the correct syntactic order—nouns appearing before verbs. There is also the
omission of function words, which are words required to make the sentences grammatically
correct—such as articles, prepositions, and inflections or parts of words that indicate such
things as tense, number (singular and plural), and so on. In the English example, there is the
omission of ‘has’, an auxiliary verb used to indicate tense. In the Bemba example, there are
omissions of the object prefix ‘m’ in mpeela ‘give me’; the noun prefix ‘umu’ in umukaka
‘milk’. This two-word stage has been called telegraphic speech because children omit certain
words or morphemes.

In subsequent months, children acquire more complex features of their languages. By the
age of four they can be said to have acquired the grammar of their languages.

Activity 3: Learning outcome 2

What are the stages of first language acquisition? Identify characteristics and sample language
patterns for each stage from what you have observed among your siblings or children.

Chapter 4 – Language Acquisition and Learning 77

4.5

Theories of language acquisition

How can this remarkable feat of rapid language acquisition by children be explained?
There are several theories explaining how children acquire languages.

We know that it is not possible for a child to learn how to speak a specific language if
he or she has not been exposed to any human language. Therefore, language input is a
requirement. If this were not the case, a child in Zambia would grow up speaking Hebrew
or some other foreign language. This would tell us that language was already in the child’s
brain. We can clearly see that the development of language without language input does
not happen.

However, all children, excluding those with physical challenges like defects to the speech
mechanism or hearing, eventually speak the language of their environment. Speech
develops even if the child is intellectually poor. This indicates that language development
is something that all children appear to be equipped to do if they are exposed to language
input. The question that has divided researchers is whether children actually have some
language structure in their minds at birth or if everything they come to know about
language is found in the speech that they hear around them in the environment.

4.5.1
Behaviourist theory: The role of nurture
Behaviourism suggests that children are born with blank minds; they have no pre-existing
knowledge of anything. They are blank slates—or tabula rasa, to use a Latin phrase.
Behaviourism states that whatever children come to learn and know, they gain from the
environment around them. From this view, behaviourists find that children learn languages
by paying attention to what is said around them. The child is rewarded for using language
and, therefore, repeats and builds on those behaviours. For example, a baby who sees her
siblings calling a tall man daddy every time he appears may one day imitate her siblings and
call the man daddy. When the man praises the child for saying this, the child will feel happy
and repeat this whenever he appears. It becomes a learnt habit; a language habit. This is
how B.F. Skinner (1957), one of the most famous behaviourists, basically used to explain
how children acquire what he called verbal behaviour or language. In the example above,
the word daddy uttered by the child’s siblings whenever their daddy appeared is the
stimulus. The child’s imitation of this, is the response and the praise from the other children
or the father is the reinforcement. In this case, it is positive reinforcement because it is
praise. It is this reinforcement that encourages the child every time she sees the father to
say ‘daddy’.

78 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

So, it becomes a conditioned response. If she was not praised, that is, negatively reinforced,
she might not continue saying the word. Skinner applied to human learning ideas he and
other behaviourist psychologists used in training animals such as rats or pigeons to perform
tricks by rewarding them with food when they did what was required, and thus conditioning
them to those habits.

4.5.2
Nativist theory: The role of nature
Nativism, the opposing view, suggests that we’re born with a specific language-learning
area in our brain. Nativists believe that children are wired to learn language, regardless of
their environment and point out a number of reasons why the behaviourists’ explanation
does not account for language development. First, the rate of language acquisition is very
fast. From birth to 5 years, a child will fully acquire the grammatical structure of his
language. Second, children acquire language effortlessly—it happens to them; it is not what
they do. They are not instructed. Third, as we have mentioned before, children pass through
very similar developmental stages in the acquisition of their languages. Nativists have
interpreted this to mean that the development of language has a biological basis; it is like
it grows and matures just like a baby learns to walk or stand.

Chomsky (1987) believed that children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD).
He referred to this as a mental faculty that enables an infant to process, comprehend, and
produce language. Chomsky suggested that all humans are born with an innate universal
grammar that includes a system of general principles and accompanying parameters about
language and its use. Nativists believe that children use the language input around them
to check against the universal grammar system that they are born with. For example, all
languages have noun phrases, but these noun phrases are structured in different ways. The
noun which is the head of the phrase might come first or last in the noun phrase. In Bantu
languages, the noun comes first: Umuntu umutali or ‘person tall’, while in English, the noun
comes last, ‘tall person’. We can call these two parameters in which nouns occur in
languages. Nativists believe that a child acquiring a language already possesses the general
principles of language, so she merely fixes (chooses) the right parameters. For example, the
child may fix the idea that in Lozi, for example, the noun is in an initial position.

Chapter 4 – Language Acquisition and Learning 79

4.5.3
Interactionist theory: Nature and nurture work together
The third theory of language acquisition is a combination of some of the ideas in
behaviourism and nativism, acknowledging that part of learning language involves imitation
and part involves what the child brings to the learning experience. Interactionists do not
believe in the Language Acquisition Device that Chomsky suggested, nor do they believe that
language is solely acquired through experiences. Interactionists believe that children have
innate abilities that help them acquire language, such as recognising and learning patterns
that they hear, but these are not specific to language learning. Children also acquire
language by interacting with caregivers and peers. They notice how language is used to
express social functions and to get one’s needs met (see Halliday, 2004). Thus, they pick up
language skills through applying their own cognitive skills when interacting with caregivers
and peers. This is the theory of language acquisition that language and literacy teachers
should most carefully consider for their instruction.

Activity 4: Learning outcome 3

Compare and contrast the theories of language acquisition and write a short description of
each theory.
Which theory makes the most sense to you?

80 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

4.6

Implications of acquisition theories

on literacy teaching
Primary grade teachers need to understand the three main theories of language acquisition
because these theories influence educational practices related to teaching language and
literacy skills. Literacy skills are dependent upon strong language skills. Therefore, teachers
need to be able to recognise language weaknesses in young children and support children’s
development of both receptive and expressive language skills.

The language that children are exposed to in their homes will impact the language skills
they master when they enter school. This means that children will arrive at school with
varying levels of language competence. Teachers can support language skills development
through a number of language-centred activities. For example:

Teachers should help children learn the appropriate use of language according to the social
context—what is called the pragmatics of language. They can do this by modelling the
appropriate use of language. This is because language acquisition does not end with the
acquisition of grammar.

Teachers have to ensure that they use more supportive language, for example by encouraging
children to respond in more elaborate ways instead of in short utterances to teachers’
questions. They should be encouraged to give more elaborate responses.

Teaching about the language should proceed from what the children already know, asking
them to reflect on the language they already use so that they develop an awareness of how
their language works.

Teach listening skills: Teachers can help children understand the difference between hearing
and listening (e.g. we hear sounds with our ears but we listen to ideas with our minds).

Model challenging academic language: The teacher can engage the children in discussions
using rich and abstract vocabulary, with increasingly complex sentences and using words to
express ideas and ask questions about things that are not known.

Teach dialogue skills: Teachers can help children learn to engage in dialogue using, asking
questions, turn-taking, staying on topic, and using verbal and non-verbal language.

Provide opportunities for talk: Teachers can plan activities where children engage in language
use through presentations and discussions.

Chapter 4 – Language Acquisition and Learning 81

Activity 5: Learning outcome 4

What types of activities might teachers of language and literacy use to help facilitate language
development for young children?

4.7

Chapter summary
Language acquisition and language learning are two different skills. Language acquisition
is the unconscious, unplanned learning of the language used in one’s home environment,
whereas language learning is the planned learning of a second or additional language
through structured instruction (typically in an academic setting). The three main theories of
language acquisition are the Behaviourist Theory, the Nativist Theory, and the Interactionist
Theory. Behaviourists believe that language is acquired by interacting with the environment,
nativists believe that structures for language exist in the brain at birth, and interactionists
believe that language acquisition is a combination of nature and nurture. Teachers need to
understand language acquisition theories because they need to know how to best support
and facilitate language development in primary school children.

82 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

4.8

Assessment of learning
1. What are the major differences between language learning and language acquisition?

2. Discuss why it is important to learn about language acquisition for the teacher of
literacy and language.

3. According to nativists, what are the weaknesses of the behaviourist theory of

language acquisition?

4. In what ways can the two theories be used to complement each other as one
plans to teach language or literacy?

5. How do the nativists interpret the fixed order of the stages or milestone of
language acquisition?

6. Relate the developmental stages discussed in this chapter to what you have
observed in your environment. Are these stages applicable to your society?

4.9

Supplementary reading
Language Development: 5–8 years: https://raisingchildren.net.au/school-age/development/
language-development/language-5-8-years

Fostering Academic Language Development in Primary Grades: https://keystoliteracy.com/blog/

fostering-academic-language-development-in-primary-grades/

Developing Language in the Primary School: https://www.all-languages.org.uk/wp-content/

uploads/2016/04/Developing-languages-and-literacy.pdf

Chapter 4 – Language Acquisition and Learning 83

84 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
CHAPTER 5

Levels of
Linguistic Analysis

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 85

86 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
 5
Levels of Linguistic Analysis
INTRODUCTION

It is important that student teachers demonstrate understanding of the levels

of linguistic analysis to have necessary working knowledge about the structure
of language, language discourse, and the social and mental processes involved
in language acquisition. With this understanding, teachers will be more
capable of designing instruction to meet their learners’ needs, as it is possible
that learners may not be familiar with the language of instruction (LOI), and
there may be a variety of Mother Tongues (L1) spoken in the classroom. Being
aware of the sounds and
structures of the languages
used and taught in the
phonetics
classroom helps teachers
prepare for what will be speech sounds (phones) organs of speech

most challenging for his or

her learners. This chapter
focuses on the levels of phonology

linguistic analysis, discourse phonemes syllables

analysis, sociolinguistics,
and psycholinguistics,
and the implications of morphology
these themes as they
morphemes words
relate to language and
literacy teaching and
learning. The levels of syntax
linguistic analysis are
diagrammed in Figure 5.1.
semantics

Figure 5.1 Levels of linguistic analysis

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 87

5.1

Learning outcomes

Topics and outcomes from the National Syllabus:

1.2.7 Levels of linguistics

1.2.7.1 Identify the levels of linguistics

By the end of the chapter, the student teachers will:

1
define the levels of linguistic analysis

2
analyse the structure of English and Zambian languages according to levels
of linguistic analysis

3
discuss the implications of the levels of linguistic analysis to teaching and learning
within the context of the language and literacy classroom.

5.2

Instructional materials
• Student module
• Handout: International Phonetic Alphabet (Appendix 5A)
• List of inflectional and derivational affixes in English and Zambian languages

88 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

5.3

Key terms
There are numerous terms used within the field of linguistics. Some key terms are listed below,
but there are further terms throughout the chapter that will be explained within the text.

International Phonetic Alphabet

an alphabet created in the 19th century to represent all of the sounds of language

Phonetics
the study of speech sounds

Phonology
the study of how sounds pattern together in language to encode meaning

Articulatory phonetics
the study of how and where within the vocal tract speech sounds are produced

Acoustic phonetics
the study of what sounds sound like and includes properties of pitch, length, or amplitude

Auditory phonetics
the study of how speech is heard and perceived

Prosodic properties
properties of intonation, stress, and length

Morphology
the study of the internal structures of words

Syntax
the study of sentence structure; how words combine to form words, phrases, clauses,
and sentences

Semantics
the study of meaning in language

Phoneme
the smallest unit of sound that signals a difference in meaning in a word

Morpheme
the smallest unit of meaning in a word

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 89

5.4

What is phonetics?
Phonetics is the systematic study of speech sounds (phones) in general as opposed to their
use in specific languages. There are three branches of phonetics—articulatory phonetics,
acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. These three branches represent how sounds
are produced, the physical properties of the sounds as they are transmitted from mouth
to ear, and how they are heard or perceived, respectively. In this chapter, the International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) (see Appendix 5A) may be referenced as a way of connecting
sounds to the graphic or written form. The IPA will be used in the discussion of both English
and Zambian languages. This section is divided into two main subsections. The first
describes the three branches of phonetics and the second explains the relevance of the
understanding of phonetics as it relates to language and literacy.

5.4.1
Acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, and articulatory phonetics
Articulatory phonetics concerns itself with
the study of how and where within the vocal
tract speech sounds are produced. Figure
5.2 illustrates the vocal tract and the organs
of speech. When we speak, air moves up the
trachea (not pictured), located below the
larynx, and then passes updwards through
the glottis, located between the vocal cords.
Next, air passes through the tube-like organ,
the pharynx and then out of the oral cavity
(through the mouth), or out of the nasal
cavity (through the nose). Voiced sounds
produce vibration within the vocal tract (in
the glottis), while voiceless sounds do not.
All speech sounds are classified as either
voiced or voiceless consonants or vowels.
Figure 5.2 The organs of speech within the vocal tract
Acoustic phonetics describes what sounds
Source: https://worldlanguagesgazetteer.wordpress.com/
Formatted: French (France)
sound like in line with the variable properties
of pitch (high or low), length (short or
long), or amplitude, as measured by their

90 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

frequency and intensity. Prosodic properties of sound include intonation, stress, and
length. The acoustic and prosodic properties of sounds are understood in relation to each
other. For example, there are two types of pitch—tone and intonation (Park-Johnson & Shin,
2020). Differences of tone occur in tonal languages found throughout Southeast Asia, all
varieties of Chinese, African languages, and some of the Native languages of the Americas,
and these differences in tone can lead to differences in terms of meanings of words, which
are otherwise identical (Park-Johnson & Shin, 2020). For instance, in Mandarin Chinese,
depending on the way the syllable ma is produced, the following words could be created:
mother, hemp, horse, and scold. Differences in intonation do not result in differences of
word meaning but could result in a difference in how a statement is understood. Consider
the way the meaning changes in the following sentences:

A. She took her purse with her.

B. She took her purse with her?

In the first sentence, the statement is understood as a declarative (giving information)

whereas the second sentence results in an interrogative or questioning statement.

Acoustic phonetics is also related to auditory phonetics, which studies how the properties of
speech are perceived and heard. While auditory phonetics is indeed a branch of phonetics, it
is beyond the scope of the purpose of this chapter. However, it is worth pointing out that
when acquiring language, a functional auditory system is necessary to both perceiving the
sounds of speech accurately and producing sounds accurately.

5.4.2
Vowels

Vowels are produced from the uninterrupted flow of air. It comes out of the mouth
without closure or restriction. The only thing that takes place is the vibration of the vocal
cords in the larynx because most of the vowels are voiced.

Activity 1

Feel your vocal cords while paying attention to the shape of your mouth (lips) as you pronounce
each of the following words and vowel sounds:
Words: are, or
Vowel Sounds: [a, e, i, o, u]

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 91

In Figure 5.3, the eight cardinal vowels are conceptually represented according to the shape
of the mouth and the position of the tongue, referred to as vowel height and vowel backness
when the vowel sound is made (The Mimic Method, 2019). Notice that the shape of Figure
5.3 is trapezoidal, illustrating the shape of the mouth when viewed from the side.

Figure 5.3 Primary cardinal vowels

In Figure 5.3 the high-front vowels [i], in the words like feel or seam, are produced when the
tongue moves up towards the front of the mouth, almost touching the teeth ridge, while the
high-back vowels [u], like in the words woo or coo, are produced when the the back
of the tongue moves up and backwards. Low vowels [a] like in the words thigh or light are
produced when the tongue is lowered beyond its resting position, the position of the tongue
when one is not speaking. There are two central vowels: the [ə], also known as the schwa,
and the [з] (r-controlled vowels). The following words are made up of the schwa sound
but represented by different letters: balloon, problem, family, bottom, and support. The
following words contain different iterations of the [з] sound: swerve, hearth, turn, third,
world, and journey. Table 5.1 summarises the cardinal vowels and their associated symbols.

92 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Table 5.1 Cardinal vowels and symbols

Classification Language development milestone

High vowels [i], [u]

Mid vowels [e], [o]
Low vowels [a]
Front vowels [i], [e]
Central vowels [ə], [з]
Back vowels [u], [ͻ]

Activity 2: Learning outcome 2

In pairs, use the International Phonetic Alphabet (Appendix 5A) to find at least two examples of
English words and Zambian words for each vowel classfication. Be prepared to share with the class.

5.4.3
Consonants
Consonant sounds are produced by the narrowing or complete blocking off of the vocal tract
and are classified according to both the place and manner of the restriction as well as
whether the sound is voiced or voiceless (voicing). Table 5.2 organises how consonants are
classfied as they correspond to their place, including brief explanations, IPA symbols, and
examples of English words for further understanding. Following that, Table 5.3 describes the
manner of articulation of consonants and their associated IPA symbols.

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 93

Table 5.2 Classification of consonants by place

Place Description Example(s)

Bilabials formed when the lips come together; [p, b] pin, bin

Labiodentals formed when the lower lip touches the upper fan, van
front teeth; [f, v]

Interdentals formed when the tip of the tongue is inserted thin, this
between the upper and lower teeth; [Ɵ ɚ]

Alveolars formed when the front part of the tongue is sip, zip
raised to the alveolar ridge; [s, z] [t, d]

Post/Palatal-alveolars formed when the front part of the tongue is raised shy, ship;
to a point on the hard palate located behind the measure, pleasure;
alveolar ridge; [ʃ, Ʒ], [ʧ, ʤ] or [ʦ, ʥ]
cheese, geez

Palatals formed when the tongue is positioned on or near yes, you

the palate, the highest part of the roof of the
mouth; [j]

Velars formed when the tongue is on or near the car, go, king
velum, located toward the back of the roof
of the mouth; [k, ɡ] [ŋ]

Glottals formed when there is no change to the flow of house

the airstream in the mouth; the vocal cords are
the primary articulators; [h]

94 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Table 5.3 Classification of consonants by manner of articulation

Place Description Symbol

Stops/Plosives formed by complete closure and sudden release [p, b], [t, d], [k, g]

Affricates formed by complete closure and gradual release [ʧ, ʤ], [ʦ, ʥ]

Fricates formed by a narrowing or partial closure [ʃ, Ʒ], [s, Ζ]

Nasals formed by the lowering of the uvula to allow [n, m, ŋ, Ƴ]

the airstream to issue out through the nose

Liquids formed by a significant restriction of the vocal [l], [r]

tract that does not adequately narrow the tract
enough to cause friction

Glides formed by little to no restriction of the airstream w], [w̥ ]

in the mouth; made by the rounding of the lips
and simultaneous raising of the back of the
tongue toward the velum

Activity 3: Learning outcome 2

In pairs or small groups, use the classification of vowels (refer to Table 5.1) and the classification of
consonants (refer to Tables 5.2 and 5.3) to transcribe the following words: police, teacher, doctor,
school, teeth, tree, circuit, clerk, water, and plate.

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 95

5.4.3
Relevance of phonetics to literacy and language teaching
Knowing a language does not qualify one to be able to teach a language. Teachers who
are knowledgable about the sounds and structure of their learners’ language(s) will be
capable of discerning the challenges that their learners may face in literacy and language
instruction. When teaching phonics, the first step is for children to identify and produce
the sounds of the letters they are learning about. Teachers therefore have to model to the
learners the correct ways of articulating (producing) the sounds so that learners have an
accurate way of doing the same. Teachers can ask learners to pay attention to the shape of
their mouths and the positions of their tongues when making sounds. During the transition
from Zambian languages to English, teachers have to ensure that learners are able to hear
and produce the correct English sounds, as opposed to the sounds they are familiar with in
Zambian languages.

Activity 4: Learning outcome 3

Why is the correct pronunciation of sounds important to literacy and language acquisition in
English and Zambian languages?

5.4.5
Summary of phonetics
Phonetics is the first level of linguistic analysis and studies the way in which sounds are
produced with the organs of speech in the vocal tract. The three branches of phonetics
(Articulatory, Acoustic, and Auditory) help us to understand how speech is produced, what
sounds sound like, and how sounds are perceived. A phonetic inventory like the IPA is
used to symbolise all the possible ways in which vowels and consonants are produced
across languages. Teachers’ knowledge of phonetic properties (articulatory, acoustic, and
prosodic) are integral to both literacy and language teaching and learning in learners’ L1
and L2. In the following section, another level of linguistic analysis is explored: phonology.

96 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

5.5

What is phonology?
Phonology is the study of how the sounds in language combine to form patterns which
encode meaning (Park-Johnson & Shin, 2020). Phonological knowledge (phonological
awareness) helps us to choose the correct sounds to make meaningful utterances or words
and develops from holistic or larger units to smaller units (Gunning, 2010). Phonemes,
allophones, and syllables are central concepts to this level of linguistic analysis. Phonemes
are sounds that are contrastive or signal the difference in the meaning of a word, while
allophones are variants of phonemes and noncontrastive. Syllables are formed by combining
phonemes and have distinct structural boundaries. In the literacy and language classroom,
the level of learners’ phonemic awareness, or understanding that spoken langauge is
comprised of phonemes, is ‘the most powerful predictor of difficulty in learning to read’
(Honig et al., p. 2.16). In this section, the phonological features of language are explored and
the importance of phonology to language and literacy instruction is provided.

5.5.1
Phonemes and allophones
As mentioned above, phonemes are sounds that are contrastive in a language. They create
differences in the meanings of words. When words differ by only one sound, they are
considered to be minimal pairs. Look at this pair of words: bean and dean. In this pair of
words, the only differences are the initial sounds /b/ and /d/ while the rest are the same.
The fact that the use of /b/ and /d/ leads to the creation of different words, means that
/b/ and /d/ are phonemes in English. This is how a list of phomenes can be discovered in a
language using minimal pairs. Including more words beyond pairs creates minimal sets. For
example, the words set, sit, and sat form a minimal set in which a new word is created by
the substitution of a vowel.

Sometimes there are variations in the pronounciation of a sound which does not lead to
a difference in meaning. Where the same sound can be articulated differently without
producing a difference in meaning, we get an allophone. In Bemba, the word ukubomba,
contains two orthographic spellings of the letter ‘b’. Phonetically, the two sounds are
similar; they are bilabials, but they differ in their manner of articulation. The first ‘b’ is
produced as a voiced bilabial fricative sound [β] while the second ‘b’ is produced as a
voiced bilabial plosive or stop sound [ƅ]. In this example, the phoneme /b/ resulted in
the two allophones [ƅ] and [β]. In linguistic terms, these allophones occur in distinct

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 97

phonological environments. The first ‘b’ is at the beginning of a syllable bo while the
second occurs after a nasal sound /m/, which forms what is called a nasal cluster /mb/.
Thus the bilabial fricative sound [β] occurs in the environment after a nasal while the stop
or plosive occurs at the beginning of a syllable. Consider also how in English, when adding
-s to certain words, the consonant changes from voiced to voiceless. In the word cat,
adding -s creates the voiceless sound-[s], while in the word dog, adding -s results in a
voiced sound [Z]. Say the words to verify this.

Activity 5: Learning outcomes 2–3

With a partner, review the minimal sets and determine what changed in the words as new words
were created. Then be prepared to discuss how the knowledge of minimal pairs and minimal sets
may be used in literacy and language instruction.
Minimal Sets:
pin, pan, pun
tin, fin, shin, thin, bin, kin, win
thigh, thy
mat, sat, fat, bat, hat, cat, rat

5.5.2
Syllables
Syllables have discernible boundaries in speech. It is easy to tell how many syllables are in
most Bantu words, e.g. atate (a-ta-te). Syllables have structure: they have an onset, that is
the initial sound which is usually a consonant(s) and the rime, the rime is made up of the
vowel which may be followed by a consonant or consonants. Open syllables end with vowel
sounds while closed syllables end with consonants. A single syllable word is considered
to be monosyllablic like in the word cat. This one has the onset: Consonant (C) followed by
the rime: Vowel (V) and a Consonant (C) giving the structure CVC. Additional syllables
result in polysyllabic (also known as multisyllabic) words. Table 5.4 compares the syllable
structure of English with that of Zambian languages.

98 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Table 5.4 Comparing the syllable structure of English with Zambian languages

Example words Example syllables in

Syllable structure Type of syllable in English Zambian languages

V open Are [a:] a[a]

CV open Car [ka:] ba [ba]

mba [mba]
CCV open Tree [tri:] (some more complex onsets
are mbw, and mphw)

CVC closed Sit [sɪt] -

VC closed Ask [a:sk] -

CCVC closed Sleep [sli:p] -

CCCVC closed Splash [splæʃ] -

CVCC closed Tenth [tenƟ] -

CCVCCC closed Prints [prɪnts] -

CVCCCC closed Tempts [tempts] -

Activity 6: Learning outcome 3

How would teaching the structure of syllables and their associated features (open, closed, onset, and
rime) be helpful in teaching literacy and language?

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 99

5.5.3
Aspects of phonological processes
A significant aspect of phonology is that sounds change when they are put together as words
and in a sentence. Also, the features of continuous speech (i.e. pace of speech, intonation)
may cause changes in sounds. Phonological processes attempt to show these linguistic
variations as predictable outcomes which may be mandatory or optional. The importance of
having some basic understanding in phonological processes relates to:

a. Knowing when and in what given context a given sound changes into
another sound (assimilation)

b. Knowing when and in what context a given sound can be lost (deletion/elision)

c. Knowing when and in what context a given sound can be added (insertion)

d. Knowing when and in what context a given sound or sounds can be fused
into one (coalescence)

Briefly, each process identified above is exemplified here below:

Assimilation
The process by which a sound is changed into another sound by ‘copying’ or
‘spreading’ a feature of a following phoneme, making the two phones more
similar. For example, /s/→/z/ after /ɡ/. In the word dogs, the /s/ becomes
[z] as in [dɒɡz]. Similarly, /b/ becomes /b/ after a nasal sound and /b/
becomes /β/ elsewhere. For example, [ukuβomba].

Deletion
A process in which a sound or segment is lost. For example, /u/ is deleted in
[umuntu] ‘person’ when negated as in tee umuntu → tee muntu ‘it is not a
person’. In English, vowel deletion or loss is common in an unaccented syllable.
For example, police [pəlis], secretary [sekritry]. Similarly, deletion is noticeable in
a word’s final position for /r/ sounds. For example, in all the following words /r/ is
not realised: ‘car’ [ka], ‘far’ [fa], ‘father’ [fa:ɚə], ‘teacher’ [ti:ʧə] except for people
who have rhotic accents who pronounce the /r/ after vowels.

Insertion
A process in which a new element is introduced or created. In Zambian languages,
insertion is common in loanwords. For example, ‘pot’ [pɒt] in Tonga: mpoto;
Bemba: impoto; Nyanja: mpooto. You can see that new elements have been
added to the English word pot.

100 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

 Coalescence
It is the combination or fusion, of two or more segments into one segment.
In Zambian languages, the following are possible cases of coalescences:
a+i = ee; a+u =oo. Below is an example from Bemba of the fusion of (a+i):

a + i = ama + inshi ameenshi ‘water’

Activity 7: Learning outcomes 2–3

The different pronunciations of suffix -ed

A suffix is an affix (morpheme) that is attached to the end (stem) of a word. In English, suffix -ed
changes present-tense words to past-tense words. The pronunciation of suffix -ed depends on
phonological rules.
When suffix -ed is placed at the end of a word ending in /t/ or /d/, suffix -ed is
pronounced as /Id/.
Examples: hated, needed
When suffix -ed is placed at the end of a voiced sound, suffix -ed is pronounced as /d/.
Examples: thrived, filled, cried
When suffix -ed is placed at the end of an unvoiced sound, suffix -ed is pronounced as /t/.
Examples: hopped, kicked, fished
With a partner or in a small group, create a table of three columns to organise words according to the
three ways in which suffix -ed is pronounced. Add words to the chart for each rule.

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 101

5.5.4
Relevance of phonology to literacy and language teaching
It was mentioned above under phonetics that teachers have to help learners to articulate
and identify sounds correctly. This advise is repeated here, and it is worth mentioning that
learning to read requires a knowledge of the phonology of a language, usually referred to as
phonological awareness in literacy circles. This phonological awareness refers to a child’s
awareness of all levels of sounds in a language from words, syllables, onsets and rimes, and
phonemes. Teaching initial reading usually starts with raising learners’ awareness of these
sound units. Although learners have a tacit understanding of these units which they acquire
naturally, they may not be able to explain them. For example, even the concept of
a word might not be familiar to a 6-year-old child, let alone syllables and phonemes. Thus
children are made aware of these units through various exercises that enable them not only
to identify, differentiate but also manipulate these units in different ways. Later the written
form of the language is linked to these units, e.g. at phoneme level for the alphabetic writing
system (McKenna & Stahl, 2003; Reading Rockets, n.d.). As learners move to English,
they also need to be made aware of the phonological features of English so that they are
aware of the differences between their L1 and L2. To help with second language acquisition,
teachers should ‘exaggerate the differences in articulation between the sounds they are
trying to contrast, using slower tempo and repetition to help learners hear and feel the
differences’ and can even use mirrors to help learners see the position of their articulators
as they are learning to make certain sounds (Park-Johnson & Shin, 2020, p. 52).

Teachers are capable of assessing learners’ levels of phonemic and phonological awareness in
their L1 when they enter the classroom by assessing key skills for initial reading—beginning
sounds and segmentation (Gunning, 2010). After assessment, teachers should target
instruction to meet their learners’ instructional needs. Below is a list of simple informal
assessments that can be used (Gunning, 2010, p. 202; McKenna & Stahl, 2003, p. 93):

1. See if the child can identify words that rhyme.

2. Say three words to the child, two of which have a common phoneme, such as an initial
sound. Ask the child to tell which of the three words does not belong with the other two.
3. Tell the child that you are going to say a word in your own ‘secret code’. Then
pronounce the word by saying each phoneme in succession. The child must blend
the sounds to form the word.
4. Provide the child with a common rime. Ask the child to make a word by adding a sound
to the beginning of the rime. Provide an example or two first to make the task clear.
5. Have the child say a word in syllable parts, in onset-rime parts, or the separate
sounds in a word.

102 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

5.5.5
Summary of phonology
Phonology helps us to understand how sounds pattern together in specific languages to
form spoken language. Phonemes and their variations—allophones—combine to form
syllables with distinct structures and features (onset, rime, pattern, open or closed,
stressed, unstressed). Although there are similarities between languages, there are also
phonological differences, and teachers must understand the structure and rules of their
learners’ native language and the LOI and how to apply this knowledge explicitly to literacy
and language instruction. As yet, there are three other levels of linguistic analysis—
morphology, syntax, and semantics—that are also important for literacy and language
teachers to know and understand. Morphology is explored in the following section.

5.6

What is morphology?
At this point, we have learnt how and where speech is formed as well as its properties
(phonetics) and how sounds combine or pattern together to form syllables and words
(phonology). In this section, another layer of linguistic analysis is added—morphology—
which is the study of the internal structure of words and their relationship with other words
which are stored in our mental dictionary, our lexicon (Park-Johnson & Shin, 2020).

5.6.1
Morphemes
The building blocks of words are called morphemes. These are the ‘smallest linguistic
units with a meaning or a grammatical function’ (Park-Johnson & Shin, 2020). Based on
the number of morphemes a word has, they may be considered simple words (single
morpheme) or complex words (two or more morphemes). Below are some examples of
complex words, separated into their morphemic parts:

a. Faithfulness = {faith} +{ful} + {ness}

b. Transformationalism = {trans} + {form} + {ation} + {al} + {ism} Formatted: French (France)

c. Teacher = {teach} + {er}

d. Accountant = {account} + {ant}

e. Walked = {walk} + {ed}

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 103

When morphemes join together to form complex words, additional features emerge.
A complex word generally has a root morpheme (root word or stem) that transforms into
different words through the addition of affixes. The term affix is an umbrella term for
morphemes that affix (or add) themselves to words in a variety of ways. Affixes can be
inserted at the beginning (prefix) like in the word mu + ana (=mwana) ‘child’. The {mu} is
the prefix while {ana} is the root. Affixes may also be placed at the end (suffix) of
words, like in the example above in which suffix -ed was added to the root walk. (In some
languages affixes may be inserted into existing morphemes and referred to as iufixes or
even at the front and end of roots simultaneously in which both must be present for the
word to have new meaning and are called circumfixes (Park-Johnson & Shin, 2020)).
The next tables list common prefixes and suffixes found in the English language.

104 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Table 5.5 English prefixes, definition, example

Prefix Definition Example(s)

anti- against antisocial

de- opposite defrost

dis- not, opposite of disconnect

en-, em- cause to enrage; embody

fore- before; front of foreground

in, im- in include; implant

in, im, il-, ir not incomplete; impossible; illegal; irregular

inter between; among intermingle

mid- middle midway

mis- wrongly misinterpret

non not nonfiction

over- over; too much overflow

pre- before precaution

re- again replay

semi- half; partly; not fully semiformal

sub under submerge

super above; beyond superimpose

trans across transfix

un not; opposite of unable

under under; too little underground

Modified from Corwin Press, as cited in Reading Rockets (n.d.)

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 105

Table 5.6 English suffixes, definition, example

Guffix Definition Example(s)

-able, -ible is; can be adaptable; convertible

-al, -ial having characteristics of seasonal; terrestrial

-ed past tense verbs; adjectives the balloon inflated; the inflated balloon

-en made of strengthen

-er, -or one who; person connected teacher; professor

-er more greater

-est the most fanciest

-ful full of graceful

-ic having characteristics of tragic

-ing verb forms; present participles dancing

-ion, -tion, act; process abrasion; solution; culmination; fruition

-ation, -ition

-ity, -ty state of ability; safety

-ive, -ative, adjective form of noun captive; indicative; positive

-itive

-less without colorless

-ly how something is angrily

-ment state of being; act of fulfilment

-ness state of; condition of calmness

-ous, -eous, having qualities of glamorous; righteous; curious

-ious

-s, -es more than one cars; couches

-y characterised by sunny

Modified from Corwin Press, as cited in Reading Rockets (n.d.)

106 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Activity 8: Learning outcomes 2–3

Review the list of prefixes and suffixes in your small group or with a partner. Make sure to read
through the definitions and how the definitions help you to understand the meanings of the words
provided. In your group, discuss the following question and be ready to share with the whole class.
In what ways would explicitly teaching prefixes and suffixes be a useful strategy in the literacy and
language classroom?

5.6.2
Morphological systems
It is important to understand that Zambian languages are morphologically different from
English. Morphologically, languages may be classified as either analytic or synthetic.
As the words imply, analytic languages tend to have short words that are usually single
morphemes. A good example is Mandarin Chinese. Although English has some
multimorphemic words, it is mostly analytic. Synthentic languages, on the other hand,
have words that consist of many morphemes strung together. Bantu languages are said to
be agglutinating languages because their words consists of strings of morphemes ‘glued’
together. To see the difference between English and Zambian languages, look at this
example from Nyanja and the translation into English:

Nikukonda ‘I love you’.

There are three single morpheme words in English to the one word (verb) in Nyanja.

Thus, in Bantu languages (from which Zambian languages are derived), words can be
sentences, which is much different from English. Table 5.7 gives additional examples
from Nyanja.

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 107

Table 5.7 Differences between English and Nyanja

Nyanja English translation

Amakonda kusewera panji She likes to play outside.

Ndikuyenda I am walking.

Ndidya nditatha kuwerenga I will eat after I read.

Dzuwa likuwala The sun is shining.

5.6.3
Classifying morphemes
Thus far, we have learnt that morphemes may
exist as single morphemes/simple words or be
joined together to create complex words of two
or more morphemes. Affixes are morphemes
which are added to root words at different
positions, thereby changing the word and its
meaning. There are also important differences in
provide
languages based on two broad, morphological
categories, whether the language is mostly information
analytic or mostly synthetic. As English is mostly
an analytic language, and Zambian languages are
agglutinating languages (a type of synthetic
language), teachers must be aware of how
this key difference may be a challenge to their
learners in the classroom. Yet, there are as yet
other aspects of morphology that are helpful for
teachers to know. In this section, we explore Content
how morphemes are classified according to two
main types—free or bounded morphemes. Free
or bounded morphemes may be broken down
into further subcategories, as diagrammed in the
figure below (Park-Johnson & Shin, 2020).

Figure 5.4 Two categories of morphemes:

Free or bounded

108 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

In the section below on word formation processes, an attempt has been made to show that
Zambian languages are agglutinating. Part of this is done under syntax because in Bantu
languages, some words are typically sentences. For example, a word like ndabola (Tonga) is
translated as ‘I am coming’, which is typically a sentence.

As noted above, English does not fall squarely in one language type; it has features of both
analytic and synthetic languages. In the example that we have used before in this section,
unfaithfulness, we notice characteristics of an agglutinating language as three bound
morphemes have been glued to the free morpheme {faith}, which is also the root.

5.7

Words
According to Bloomfield (1933), a word is a minimum free form. This means a word is
the smallest unit with meaning. However, as has been observed above under the
morphological typology, words are differently constructed under each language type.
In analytic languages, which are also known as isolating languages, all words can stand
alone as minimum free forms. However, in agglutinating languages where words are made
up of two or more morphemes, a word cannot be conceived of as minimum free form. In
Bantu languages, it is clear to see that a word can be a sentence created from an
assemblage of bound morphemes. It is therefore important to distinguish between simplex
words and complex words. Simplex words are those made up of a single morpheme while
complex words are made up of at least two or more morphemes. See the next table below
for illustration.

Table 5.8 Simplex and complex words

Simplex words Complex words

police unfaithfulness

Bbola ‘come’ Baleemusamba ‘they are bathing him’

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 109

Further, it is important to note that words belong to word classes. Broadly speaking,
words are classified under two classes: content words and function words. The content or
lexical words include nouns, verbs, adverbs, and adjectives. It is important to mention
here that content or lexical words belong to the open class system because new words can
be created and added. These words have full lexical meanings, often referred to as
independent meanings. Functional or grammatical words belong to a closed class system
as these sets of items belonging to this class cannot be extended; new ones cannot be
created. Additionally, their meaning is dependent on lexical words as they only contribute
grammatical meaning to the construction. Such items include prepositions, numerals,
articles, pronouns, conjunctions, and interjections.

Table 5.9 Open class words and examples

Word classes Examples

noun house, plate, John, school

verb walk, talk, to be

adverb slowly, quickly, fast, here, there

adjective big, small, blue, kind, short, beautiful, etc.

Table 5.10 Grammatical words and examples

Grammatical words Examples

prepositions on, at, in, for, outside, under, above

pronouns she, he, her, his, they, them, us, we

numerals one, two, three

articles the, a, an

conjunction and (clausal link = when, if, because)

interjection oh, ah, uh

110 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

The word classes identified in the two tables above have been defined from three different
perspectives: the notional, form, and function. The notional approach looks upon words
based on their meanings. For example, nouns are said to be naming words, verbs as doing
words while adjectives are said to be descriptive words. When it comes to form, words are
classified based on their structure or form. Nouns are seen to inflect for number, verbs
for tense, and adverbs end in -ly. The two approaches have been criticised due to their
shortcomings. For example, not all verbs are doing words. Some verbs are stative verbs, for
example, the verb ‘to be’, e.g. is, are. Similarly, it is not always the case that word structure
will determine the word class of a particular word. If we take the word round, for example,
nothing about it would point us to its word class. It is because of such shortcomings that the
functional approach was developed. Here, words are classified based on their syntactic
function in a given sentence. For example, nouns may function as the subject or object of
the verb. To this end, we can only make judgments about the class to which a given word
belongs based on the function of the word in a given syntactic construction. For a detailed
discussion and exemplification, consider section 1.5 under syntax.

5.7.1
Word formation processes
As pointed out above and discussed in chapter 1, languages are creative. They form words
in various ways, normally from existing elements. Let’s consider some of these processes
here below.

5.7.2
Affixation
Affixation is the process by which words are formed by adding elements or affixes before
or after the root. This means affixation manifests either as prefixation or suffixation. For
example, the word deregistration is formed by affixation = {de} + {register} + {ation}
in which {de} is a prefix, {register} is a root affix and {ation} is a suffix. In Zambian
languages, affixation is a very productive word formation process. The nominal/noun class
system draws extensively from affixation in the formation of singular and plural forms of
the nouns. See the table below showing the basic nominal structure in Bantu accounting
for the position of a prefix and noun stem.

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 111

Table 5.11 Nominal structure

Noun class Prefix Stem Gloss

1 mu -ntu Person

2 ba -ntu People

mu -tengo Tree

mi -tengo Trees

Table 5.12 Verbal form

Infinitive
marker Verb-root Vowel ending (suffix) Gloss

ku samb -a To bath (Tonga)

ku belek -a To work (Tonga)

ku lim -a To cultivate (Tonga)

ku imb -a To sing (Bemba)

As can be observed from the two tables above, languages form new words by attaching
affixes to the root or stem in a sequential order.

5.7.3
Reduplication
Reduplication is another productive word formation process. By definition, reduplication
is a process in which a base or part of it is reproduced or repeated to form a new word.
As examples below show, in Zambian languages, reduplication is transformational as it
normally leads to a change in meaning of the initial lexeme (word). In the next table,
you will notice how semantic extension is achieved by reduplicants. See the examples of
reduplication in the table below.

112 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Table 5.13 Semantic extension by reduplication

Reduplication Language Gloss

flip-flop English

wish-wash English

kalongalonga {ka-longa-longa} Tonga (diminutive) small stream

fubefube Bemba fog

panoonopanoono Bemba little by little / slowly

5.7.4
Zero derivation or conversion
Zero derivation or conversion is a word formation process in which new words are created
without any physical alteration to the existing word that is being converted. It is recognised,
however, that in Bantu languages and sometimes in English, there are observable
phonological changes that take place during conversion. In English, there is a stress shift
while in Bantu languages there is change in tonal focus. Consider the examples below:

Table 5.14 Stress shifts in English

Verb Noun

proIduce [prəIdju:s] produce [Iprɒdju:s]

I

subject [səbIʥekt] subject [Isᴧbʥəkt]

Table 5.15 Tonal focus in Bantu

Word Word Meaning Language

ukuluka plait Bemba

ukuluka vomit Bemba

kuluta teach Lozi

kuluta urinate Lozi

impanga sheep Bemba

impanga bush/forest Bemba

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 113

5.7.5
Compounding
Compounding is a process in which new words are formed by joining two independent
roots or words together. Some compounds are written with a hyphen while others are
written without. See the examples in the table below.

Table 5.16 Compound words in English

Compound

blackboard {black}adj + {board}N

sunflower {sun}N + {flower}N

Table 5.17 Compound words in Bantu languages

Compound Analysis Gloss

m’penyazuwa {m’penya}v + {zuwa}N sunflower (Chewa)

cilangazuba {ci-langa}v + {zuba}N sunflower (Tonga) Formatted: French (France)

amafisakanwa {amafisa}N + {kanwa}N- corruption

Note that compounds can be transparent or opaque, endocentric or exocentric. Transparent

compounds are usually endocentric as their meaning can be deduced from the constituent
elements themselves, as in the case of {blackboard}. Opaque compounds are normally
exocentric as their meaning is outside of the constituent elements, as in the case of
{headhunter} when used in reference to a recruiter of personnel. The Bemba example,
amafisakauwa whose literal meaning is ‘that which hide the mouth’ is also opaque and
exocentric. When it comes to headiness (headedness) within a compound, in English, the
head of the compound is usually on the right while the head in compounds in Zambian
languages is usually on the left. Remember, the head of a compound is the word that carries
the grammatical/syntactic features or inflection of the compound. In the word {sun+flower}
the plural morpheme {-s} is attached to the right of the right most constituent and not to the
base/root of the word {sun}. Contrariwise, in Tonga, as in many Bantu languages, it is the
constituent element to the left in a compound which carries the syntactic/grammatical
features. For example, in the compound {mungu mumba} ‘gourd’ (Tonga), pluralisation is
achieved by attaching the plural prefix mi- at the beginning of {mungu} to render as {myungu
mumba}. The Bemba example above already has a plural prefix attached to the first word
fisa ‘hide’ which is actually a verb turned into a noun.

114 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Activity 9: Learning outcome 2

1. With examples from both English and Zambian languages, discuss other word formation
processes. These should include but are not limited to the following: blending, initialisms,
back-formation, borrowing, etc.
2. Carry out word analysis of the words as provided by the instructor.

5.7.6
Morphophonological issues
Phonology and morphology interact during the word formation process. This interaction
is what linguists refer to as morphophonology. The examples below are illustrative of
this phenomenon.

a. Mu+ana = mwana ‘child’

b. Mi+ungu = myungu ‘gourds’

c. Electric [k] → electricity [s]; medical [k] → medicine [s]; critical [k] → criticise [s]

In the examples above, we notice the interaction of morphology and phonology. What is
noticeable is that affixation affects the quality of the phonemes. In (a) for example, the
prefix {mu-} is made up of a syllable which ends in a vowel /u/. The stem {ana} starts with a
vowel /a/. However, when affixation occurs between {mu} and {ana}, the vowel /u/ is
changed into a semi-vowel /w/, a process commonly referred to as semi-vocalisation.
Similarly, in example (b), the /i/ in the prefix {mi} is changed to /y/ when affixation occurs
with the /u/. In example (c) the focus is on the element ‘c’, which is a phoneme /k/ before
the process of suffixation. When the suffix –ity, –ine, and –ise are attached to the respective
words as shown above, the /k/ is changed to /s/. While we could refer to these elements as
phonemes, they are better called morphophonemes as they are at the interface of
morphology and phonology. Thus, morphophonology helps us to account for changes
initiated by the influence of both phonology and morphology.

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 115

5.8

Syntax
Generally defined as the study of the arrangement of words into larger units—i.e. phrases,
clauses, and sentences—syntax is the fourth level of linguistic analysis. Its place in language
study is significant, as much of what happens when we write or speak is governed by syntax.
It is largely concerned with meaningful structures of sentences and their communicative
functions. As a result, most linguists equate syntax to grammar. For the purposes of this
section, the discussion of syntax will be restricted to phrases, clauses, and sentences with
respect to how they are organised and how they operate. For example, aspects of
morphology such as words and inflections are equally discussed in syntax. As will become
apparent, the functional class of words plays a very significant role in the architecture of
sentences. For inflection, that is, grammatical features of number, tense, gender,
nominative case, accusative case and degree help to support the grammar (correctness) of
the sentences. Here below, we show the over-organisation of syntax at the sentential level.

Sentence

Clause

Phrase

Word

Morpheme (inflection)

The diagram above shows the hierarchical organisation of the sentence structure,
accounting for lower-level input which ultimately leads to the well-formed sentence as
an output. At the bottom of the hierarchy are the actual morphemes, which account for
inflection such as tense, number, or aspect. Morphemes combine to form words which are
grouped into syntactic categories from which phrases are formed. As will be shown later,
each word class produces its own phrases named after it. Nouns give rise to noun phrases,
verbs to verb phrases, adjectives to adjective phrases, prepositions to prepositional phrases
and so on. Phrases combine to form a clause or a sentence. This hierarchical organisation of
sentences demonstrates a careful arrangement of constituents for a well formed and
meaningful sentence structure.

116 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

5.9

Phrases
Crystal (2009:367) defined a phrase as ‘a term used in grammatical analysis to refer to a
single element of structure typically containing more than one word and lacking the
subject-predicate structure typical of clauses’. In traditional grammar, what Crystal means
is that a phrase is the element made up of at least two words, and such a combination
should not lead to a clause or simple sentence. Put differently, a phrase is a word or group
of words without a subject and finite verb. Ordinarily, phrases are built around lexical
heads from which they draw their name. For example, ‘this man’ is a noun phrase headed
by the noun ‘man’; ‘slowly’ is an adverbial phrase headed by the adverb ‘slowly’; ‘to town’
is a prepositional phrase headed by the preposition ‘to’. In defining the ‘head’ of a phrase,
Crystal (1991: 163) stated that the head is ‘the central element which is distributionally
equivalent to the phrase as a whole’. This means that the head of a phrase as pointed out
already determines the name of a given phrase and its syntactic distribution and function
within a sentence or clause. In what follows, examples of phrases are provided.

Noun phrase
It is a phrase headed by a noun. For example: the man; a house; the boy; teachers.
In terms of its distribution and function within a sentence, noun phrases occur
as the subject, object, or complement. Consider the following example:
‘the teacher {subj} gave {verb} the boy {object} a present {object}’.

Verb phrase
It is a phrase headed by a verb. Verbs always function as verbs to link or state the
relationship between the subject and the predicate or complement. Consider the
following examples: ‘shesubj feelsverb happysubj comp’. In this example, the verb ‘feel’ is
used to show the state of being of the subject and also communicates the fact that
the subject is in third person singular present. In the sentence, ‘John kicked the
ball’, the verb ‘kick’ denotes the action of the subject ‘John’ upon the object ‘ball’.
Note also that the verb carries the tense, pointing out the time of the action as
having been in the past (unspecified past, hence simple past tense).

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 117

 Adverb phrase
It is a phrase headed by an adverb. Generally, adverbs modify verbs or give more
information about the action communicated by the verb in sentences. Consider the
following example: ‘shesubj walkedverb slowlyadverb’. Here the adverb gives information
about the manner of walking. In terms of the syntactic distribution, adverbs have no
fixed position per se. They can be placed before or after the verb they modify, though
this might have stylistic implications, such as emphasis and topicalisation.

Adjective phrase
It is a phrase headed by an adjective. Generally, adjectives qualify nouns in a
sentence. In terms of distribution, adjectives can occur as before or after the noun
‘He is a kind person’ or ‘’He is very kind.’

Prepositional phrase
It is a phrase headed by a preposition. Prepositional phrases normally function as
adverbials to denote the place, time, or manner among other things. Consider the
following examples: ‘the teachersubj reportedvp for workpp in the morningpp’.

118 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

5.10

Clauses
A clause is a ‘unit of grammatical organisation smaller than the sentence, but larger than
phrases, words or morphemes’. Linguists have traditionally classified clauses into main
clause and subordinate clause. The main clause is the independent clause because it can
work as a full sentence on its own while the subordinate clause is the dependent clause
because it cannot serve as a full sentence on its own. Depending on the nature of the verb in
a given clause, clauses have further been subdivided into finite and non-finite clauses. Non-
finite clauses are marked by non-finite verbs, namely: ‘ing-form’, ‘participle’, and ‘infinitive’,
as in the following examples respectively: i) ‘peeping through the window, I saw learners
playing football’; ii) ‘Having left his house in a hurry, he forgot to switch off the TV set; iii) ‘To
speak to the head teacher, I would require the support of the deputy head teacher’. Clauses
have further been subdivided into clauses with verb or verbless clauses. Consider the
following example: ‘when happyverbless clause , Johnsubj becomesverb overly generous’.

Independent clause
It is the main clause in the sentence with a subject and predicate or complement.

Dependent clause
It is a subordinate clause with incomplete meaning. Dependent clauses are optional
elements. Therefore, they can be deleted. Secondly, they can be found preceding or
following an independent clause or inserted in one. Finally, dependent clauses
usually have some feature which marks them as dependent. Consider the following
examples:

i. Mary was washing the carMC , while I cooked nsima DC (the underlined
clause is a dependent clause and can be deleted without altering the
meaning of the main clause)

ii. Although I was busy cookingDC, I could hear the splashes of waterMC .

iii. She told the man, who was wearing a red shirtDC, to leave the
room. (DC inserted in the MC)

iv. After we had fiuished writiug the exam, our papers were
collected for packaging.

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 119

Note that dependent clauses are joined to the main clause using subordinating conjunctions
such as while, in the first sentence, and relative pronouns, as in the third sentence. Here are
some of the linking words: as, after, although, as far as, as if, as long as, as soon as,
as though, because, before, by the time (that), even, even if, how, however, if, in case,
in order that, now, since, so, so long as, so that, suppose, supposing, till, though, unless,
until, whereas, whether, while, etc. Scott et al. (1968: 52) reminded us that ‘the use of
these particles is one indication of a dependent clause’. Example (iv) above uses ‘after’ in
its dependent clause. Similarly, when expressing a reason, we use because or since in the
dependent clause, as in the following example: ‘Because she came late, she failed the
test’. We could start with main clause, as in ‘she failed the test because she came late’.
Notice the change in the punctuation once we start with the main clause.

Types of clauses:

Wh-clauses
I wonder when they will leave DC.

Wh-ever marked dependent clause

Whoever betrays you, I will remain true.

That-clause
They decided that the journey was too far DC.

120 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

5.10.1
Clause patterns
To illustrate the structure of a clause, linguists have proposed the following clause
elements: subject, Verb (V) (predicate), complement (C), adjunct (A). In what follows,
the patterns are exemplified.

a. SV: John slept [use of intransitive verb]

b. SVA: John went home [use of an intensive verb]

c. SVC: John was happy [use of stative verb]

d. SVCA: John submitted his assignment in the morning [use of an intensive verb]

e. SVOC: John appointed his brother heir apparent [use of an intensive transitive verb]

f. SVO: John closed the book [use of mono-transitive verb]

g. SVOO: John bought his brother a present [use of ditransitive verb]

Activity 10: Learning outcomes 2 and 3

1. Explain the differences between independent and dependent clauses.

2. Give example sentences for each of the clause patterns discussed.
3. Discuss the relevance of this topic on language teaching in schools.

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 121

5.11

Sentences
So far, we have looked at the building blocks of sentences starting from words and how
they combine to form phrases, and how phrases combine to form clauses, and eventually
how clauses combine to form sentences. In defining a sentence, Crystal (2009: 432) starts
that a sentence is ‘the largest structural unit in terms of which the grammar of a language is
organized’. Notice that this definition places a sentence at the top on the structural
hierarchy of language organisation. While it is not difficult to identify a sentence in written
text, it is not always easy to do so from a spoken source. This is because speakers do not
always utilise such features of speech as intonation and pause to the same degree when
speaking. Therefore, it is always difficult to pass judgment as to when a sentence ends
and another one begins. In discussing sentences, traditional grammarians looked upon a
sentence as ‘the expression of a complete thought’. Critics of this position have raised
concerns about when one would know that a complete thought has been expressed. For
example, should ‘stop’ be considered a sentence since it expresses a complete thought
when used as an imperative? Because of the challenges involved in defining a sentence,
most linguists are more concerned with the classification using the Immediate Constituent
Analysis (ICA) or the hierarchical analysis of Hallidayan and other grammars, in which
sentences are seen as composites of clauses, which in turn are broken down into phrases
and eventually words (cf. Crystal, 2009).

Whatever the controversy, there is consensus on the discourse functions of sentences,

which are exemplified here below:

Statements
utterances that are primarily used to convey factual information;

Questions
utterances that are primarily used to request the listener to supply some lacking
information on a specific point;

Commands
utterances that are primarily used to instruct somebody to do something;

Exclamations
utterances primarily used to express the speaker’s own feelings or emotions.

122 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Statements, questions, commands, and exclamations are performed by special types of
sentences exemplified below:

Declarative sentences
used to express statements as in ‘She has gone to town.’

Interrogative sentences
used to express questions as in ‘Has she gone to town?’

Imperative sentences
used to express commands as in ‘Go to town.’

Exclamative sentences
used to express exclamations as in ‘What a beautiful house you have here!’

In discussing sentences, we recognise three types of sentences; namely, simple sentences,

complex sentences, and compound sentences. Each has been exemplified as shown below.

Simple sentence
a sentence made up of a subject and a predicate. For example, ‘John is a student
at Lusaka secondary school’

Complex sentence
a sentence made up of an independent clause and a subordinate clause, as in:
‘Because she came lateDC , she failed the examination’IC

Compound sentence
a sentence made up of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating
conjunction, as in: ‘John likes maths, and Mary likes English language’.

Activity 11: Learning outcomes 2 and 3

1. Give examples with correct punctuation for each of the sentence types above.
2. Why is it important to change the sentences into statements, questions, and commands
when teaching structure?

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 123

5.12

What is semantics?
Several definitions have been given about semantics. Regardless, what is common
between different definitions is that semantics is a study of meaning. For example,
consider the following definitions as adopted from Semantica Inglesa:

a. Semantics is the study of meaning (Lyons, 1977).

b. Semantics is the study of meaning in language (Hurford & Heasley, 1983).
c. Semantics is the study of meaning communicated through language (Saeed, 1997).
d. Semantics is the part of linguistics that is concerned with meaning (Löbner, 2002).
e. Linguistic semantics is the study of literal, decontextualised, grammatical meaning
(Frawley, 1992).
f. Linguistic semantics is the study of how languages organise and express meanings
(Kreidler, 1998).
g. Semantics is the study of linguistics meaning. It is concerned with what sentences
and other linguistic objects express, not with the arrangement of their syntactic parts
or with their pronunciation (Katz, 1972, p. 1).

As hinted earlier, semantics is the study of meaning of a language. One may wish to know
whether semantics is the study of meaning of a particular named language. It is important
to note that semantics covers all aspects of meaning derived from a wide range of
languages. However, meaning itself is not strictly communicated though named languages
such as Bemba, Tonga, Lozi, or Nyanja. Rather, meaning can be communicated through
symbols or signs. For example, consider the following signs and what they mean:

1. Love/peace
2. Disapproval
3. Greeting
4. Agree/yes

These symbols are not language specific but are used to communicate meaning. This begsthe
question of what is meaning? Consider the following:

‘Meaning signifies’ any and all phases of sign-process (the status of beiug a sign,
the interpretant, the fact of denoting, the significatum) aud frequently suggests mental
and valuation processes as well…’ (Morris, 1946, p. 19).

124 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Other scholars have explained meaning in different and simple ways. For example, Leech
(1974) explained that meaning refers to:

1. That to which the user of a system refers

2. That to which the user of a symbol ought to be referring
3. That to which the user of the symbol believes himself to be referring
4. That to which the interpreter of a symbol:
a. refers
b. believes himself to be referring
c. believes the user to be referring

From the definitions of meaning, you can see that language and symbols are meaningful.
In fact, the reason we use language in writing or speech is to convey meaning. That is the
reason why, if someone says something to which people cannot relate, the common question
that follows is: what do you mean? This is so because interlocutors know and expect any act of
communication to be meaningful. You may also have heard that silence is loud. This is so
because what people do and do not do all communicates meaning. Wierzbicka (1988) was
right to state that ‘everything in language conspires to convey meaning’.

So far, it has been established that semantics is the study of meaning and that meaning is
that to which the speaker, symbol, or lexis refers. What has been clear is that meaning is
not only conveyed through speech. That is why from a multimodal point of view, it
is clear that speech, action, voice, movement, gestures, sight, smell, color and gaze all
work together to create and convey meaning. This is very important for language and
literacy teaching and learning. To start with, language teaching should be meaningful. The
teaching of reading and listening comprehension means that learners should read with
understanding and, in the case of listening comprehension, the discussion should be
informed by exchange of meaningful utterances in which encoding and decoding become
central. Further, the teaching of grammar should not be restricted to rule explanation but
should extend to what those sentences mean, and they should be taught in meaningful
situations—social contexts. Similarly, in the teaching of composition and summary, it
should be the case that what learners write is clear and communicates the intended
meaning. To this end, language teaching should be meaningful. The second implication of
the multimodal nature of language is that language is not only speech. Every symbol and
the material culture communicates meaning. In this case, teachers should endeavor to use
various affordances in meaning making in the classroom. For example, speech, movement,
tone and gestures should co-work in meaning making and in emphasising/buttressing the
communicative intent in the classroom. This is clearly very helpful, as learners will connect
what they hear to what they see in understanding what the teacher is communicating.

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 125

Activity 12: Learning outcomes 2 and 3

1. What is ‘meaning’ and why is ‘meaning’ important in the teaching and learning of language?
2. Mention the different affordances which teachers can use to communicate meaning
in the classroom.
3. Why is it important for teachers to use different affordances at the same time as they teach?

5.12.1
Types of meaning
We have now come to know that semantics is the study of meaning. Meaning itself has
also been explained. Here are seven types of meaning according to Leach (1981):

1. Denotative meaning: This is also called conceptual meaning or cognitive meaning.

This refers to what words and utterances mean by their own make up outside social
context. Some explain it as the dictionary meaning of words.

2. Connotative meaning: Connotative meaning is concerned with the communicative

value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to over its purely conceptual
content. Connotative meaning is aimed at the real world experience one associates
with an expression when one uses or hears it. Connotative meaning is unstable.
Thus, it varies from time to time according to culture, historical period, and the
experiences of an individual.

3. Social and affective meaning: This is a type of meaning which is determined by social
circumstances, for example, in social relationships between the speaker and hearer;
it is also reflected in the language used that is frequently in usage of words according
to social status. Social meaning also includes what is called illocutionary force of an
utterance, whether it is interpreted as a request, an assertion, an apology, etc. For
example, I haven’t got a spoon, has a meaning of assertion and the situation where it
is spoken in a restaurant (addressed to the waiter). The assertion would be a request,
such as please bring me a spoon.

126 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

4. Affective meaning: Affective meaning refers to meaning which reflects the individual
feeling of the speaker, including his attitude expressed toward the speaker’s objective.
For example, with the objective of getting people to be quiet, we might say: I’m
terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices
a little. Politeness is included here, and factor in the possibility of voice timbre as
necessary effect as well.

5. Reflected meaning: This sort of meaning arises in cases of multiple conceptual

meanings. A sense of a word makes our reference to another sense. For example,
the synonymous expression of the comforter and the Holy Ghost both refer to Third
Person of the Trinity. So the comforter sounds warm and inviting, while the Holy
Ghost sounds awesome. Reflected meanings are less obvious and manifest
themselves as a form of euphemism too. This is the reason why reflected meanings
are not always obvious.

6. Collocative meaning: Collocative meaning is the words, which are considered to have
individual lexical items or share common ground in meaning but may be
distinguished in their occurrence. For example, pretty and handsome mean ‘good
looking’, but they can be distinguished in their occurrence with the nouns followed.
The word pretty may be followed by words such as girl, woman, lady, etc. while
handsome may be followed by words such as man, boy, etc. Further, the word green
collocates with grass while the word dark collocates night. In other words,
collocative meaning may be understood as an associative meaning in which one idea
can point to another, even if they don’t mean the same.

7. Thematic meaning: Thematic meaning is what is communicated by the way in

which a speaker or writer organises the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and
emphasis. It is the choice among expressions which have the same sense but
different in communicative values. Let’s examine the sentences below:

a. The boy kills the snake.

b. The snake is killed by the boy.

Although the two sentences mean the same, the first sentence focuses on the boy
while the second sentence focuses on the snake.

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 127

Activity 13: Learning outcomes 2 and 3

In pairs or small groups, complete the following activity:

Come up with examples to illustrate each of the seven types of meaning.
Be prepared to discuss the relevance or applicability of each of the seven types of meaning to
the teaching of literacy and language in Zambia. Refer to the syllabus content as needed.

5.13

Word/sense relations
Word meaning also comes from the relations or associations of the word you choose with
other words that are related or connected to it in various ways—which you have not
chosen, but which are there in your mind and memory. The relation between the words
comes from the relation between their meanings in varying forms. These are:

a. Synonymy: A synonymy is the relation of sameness of meaning. Examples of

synonyms are glad and happy as well as sofa and couch.

b. Entailment: Entailment is the relation between the two sentences under which one
follows necessarily from the other by the virtue of a certain semantic relation between
them. When two sentences entail each other, they are synonymous, or paraphrases.
For example: Kelvin swims beautifully entails that Kelvin swims. However, Kelvin swims
does not entail that Kelvin swims beautifully.

c. Hyponymy: This is a relationship of inclusion; a hyponym includes the meaning of a

more general word: dog and cat are hyponyms of animal; rose and lily are hyponyms
of flower. The more general term is the hyponymy.

d. Antonymy: Antonymy has to do with words which have opposite meanings.

For example, closed and open, dead and alive, he missed the target = he did not hit it.

e. Metonymy: this is the relationship of a whole to a part: hand/finger; teapot/spout;

car/engine; tree/branch, etc. This is not to be confused with hyponymy: hyponymy
expresses the relation ‘a kind of’, metonymy ‘a part of’.

f. Tautology: Tautology is a semantic redundancy which has superfluous information.

For example, ‘The man is an adult’. We can look in the predicate (adult) that its sense
is included in the subject (man). So, it is also a meaningless repetition. Another
example: ‘My brother is an unmarried bachelor’.

128 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

g. Presupposition: Presupposition is a condition found in the meaning of the sentence
expressing the proposition. In order for the sentence to make sense contextually, there
is information that must be mutually known between the speaker and the audience. To
be clear, let’s see this example: My brother is a doctor presupposes I have a brother.
Secondly, my wife is a nurse presupposes that I am married.

h. Ambiguity: ambiguity refers to having many or vague meanings. The two types of
ambiguity are syntactic ambiguity and lexical ambiguity. Syntactic ambiguity arises from
multiple syntactic structures corresponding to the same string of words. For example,
the sentence, ‘The boy saw the man with the telescope’ is ambiguous. This sentence
may mean that the boy used a telescope to see the man. But it may also mean that the
boy saw a man who had a telescope. This type of ambiguity is caused by arrangement
of words in a sentence. On the other hand, lexical ambiguity arises from multiple
meanings corresponding to the same word or phrase. For example, if you look at the
sentence This will make you smart, the word smart is ambiguous because the same
word may mean ‘intelligent’ while it may also mean ‘good looking/well dressed’.
Moreover, it is not clear what the word this is referring to.

Activity 14: Learning outcomes 2–3

1. For each of the word relations, come up with more examples besides what have already
been given.
2. Discuss the relevance of these word relations to the teaching of language.

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 129

5.14

Chapter summary
This chapter has looked at the levels of linguistic analysis such as phonetics, phonology,
morphology, syntax, and semantics. It has been clear that phonology as a study of speech
sounds in combination starts where phonetics leaves off. But what has been central is that
the knowledge of both phonetics and phonology (phonological awareness) is crucial to the
art of literacy teaching and learning. It has been revealed that while morphology studies the
structure of words, syntax studies the structure of sentences. All these are relevant to both
the teaching of literacy and language respectively. Finally, semantics as a study of meaning
forms the hallmark of language teaching and learning because while classroom interaction is
itself an exchange of meaning, language use and language learning entails that meaning is
being constructed and decoded. Overall, the chapter has shown that one’s appreciation of
language, especially as a teacher, helps one teach language and literacy both correctly and
appropriately.

130 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

5.15

Assessment of learning
1. Explain the meaning of linguistics.

2. Learning outcome 1: Define the levels of linguistic analysis (a–e), and then answer the
following question: How does a teacher’s knowledge of the following levels of linguistic
analysis relate to language and literacy teaching?

a. Phonetics

b. Phonology

c. Morphology

d. Syntax

e. Semantics

Chapter 5 – Levels of Linguistic Analysis 131

132 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
CHAPTER 6

Branches
of Linguistics

Chapter 6 – Branches of Linguistics 133

134 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
 6
Branches of Linguistics
INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter, we learnt about the levels of linguistic analysis which simply
explain how language is constructed from sounds through words to sentences. In
this chapter, we expand our view of language to consider, firstly, stretches of talk or
texts longer than sentences in discourse analysis; how language is used and abused
in society in various social-cultural contexts in pragmatics and sociolinguistics
(Edwards, 2013; Ishihara & Cohen, 2010), respectively and finally, we consider the
interface between language and the mind in psycholinguistics. The latter includes
aspects of what was discussed in language acquisition but also more about language
processing and comprehension (Field, 2011). These are what we call branches of
linguistics which are actually interfaces (meeting grounds) between language and
society and language and the mind. As may have become clear in some of the
chapters already worked through, language is not just structure or grammar, it is a
tool of communication. Communication involves interactions among speakers and
listeners who have to use their linguistic knowledge, their understanding of the
social-cultural contexts, and social relationships to reach communication goals. It is
thus important for the teacher to know how to enable learners to communicate
effectively both in writing (literacy) and speaking and these branches help teachers
to achieve this goal.

The figure below illustrates the main

foci of this chapter. While pragmatics
and sociolinguistics are related quite Language
closely to discourse analysis because Language and mental
and society processes
they provide for the context and
the learner’s ability to use language Appropriate Language
appropriately, they’re represented language form and
use function
separately to indicate their
importance to the overall discussion
in this chapter.

Figure 6.1 Branches of linguistics

Chapter 6 – Branches of Linguistics 135

6.1

Learning outcomes

Topics and outcomes from the National Syllabus:

1.2.6 Linguistics and its branches

1.2.6.1 Describe the different branches of linguistics

By the end of the chapter, the student teachers will:

1 define the following branches of linguistics: discourse analysis, pragmatics,

psycholinguistics, and sociolinguistics

2 demonstrate understanding of the branches of linguistics by providing

examples of language use

3 apply the concepts of the branches of linguistics to literacy and language

teaching and learning

6.2

Instructional materials
• Student module
• Sample text to support Activity 4

136 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

6.3

Key terms
Discourse analysis
a branch of linguistics at a level higher than a sentence concerned with the
study of language in its intra-linguistic context

Pragmatics
a branch of linguistics concerned with how context shapes how we use and
interpret language

Sociolinguistics
a branch of linguistics which studies all aspects of the relationship between language and
society

Psycholinguistics
a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the relationship between the mind
and language

Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)

a type of discourse analysis which focuses on the relationship between power and language

Critical Classroom Discourse Analysis (CCDA)

a type of discourse analysis used within the classroom context to raise social and
political awareness

Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL)

a field of linguistics which studies the relationship between language’s form and function

Conversation Analysis (CA)

a type of discourse analysis which analyses conversations; a useful tool for learning how
language learners negotiate communication within social contexts

Chapter 6 – Branches of Linguistics 137

6.4

Discourse analysis
Discourse analysis studies ‘how sentences and utterances pattern together to create
meaning across multiple sentences or utterances’ (Gee & Handford, 2012, p. 1). To get
a better understanding of what is meant by this, consider the dialogue below between
speaker A and B.

Speaker A: May I use your pen?

Speaker B: Yes, you may.

While Speaker B does not repeat the entire utterance (Yes, you may use my pen.), the
response is acceptable because it is understood in relation to the one before it. What has
changed in the next example?

Speaker A: May I use your pen?

Speaker B: My purse has been stolen.

In this exchange, there is no connection between what the two speakers uttered. We
say there is no coherence between the two utterances, which is another way of saying
that what the two speakers have said in relation to each other is not meaningful and
unified. There is coherence in the first dialogue above because we can see that the second
utterance answers what the first utterance asked for. The search for this coherence in a
stretch of language or a text is what is called discourse analysis. In what follows we give a
few examples of how this search for coherence is done, that is discourse analysis. We
begin with an examination of how a text is made coherent through cohesive devices or
formal (language) links.

Activity 1: Learning outcome 1

Define discourse analysis.

What are the characteristics of successful communication?

138 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

6.4.1
Cohesion
Cohesive devices are words used in the language to provide links within and across
sentences in a stretch of talk. These include the ones shown below. We have provided
examples to illustrate each type of cohesive link.

a. Reference: Pronouns, especially third person pronouns, are used to link together
sentences by referring back to subjects and objects (represented by nouns) in the
previous sentences as in these two sentences: John came late. He was drunk. Notice
how the pronoun ‘he’ is used to point back to the subject of the first sentence, ‘John’.

b. Substitution: She reads a novel every evening; it is the one left for her by her
mother. Notice how the noun phrase ‘the one’ has been used as a substitute for
‘a novel’. Substitution can involve nominal (noun) structures, verbal, and clausal
elements.

c. Ellipsis: A: ‘Would you like coffee or tea?’ B: ‘Tea, please.’ In this example, B’s answer
omits the words I would like… and this does not lead to a breakdown in communication
because it is understood in relation to what A asked. This demonstrates how ellipsis
(omission) as a cohesive tie is manifested in a text. Like substitution, it can be nominal,
verbal, or clausal.

d. Lexical: Repetition of words can also provide links similar to the use of pronouns. For
example, in this text: The fishing industry is very import to Zambia. Mauy people are
employed iu the fishing industry as fishermen, fish mongers aud even drivers of
vehicles that transport fish from fisheries to markets. The phrase ‘fishing industry’ is
repeated as well as related words such as fish and fisheries. These help to create
links among the sentences.

e. Conjunction: There are many words in languages which are used to link parts of
sentences such as clauses together or provide links across sentences. These are
referred to as conjunctions. Some merely add information, but some can communicate
various concepts such as time relationship, contrast or concession, reason, purpose and
so on. For example, John is rich. However, he is a very mean person. This is an example
of contrast.

Chapter 6 – Branches of Linguistics 139

Activity 2: Learning outcome 2

1. Construct sentences that use cohesive ties which are used to express the following:
a. Reason
b. Contrast
c. Result
d. Addition
e. Time
2. Explain the usefulness of cohesive ties in writing (e.g. composition, summary, etc.)

It is important to note that sometimes a text can be coherent without involving any of the
cohesive devices discussed above. For example, consider this situation: two people are
sitting in a small poorly ventilated room, one of them seated away from the only window
says to the one near the window: ‘It is hot in here’. The one near the window says: ‘I will
open the window’. We can tell there is coherence here of a different type: it depends on
the context (the physical situation) in which these two people find themselves. Coherence
requires, more often than not, a consideration of the social and physical contexts in which
people interact to work out the motives and functions of what they say. This is where
discourse analysis links up with pragmatics, which deals with language use in contexts.

Activity 3: Learning outcome 2

There is a signpost near a small forest which has these two notices:
This forest is not a toilet. The forest is for members’ use only.
After reading the signpost message, decide whether there is coherence between the two messages.

140 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

6.4.2
Organisation of information
Generally, information is organised in a manner that aids communication. As a result, the
following are ways in which information is organised to increase uptake and processing:

a. Given vs new information: Ordinarily, the given comes first while the new comes
later. In sentence structure, the subject is the given (old) and the predicate is the
new information about the subject. For example, ‘Nchimunya is unwell’; ‘that man
we visited last year has been arrested’. In both sentences the subject is assumed to
be known by both the speaker and the hearer. However, the information in the
predicate (the structure from the verb forward) is new to the hearer. And that’s the
essence of the communicative act in this given context to let the hearer know about
the new start of affairs.

b. Left – centre – right: The left and right represent the given and the new respectively.
However, the centre signifies the most important information or one that needs to be
stressed or receive focus. No wonder, even in multimodal discourse analysis, the most
important person is normally positioned in the centre when shooting photos.

Activity 4: Learning outcome 2

Identify the elements in the passage as outlined by the lecturer.

What would happen to the meaning of the text if the two pieces of information were interchanged?

Chapter 6 – Branches of Linguistics 141

6.4.3
Critical discourse analysis and critical classroom discourse analysis
Echoing the sentiments from the introduction, the various linguistic branches allow for
multiple perspectives on language to emerge and offer a more comprehensive vantage
point. Critical discourse analysis (CDA), although containing ‘discourse analysis’ in its title,
also examines social aspects of language but from a critical standpoint. Fairclough (2010)
describes CDA as being a transdisciplinary approach that is both dialectical and relational.
Relational in that there is a relationship between discourse and a social context (things
and persons) and dialectical meaning discourse between people of differing opinions or
perspectives for the purpose of arriving at a consensus or reconciliation of ideas. Issues
of power relations or hegemony along with the sustainment, hindrance, or naturalisation
of ideologies are key themes studied in CDA.

What is important here however is how CDA is relevant to the classroom. Kumaravadivelu
(2006), a second language acquisition theorist, posits that CDA linguists ‘see language
teaching as a prime source for sensitising learners to social inequalities that confront them,
and for developing necessary capabilities for addressing those inequalities. Furthermore,
CDA is an ‘advocate for critical language awareness’ in learners (p. 15). Kumaravadivelu’s
linguistic work led him to develop Critical Classroom Discourse Analysis (CCDA). His
theoretical framework focuses in on the ideological metalanguage embedded in discourse
to help learners raise their own social and political awareness. CCDA asks key questions
to guide pedagogy, which are summarised below (Kumaravadivelu, 2006, pp. 73–74):

• How can we study and understand the impact of social, political, and historical
forces on discourse and its relationship to classroom interactions?
• How can we identify ways in which learners’ backgrounds motivate the ‘style and
substance’ of classroom interaction?
• How can we analyse and assess the extent to which critical engagement and
effective language use is facilitated in the classroom?
• How do we include all learners with respect to their ‘personal purposes, attitudes,
and preferred ways of doing things’ in the ‘rules, regulations, instructional aims,
and objectives’ in the classroom?
• How do we manage classroom interactions so that everyone’s ‘beliefs, identities
and voices, fears and anxieties’ are handled with care and attention?
• How can we create a classroom environment that encourages the respect of
multiple perspectives?

142 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Activity 5: Learning outcome 3

Share your thoughts on the questions from Kumaravadivelu according to the lecturer’s instructions.

6.4.4
Conversation analysis
Conversation analysis (CA), another type of discourse analysis, is also important to the
classroom. In the wider scope of CA, linguists study language within a broad range of
social contexts (i.e. face-to-face communication, communication mediated through
technology—phone, video), but the focus of CA is ‘on the organization of conduct within
interaction’ (Clayman & Gill, 2012, p. 120). Within conversations, participants negotiate
their ‘social relationships through interaction’, and this negotiation is important in the
multilingual classroom context because ‘it implies the use and constant refinement of
both linguistic and pragmatic knowledge/ability’ (Kumaravadivelu, 2006, pp. 33–34).
When we get further into pragmatics, this will be made clearer. Kumaravadivelu (2006)
presented three dimensions to negotiation as they relate to the multilingual or (L2)
learning environment: 1) introspection, 2) interaction, and 3) interpretation. Introspection
is understood to be a quality of the learner that is unobservable, which reflects their
personal process of navigating through meanings and contexts. Through CA and
within the L2 context, it has been found that the more L2 learners interact in classroom
communication, the more successful they will be. Interaction helps learners notice
the gap between their L1 and L2. Finally, not only do language learners need opportunities
to interact, they also need opportunities that develop their interpretive abilities, their
ability to use language pragmatically.

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Activity 6: Learning outcome 3

How can you apply the concepts of introspection, interaction, and interpretation to the teaching of
English in primary schools in Zambia?

6.5

Sociolinguistics
Llamas (2011) defined sociolinguistics as a field that focuses on ‘how language is actually
used by speakers: how it varies, how it changes, how meaning is signaled and interpreted in
social interaction’ and that through sociolinguistics, we can more aptly understand the
structures of language and society (p. 501). In the classroom setting, learners must not only
have grammatical competence but also sociolinguistic competence. According to Oxford
languages, sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to social factors, including
differences of regional, class, and occupational dialect, gender differences, and bilingualism.
In addition, Nisa (2019) noted that sociolinguistics ‘is the branch of linguistics that deals with
the study of language in relation to society’ (p. 2). She further stated that language and
society are so related that they are like hand and glove. With this line of thinking, the belief
is that language cannot exist without society. Thus, language defines society just like society
reflects a language and how its language is used. To talk about social or regional dialects is
to talk about the relationship between society and language. Other social variables which
affect language are gender, class, age, attitudes, power, culture, identity, etc.

In this module and considering the scope of sociolinguistics, not all factors will be discussed.
The major reason is that most of what is supposed to be covered under sociolinguistics is
covered in chapter 7, which focuses on the language situation in Zambia. In chapter 7, many
sociolinguistic concepts and issues are addressed, especially as they relate to education and
instruction. Secondly, not every aspect of sociolinguistics is directly relevant to education
and classroom instruction. Based on these two reasons, this chapter will focus on two
aspects, namely language and identity, as well as language attitudes.

144 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

6.5.1
Language and identity
Vignoles (2017) defined identity as ‘how people answer the question, Who are you?’ (p. 1).
Thus, identity refers to who and how someone is. However, identity is not only ‘Who are
you’ because this may mean that identity is what someone says he or she is. Identity can
also be an answer to ‘Who is he/she’ or ‘Who are they’. In fact, an identity of a person is
something formed by different social actors and perceived differently by different people.
Merriam-Webster (2021) defines identity as ‘the distinguishing character or personality
of an individual’ (para. 1). Note that character or characteristics of an individual may
be natural, social, cultural, economic, or political. At most, identities overlap, and one
individual will have multiple identities. While literature classifies identity differently, in
this module, only four types of identity will be discussed as they relate to language and
language teaching. These are:

a. Ascribed identity: This is a type of identity people are born with or which they gain
through involuntary action. For example, sex, race, tribe, height, parents one is born
from, etc. These are natural, and one has no control over them; they did not choose
them, yet they form almost an indispensable part of their identity. It is important that
teachers take note of these identity markers so that no learner is discriminated against
or excluded based on identities they cannot change and which they did not deliberately
choose in the first place. Girls and boys, for example, should be treated equally without
favoring one over the other. Learners from poor and rich parents should all be treated
with respect and the teacher should promote mutual respect between and among
learners despite their different identities. In addition, teachers should design and
deliver lessons with full recognition and respect for these identities. The language of
instruction and examples given should resonate with the identity or identities present in
the classroom.

b. Imposed identity: This is a type of identity which others place or assign to an

individual. This may be due to experience or mere perception. Sometimes, people can
assign or place an identity because of stereotyping of someone or a group, depending
on where an individual belongs or with whom s/he associates. For example, it is an
imposed identity to claim that all girls are dull in mathematics and, to extend this to an
individual, say Jane, when she fails maths that it is expected because she is a girl.
Firstly, it is only a stereotype that girls are not strong in mathematics. Secondly, the
reason Jane might have failed mathematics may have been that the teacher tested the
class on topics they did not discuss in class. Further, to think that poor children or
children from poor families cannot make it in education is equally an imposed identity
because there is no one-to-one correspondence between poverty and success in

Chapter 6 – Branches of Linguistics 145

 school. Another example would be a case where a teacher does not scaffold a learner
who failed an end-of-term assessment because he concluded that the learner was dull
and not serious. From that point on, the teacher treats that learner as dull and
irresponsible. This stereotype based on experience may be detrimental to the learner,
who has since started working hard and is no longer failing, etc. It is important that
teachers do not impose or enact imposed identities on learners because they can have a
long-lasting impact on learners.

c. Negotiable identity: This is a type of identity which a person thinks s/he is and
makes attempts to portray or explain to others. This may be different from an
imposed identity, which is what others think you are. Negotiable identity is one with
which a person strives to identify. For example, if a learner thinks you mistake him/
her for someone who is not serious, s/he may deliberately start coming to you for
consultation to negotiate a different identity. The learner may equally start studying
in your presence or in a place where you will notice just to negotiate the identity of a
serious person. Equally, if parents think their child is unmotivated and not serious at
school, the child may explain to the parents that contrary to their view, he is serious,
etc. Further, the child may start to keep lights on at night to just show that he is reading
in order to negotiate the identity which s/he thinks is the correct identity. In the school
set type, it is important for teachers to support learners when they are negotiating
identities, especially those identities which support academic achievement. Thus,
instead of ignoring or rebuking the learner based on your imposed identity, you need
to support the learner to become even better.

d. Achieved/assumed identity: this is a type of identity which comes through effort or

deliberate action. People work hard to achieve some identities. For example,
Cristiano Ronaldo’s identity as arguably the best footballer of all time is an example
of achieved identity. Wealthy can also be an achieved status just like academic
success. It is important for teachers to ensure that these identities are used and
enacted productively and in a way that they don’t impede the progress or wellbeing
of others in school.

As it can be observed from the four types of identity above, the four types overlap, and
one person can have all the four types of identities. What is also clear is that all learners
have identities, and the classroom is full of different identities. The fluid nature of identity
means also that a person may have several identities which might be contrasting. Crucially,
most identities are not permanent as they can change from time to time, and one person
may be perceived differently by different people. The dynamism of identity also means that
teachers should be aware of this fact and never treat learners based on their one-off
negative experience. People are in constant change, especially as they grow and gain

146 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

more experience. Thus, labelling learners is not encouraged because of its negative effects,
including the fact that some learners may end up accepting and enacting negative
identities/stereotyping which may have been forced on them.

Activity 7: Learning outcomes 1 and 3

1. Define sociolinguistics.
2. Reflect on your own identities while you were in primary school.
3. Based on your own experiences, how do you think these identities affected how
teachers treated you?
4. How do you think this affected how teachers related with fellow learners based on
their identities?
5. How will you handle these types of differences among the learners in your classroom?

6.5.2
Language attitudes and classroom teaching
Chaiken (1993) defined an attitude as ‘a psychological tendency that is expressed by
evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor’ (p. 1). Put differently,
attitudes involve deciding in terms of liking versus disliking, approving vs. disapproving or
favouring vs. disfavouring a particular issue, object, or person. It can be asserted that
language attitudes refer to one’s judgment or evaluative decision of liking or disliking,
approving or disapproving, as well as favouring or disfavouring of a particular language or
languages. Clearly, not all languages are perceived in the same way by everyone. Whether
someone will favor or not depends on the advantages associated with a particular language
and how one associates themselves with one language over another. Generally, there are
three manifestations of attitudes as follows:

a. Positive attitude: A feeling or response of favor, agreement, liking, or approval towards

a language. Literature has shown that some learners in Zambian even at high school
hold positive attitudes towards English because they perceive it as the language of
higher education, employment, and social mobility. They are normally motivated to
learn the language and use it as a medium of instruction because of the perceived
advantages of the language (See Mwanza, 2016).

Chapter 6 – Branches of Linguistics 147

b. Negative attitude: A feeling or response of disfavour, dislike, disagreement, or
disapproval towards a language. This may be because of the experience of the
language, lack of economic advantages of the language, low social status, and lack of
official functions assigned to the language. Some of the reasons why some learners
and parents hold negative language attitudes towards Zambian languages is that they
perceive Zambian languages to lack economic power. Such learners or parents,
including teachers, may not want Zambian languages to be used in class, even as a
medium of instruction.

c. Neutral attitude: A feeling or response which neither favours nor unfavours, likes or
dislikes a particular language. This may be because of ignorance or because according
to present knowledge, both options or all languages are known to be of equal status.

Language attitudes are always present in the classroom. They may be positive, negative,
or neutral. In terms of languages as the language of instruction (LOI) and as languages of
learning in schools, teachers ought to cultivate a positive attitude to every language in
the classroom because functionally, all languages are used for communication. The
implication of this is that multilingual-based instruction such as translanguaging should
be seen as normal and progressive language practices which recognise the linguistic
identities of the learners, and they are used as steppingstones to acquiring official
knowledge in the classroom.

Activity 8: Learning outcome 3

1. What are the educational disadvantages of teachers having negative attitudes towards some
languages in a multilingual classroom?
2. How can you change learners’ negative attitudes in school and in the classroom?
3. What is the relationship between language attitudes and translanguaging?

148 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

6.6

Pragmatics
According to Grundy (2000), pragmatics studies language as it is used in contextualised
communication and the principles that are associated with it. Pragmatics has much
in common with what is discussed under discourse analysis and sociolinguistics. It is
concerned with features of talk such as the appropriacy of what is said to the context or
situation in which it is said and relevance of language use. It deals with how people make
sense of indirect utterances through inference making, among others. For example, the
dialogue we had at the beginning of the discourse analysis sections which appeared to be
incoherent can be given a different interpretation:

Speaker A: May I use your pen?

Speaker B: My purse has been stolen.

We normally expect that people’s responses will be relevant to what has been said before
but when they appear to be ignoring this maxim (or rule) of conversation (Grice, 1975),
we have to find an alternative explanation. In this case, the fact that speaker B is avoiding
answering the request might be taken to mean she doesn’t want to lend him her pen.
This is what we call a conversational implicature or what is implicated in the conversation.
Pragmatic competence takes some time to acquire in children because they have to
experience life; they have to see how people handle different situations and how they use
language in those. It is particularly harder to learn the pragmatics of a second or foreign
language because it is connected to the culture of that language.

The field of pragmatics has direct implications for the multilingual classroom context or the
L2 learning environment. It can be understood through a sociolinguistic frame in that
pragmatics is not only a ‘cognitive process but also a social phenomenon’, and through
pragmatics we can learn how ‘L2 speakers construct and negotiate their identities as they
become socialised into the L2 community’ (Ishihara & Cohen, 2014, para. 6). Teachers can
help their learners develop their pragmatic ability or competence. Pragmatic ability refers to
our knowledge of pragmatics and our ability to apply pragmatics across listening, reading,
speaking, and writing. Being pragmatically successful depends on each learner’s language
proficiency, demographic characteristics, and prior experiences with language(s) and
competent language speakers (Ishihara & Cohen, 2014). The table below summarises
the skills we need to demonstrate pragmatic competence.

Chapter 6 – Branches of Linguistics 149

Table 6.1 Pragmatic competence and communication skills

Skill To be competent, we need to…

Listening interpret what is said and what is not said including verbal
and non-verbal cues

Reading comprehend text, structure, genre, nuances in tone

or attitude

Speaking know how to say what we want to say, formally or informally,

and how to communicate non-verbally

Writing know how to write, informally or formally, with appropriate

form/structure

As we learnt in Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), we use speech for a variety of purposes,
and as it applies here, our pragmatic ability or competence facilitates how well our speech is
executed, whether that is through, for example, declaring, apologising, promising, refusing,
requesting, complaining, complimenting, inviting, etc. The next section, Speech Act Theory,
outlines speech as a performance and interaction between the speaker and the hearer and a
brief overview of the conditions that must be met for speech to be well-executed.

6.6.1
Pragmatics in the multilingual classroom
In chapter 3, we learnt about the functions of language and how supporting learners’
metalinguistic awareness supports literacy and language learning. Understanding how
to use language appropriately by context, pragmatics, is part of this. In the multilingual
classroom, there may be learners who are unfamiliar with the LOI, and their rate of learning
will be different than those whose Mother Tongues (MT) or L1 are the same as the LOI.
It is therefore important for teachers to be proactive in understanding what may prevent
pragmatic competence in L2 learners. There are numerous reasons why learners may have
difficulty using language pragmatically when their language differs from the LOI (Ishihara &
Cohen, 2014). For one, pragmatic norms may not have transferred positively. This negative
transfer may be due in part to a misunderstanding of how the norms in their L1 apply in the
L2 or target language, which would be more prevalent in the case where the cultural norms
between languages are quite different. What is acceptable to say in one language may not
be acceptable to say in another. Another cause for divergence may result from the learners’
grammatical ability. While learners may have a strong grammatical ability, this doesn’t mean
they are able to respond in a pragmatic way. They may be unable to adequately form

150 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

a grammatical sentence that matches the complexity of an appropriate response. Learners
may also overgeneralise rules in their L1 and incorrectly apply those rules to the L2. As well
as this, the instruction itself and the learning materials in the classroom may not be
sufficient for supporting pragmatic competence. Finally, pragmatic divergence may occur
when learners are resistant to using the pragmatic norms of the L2. It is believed one reason
for this may be due to learners feeling conflicted with their own identity and the L2.

Knowing that there are challenges in learning a new language and that some of these
challenges are found within pragmatic ability, teachers can help remedy these challenges by
providing both explicit and implicit instruction in pragmatics. Explicit instruction in
pragmatics is quite similar to explicit instruction in metalanguage. Ishihara & Cohen (2014)
suggest numerous tasks that teachers can implement in their classroom to build pragmatic
competence. The list below includes some of their suggestions:

• Analysing and practising content-specific vocabulary

• Identifying and practising grammatical structures

• Identifying and practising a variety of speech acts

• Analysing and practising speaking and writing in a variety of formats (informal,

formal/academic, presentations)

• Noticing and practising the use of different tones

• Identifying and using a range of cultural norms

• Identifying and using possible cultural reasoning

• Analysing and practising different levels of formality in interaction (i.e. directness,

politeness/deference)

• Remain culturally sensitive, support and encourage learners’ L1

While teachers must be aware of learners’ pragmatic abilities and personal characteristics
(cultural backgrounds, language), teachers must also be aware of the psycholinguistic
factors and processes that contribute to learners’ success (Kumaravadivelu, 2006).
In the following section, these factors and processes are explored.

Activity 9: Learning outcome 3

1. How can we ensure that learners who are not able to speak and understand the second
language and language of classroom communication are helped to access learning?
2. With examples, how can you apply the pragmatic tasks listed above in classroom interaction?

Chapter 6 – Branches of Linguistics 151

6.7

Psycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics is the interface between two disciplines, namely psychology and
linguistics. While psychology is the study of the mind and behaviour, linguistics refers to the
study of language. Therefore, Psycholinguistics is defined as ‘a study of the psychology of
language’ (Purba, 2018, p. 47). Psycholinguistics has also been defined as ‘the study of the
relationship between human language and human mind’ (Maftoon & Shakouri, 2012 as
cited in Purba, 2018, p. 47). Three processes are investigated under psycholinguistics,
namely: (a) language production, (b) language comprehension, and (c) language
acquisition. As you observed in chapters 4 and 5, these three processes were discussed
to a large extent. As a discipline, Psycholinguistics is a multidisciplinary field of linguistics
including but not limited to cognitive psychology, speech science, neurolinguistics, and
computer modelling (Field, 2011). Linguists in this field study the ‘cognitive processes that
underlie the storage, use, and acquisition of language and their correlates in observable
neural activity’ (Field, 2011, p. 472).

Our ability to store and retrieve language depends on our working memory (WM) and long-
term memory (LTM). WM and LTM processes are controlled by a ‘central executive’ which
directs how much attention is needed and how attention is distributed. WM is
different from LTM in that its capacity is limited; LTM ‘enables the language user to command
phonology, to retrieve lexical items and to produce utterances that are grammatically correct’
(Field, 2011, p. 475). Some children have difficulty with memory retrieval, but teachers
can help learners build their memory skills. Here are some helpful ways.

Teachers may:

Give directions to students in both visual and verbal formats and ask learners to
repeat directions and explain the meaning of the directions.

Teach learners to overlearn material or repeatedly review material even when it is

assumed that the material has been learnt.

Teach learners to use visual images to help them memorise vocabulary words.

Provide printed directions to learners to follow and refer to as needed. These

directions can also be accompanied by visuals.

Teach learners to highlight, underline, or make notes in text to show that they are
actively reading.

152 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

 Provide graphic organisers to learners to help them organise information visually
and to be used as a guide or tool for future reference.

Provide memory games in the classroom so that memory practice feels like play.

6.7.1
Psycholinguistics subdisciplines
There are subdisciplines under psycholinguistics, each of which attempts to respond to
different language concerns. Below are the seven subdisciplines of Psycholinguistics
according to Chaer (2015), as cited in Purba, 2018, p. 48:

a. Theoretical psycholinguistics: Focused on theories of language relating to human

mental processes in language, such as phonetics, diction, syntax design, discourse,
and intonation.

b. Developmental psycholinguistics: Related to language acquisition, both first

language acquisition (L1) and second language acquisition (L2); examine
phonological, semantic, and syntactic acquisition, emergent through processes
in stages that develop gradually and become integrated.

c. Social psycholinguistics: Related to the social aspects of language, including

social identity.

d. Educational psycholinguistics: Discusses general aspects of formal education at

school, including the role of language in teaching reading proficiency and improving
language ability to express thoughts and feelings.

e. Neuro-psycholinguistics: This subfield focuses on the relationship between

language, language production, and the human brain. Neurology experts have
managed to analyse the biological structure of the brain and how the input and
output of language are processed in the brain.

f. Experimental psycholinguistics: Concerned with conducting experiments of how

language is processed in the brain to better understand the processing of language
in the brain.

g. Applied psycholinguistics: Concerned with the application of the findings of six

subdisciplines of psycholinguistics explained before in certain areas that require
them, including psychology, linguistics, language learning, neurology, psychiatry,
communications, and literature.

Chapter 6 – Branches of Linguistics 153

In terms of their relevance to language teaching, developmental psycholinguistics
and applied psycholinguistics contribute to the formulation of language teaching
approaches such as the cognitive code approach, natural method, total physical response,
suggestopedia, and audiolingual approaches.

For example, the audiolingual method was influenced by behavioural psychology. Language
learning is patterned on the habit formation and conditioning in behavioural psychology.
Social psycholinguistics is useful in understanding the psychosocial condition of the learner
and how that condition informs as well as affects teaching and learning. It also shows how
the social conditions of the learners form their identity, which later creates a basis for which
the child will feel accepted by a social group or how the learner will psychologically feel
outside the social group—all of which affects learning. Mitigating these issues becomes
central to classroom success both on the part of the learner and the teacher. Similarly,
educational psycholinguistics explains the role of language in teaching reading proficiency
and how to use language to improve a learner’s expressive skills. Since educational
psycholinguistics studies the role of psychology and language in formal education
settings, it is imperative that teacher educators and teachers of literacy and language
possess a thorough knowledge of the relationship between psychology and language from
different perspectives to position themselves as competent teachers of language and
literacy respectively. In short, all the seven subdisciplines are important to language and
language learning and acquisition. This may become even clearer as attention is drawn to
psychological factors affecting language learning in the next section.

Activity 10: Learning outcomes 1 and 3

Define psycholinguistics.
Discuss the relevance of the above subdivisions of psycholinguistics to language and literacy
teaching.

154 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

6.7.2
Psycholinguistic factors affecting language learning
It is well established that teaching and learning does not take place in a vacuum. These two
processes are affected by several factors. In this chapter, the concern is on psycholinguistic
factors which affect language teaching and learning. Consider the following factors from
Lightbown and Spada (2006, pp. 58–74):

a. Intelligence: Intelligence refers to one’s ability and performance on tests, which are
often linked with school success. In second language learning, intelligence has been
known to play a key role in one’s performance in all the four language skills of listening,
speaking, writing, and reading.

b. Aptitude: Aptitude is understood to mean one’s ability to learn quickly and easily.
It is therefore argued that high aptitude helps a learner to learn the language quickly
and easily and at high speed, including high levels of endurance on a language
learning task or situation.

c. Learning style: The term learning style is understood to mean different things to
different people. According to Purba (2018), learning style refers to ‘an individual’s
natural, habitual, and preferred way of absorbing, processing, and retaining new
information and skills’. While some learners learn better with visual materials, others
learn better with an oral explanation. Yet, there are learners who learn better through
practical activities. All of these are learning styles. What is important to realise is that
language and literacy classrooms have all these types of learners. Thus, teachers are
encouraged to be eclectic in their teaching so that they reach out to all learners.

d. Personality: Different learners have different personalities which all affect their
learning of language and literacy. Some learners are extroverts, which is said to be
a very helpful personality in language and literacy learning. Other personality traits
which affect language and literacy learning in different ways include but are not
limited to the following: worry, nervousness, stress, self-esteem, empathy,
dominance, and talkativeness.

e. Intrinsic motivation: This type of motivation is engendered through a learner’s

communicative needs and attitudes towards second language. In case of
communicative needs, if a child sees English as a steppingstone to higher education
and employment, he or she is likely to work hard to learn the language. In the case
of attitudes towards second language, positive attitudes towards second language is
considered to be helpful. In fact, it has been found that most learners in Zambia
have more positive attitudes towards English over Zambian languages, and this
varying response affects their response to language learning (Mwanza, 2017).

Chapter 6 – Branches of Linguistics 155

f. Extrinsic motivation: These are environmental factors, including the teacher and
parents who encourage and motivate learners to learn a second language or with
literacy. These could even be role models and celebrities who are successful, speak
the language well, etc.

g. Culture and status: Purba (2018) explained that there is some evidence that students
in situations where their own culture has a lower status than that of the culture in
which they are learning the language make slower progress. Other related social
factors include the status of the language being learnt. For example, it is possible
that learners may find literacy in English more important than literacy in Zambian
languages. When this is the case, learners may be motivated to learn reading and
writing in English more than they would be motivated in Zambian languages. Similarly,
it is not surprising that some parents may prefer their children being taught in English,
even without prior exposure to the language, simply because of the perceived status
and advantage of English over other languages. Social factors at a more general level
can affect motivation, attitudes, and language learning success. In all this, the social
dynamic or power relationship between the languages play a big part.

h. Age: Second language learning is influenced by the age of the learner. Children, who
already have solid literacy skills in their own language, seem to be in the best position
to acquire a new language efficiently. Motivated, older learners can be very successful
too, but usually struggle to achieve native-speaker-equivalent pronunciation and
intonation. Research has found that age distinguishes children and adults in learning a
second language in certain aspects such as phonology, morphology, and syntax.

Activity 11: Learning outcome 3

How can the following factors affect language and literacy teaching in primary schools,
and what should teachers do to mitigate the effect of the listed factors?
a. Intelligence
b. Learning style
c. Personality
d. Intrinsic motivation
e. Extrinsic motivation
f. Culture
g. Age

156 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

6.7.3
Psycholinguistics approach and four language skills
Psycholinguistics is helpful in understanding how an individual perceives and produces
language. Perception or language reception is concerned with the skills of listening and
reading while language production is concerned with the skills of writing and speaking.
Thus, there is a relationship between psycholinguistics with the skills of listening, reading,
speaking, and writing. Below is an explanation of this relation (Demirezen, 2004; Purba,
2018, pp. 52):

Psycholinguistics approach and listening skill

When teaching listening, intrinsic motivational factors (such as the speed of the
speech, number of unknown words, and prior knowledge about topic) as well as
extrinsic factors (such as a learner’s interest, motivation, purpose of listening activity,
and noise in the environment) all need to be controlled for the teaching of listening to
be successful. In addition to this, teachers can increase the level of motivation to
listen by designing an engaging and relaxing/comfortable learning space.

Psycholinguistics approach and reading skill

According to the psycholinguistics approach, the text-based approach is both
bottom-up processing as well as top-down processing. As a bottom-up process, the
idea is to emphasise comprehension, while top-down will be aimed at stressing the
point that comprehension of text is dependent on the learners’ knowledge base. In
practice, bottom-up processing happens when a reader tries to understand the text
by first focusing on the individual meanings of the most basic units of the text and
then moves from these basic units to understanding the whole text. On the other
hand, top-down processing of the text takes place when a reader uses background
knowledge to predict the meaning of the language they are going to read. Thus,
instead of depending on individual words, they make predictions of what they will
read and later confirm or refute these expectations as they read. This emphasises
the importance and use of learners’ prior knowledge to understanding text. The role
of psycholinguistics is also in reducing learners’ intrinsic challenges by arousing
learners’ interest in the text and reading it. To do so, teachers need to use authentic
and contextually relevant and interesting reading materials. A lack of
contextualisation may more likely result in learners being disinterested in the text
and reading as a whole.

Chapter 6 – Branches of Linguistics 157

 Psycholinguistics approach and writing skill
Psycholinguistics is helpful to teachers in understanding learners’ mistakes in writing,
especially that the spelling system in English is not transparent. This is difficult
because storing and retrieving correct spelling on demand is challenging. Some writing
difficulties are because of agraphia (Hux & Mahrt, 2019). To help learners to write
with ease and success, teachers should find interesting topics to write about, as this
has been found to decrease writing difficulty among learners. This also helps to solve
the mechanical mistakes on punctuation, etc.

Psycholinguistics approach and speaking skill

Psycholinguistic approach is very relevant to the teaching of speaking. Some learners
have psychological disorders which have affected their speaking ability. Conditions
such as aphasia, autism, stuttering, and disarticulation all affect speech and the
teaching of speaking (Beals et al., 2015; Lavid, 2003; McLeod & Goldstein, 2012;
Soskey et al., 2017). The role of the teacher is to identify learners with these
difficulties and find measures for how to help such learners. One of the ways is to
choose interesting topics for discussion so that learners are motivated to speak.

Activity 12: Learning outcome 3

How does psycholinguistics relate to the teaching and learning of writing, speaking, reading
and listening?

158 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

6.8

Language disorders
There are a number of disorders which have a huge impact on language acquisition,
learning, and use. It is important to discuss these conditions so that teachers find ways of
appropriating their instruction so that both teaching and learning are learner-centred.
Inclusive teaching implies that teachers are aware of both the language deficits learners
have and how they can be helped. Below are some of the language disorders and their
characteristics according to Schirmer et al. (2004):

Table 6.2 Language disorders and associated characteristics

Name of difficulty Characteristic(s)

Autism Immediate or late echolalia, perseveration (inappropriate persistence on the same

subject) associated to alterations of non-verbal communication, stereotyped and
persistent behaviour, and restricted and/or unusual interests may occur. Social
capability is also affected. He or she may also be hard to understand, use a robotic
voice, and speak very little or not at all.

Phonological dyslexia Phonological decoding incapacity. Damages on grapheme-phoneme conversion.

Difficulties in performing tasks that involve phonologic memory. Very bad
performance on reading of nonfamiliar stimulus and pseudowords (non-real words).

Literal dyslexia (pure) Letter-by-letter reading is maintained.

Neglect dyslexia Difficulties in reading on the visual field of the contra-lateral side of brain injury.

Attentional dyslexia Ability to read single words is maintained. Difficulties in reading multiple items
when simultaneously displayed.

Deep dyslexia Absence of non-word reading. Ability to read concrete and frequent words.

Surface dyslexia Impairment of the lexical route. Stimuli are read through a phonologic process
e.g. reading pint to rhyme with hint, etc.). Orthographic treatment of information
is impaired.

Stuttering There are several ways in which stuttering manifests itself, including speech
characterised with long pauses, stretching a sound, and repetitions—including
repetitions of a word within a word. It must be mentioned that stuttering can be
triggered by nervousness.

Selective mutism Normally, a child with selective mutism may keep quiet and fail to speak or
communicate in class. This is sometimes triggered in certain social situations. Thus,
selective mutism may come up in certain situations and not in other situations.

Attention hyperactive Learners fail to pay attention and control their behaviour in class. Learners may also
disorder have problems with sitting still.

Chapter 6 – Branches of Linguistics 159

Activity 13: Learning outcome 3

How can teachers design and provide instruction in the classroom if there are learners with
each of the language disorders explained in the table above?

6.9

Putting it all together:

Communicative competence
In Zambia, the goal of teaching English is to develop communicative competence in
learners. Hymes (1972) explained communicative competence as knowing when and
how to say what to whom. As such, Widowson (1990) argued that the need to develop
communicative competence in learners has also led to a shift from teaching from linguistic
structure-centred approaches to a communicative approach. Mwanza (2016) noted that
‘Communicative Language Teaching Approach (CLT) refers to both the processes and goals
in classroom learning and the fact that communicative competence comprises abilities in
expression, interpretation and negotiation of meaning’ (p. 10). This method is influenced
by functional linguistics (Savignon, 2002; Halliday, 1978) and it arose from Dell Hymes’
concept of ‘communicative competence’. Hymes’ classic utterance states, ‘There are rules
of use without which the rules of grammar would be useless’ (Hymes 1972, p. 279). The
utterance does not mean that grammatical or linguistic competence is not significant in
language teaching but that for a teacher to be successful in language teaching, he or she
should consider both the grammatical rules and the rules of use, which are also referred to
as rules of appropriateness. To this, ‘one has to take the whole context and communicative
situation into account when determining whether an utterance is successful or not’
(Mwanza, 2016, p. 10).

The concept of communicative competence is helpful in showing the link between

Sociolinguistics, Discourse analysis, Pragmatics, and Psycholinguistics, including syntax,
which was discussed in the previous chapter. The idea is that all these branches of
linguistics discussed are relevant to the teaching of language. This link between these
branches, including a level of linguistic analysis of syntax, is best understood through

160 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

the lens of the four dimensions of communicative competence, which is itself the goal of
teaching language in Zambian primary schools. Mwelwa and Mwanza (2020) explained
the four dimensions of communicative competence as follows:

a. Grammatical or linguistic competence: This type of competence includes the linguistic

forms which are traditionally subsumed under the category of grammar; including rules
of sentence structure, word formation, and pronunciation. In short, it looks at words
and rules. This type of competence directly relates to syntax and rules of discourse,
including grammatical agreement, substitution, etc. Thus, what one sees is that for one
to communicate competently, they need the knowledge of syntax and discourse rules.

b. Sociolinguistic competence: It is also called pragmatic competence. It refers to

an ‘understanding of the social context in which communication takes place,
including role relationship, the shared information of the participants, and the
communicative purpose for their interaction’ (Richards & Rodgers, 1986:71). This
type of competence clearly relates to sociolinguistics. This means that the teachers’
knowledge of sociolinguistics is crucial in situating not only communication but
teaching language appropriately.

c. Discourse competence: This is understood in terms of the interaction of individual

message elements in terms of their interconnectedness and of how meaning is
represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text. The implication of having
this linguistic knowledge is that teachers should teach language as a whole or as
discourse instead of focusing on sentences and words out of context. Reading and
reading comprehension require one to have discourse competence. In relating
communicative competence to branches of linguistics, it is clear that discourse
competence relates to discourse analysis.

d. Strategic competence: This basically refers to the coping strategies that are employed
by communicators to initiate, maintain, repair, and terminate or redirect
communication (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). This is a very important aspect of
communicative achievement and communicative competence. This type of
competence requires one to possess psycholinguistic as well as pragmatic knowledge to read
the interlocutor and context of communication to decide what and how to communicate.

From the dimensions of communicative competence above, all the branches of linguistics
discussed in this chapter converge on developing a communicatively competent learner.
The knowledge of syntax alone does not result in successful communication without
the sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competence. The four dimensions are
so interdependent in the same way the branches of linguistics co-work to create an
effective communicator.

Chapter 6 – Branches of Linguistics 161

Activity 14: Learning outcome 3

“Write a lesson description on a topic of your choice to show how you can teach that topic in a waythat
all the four dimensions of communicative competence are covered.

6.10

Chapter summary
In this chapter, we have explored discourse analysis, sociolinguistics, pragmatics, and
psycholinguistics. It has been shown that these branches of linguistics all have a bearing on
language and literacy teaching, and when taken into consideration together, form a more
comprehensive perspective of how we learn and use language, how language is affected
by a variety of factors. It is hoped that student teachers will understand the meanings of the
respective branches of linguistics and possess the skills of applying the knowledge into
classroom instruction and behaviour.

162 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

6.11

Assessment of learning
1. What do we mean by branches of linguistics? How do they differ from levels of
linguistic analysis?

2. Write brief definitions of the branches of linguistics.

3. Discuss the relevance of branches of linguistics to language and literacy teaching.

Chapter 6 – Branches of Linguistics 163

164 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
CHAPTER 7

Language
Situation
in Zambia

Chapter 7 – Language Situation in Zambia 165

166 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
 7
Language Situation in Zambia
INTRODUCTION

Language situation refers to the number of languages spoken in

a country and the relationships among them. Zambia, like many
other African countries, is a multilingual country which means
that it has many languages spoken within its borders (Kashoki,
2018). In addition, many people in Zambia are either bilingual,
that is, are able to speak at least two languages or multilingual,
they speak more than two languages. Others may be classified
as polyglots (Greek: poly = many and glot = language). This
is in sharp contrast with many European countries where
monolingualism is common: only one dominant language is
spoken, such as English in the United Kingdom. It is important to
understand the language situation because it provides the
context in which education is conducted and, more importantly,
it has implications for the teaching of languages and literacy
especially in relation to which languages are taught or excluded
from the education system.

Chapter 7 – Language Situation in Zambia 167

7.1

Learning outcomes

Topics and outcomes from the National Syllabus:

1.3.1 Language policy in Zambia

1.3.1.1 Explain the language policy changes in Zambia before and after independence

1.3.2 Language and dialect

1.3.2.1 Distinguish differences between language and dialects, language and ethnicity,
language and gender, language and identity
1.3.2.2 Explain the following terms: Mono-lingualism, Bi-lingualism, polyglot, multilingualism,
foreign language, official language, local language, familiar language, lingua franca,
register, diglossia, endoglossia, exoglossia, and national official language

By the end of the chapter, the student teachers will:

1 describe the relationship between language and ethnicity

2 explain the following terms: monolingualism, bilingualism, polyglot, foreign language,

official language, local language, familiar language, lingua franca, language register,
diglossia, endoglossia, exoglossia, and heteroglossia

3 distinguish between language and dialect

4 use lexical similarities to determine which of their languages are related

5 demonstrate understanding of the relationship between language and ethnicity

6 explain the number of languages spoken in the country

7 describe the language situation in Zambia using sociolinguistic terms

8 discuss the implications of the language situation on language policy and language
and literacy education.

7.2

Instructional materials
Student module

168 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

7.3

Key terms
Language
A conventional, structured system human use to communicate by sound,
written text, or gestures.

Dialects
Related varieties of the same language. People speaking dialects of the same language
have mutual intelligibility, that is, they understand each other.

Mutual intelligibility
Able to understand each other. A characteristic of dialects that while different are so similar
that people can understand each other.

Register
Variations in language used in different social situations.

Ethnicity
Refers to the ethnic group/tribe that a person self-identifies with due to a shared culture,
norms, values, and language.

Cognates
Shared words across languages as a result of their similar ancestral language origin.

Status language planning

A process for determining which languages or dialects should be officially used in different
social domains.

Corpus language planning

A process of developing a language including the development of an orthography, literature,
and even vocabulary creation.

Official language(s)
A language prescribed by law to be used as the language of government administration,
education, and so on (e.g. English in Zambia).

Mono-, bi-, multi-

Prefixes joined to -lingual (language) to refer to the number of languages spoken in a
country or by individuals; mono = one, bi = two and multi = many.

Chapter 7 – Language Situation in Zambia 169

Polyglot
A Greek word (poly = many, glot = tongue/language) which refers to a person who has
command of many languages.

Endo-, exo-
Prefixes jointed to -glossic (language) to refer to the adoption of language policies that
include either: an inside or native language (endoglossic) as an official language; a
foreign language (exoglossic) as an official language.

Heteroglossia
Refers to the presence of multiple varieties of the same language.

Diglossia
Refers to the existence of two forms of the same language in which one is used for
formal/official purposes and the other for ordinary communication.

Foreign language
A language which is not indigenous to a country such as French in Zambia.

Familiar language
A language of the community which may or may not be a mother tongue but is familiar
to learners, for example.

Lingua franca
A language commonly used by speakers of different languages for communication in a
region. For example, Nyanja is a lingua franca in Lusaka province.

170 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

7.4

The difference between language and dialect

In this chapter, we discuss language from the social point of view, how we identify languages
we or other people speak, and how we communicate with each other. Most of us are able to
name the language that we speak when asked. For example, a person from Namwala might
say he/she speaks Ila while another from Gwembe might say Tonga. If the two were to
engage in a conversation, they would discover that they spoke similar languages. This is
because they would understand each other to some extent. If, however, a Tonga speaker was
to meet a person from Chipata who claimed to speak Nyanja, they might have difficulties in
understanding each other. These examples show the differences between languages and
dialects, related varieties of the same language, sharing to a large extent, linguistic features
like words, grammar, and pronunciation. Where people can understand each other in spite of
speaking ‘languages’ with different names, we say there is mutual intelligibility. This is the
most important test that linguists use to distinguish between one language and another, as
opposed to dialects of the same language. In order to have mutual intelligibility between
language varieties, lexical (word) similarities between the languages should be 85% or higher
with percentages of 70% or lower being less satisfactory (Swaka et al., 2019). (From the
Tonga and Ila example, we can tell that the two are dialects of each other, but the
relationship of Nyanja to Tonga is that of two distinct languages.) To explore the differences
between language and dialect deeply, this section is divided into further subsections that
differentiate between regional dialects, social dialects, and standard language.

7.4.1
Regional dialects
Since all indigenous Zambian languages belong to the Bantu language family, we expect
that they should share many cognates, words which historically came from the same
ancestral language which in the case of Bantu languages is called Proto-Bantu. However,
when people speaking the same language drift apart and live long distances from each other
or come into contact with speakers of other languages, their languages undergo some
changes. They either create (innovate) new words, for example, to talk about new things
in their environment or they borrow words from other speakers of different languages. In
this way regional dialects are created. For example, the Bemba spoken in Luapula province
differs in minor ways in terms of pronunciation to the one spoken in the Northern Province.
A Luapula speaker (e.g. Aushi) calls a ‘rubbish pit’ ikishala while one from the Northern
Province (e.g. Bemba) calls it icishala. In Valley Tonga ‘to wash’ is pronounced as kusanzya
but in Plateau Tonga it is kusanhya. This difference in pronunciation is said to be a one of

Chapter 7 – Language Situation in Zambia 171

accents (the way words are pronounced). Accents do not cause serious breakdown in
communication but differences in words (lexical differences) do. In order to have good
mutual intelligibility between language varieties there must be as much as 85% and
above lexical similarities between them according to Grimes (1988). Below 70%
communication becomes less satisfactory.

Below, in Table 7.1, are some findings from studies that examined lexical similarities among
a number of languages in Zambia (Kashoki & Mann, 1978; Swaka et al., 2018).

Table 7.1 Lexical similarities

Language pair Percentage of similarity

Nsenga – Kunda 78%
Tonga – Ila 67%
Tonga – Toka-Leya 62%
Tonga – Lenje 53%
Ila – Lenje 51%
Ila – Toka-Leya 50%
Bemba – Mambwe 63%
Bemba – Namwanga 58%
Bemba – Tonga 59%
Namwanga – Mambwe 75%

Activity 1: Learning outcomes 3 and 4

Ask student teachers to review the table above and determine:

Which languages qualify to be dialects of each other?
Which languages are considered to be independent languages?

172 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

7.4.2
Social dialects
Apart from regional dialects that develop because people move further apart, there can
also be social dialects which reflect differences in the speech varieties of say, different
social-economic classes. People of a higher economic status or power are said to speak
‘better’ (more prestigious) forms of the language compared to the poor or less powerful
people. It is thus claimed that the language spoken in the palaces of chiefs and in the
surrounding areas are more prestigious forms or ‘purer’ forms of language compared to
the others (Sawka et al., 2019).

Related to social dialects are the language phenomena diglossia and heteroglossia.
In diglossic contexts, there may be two variations of the same language that coexist
with each variation possessing specific functions that when used in the incorrect situation
would be considered socially inappropriate (Nordquist, 2018). Diglossic situations may also
refer to the contrast between languages spoken at home when they are different than the
officially established languages of a country (Nordquist, 2018). In Zambia, there are also
urban and rural dialects of some languages (e.g. Town Bemba or Town Nyanja). When
multiple varieties of the same language coexist, linguists call this heteroglossia. Town
Bemba has been termed the ‘language of the city’ and has borrowed words from English,
Nyanja, the mining pidgin Fanaglo, and others (Spitulnik, 1999). Our linguistic register is
what we draw from when we are able to vary our language communication according to
the social contexts (Wagner et al., 2010) like in diglossia or heteroglossia situations but
also how we may change our speech according to who we are communicating with (i.e.
friends, colleagues, our children, siblings, etc.). Therefore, when we think about
language, we are not only thinking about language as it is universally acknowledged but the
variations between speakers of the same language, language dialects, multiple variations of
the same language, and how our use of language may change to accommodate our
purposes or audience.

Activity 2

Which of the two (rural or urban) dialects are preferred by the people and why?

Chapter 7 – Language Situation in Zambia 173

7.4.3
Standard language
For many ordinary people, when a language is referred to as a dialect, they take it to be
inferior to what is called a language. But linguists do not make these value judgements.
For example, they can call Lenje a dialect of Tonga or vice-versa, although Tonga is a
standardised language (see below). We have seen that dialects are varieties of the same
language; the problem, however, is in deciding how to refer to this ‘same’ language:
Which dialect can we choose to represent the rest? Different criteria have been used to
do this. For example, the dialect that has the highest number of speakers might be
chosen as representative because it is well known. Alternatively, a dialect that has some
literature and can thus be said to be ‘more developed’ might be selected. The selection of
a dialect to represent all related ones is usually a political decision. It is part of what is
called status language planning. This is the process of selecting a language variety and
assigning it functions in various social domains. For example, it can be used in education,
government administration, judiciary, media, and so on. It is these roles or functions the
selected dialect performs in society that elevates it among other dialects.

Once a dialect has been selected as a norm (standard) it might undergo corpus language
planning. Corpus language planning is where decisions are made concerning how the
language is to be written, e.g. by developing an orthography (spelling rules), a grammar,
dictionary, and eventually books that can be used to teach it. Sometimes, new vocabulary
can be developed to enable the language to be used for specialised purposes, e.g. in
teaching sciences and mathematics. When all these things are done, and the dialect
selected is accepted by the community, it becomes the standard language that has to be
used officially by speakers of other dialects, e.g. in education, the media, the judiciary, and
so on. The seven regional official languages: Bemba, Kaonde, Lozi, Lunda, Luvale, Nyanja,
and Tonga underwent the processes mentioned above and became standard languages.
Speakers of related dialects have to use the standard language for official purposes.

Activity 3: Learning outcome 8

What are some of the challenges faced by learners in urban schools who have to learn the standard
language, which in most cases is based on a rural dialect?
What implications does this have for teaching and learning in the language and literacy classroom?

174 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

7.5

Zambia’s languages
From the discussion above, we can tell that many of the languages in Zambia, claimed
to be around 73 (Central Statistics Office, 2012), can be grouped together into clusters
of related varieties or dialects. Kashoki and Mann (1978, pp. 19–21) attempted such a
classification by considering lexical similarities among the languages. They came up with a
list of some 15 language groups. These groups were further divided into clusters of closely
related dialects where mutual intelligibility was possible. This resulted into 26 clusters or
‘languages’. For example, the Bemba group has about 20 dialects (e.g. Aushi, Chishinga,
Luunda, etc.). But these can be further divided into four closely related dialects such as the
one between Bisa and Kunda or Lima and Lala. It is important to note that there has been
considerable dialectal levelling, that is, dialects have grown much closer because of the use
of the standard language, Bemba, for example, in education and the media. Those who
speak non-standard languages (also called vernaculars) have learnt to speak the standard
language. So mutual intelligibility among the dialects has increased. Another estimate of
the number of languages in Zambia is by Eberhard et al. (2021) who claims the country has
37 indigenous languages.

Activity 4: Learning outcomes 5 and 8

What implications does the variety of languages spoken in Zambia have on teaching and learning in
the language and literacy classroom?
What are some specific implications for learners who speak a minor language, a language other
than a regional official Zambian language?
Make some suggestions as to what teachers could do in their classroom to help all learners feel
included regardless of their mother tongue.

Chapter 7 – Language Situation in Zambia 175

7.6

Language and ethnicity

Ethnicity refers to how individuals are identified as members of social groups and is
closely associated with language (Swann et al., 2004). The 73 languages claimed to exist in
Zambia are actually names of ethnic groups (the so-called tribes). For example, the Toka-
leya, Totela, Fwe, to name a few, speak varieties of Tonga but they are considered
separate ethnic groups. They are identified by being associated with a particular territory,
traditional leadership, some cultural practices, and to some extent, language. For
example, Toka-leya people would say their homeland is in districts such as Kalomo, Zimba,
Kasungula, and Livingstone. They have their own chiefs such as Mukuni, and have an
historical account of where they came from and how they became established, and so on.
These features help to identify the Toka-leya as a social group; they also help create a
sense of belonging (solidarity) to the ethnic group. The Zambia Central Statistics Office
defines ethnicity as: ‘The tribal group one identifies himself/herself with. Ethnic group
is a self-perceived conception of social group membership’ (CSO, 2010).

It has been a practice in Zambia since colonial times to recognise ethnic groups and their
chiefs. In the colonial period, colonists used the system of indirect rule by using chiefs to
control their subjects on behalf of the colonial administration. The independent government
has continued this practice of recognising chiefs and encouraging traditional ceremonies for
each ethnic group.

Activity 5: Learning outcome 1

How is language related to ethnicity?

Do the offspring of mixed ethnic marriages identify themselves?
Are there circumstances that motivate individuals to identify more with one group than another?
How should teachers perceive and treat learners of different ethnic and language backgrounds in
the same classroom?

176 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

7.7

Language in education policy

Choosing the seven official languages of Zambia was not an easy task, and as you may
imagine, establishing which languages to be used in schools was also not so easy. In a
multilingual country like Zambia, status language planning has been a contentious issue
because there are many languages and dialects vying to be used in schools as the language
of instruction (LOI). In the following sections, we review the changes in the language in
education policies beginning with the time missionaries settled in the country through the
colonial period up to independence and beyond, to understand the history and evolution of
language policies in Zambia. The timeline below outlines these main topics of discussion.

British South
Missionary Africa Company’s Colonial Independence
period colonisation government and beyond
of Zambia
1880s 1924 – 1964 1964+
1890s

Figure 7.1 Significant periods in the evolution of language in education policy in Zambia

7.7.1
The missionary period
The earliest missionary group to set up a mission station was the Paris Evangelical Mission.
In 1885, they made their first settlement in Sesheke located in the Western Province. Soon
afterwards, other missionary societies followed such as the London Mission Society, White
Fathers, Dutch Reformed, and the Society of Jesus. Their main purpose was to convert
people to Christianity, but to do this, they realised they had to use the local people’s
language. As a result, they engaged in studying the Bantu languages of the people among
whom they settled and further engaged in corpus language planning, which resulted in the
development of orthographies which could then be used to produce written texts like
dictionaries and Bibles. This was a major contribution to the development of Zambian
languages.

Chapter 7 – Language Situation in Zambia 177

Since the missionaries’ essential purpose was to enable the local people to read the Bible,
they also set up mission schools to teach children and even adults to read and write. This
reflects the general view of missionaries at the time, that if they wanted to convert the
local peoples to Christianity, the link between schools and church was paramount (Allen,
2005). Though rather than teaching the local people an unfamiliar European language,
they thought it much more effective to teach the local people to read and write in their
own languages. Therefore, the most widely acknowledged language in education policy for
this time could be considered: Teaching and learning should be conducted in a learner’s
local language or Mother Tongue. However, there were some missions that did teach
some European languages, but this was not their focus.

7.7.2
The British South Africa Company
Zambia was colonised by the British South Africa Company (BSAC) in the 1890s (as a proxy
of the British Government). Their purpose originated from an interest in exploiting
minerals in the territory. During their time of governance, they built only one school for
African children, the Barotse National School at Sefeula in 1910, funded by taxes collected
from the African population. This was part of a treaty signed through the Lochner
Concession with King Lewanika of the Lozi on 27 June 1890, which gave the BSAC rights to
trade and exploit the mineral resources of Barotseland (Allen, 2005). Since the BSAC’s
relationship with Zambian education was limited to only one school, the language in
education policy remained the same, as the remaining 1,500 schools continued to be led by
missionaries. In 1924, things began to change as the British Government took direct control
of Zambia which is where our discussion continues next.

7.7.3
The colonial government
When the British Government assumed direct control, an American philanthropist
organisation called the Phelps-Stokes Fund was visiting African territories to examine the
existing educational system and make recommendations for improvement (Allen, 2005).
They made several recommendations including the importance of teaching both African
and European languages but for different reasons. In the context of African languages,
they took a more language rights approach, arguing that African languages were an
important part of the people’s cultural heritage. They felt that teaching them was a way
of preserving them and all that was good in the people’s customs, traditions, ideas, and
more importantly, the self-respect of Africans (Phelps-Stokes Report, 1925).

178 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

As could be expected, they were aware of the difficulty of choosing among the numerous
languages or dialects and urged the colonial governments to conduct scientific linguistic
surveys to help them determine which languages to adopt officially. In terms of the place
of European languages in the educational system, the Phelps-Stokes Commission believed
that their purpose would afford African’s opportunities such as the access to information
and learning and that it would unite Africans with ‘great civilizations of the world’ (Phelps-
Stokes Report, 1925). The Phelps-Stokes Commission recommended the Three-Language
Policy as outlined below.

7.7.4
The three-language policy
Language in education policy changed because of the recommendations put forth by
the Phelps-Stokes Commission. They recommended that:

1. in the first two grades of primary school the child’s mother tongue or local
language of the area was to be used as the language of instruction (LOI).

2. in the third grade of primary school, children should shift to a lingua franca—
the widely spoken language in a multilingual area – if the children’s language
was not the regional lingua franca.

3. in the fifth grade, a European language would be introduced as the LOI.

In 1925, without consulting the Zambian people, ‘four principal native languages’ were
adopted to be used officially (as the lingua franca) in educational contexts (Ohannessian &
Kashoki, 1978, p. 278). Listed in the table below are the four adopted languages and their
territorial locations according to the zonal boundaries of the time.

Table 7.2 Official LOI during the colonial period

Territorial language zone Language

North-Eastern Rhodesia (west of the Luangwa River) Bemba

North-Eastern Rhodesia (east of the Luangwa River) Nyanja

Barotseland (a portion of North-Western Rhodesia) Lozi

North-Western Rhodesia Tonga

Chapter 7 – Language Situation in Zambia 179

Thus, the Three-Language Policy was underway but within the context of the four
established regional languages. Children began their education in their native language,
but if their native language was not one of the four principal languages, they shifted to
the regional language after the third grade of primary school. Then, in fifth grade, English
was introduced. From what we have learnt about the language situation of Zambia thus
far, we can tell that the four adopted languages were not adequately representative of
the language context. One region that was totally unrepresented was the North-Western
Province, but this was corrected after Zambian independence.

Despite the language policy of the time, there were calls by some white settlers and
Africans themselves to begin introducing English much earlier in primary schools. This was
to meet the demand for people who could speak and write in English, to work in
professions in which English was deemed necessary (e.g. clerks, shopkeepers, roles in
government, and private companies). Africans also felt that knowledge of the colonialists’
language was advantageous for children as it would give them employment opportunities
in white-owned enterprises and government work.

In 1930, the Central Advisory Board of Native Education also encouraged schools that had
qualified teachers to teach English to be used as a lingua franca because there was no
language that could be used throughout the territory. They felt that English could serve as
the language of wider communication, not just between Africans and Europeans, but also
among Africans themselves who spoke different languages. In general, the colonial
government advised that English should be used as a medium of instruction, but only after
the initial literacy instruction was achieved (Ohannessian & Kashoki, 1978). Even so,
pressure to incorporate English earlier in education led to its introduction in grade 2 as
early as 1956 in urban schools, and by 1962, English began to be included as early as grade
1 in urban schools (Ohannessian & Kashoki, 1978). This marks a turn in language policy
leading up to Zambia’s independence which we turn to next.

7.7.5
Independence and beyond
In 1965, a year after Zambia gained independence, the Zambian Government abandoned
the Three-Language Policy and opted for English to be used as the LOI from the beginning.
This was in part due to recommendations by a United Nations Educational, Scientific,
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) team led by Dr Radford, an Australian educationist and
that of another specialist from the British Council by the name of Hardman. They argued
that children’s spoken and written language would be better the earlier English was
introduced, and felt that it would make it easier for children to learn content subjects in

180 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

upper grades since English was to be introduced as the LOI in upper grades anyway. They
further supported their argument (also in accord with the Phelps-Stokes Commission
despite their policy beliefs) that English had a larger store of information and knowledge
which would benefit the Zambian population, and they believed that the literacy skills
acquired in English would transfer to literacy skills in Zambian languages. Thus, set in
motion, the adoption of English as the LOI albeit the fact that it was a foreign language,
a language indigenous to another country, and resulted in what is called an exoglossic
language policy (exo = outside, glossic = language).

Activity 6: Learning outcome 8

Review the two discordant language polices:

Policy 1: Instruction in primary grades should begin with children’s native language
or mother tongue.
Policy 2: Instruction in primary grades should begin with instruction in English.
Then answer the following questions:
Was the argument that instruction in primary grades should begin with instruction in English a
viable or workable policy given the Zambian context at the time?
From what we know about research in language and literacy development and instruction,
is the transfer of literacy skills easier from English to Zambian languages or vice versa?

The decision to use English as the sole LOI was not only because of its perceived
advantages but was also motivated by fears of ethnic rivalries. Adopting an exoglossic
language policy averted possible controversy over choosing one language or dialect
amongst the numerous competing languages which may have resulted in clashes between
different ethnic groups. English was seen to be a neutral choice, and during this time in
history, there were indeed politicians who were interested in adopting an endoglossic
(endo = inside) language policy to promote one or more of the local languages like
Tanzania’s adoption of Swahili as the LOI in primary schools.

Chapter 7 – Language Situation in Zambia 181

As a result of the inclusion of English as the LOI, Zambian languages suffered serious
neglect within the educational system. In fact, in many urban primary schools, they were
hardly taught. Some improvements to the situation occurred several years later. In 1970,
Lunda, Luvale, and Kaonde were included in the list of official regional Zambian languages
for the North-Western Province, but they were not, like the other regional languages, used
as LOIs. However, over time, the use of English as the LOI resulted in further detriment to
the acquisition of literacy skills in the Zambian population. These implications follow next.

7.7.6
The implications of the use of English as the LOI
English was used as the sole LOI for 30 years (1965–1996). According to Kelly (2000), this
resulted in negative effects that led to a ‘schooled but an uneducated generation’ (p. 7).
Unlike in the colonial period, the transition from home to school for children could be
described as none other than traumatic. Children found themselves rote learning and
memorising concepts in a language they could not understand, a language they did not
use for thinking and communicating with others. School was an alien place for them,
totally unrelated to their lived experiences. Literacy was introduced in a language whose
sound system was foreign, unrelated to their Bantu languages, and research tells us
that second language acquisition, or the development of language and literacy skills in
a language besides a children’s native language (L2), is more effective when children
become proficient in language and literacy skills in their mother tongue or first language
(L1) first (Billings & Walqui, n.d.; Madrinan, 2014). These problems were further
exacerbated by the predominant method of literacy instruction of the time which favoured
a whole-language approach to literacy instruction. Whole-language methods (also known
as a top-down approach) teach children to read by recognising words as whole units of
language as opposed to phonics-based (or bottom-up approach) methods, which teach
children to segment and blend sounds that form words (synthetic phonics) or recognise
common spelling patterns (analytic phonics), which are evidenced to be more effective
in teaching children how to read (Foorman, 1995). So, not only were children being taught
literacy skills in an L2 when these skills were not yet developed in their L1, but this was
also within the context of a pedagogical approach deemed less favourable than what
research proves to be more effective.

182 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

7.7.7
Educating our future
The shortcomings of English as the sole LOI policy were highlighted in a number of
educational reform and policy documents such as in Focus on Learning (Ministry of
Education, 1992) where it was stated that ‘[T]oo early an emphasis on learning through
English means that the majority of children form hazy and indistinct concepts in language,
mathematics, science, and social studies’ (p. 28). Nothing, however, was done to rectify
this problem, though there had been suggestions (unimplemented) that Zambian
languages should be reintroduced in the lower grades to improve the uptake of literacy
skills among the children.

However, the continued decline in the quality of education and the falling levels of literacy
among primary school learners, forced the government to rethink its language policy. In the
educational policy document Educating Our Future, it was decided that Zambian languages
would be used as languages of literacy instruction in the first grade, but English would
still be continued as the LOI for all the other subjects. Following this, a new literacy
programme called Breakthrough to Literacy was introduced in which learners were taught
initial literacy skills in grade 1 in the seven regional languages before making a transition
to English in grade 2.

In spite of the initial success of the Breakthrough to Literacy programme, it soon proved to
be unsustainable because of the high cost of teaching and learning materials. The short
period between the transition from Zambian language literacy to English also meant that
children were unable to develop fluency in reading Zambian languages. These, among
other factors, meant that reading levels were not improving among the learners and
further prompted the government to introduce the Primary Literacy Programme (PLP) in
2013, which caused three changes to literacy instruction: 1) It delayed the transition from
literacy in Zambian languages to literacy in English from the second year to the third year;
2) Synthetic phonics became the mode of instruction instead of the whole-language or
language experience approaches; and 3) The seven regional languages became the LOI
for all the other subjects (except English) in the first four grades of primary school. The
inclusion of seven languages was meant to ensure that children would be more exposed not
only to reading Zambian languages in the literacy component, but also in the other subject
textbooks leading to a better understanding of the concepts included in those subjects.

Chapter 7 – Language Situation in Zambia 183

7.8

Chapter summary
In this chapter, we have explored the language situation in Zambia. We have seen that
Zambia is a multilingual and multi-ethnic country. Numerous languages and dialects
abound in Zambia, but over time, some dialects were developed into standard languages
and became the seven official languages of the nation. The evolution of language in
education policies in Zambia was greatly shaped by the missionaries who came to convert
Zambians to Christianity and the British who came to benefit from the nation’s resources
and later colonised the country. Additionally, through experimentation with language
policies and evidential weaknesses, language policies were later improved to include best
practices for literacy and language as well as literacy teaching and learning.

184 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

7.9

Assessment of learning
1. What is the difference between a language and a dialect?

2. What is the relationship between language and ethnicity?

3. The language situation in Zambia is different from that of other countries because it
is a multilingual nation as opposed to countries where monolingualism is the norm.
Zambians may be multilingual, bilingual, or even considered to be polyglots. In your
own words, describe what this means by including the key words in your explanation
(learning outcomes 2 and 7).

4. In Zambia, there are various dialects, regional languages, minor languages, and
official languages. Explain what this means to the language situation in Zambia by
including these key words (learning outcomes 2 and 6) and references to specific
languages as appropriate.

5. Explain the differences between the following terms: foreign language, official
language, local language, familiar language, and lingua franca (learning outcome 2).

6. How does linguistic register help us to communicate in a variety of contexts?

7. Describe the difference between endoglossic and exoglossic policies

(learning outcome 2).

8. Explain the phenomena of diglossia and heteroglossia and describe the relationship
between our linguistic register and these phenomena (learning outcome 2).

Chapter 7 – Language Situation in Zambia 185

186 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
CHAPTER 8

Zambian
Languages
Orthography

Chapter 8 – Zambian Languages Or thography 187

188 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
 8
Zambian Languages Orthography
INTRODUCTION

A child who learns to read essentially learns how to understand

speech when it is written (Goswami, 2010). In other words,
the child learns to relate letters of the alphabet to the sounds in
her language. This is how the alphabetic writing system works. In
chapter 9 of the literacy module, it was learnt that the alphabetic
principle is the requirement that one letter must correspond to
only one sound (or phoneme) in a language. An orthography
provides the rules that are followed in relating sounds to letters
in a particular language. From this brief discussion, it can be
deduced that for a teacher to effectively teach literacy (and also
Chapter 8 – Zambian Languages Or thography 189
language) he/she must have a clear understanding of the
orthographic rules in the language of literacy instruction. This
knowledge of the orthography includes an awareness of the
phonology, morphology, and syntax of a language because these
influence word formation and division as will become clear in
this module. In this chapter, we will give a brief explanation of
what an orthography is and how it is created after which we
consider the orthographies in Zambian languages. We will do this
by first considering why the Ministry of Education (MOE) decided
to standardise the orthographies in the seven regional languages
which were originally created mainly by missionary societies.
Then we will look at the similarities and differences across the
seven orthographies. Finally, we will consider the implications of
this orthographic information for the teaching of language and
literacy in Zambian languages.
8.1

Learning outcomes

Topics and outcomes from the National Syllabus:

1.3 Language situation in Zambia

By the end of the chapter, the student teachers will:

1 define orthography

2 compare the orthographies of the seven regional Zambian languages

3 discuss how orthographies are developed

4 evaluate the relevance and importance of orthographies in teaching literacy.

8.2

Instructional materials
• Student module

• MOE (1977) Zambiau Lauguages: Orthography approved by the Miuistry of Educatiou.

(Or later reprints.)

190 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

8.3

Key terms
Orthography
The spelling system of a language or a set of rules that are followed in writing
words in a language.

Phoneme
The smallest unit of sound that signals a difference in meaning in a word.

Grapheme
A symbol or letter (used in a similar way to the phoneme) that represents a sound
in a spoken language.

Opaque orthograph
Orthographies where the correspondences between letters and sounds are inconsistent
(e.g. English).

Agglutinative languages
Languages in which words are made up of linked morphemes expressing different
meanings and grammatical functions.

Transparent orthographies
Orthographies where there is a clear correspondence between letters and sounds
in a language (e.g. Zambian languages orthographies).

Syllable
A unit of pronunciation usually larger than a sound but smaller than a word (Crystal,
2008:467). It can consist of a single vowel or a combination of a vowel and one or
two consonants. Open syllables end with vowels (e.g. ba) while closed syllables with
consonants (e.g. cat).

Aspirated sounds
The audible release of air when articulating or pronouncing stop sounds (e.g. [p h])

Unaspirated sounds
The release of a stop without an audible puff of air (e.g. [p]).

Chapter 8 – Zambian Languages Or thography 191

Vowels
Sounds produced without interruption in the vocal tract, principally the mouth
(e.g. a, e, i, o, u).

Consonants
Sounds produced by the narrowing or blocking off and release of the airflow (e.g. p, t, f ).

Consonant clusters
A combination of consonants which are not digraphs or trigraphs (e.g. nd (nasal plus a
stop) called a nasal cluster).

Reduplication
A process by which whole words or stems are repeated or written twice.

Ideophones
Words and/or phrases that may depict a variety of sensory experiences (i.e. sound,
taste, movement, inner feelings) but also have specific marked orthographic features
(i.e. reduplicated roots).

Alphabetic principle
The requirement that one letter represents only one sound.

Phonological awareness
An awareness of the fact that words are composed of individual sounds (phonemes)
that can be manipulated in various ways.

Fluency
The ability to read a text accurately with appropriate speed and intonation.

192 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

8.4

What is an orthography?
Writing systems are ways in which language is represented in graphic form (writing).
Throughout written human history, languages have been represented in writing at three
different levels: the word or morpheme, the syllable, and the individual meaningful
sound or phoneme. A writing system that represents language at the morpheme level is
called a logographic writing system. Mandarin Chinese, Zhoug weu, is written using
this system: each symbol, known as a character, represents a morpheme (although even
syllables can be represented). In a syllabary, like the one used in writing Japanese, Hiragana,
a symbol stands for an individual syllable (e.g. ba). Finally, in the alphabetic writing
system, which is used for writing most European languages and also Zambian languages,
each symbol (or letter) represents a phoneme in the language. We referred above to the
alphabetic principle: the requirement that only one letter or grapheme should correspond
to one phoneme.

The word orthography is made up of two Greek words: orthos meaning ‘correct’ and
graphia ‘writing’. Thus, it can be said to mean ‘correct writing’. Orthographies, as
mentioned above, are ways of implementing the writing system to a specific language
(Perffetti & Dunlap, 2008). They are sets of rules of how to write words. In languages where
the alphabetic principle is strictly followed, the orthographies are said to be transparent
(also known as shallow); one can see clearly how sounds relate or correspond to letters.
Zambian languages have largely transparent orthographies. In languages where the
correspondences between sounds and letters are not very consistent, we have what are
called opaque or deep orthographies because it is not easy to see how sounds relate to
letters. English has a largely opaque orthography. For example, the same sound /f/ can be
represented in words as [ph] in phone or as [gh] in enough and as [f] in fiud. There are
equally cases where the same letter can represent different sounds like ‘c’ in receive and
conscious. There are also cases of over-presentation of sounds by letters, for example the ‘f’
in effect. These do not occur in Zambian languages.

Chapter 8 – Zambian Languages Or thography 193

Activity 1: Learning outcomes 1 and 4

1. Define orthography with your partner.

2. From what you have read so far, why is knowledge of an orthography important for a teacher?

8.4.1
The orthographies of the seven official Zambian languages
In chapter 7, we learnt that different missionary societies reduced some Zambian languages
to writing. They, therefore, were the ones who did the corpus planning for these languages.
They not only developed orthographies but also produced some learning and teaching
materials to teach the African population literacy. However, the orthographies they
developed were of mixed quality. Some of these missionaries had skilled linguists among
them who were able to produce orthographies that accurately reflected the phonological
and morphological features of the languages but there were also some who lacked expertise.
The latter produced orthographies that in some cases were based on the way their European
languages were written. In some languages, different orthographies were produced in the
same language or in related dialects of the same language.

After independence, the Zambian MOE realised that there was need to standardise the way
the seven regional languages were being written to avoid having different ways of spelling
words in the same language. For example, publishers were producing books with conflicting
spelling systems. The MOE set up seven independent language committees to produce
the standard orthographies for each language (1977). In this chapter, we will review the
main rules put forward by these committees in the book entitled: Zambian Languages:
Orthography approved by the Ministry of Education (MOE, 1977). We will look for areas of
agreement and disagreement among them keeping in mind that they were proposing ways
of writing languages which are from the same Bantu family of languages.

In developing an orthography, linguists study the phonology of the language which is to

be reduced to writing. They work out a list of all phonemes, that is, sounds that make a
difference in the meaning of words. For example, in these two minimal pairs of Bemba

194 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

words: pala ‘resemble’ and pela ‘grind’, we can see that it is the two sounds /a/ and /e/
that create two different meanings in the words. So, we say that /a/ and /e/ are
phonemic in this language. In similar ways, inventories of sounds are worked out for each
language: vowels and consonants. Other sound features that create differences in the
meaning of words such as tones are also considered. In addition, as will be noted in the
discussion below under vowels, changes in sounds within words are also taken into
consideration. Finally, and not the least, decisions are made concerning what should be
considered a word. Bantu languages are agglutinative, that is, they consist of words
which are made up of linked morphemes expressing different meanings and grammatical
functions. It is therefore, not easy to tell where word boundaries are. For example, this
verb in Tonga, ndilamugwashya (‘I am helping him’), is a full sentence as we can tell from
the translation. When we write it as a single orthographic1 word as we have done, we say
we are writing conjunctively. This is, in fact, what we hear in speech: the word is uttered
without pauses. If we were to separate the morphemes as the English translation shows
(ndi la mu gwashya)2, we would be writing disjunctively. However, apart from the last
morpheme, those separate morphemes would not represent any word in Tonga. In all
Zambian languages, except for Lozi, words are written conjunctively. Lozi to some extent,
adopted a disjunctive writing style of writing words.

In the Zambian Languages

Orthographies approved by the
MOE, all the areas in Figure 8.1
are discussed. In what follows,
Tones
we will comment on them.

words

Components

Parts Word

Figure 8.1 Components of orthography

1 An orthographic word is the written form of a word with a space before and after it.
2 The morphemes are: subject marker + present progressive tense + verb root + final vowel (‘I am him help’). The verb can also refer to the immediate
future ‘I am going to help him’.

Chapter 8 – Zambian Languages Or thography 195

Activity 2: Learning outcome 3

How are orthographies developed? Use evidence from the text to support your answer.

8.4.2
Tone
Zambian languages are tonal languages which means that differences in tone in otherwise
identical words can lead to differences in meaning. Tone refers to the pitch (how high or low
a syllable is pronounced within a word). In Table 8.1 the pairs of words when uttered with a
different pitch (tone) lead to differences in meaning as shown in the English glosses.

Activity 3: Learning outcome 2

Pronounce the pairs of words in Table 8.1 with different tones in a language that they are familiar with.

Table 8.1 Tonal differences and changes in meaning

Language Examples

Kaonde mubanga (jaw)

mubanga (kind of tree)

Tonga cilundu (a hill)

cilundu (lump of tobacco)

Nyanja mtengo (price)

mtengo (tree)

Bemba akapanga (small sword)

akapanga (small stretch of bush)
akapanga (a lamb)

Lunda kukula (to grow)

kukula (to scratch)

Luvale jila (small path)

kajila (bird)

Lozi matapa (slates)

matapa (insults)

196 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

In all the language committees, it was decided that tone would not be reflected in writing.
They argued that the inclusion of too many diacritics (marks on words to indicate tone)
would slow down reading fluency (MOE, 1977, p. viii). It is possible to tell which meaning
of a word is expressed from its implied context.

8.4.3
Vowels
All the seven regional languages committees recognised five vowels: a, e, i, o, u. In addition,
all the committees except the Luvale one, agreed to represent vowel length to reflect the
differences in meaning arising from identical words in which one vowel is longer in the way
it is articulated than the other. Table 8.2 shows minimal pairs, pairs of words which differ
only in one item, here being vowel length. The difference between short and long vowels
was symbolised by doubling the vowel letter for the long vowel and one letter for the short
vowel. Some missionaries had used a bar or circumflex above a vowel letter to symbolise
long vowels e.g. ā and â, respectively. These were not adopted in the orthographies.

Table 8.2 Examples of short and long vowels in Zambian languages

Language Short vowels Long vowels

Kaonde mona (see) moona (nose)

Tonga mali (money) maali (polygamy)

Nyanja fula (dig out) fuula (shout)

Bemba ukusala (to choose) ukusaala (to beg for mercy)

Lunda nkuku (wrist) nkuuku (crumbs)

Lozi bina (dance) biina (big men)

Activity 4: Learning outcome 2

List words in a Zambian language of your choice that differs in meaning because of vowel length.

Chapter 8 – Zambian Languages Or thography 197

Zambian languages orthographies also represent this difference in vowel length in words
that do not necessarily show differences in meaning as minimal pairs. For example, when
two morphemes come together, the vowels at the morpheme boundaries might fuse. For
example, in Table 8.3, the vowel /a/ of the class 6 noun prefix ma when combined with the
vowel /i/ in ino ‘tooth’ in Kaonde, this results in a long [ee] as shown in meeno ‘teeth’.

Table 8.3 Examples of fused vowels in Zambian languages

Language Short vowels Long vowels

Kaonde meeno (teeth) ‘ma’ and ‘ino’

Tonga tuusiki (cannot reach) ‘ta’ and ‘usiki’

Nyanja meeno (teeth) ‘ma’ and ‘íno’

Bemba akooni (small bird) ‘aka’ and ‘oni’

Lunda chaadi (hen) ‘cha’ and ‘adi’

Lozi liiba (dove) ‘li’ and ‘iba’

8.4.4
Consonants
When only phonemes that are found in native words (non-borrowed words) are considered,
we find that the seven regional languages have different numbers of consonants as shown in
Figure 8.2. The number of consonant letters in the Roman Alphabet is 21. This means that
except for Bemba and Lozi, all the other language committees had to find additional ways of
representing some additional sounds in their languages. In all the languages, ‘q’ and ‘x’ are
not used from the Roman Alphabet. During the early missionary times, however, some
Portuguese missionaries used ‘q’ for example in the name of a person, Maquina used in the
North-Western Province. The ‘qui’ stood for the same sound represented currently as ‘k’ in
Makina.

198 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

 21
Tonga
24 23

17 19

21 22

Figure 8.2 Number of consonants by language

8.4.4.1
Additional consonants

In order to represent additional phonemes or phonological features in the languages,

different strategies were adopted. We consider those that are distinctive in some languages.

a. Aspirated and unaspirated sounds: This feature is usually associated with consonant
sounds that are stops or plosives, e.g. ‘p, c, t, k’. These are sounds which are produced
by blocking air from the lungs at different points in the throat, mouth, and lips. For
example, to produce /p/ we block air by shutting the lips and then releasing them
suddenly. If we do this with a burst of air, explosively, we get an aspirated [p h], the
small ‘h’ represents aspiration. (Put your palm in front of your mouth as you say
‘put’, you can feel a puff of air). If we do not produce the /p/ explosively we get
an unaspirated [p]. In Nyanja and Luvale, aspiration can lead to differences in the
meanings of words which are otherwise identical in every way except for aspiration.
Aspiration is represented by inserting ‘h’ as shown in the examples in Table 8.4 below.

Chapter 8 – Zambian Languages Or thography 199

Table 8.4 Aspirated and unaspirated consonants

Language Unaspirated Aspirated

Kaonde kale ‘before’ khale ‘seated’

Luvale keke ‘cool’ kheke ‘mercy’

8.4.4.2
Soft and hard consonant sounds

b. In Tonga, identical words might differ in meaning because of the way a consonant
is articulated. For example, some stops like /k/ and even a fricative like /h/ can be
pronounced in a soft or hard way and this changes the word’s meaning as in kala
‘small intestine’ and kkala ‘sit down’; hihi ‘a big log of firewood’; hihhi ‘I don’t
know’. In the orthography, the hard sound is represented by doubling the letter,
e.g. kk.

c. There are also additional symbols used to represent, for example, differences
between closely related sounds which can be plosives or fricatives. For example,
‘b’ can represent a plosive or a fricative. To show this difference in Nyanja, the
symbol ‘ŵ’ is used for the fricative and ‘w’ for the stop.

d. The velar nasal stop is represented by different letters in the Zambian languages as
‘ng’, ‘ŋ’, and ‘ñ’ in Nyanja, Bemba and Lozi, respectively. This is one of the areas
where orthographies can be harmonised (written in the same way) so that only one
symbol is used.

200 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

8.5

Word division
The issue of word division is important in Bantu languages because of their agglutinative
nature as we saw in Section 8.4 above. It is quite difficult also to decide in some cases
where one word begins and ends because in normal speech, conjunctions, and some
adverbs, might be uttered in one phonological word. By phonological word, we mean an
utterance that has no pauses. For example, in Bemba a phrase like umuntu na inkalamo
‘a person and a lion’ is heard in speech as umuntu neenkalamo. The second word shows
that the vowels in the conjunction na and the augment in the prefix in fuse to make nee.
Should this be written as one word or do the two have to be separated? In the Bemba
orthography, it is stated that the conjunction should be written separately except in cases
where there is fusion of vowels as in the example here. Therefore, neenkalamo will appear
as one word. In Lunda, the conjunction na is always added to the following noun except
when the latter is a proper noun, e.g. kawa namutupa ‘a dog and a lion’.

Activity 5: Learning outcome 2

Use the Zambian Languages Orthography to check what applies to the mother tongue of the students.
Is it a good decision not to separate conjunctions from nouns?

8.5.1
Locatives
Some common rules regarding word division are those concerning locatives which are
prefixed to nouns but express prepositional meanings, e.g. ku ‘to’; pa ‘on’ and/or ‘at’;
mu ‘in’. These are added to common nouns but separated from proper nouns, e.g. in
Kaonde, pamuzhi ‘at the village’; mumuzhi ‘in the village’, but ku Kabwe ‘to Kabwe’,
and mu Kabwe ‘in Kabwe’.

Chapter 8 – Zambian Languages Or thography 201

Activity 6: Learning outcome 2

Discuss with your peers examples of the use of the locative—ku, mu, pu, and pa—with proper and
common nouns in your familiar languages.

8.5.2
Noun prefixes
Noun prefixes in Zambian languages generally express a ‘number’ (singular and plural) and
‘respect’ (honorific) and indicate the class of the noun, e.g. class 1 and 2 as the grouping of
human related nouns. In all the languages, noun prefixes are written conjunctively with the
noun stem in common nouns but are separated from the proper nouns, e.g. batu ‘people’
[Lozi] but bo Chanda. The bo in the example is also honorific—a way of expressing respect.
However, in Lozi and not in the other languages, this prefix is written separately from nouns
of relationship like bo malume ‘my uncle’.

8.5.3
Enclitics
Common to all languages are word particles called enclitics. These are actually locatives and
thus express prepositional and adverbal meanings. They are attached to the ends of nouns—
e.g. the mo in this Tonga word, walimo ‘he has been here’. In all the languages these are
written conjunctively because they are phonologically part of the preceding word.

202 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

8.6

Adjectives
An adjective is word or phrase that qualifies or gives information about the noun.
Adjectives thus occur in noun phrases, e.g. musimbi mulamfu ‘[lit.] girl tall’. Adjectives
are dealt with in very similar ways as nouns because they have the same form as nouns.
They consist of a prefix and a stem. Adjectives agree in number (singular or plural) and
person (first, second, or third) with the noun they qualify. This is shown in the Lunda
examples below (prefixes have been bolded):

Muntu muwahi ‘a good person’

Bantu bawahi ‘good people’

In Bantu linguistics, this agreement between a noun and adjective is called concord.

The same rule of joining the prefixes to common nouns and separating them from
proper nouns apply here too. This is in cases where adjectives are formed from nouns.
For example, Khasu lamtengo ‘a wooden hoe’, but khasu la Phiri ‘Phiri’s hoe’.

Table 8.5 presents some more examples of adjectives formed from common nouns
which are written conjunctively with their prefixes.

Table 8.5 Orthographical rules for adjectives

Language Example Meaning

Nyanja Cisoti caudzu not ca udzu ‘a hat made of straw’

Kaonde Mwana wamulume not wa mulume ‘a baby boy’

Bemba Umukashana umusuma not umu suma ‘a beautiful lady’

Lunda Mpidi yayilehi not ya yilehi ‘a high hill’

Luvale Nyama yayivisu not ya yivisu ‘uncooked meat’

Lozi mibisi yemibeli not yemi beli ‘two roots’

Tonga Meso asalala not meso a salala ‘red eyes’

Chapter 8 – Zambian Languages Or thography 203

8.7

Compound and reduplicated words

In Zambian languages, some words are formed by reduplication. This is the process of
repeating a whole word or the stem. For example, some adverbs are formed in this way,
e.g. msanga-msanga ‘quickly-quickly’, i.e. ‘hurriedly’, where a whole word is repeated.
Similar examples are found in the seven regional languages. Generally, in all the
orthographies, reduplicated words are hyphenated as shown in Table 8.6.

Table 8.6 Reduplication in seven Zambian languages

Language Example Meaning

Bemba bwangu-bwangu ‘hurriedly’

Nyanja kukamba-kamba ‘talking anyhow’

Kaonde bitende-bitende ‘bit by bit’

Lunda tubila-bila ‘frequent calls’

Luvale kukwata-kwata ‘to keep on touching’

Lozi mafulo-fulo ‘many camps’

Tonga ino-ino ‘immediately’

In Bemba, however, when only the stem of a word is reduplicated, it is written conjunctively,
e.g. lucelocelo ‘early in the morning’. (Note that the stem in lucelocelo is celo.)

Compound words are formed by combining two words which may be from the same word
category or different ones, e.g. noun and noun or verb and noun, etc. In most of the
Zambian languages, compound words are written conjunctively, e.g. ntengwamubili ‘slender
but strong’, mfumukazi ‘chieftainess’. In Bemba, however, compounds formed from noun
plus noun are hyphenated, e.g. nkumba-bubili ‘sadly, despondently’.

8.8

Ideophones
An often-quoted definition of this part of speech, which is common in Bantu languages, is
that by Doke who is credited for creating the term (but see Dingemance, 2011):

204 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

 A vivid representation of an idea in sound. A word, often onomatopoetic, which
describes a predicate, qualificative or adverb in respect to manner, colour, sound,
smell, action, state or intensity (Doke 1935, p. 118).

The word onomatopoeia, a type of ideophone, refers to words that imitate the sounds made
by people or things in the environment. For example, in English, the sound made by a duck is
said to be quack. In all Zambian languages, there are words of this nature which represent
what are said to represent different sounds made by people, other creatures, and things in
the environment.

Activity 7: Learning outcome 2

Think of some onomatopoeic words in your mother tongue and produce them. Do we have the
same words in all languages for the same sound, or do they differ? (For example: Are sounds said
to be produced by cockerels the same across languages?)

Ideophones are also used to represent other ideas in the definition (e.g. sensory
information). The examples in Table 8.7 give us some impression of the range of uses of
ideophones in Zambian languages.

Table 8.7 Examples of ideophones in the seven official Zambian languages

Language Ideophone

Tonga mwe mwe mwe (‘shining brightly’)

Nyanja mya mya mya (‘stealth’, ‘swift movement’)

Bemba fititi (‘very dark’)

Kaonde ngee ngee ngee (‘sound of a bell’)

Lunda ngwa (‘cutting’, ‘breaking across’) (Kawasha, 2006, p. 19)

Luvale welewewee (‘cock’s crow’)

Lozi nga nga nga (‘shivering’)

Most of the ideophones are like reduplicated words. However, each repetition is supposedto
be represented as a separate word.

Chapter 8 – Zambian Languages Or thography 205

8.9

Borrowed words
In all the orthographies, there is an emphasis on people using indigenous words where
they exist instead of borrowing from other languages. This apparently is to ensure that the
languages are preserved. However, when a word is borrowed from another language, it
must be pronounced and written in line with the phonology of the borrowing language. For
example, a word like ‘pot’ is modified to sound and is written as poto in Lozi. Note that it is
made to fit into the syllabic structure of Lozi, where, as in other Bantu languages, syllables
are always open because they end with vowels. The English syllable ‘pot’ is a closed one
because it ends with a consonant. So, ‘motor car’ is converted into one word, motoka in
Luvale. Below are some examples of the way the same English word ‘table’ is pronounced
in different Zambian languages. (The Nyanja ‘th’ indicates an aspirated ‘t’). Lunda appears
to have borrowed the word for table from Portuguese, mesa.

Table 8.8 Zambian languages and borrowed words

Zambian language Borrowed word English

Tonga tebule ‘table’

Nyanja thebulo ‘table’

Bemba itebulo ‘table’

Kaonde Teebulu ‘table’

8.10

Significance of orthography in relation

to literacy instruction
Orthographies play a vital role in the teaching of literacy. In the first place, children who
learn to read or write, as earlier mentioned, learn to connect the sounds of their language
to the written symbols or letters provided by the orthography. Secondly, the quality of the
orthography determines, to some extent, the efficiency of learning to read. For example, a
transparent orthography helps children to learn how to read quickly because it is easy for
them to discover the alphabetic principle: the correspondence between letters and sounds.
Furthermore, if the rules of spelling are simple and few, this too will speed up the learning
process and make transfer of literacy skills to reading other languages written in the same

206 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

writing system. All that a teacher has to do is to help children acquire literacy skills, is to
teach them how to sound out letters in a systematic way and blend them into words. This
can be done by using, for example, only one method of teaching: systematic synthetic
phonics where children learn to sound out letters and blend them into syllables and words.
This is what is being done in teaching Zambian languages.

On the other hand, an opaque orthography can slow down the acquisition of reading skills.
It is difficult for learners to see the relationship between sounds and letters. For such
orthographies, different methods of teaching initial literacy are employed because there are
bound to be many and often difficult spelling rules to follow. In teaching English,
which has an opaque orthography, for example, children may be taught using phonics
to sound out simple words where there are consistent letter sound correspondences,
e.g. the word bat. They may be taught to memorise whole words that are difficult to sound
out, e.g. girl, through the look and say method. They may learn by comparing words with
similar letter patterns in onsets and rimes, e.g. bright and light. Therefore, children learning
to read in opaque orthographies can do so at different grain sizes (Ziegler & Goswami,
2005): a phoneme, syllable, onset, rime, and word, compared to those using a transparent
orthography. This makes learning more effortful and slower than for those who learn using
only one grain size: the phoneme, for example. In fact, those who learn whole words have
to eventually discover the alphabetic principle in order to be independent readers who can
sound out words they have never met, or to read in other languages.

Orthographies also reflect considerable information about a language’s phonology and

morphology as we have seen above. The inventory of letters in an orthography is based on
a rigorous study of the sound distinctions in a language, that is, working out sounds that
make a difference in the meanings of words. Some sounds also arise from word formation
processes, e.g. when prefixes join stems resulting, for example, in vowel fusion. All this
information is important in understanding why words are written in the way they are. It
underscores the importance of the teacher having secure knowledge and understanding of
all the above-mentioned levels of linguistic analysis. These areas have been covered in the
present module in different chapters.

Activity 8: Learning outcome 4

It has been argued that it is easier to transfer literacy skills from a transparent orthography,
e.g. Zambian languages to an opaque one such as English (Mwansa, 2017).
Why should this be the case? Evaluate the relevance and importance of orthographies in
teaching literacy.

Chapter 8 – Zambian Languages Or thography 207

8.11

Chapter summary
In this chapter, we have defined orthography by saying it is a way of implementing the
alphabetic writing system in a particular language. An orthography provides rules of how
words are to be written in a language. The quality of an orthography depends on how easy it
is to interpret and to learn how to use it in communicating through writing. An orthography
in which letters and sounds are consistently related is said to be a transparent one. One
in which letter and sound correspondences are inconsistent is an opaque one. We have
also discussed why the MO produced the standard orthographies in the seven regional
languages: this was to ensure that in each language the same rules of spelling would be
followed by the writers. We further considered the differences and similarities in the rules
of representing letters, word division, and some parts of speech such as ideophones in the
seven regional languages. Finally, we considered the importance of orthographies in the
teaching of literacy.

208 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

8.12

Assessment of learning
1. What is a writing system and how does it differ from an orthography?

2. What makes a good orthography?

3. Why is it unnecessary to use a number of methods in teaching literacy in Zambian

languages compared to English?

4. What is the relationship between orthography and the other key components of
reading instruction?

5. How can you apply the knowledge learnt in this chapter to your future classroom?

8.13

Required reading
Zambian languages: Orthography approved by the Ministry of Education.

Supplementary reading
Schroder, B. (2008). Bantu Orthography Manual. SIL International eBook series 9.

Chapter 8 – Zambian Languages Or thography 209

210 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
CHAPTER 9

Figures
of Speech

Chapter 9 – Figures of Speech 211

212 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
 9
Figures of Speech
INTRODUCTION

This chapter looks at figures of speech, what they are and how
they are classified and their importance in language teaching.
Although figures of speech are considered to be special forms of
language expression, much of ordinary language does involve
figures of speech. Nevertheless, they are considered special
because they add colour to otherwise mundane speech and
create interest in listeners and readers. Learners are likely
to come across figurative language in their reading and also
even in conversations with fluent and expressive peers and
elders in their first or additional languages. It is thus important
that learners are made aware of this very important aspect of
language use, so that they are better prepared to appreciate
what this figurative or metaphorical language brings to
communication: beauty and brevity of expression. It is also
expected that learners will be able to use figurative language in
their own writing and speaking in their language of instruction
or the second language, as they mature.

Chapter 9 – Figures of Speech 213

9.1

Learning outcomes

Topics and outcomes from the National Syllabus:

1.15 Figures of speech

1.15.1.1 Use figures of speech in stories or conversations

By the end of the chapter, the student teachers will:

1 define what the expression ‘figures of speech’ means

2 identify and classify figures of speech

3 analyse figures of speech to determine their meanings

4 demonstrate understanding of figures of speech by creating examples.

9.2

Instructional materials
• Student module

• Sample texts with figures of speech

• Examples of figures of indirectness

• Drawing paper

214 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

9.3

Key terms
Figurative language
A non-logical language which comprises words used in a new and non-literal sense,
which departs from the logical usage of language in order to gain special effects

Figure of speech
A literary style or device that involves the use of words to effectively express
a given concept

Idiom
A figure of speech that means something different from a literal translation of the words,
would lead one to believe

Hyperbole
The use of deliberate exaggeration or overstatement for emphasis or to achieve a
humorous effect, without any intention to deceive the reader or audience, but bring out
some sense of humour

Personification
A figure of speech in which inanimate objects, animals or abstract ideas are endowed
with human form, character, or sensibilities

Simile
A figure of speech that compares two different things in an interesting way using the
words like or as

Metaphor
A figure of speech containing an implied comparison

Conversation
A talk or other form of discourse between two or more people in which news or ideas
are shared

Chapter 9 – Figures of Speech 215

9.4

Figurative language and figures of speech

Figurative language includes ‘words or phrases that mean something more or different
from their literal definitions’ (Rasinski et al., 2017, p. 4). It may also be referred to as ‘non-
logical language’ because it comprises words used in a new and non-literal sense for it
departs from logical usage of language to gain special effects. When referring to figurative
language, we use the term figures of speech. Due to the non-literal nature of figurative
language, noticing and interpreting figurative language correctly requires high levels of
metalinguistic ability (i.e. the ability to analyse language as an object of study) dependent
on a learners’ mastery of the language of instruction (LOI) but also their age (Vulchanova et
al., 2019; Wang, 2014).

According to Wang (2014) there is a pattern to figurative language development; it

progresses on a U-shaped curve, with preschool-aged children using ‘imaginative
expressions’ which then decreases during middle childhood and then increases during
adolescence (p. 327). Children who already struggle with reading have a harder time with
figurative language because they are paying more attention to reading individual words
correctly and interpreting literal meanings (Rasinski et al., 2017). In the multilingual
classroom, learners may have an even greater difficulty comprehending figurative
language because each language has its own set of figures of speech that may not
translate to other languages (Rasinksi et al., 2017). As such, a teachers’ understanding of
figurative language and the challenges learners may face is important.

Activity 1: Learning outcome 1

1. In your own words, what is figurative language?

2. What is the relationship between figurative language and figures of speech?
3. From what we have read so far, why do you think figurative language/figures of speech
are relevant to literacy and language teaching and learning?

216 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

9.4.1
Classification of figures of speech
Language is used for communication either in transmitting information, building
relationships, or entertaining. Figurative language plays a part in all forms of
communication but more so in literary uses of language. Some would say that the use of
figurative language is more effective than saying what we mean directly (Colston, 2015;
Perrine, 1963). Again, figurative language refers to words or phrases that do not mean
their literal interpretation, and these are specifically referred to as figures of speech
(Gautam, 2014). There are several different types. Some common figures of speech
are similes, metaphors, idioms, personification, hyperbole, onomatopoeia, oxymoron,
alliteration, metonymy, and synecdoche. These are discussed next.

Linguists classify figures of speech in different ways. In this chapter, figures of speech
are organised as outlined in Figure 1. The different categories are explored next along
with the figures of speech that are included.

Figure 9.1 Figures of speech

Chapter 9 – Figures of Speech 217

9.4.2
Figures of similarity
Figures of similarity include similes, metaphors, allegories, and parables. A simile is one of
the most common forms of figurative language, which explicitly compares two things using
the words like or as, while metaphors also compare two things but without using the words
like or as (Keraf, 2009). Thus, in a metaphor, the connection is implied rather than being
explicit. Allegories and parables are represented as stories, poems, or art, as opposed to
words or phrases but are still added here because they have metaphorical (non-literal)
meaning versus literal meaning. Examples of similes and metaphors are given in Table 9.1.

Table 9.1 Examples of similes and metaphors

Similes Metaphors

John is as busy as a bee. Handima is a bull.

Mundiwa talks like her mother. His words cut deeper than a knife.

The boy is as brave as a lion. He was a lion in the battlefield.

Her lip is as soft as a pillow. That man is a beast.

My father’s love is as deep as the ocean. The warrior has a heart of stone.

Her face is as bright as the morning star. Love is a battlefield.

The little boy swims like a fish. Time is money.

Activity 2: Learning outcomes 2 and 3

With a partner, take turns interpreting the similes and metaphors by describing what is being compared.
For example, we can interpret that John must be busy and that he is being compared to a bee.
Then be prepared to answer the following questions:
1. What is the key difference between a simile and a metaphor?
2. How can the use of similes and metaphors enhance our speech and writing?
3. What challenges do you think learners might face when reading similes or metaphors in text, and
how do you think you can scaffold instruction to meet their needs?

218 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Allegories are metaphors that often deliver difficult messages in easy-to-read formats. At
the heart of an allegorical story is a comparison of what is told to human life and behaviour.
They often tell moral, religious, or political messages and may also have other abstract or
spiritual meanings. For centuries, humans have used allegories to say things they felt they
could not say any other way. Some famous allegories include George Orwell’s Animal Farm,
C.S. Lewis’ The Lion the Witch and the Wardrobe, John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, and
William Golding’s The Lord of the Flies. In Animal Farm, the surface story is about a group of
farm animals who rise up, kick out the humans, and try to run the farm themselves. The
hidden story, however, is about the Russian Revolution, and each of the characters
represents some figure from that revolution. For example, the pigs represent Communist
leaders like Stalin, Lenin, and Trotsky, the dogs represent the KGB, the humans represent
capitalists, and the horses represent the working class, etc.

Parables are usually short metaphorical stories with the implied meaning parallel to
the ordinary meaning. Two examples of a parable are the stories of the ‘Prodigal Son’
and the ‘Ten Virgins’.

Jesus told a story about ten young women who went to a wedding. They waited for the
bridegroom to come and let them in. They did not know what time he would come. The
ten women had oil-burning lamps. Five of the women were wise. They had extra oil with
them. The other five women were foolish. They only had the oil that was in their lamps.
The bridegroom did not come for a loug time. The oil in the lamps ran out. The five wise
women had more oil to put in their lamps. The five foolish women had to go buy more oil.
While they were gone, the bridegroom came. He let the five wise women into the
wedding. When the five foolish women returned, the door was closed. They could not go
to the wedding (Matthew 25:1–13).

Activity 3: Learning outcome 2

1. Think about some allegories or parables you have read or heard.

2. Do you think the stories were best conveyed in allegory or parable form? If so, why or in
what way?
3. What challenges might learners face when reading allegories or parables in the classroom,
and how might you scaffold instruction to meet their needs?

Chapter 9 – Figures of Speech 219

9.4.3
Figures of contrast
Figures of contrast convey the opposite or difference between two things. These are
outlined in Table 9.2 below.

Table 9.2 Figures of contrast

Type Definition Example

Antithesis A rhetorical device that highlights No pain, no gain.

opposing ideas or concepts in a
God made the country; man
concise and expressive way with
made the town.
contrast presented side-by-side
with the same structure. United we stand, divided we fall.

Parallel An extended antithesis that So shines a good deed in a

involves prolonged comparison naughty world.
bringing into focus the difference
How far that little candle throws
between two people or things.
its beams.

Epigram A brief witty story or poem Clever men are good, but they
that seems contradictory but are not the best.
on closer examination sounds
To look is much less easy than
correct and witty.
to overlook.

Oxymoron An extreme form of an epigram It was a bittersweet experience.

that places two opposing words
She was faultily faultless.
together to create a sharp contrast.

Paradox An expression that seems absurd The child is father of the man.
at first but proves to be true on
More haste, less speed.
second thought.

220 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

9.4.4
Figures of association or connection
There are several figures of speech that convey figures of association or connection. The
two described here are the metonym and the synecdoche. The metonym is a word,
name, or expression that is used as a substitute for something else with which it is closely
associated. The new name is formed from the accompaniment of the person or thing rather
than the name. For instance, when one says, ‘a bunch of suits were in the elevator’ he or
she is referring to businesspeople. A synecdoche also involves a change in name but by
substitution, not accompaniment of the original thing or person. Table 9.3 below provides
some examples of both.

Table 9.3 Metonym and synecdoche examples

Metonym examples Synecdoche examples

The pen (writer) is mightier than the The man in him soon asserted itself.
sword (soldier).
(To refer to his manliness.)

The ‘dish’ to refer to an entire plate of food. She drank the cup.
(To refer to her drinking of the cup’s contents.)

The ‘crown’ to mean the power of the king. He hit the bottle.
(To refer to his drinking large quantities of liquor.)

9.4.5
Figures of imagination
Though there are various figures of speech that fall within this category, only two are
discussed in this chapter—personification and hyperbole. Personification is a figure of
speech in which inanimate objects, animals, or abstract ideas are endowed with human
form, character, or sensibilities (Keraf, 2009). Thus, to personify an object or thing is to
attribute to it human life or feelings; it is the commutation of human characteristics to an
object. An example of personification is, ‘The sun greeted me when I woke up in the
morning’. The sun is a non-human object but has been given human characteristics since
greetings can only be performed by living creatures. Hyperbole is the use of deliberate
exaggeration or overstatement for emphasis to achieve a humorous effect, without any
intention to deceive the reader or audience. It is the opposite of a litote or understatement.
The exaggeration is not to be taken literally. As in common usage amongst friends, the user
should be able to appreciate the deployment and effect of the exaggeration. Take, for

Chapter 9 – Figures of Speech 221

example, when you walk into your friend’s room after a long day of back-to-back lecture
hours and say, ‘I want to eat a basin of nsima!’ You know, certainly that you cannot eat
that quantity of food, but you have made the statement simply to emphasise how hungry
you are as well for a humorous effect. Table 9.4 below shows more examples of both
personification and hyperbole.

Table 9.4 Personification and hyperbole examples

Personification examples Hyperbole examples

June is the cruellest month of the year. I would die for you.

The car brakes screamed all through the journey. I have told you a million times to wash the dishes.

The car stopped with a groaning complaint. You are so slender that the wind could carry
you away.

The pen danced furiously on the paper. The afternoon is so bright that the sun would
have to wear sunglasses.

The sun smiled at me.

The sea raged with anger.

Activity 4: Learning outcome 4

Choose an example of personification and hyperbole from the list above or use one of your own.
Illustrate a picture to depict the meaning of the figures of speech. Share your examples with a peer
or group, to see if they can guess the meaning of your examples.

9.4.6
Figures of indirectness
Innuendo, irony, sarcasm, satire, euphemism, litotes, and idioms are all examples of
figures of indirectness. In Table 9.5 below, definitions and examples are given for these
figures of speech.

222 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Table 9.5 Figures of indirectness: Definitions and examples

Type Definition Example

Innuendo Also known as ‘insinuation’; A word is enough for the wise.

a way of saying something without
I never consult doctors, for I hope to die
showing appreciation but not
without them.
stating it directly.

Irony A deliberate attempt to say the The teacher taught the students very
exact opposite of what one intends well that they all failed.
to say; not to be taken literally.
His hands are so long that they cannot
even touch his ears.

Sarcasm Close to irony but used without When something is uninteresting:

disguise; made mockingly, ironically,
I am delighted that I get to be here for the
or in a better contempt to show
next three hours.
some foolishness on the part of the
speaker; speakers vocal or physical When something bad happens:
cues are usually necessary to signal Oh, this is exactly what I needed today!
the sarcasm.

Satire A brand of humour used to expose Animal Farm is a satire because it pokes
stupidity and human vice, especially fun at and exposes to ridicule with
among the high and mighty; makes contempt, the leadership of the Soviet
fun of or ridicules some vices or Union under Stalin’s rule.
mistakes in society often through
hyperbole, understatement,
sarcasm, or irony.

Euphemism Used to express a mild or indirect He fell into a long last sleep. (He died.)
word or expression substituted for
He is between jobs. (He is unemployed.)
one considered to be too harsh or
blunt; expresses an unpleasant Mary is economically disadvantaged.
truth in an offensive but still (Mary is poor or impoverished.)
agreeable manner. Mwaka is financially fortunate.
(Mwaka is spoiled.)

Litotes Can be regarded as the opposite During a windy, cold day:

of a hyperbole; an understatement
It is the best weather today!
used ironically to express emphasis.

Idioms A figure of speech meaning It is raining cats and dogs.

something different than the
It is all Greek to me.
literal translation.
It costs an arm and a leg.

You are barking up the wrong tree.

You should bite your tongue.

Chapter 9 – Figures of Speech 223

Activity 5: Learning outcome 2

Sort the examples of figures of indirectness according to their type. Refer to the table as needed.

9.4.7
Figures of sound
Alliteration and onomatopoeia are both considered figures of sound. Alliteration is used
to create special effects, especially in poetry by repeating the first consonant in a series
of words. One example of alliteration is, ‘Father Francis from France fried five fresh fishes
for five famous friends from Finland’. Onomatopoeia names something or an action by
imitating the sound associated with it. Examples of onomatopoeia include:

The fireplace heater hissed and cracked.

The truck engine roared as it climbed the hill.

The alarm clock buzzed at the time I was going to the bathroom.

Activity 6: Learning outcome 2

1. Using the selected texts from the lecturer or a text of your choice, analyse the text for any of the
figures of speech from this chapter and be prepared to share your examples.
2. Why is it important to explicitly teach figures of speech in the literacy and language classroom?

224 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

9.5

Uses of figures of speech and implications

for the classroom
It is said ‘necessity is the mother of invention’. This well-known proverb simply means that
the primary driving force for most new inventions is ‘need’. The most important purpose of
any product is to satisfy a customer’s need. It is easy to draw insight from the aforesaid that
there is no doubt that speakers and writers apply figures of speech in the conversations and
writing for a purpose. Tarigan (1982) said that speaking is an ability to produce sounds or
words to express feelings, ideas, and opinions. It means that to express feelings, to share
or to deliver ideas and to express opinions, people must be able to produce sounds or words
to interact in their community. In conversation as well as in writing, as earlier alluded to,
people include figures of speech, not for the sake of it but for a particular purpose.
They are used across the gamut of literary genres, some of which were included here like
stories, allegories, parables, and poetry but are also found elsewhere, like in dramas or
debates. This is because figures of speech often provide emphasis, freshness of expression,
or clarity. In primary schools, teachers must try to introduce learners to these figures of
speech using the local language. The teacher should give examples and then discuss what
they mean and why they are used. Learners from linguistically rich backgrounds (homes) will
be familiar with some of these ways in which these figures of speech are used. They may be
called upon to elaborate and give further examples. Most of the figures of speech will
probably be met in what the learners read; for each instance, the teacher should use
it as an opportunity to expand and compare with other related forms. For example, when
they meet the expression: ulya niinsoka ‘that one is a snake’, the teacher might ask not
only for an explanation but also another way of saying this such as the use of a simile: ulya
aba nga insoka ‘that one is like a snake’. In this way the teacher will help learners classify
and differentiate different figures of speech.

However, clarity may also suffer from their use, as any figures of speech introduce an
ambiguity between literal and figurative interpretation. Figures of speech are highly
effective, for they add vividness, vigour, and beauty to our utterances. Though figures of
speech are the ornaments of speech, they should not be used unless they are natural and
appropriate and increase the effectiveness of what we have to say. In speech and in writing,
when used effectively, figures of speech can:

Chapter 9 – Figures of Speech 225

1. Enhance description and expression

2. Create poetic meaning, comparisons, and expressions artistically

3. Entertain or engage, like in the case of invoking humour

4. Make writing or speech memorable

5. Heighten contrast

However, figures of speech are often challenging for learners to understand and use,
especially when the level of text becomes more complex to read and/or they are unfamiliar
with the figures of speech being read (Rasinski et al., 2017). As we learnt in chapter
3, explicitly teaching learners the metalanguage of text increases their metalinguistic
awareness. It helps to develop their ability to see how languages’ form contributes to its
meaning. Teachers should not only teach children how to interpret the meaning of the
figures of speech they encounter, but explicitly pay attention to their unique characteristics
so that learners can differentiate between them. As well as this, when learners are
proficient in identifying and interpreting a figure of speech in text, they should then be
asked to use it in their writing because ‘high-quality writing is marked by the use of
figurative language’ (Rasinski et al., 2017, p. 6).

9.6

Chapter summary
In this chapter, we learnt about figurative language and the numerous types of figures of
speech that are used to add creativity to our speech and writing. Learners in the literacy and
language classroom will encounter figures of speech in a variety of contexts. Their ability to
notice them and understand them depends on their individual levels and experiences. Since
figures of speech are non-literal, they are challenging to decipher. Teachers must explicitly
teach figures of speech in the classroom, knowing that they may be difficult for learners
to grasp. With explicit instruction and practice using figures of speech in oral and written
communication, learners will be more proficient in identifying and understanding figures of
speech independently.

226 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

9.7

Assessment of learning
1. What is figurative language and why do we use figurative language?

2. Why are figures of speech difficult for learners to identify and/or understand?

3. How could you scaffold instruction so that learners are more confident and capable
of identifying and understanding figures of speech?

4. Think of one of the categories of figures of speech and design a lesson that exploits
what the learners already know about those figures of speech.

Chapter 9 – Figures of Speech 227

228 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
Module
Summary

Module Summary 229

Module Summary
Congratulations on completing the module! Over the course of this term, you have learnt
about many important topics related to your teacher training and how you can best meet
the needs of the learners in your classroom.

Chapter 1 introduced you to the two main ways language has been conceptualised— the
formalist and functionalist perspectives. Both perspectives have positively influenced the
methods of teaching language in the classroom. A formalist approach to teaching
language focuses on grammatical form and the production of accurate sentences, whereas
a functionalist approach is more concerned with meaning and how we use language
appropriately to communicate in different contexts. You learnt that no single approach is
best; rather, language teaching should include attention to both form and function.

Chapter 2 presented some of the nonlinguistic and linguistic evidence for the origins of
language, as well as the design features of language and other ways language is
manifested. Through the investigation of language’s origins, scholars have sought to
discover whether language derived from a single source (monogenesis) or multiple sources
(polygenesis). Thus, you learnt of the mythical and theological accounts for the origins
of language, some theories from linguistic scholars that have drawn connections between
language and primitive man’s need to communicate, and what comparative linguists
have found from reconstructing ancestral languages. You also learnt about the ways in which
human communication is unique compared to other forms of animal communication and
other ways in which language is expressed (e.g. sign language, tactile mode).
Understanding the complexity of language, the uniqueness of language, and the various
ways human language is manifested helps you to gain a respect for language teaching
and the language(s) of your learners.

Chapter 3 focused on Halliday’s functions of language, which has informed our

understanding of children’s language development as well as language teaching methods.
It was learnt that children develop language over three main phases; the first two phases
include microfunctions of language while the final phase represents adult language
development and the macrofunctions of language. Children’s language development prior
to formal schooling is one of the keys to their future academic success. Teachers must
have knowledge about language development to align instruction to meet the needs of
all learners, especially when learners come to school with weak language skills and/or
their Mother Tongue (MT) differs from the Language of Instruction (LOI). This chapter
also applied Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) to teaching language by
demonstrating how teachers can support learners’ language development by explicitly

230 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

teaching metalinguistic skills like providing the language to talk about language and
creating instructional tasks that not only focus on the understanding of content but also
how language is used to make meaning.

Chapter 4 concentrated on language acquisition, which you learnt was different from
language learning because it is the unconscious process by which children acquire a first
language as opposed to the formal or explicit teaching of language. Three major theories of
language acquisition were explored: Behaviourist Theory, Nativist Theory, and
Interactionist Theory. These theories helped to frame your understanding of how both
nature and nurture play a role in language acquisition. You learnt that while all children
have the capacity to learn language, you can support learners’ language acquisition
through language-centred activities like teaching dialogue skills and modelling challenging
academic language.

Chapter 5 provided a broad overview of the levels of linguistic analysis, which include
phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. The chapter demonstrated
how the levels of linguistic analysis help us to understand how we can hear, perceive, and
produce language through our speech organs, that all languages have a structure, and
that all languages, though they may be similar, have unique characteristics and rules. You
also
learnt how to apply the levels of linguistic analysis to English and Zambian languages. Having
a strong grasp of the similarities and differences of the languages that may be present
in the classroom will help you to better design instruction that targets learners’ needs.

Chapter 6 focused on the branches of linguistics and how each branch of linguistics
examines language from a unique lens that, when brought together, help to form a
more holistic understanding of language. You learnt that discourse analysis looks closely
at how sentences cohere to create meaning and that a sociolinguistic approach to
language investigates how language varies according to social factors like the identity
or attitudes of the speakers in a given context or differences in dialect. Pragmatics taught
you the need to be aware of the appropriacy of language use and that learners whose
language is different from the LOI may have difficulties using language pragmatically.
You also learnt of the contributions made by the field of psycholinguistics, which explores
how language is produced, comprehended, and acquired as it relates to the connections
between those processes and the mind. It is through psycholinguistics that we are
better able to understand the factors or challenges that may affect teaching and learning
in the classroom.

Chapter 7 presented the language situation in Zambia which also has direct implications
for the classroom. As was learnt, Zambia is a multilingual country with seven regional
languages but many other languages and dialects. The chapter also revealed how

Module Summary 231

educational policies have changed throughout the course of Zambia’s history. You learnt
how important it is to be knowledgeable about the language situation and the educational
policies in practice today to be an effective teacher. Research has shown that children learn
how to read best in their MT, which requires teachers in Zambia to be very skilled in both
the theory and practice of language teaching in a multilingual learning environment.

Chapter 8 focused on the orthographies of the seven regional Zambian languages. You
learnt some of the history behind the development of the Zambian orthographies and
their components (e.g. parts of speech, word division, tone, ideophones) and were able
to compare Zambian orthographies. This brought to light some of the differences and
similarities that are present across the languages. You also learnt that orthographies can
be opaque (English) or transparent (Zambian languages). This requires teachers to be
knowledgeable of the best practices to teach specific orthographies and have the flexibility
to accommodate instruction to meet all learners’ needs.

Chapter 9 concentrated on figures of speech (also referred to as figurative language):

the various kinds and their relevance to the language and literacy classroom. You were
able to identify, classify, and analyse a wide range of figurative language like metaphors,
similes, personification, and hyperbole. You learnt that interpreting figurative language
is challenging because it requires a high level of metalinguistic ability. It’s meant to
be interpreted nonliterally, which is difficult for all learners regardless of language but
especially for those learners who may have a harder time learning how to read. Yet
figurative language is everywhere, and it adds creativity to language expression. With
explicit instruction, you will be able to help your learners better understand how to use
and interpret figurative language, but also how to notice it in speech and in text.

While you have completed this language module, there is more to learn in your programme
to become an even more capable and effective teacher. Continue to return to this module
as you build your repertoire of skills. With the knowledge you have gained in this course and
the other courses in your programme, you will be well prepared to meet the needs of your
learners.

Best wishes for your future and thank you for committing yourself to the honourable
profession of teaching. Your hard work and dedication is worthy of recognition as you
help to educate children who will be the future leaders of Zambia.

232 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

Appendix
Appendix 5A
The International Phonetic Alphabet Symbols and Their Sounds

The following section includes the symbols, letters, and the sounds associated with the
International Phonetic Alphabet. Phonetic transcriptions of words are included with severalof
the phonetic symbols to assist the reader in understanding the pronunciation of the
symbols. Each phonetic symbol is featured in block parentheses [ ] followed by the sound each
symbol produces with examples of words to facilitate understanding.

[a] Bright, forward vowel as in ‘high,’ ‘light,’ and ‘quite’.

[ɑ] Placed further back in the mouth, a dark vowel as in ‘father’, ‘hall’, ‘hot’, and ‘body’.

[æ] Bright, forward vowel as in ‘cat’, ‘mast’, ‘family’, and ‘have’.

[b] Stop-plosive, voiced bilabial consonant. [b] is a cognate of [p].

[c] Consonant that makes a hark [k] sound or [s] sound, as in ‘car’ and ‘cup’ and ‘coo’.

[ʧ ] Consonant combination that makes a ‘ch’ sound, as in the word church.

[d] Stop-plosive consonant, tongue + alveolar ridge. [d] is a cognate of [t].

[e] Forward, closed vowel found mainly in diphthongs, as in ‘wait’, and ‘stay’.

[ɛ] Forward, open vowel, as in ‘fed’, ‘open’, and ‘extra’.

[f] Fricative, unvoiced consonant made with the upper teeth and the lower lip
and is a cognate of [v].

[g] Stop-plosive, voiced consonant made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.
The consonant makes a hard [g] sound as in ‘gust’ and is a cognate of [k].

[ʤ] Consonant combination found in words with ‘dg,’ as in ‘judge’, ‘urge’, ‘jar’.
[ʤʌʤ] [ɝʤ] [ʤar]

[h] Glottal fricative produced by sending air through the glottis before the vocal folds
fully come into contact with each other.

[i] Forward, closed vowel, as in ‘heel’, ‘beam’, ‘green’, and ‘congeal’.

[ɪ] Forward, open vowel, as in ‘bit’, ‘quit’, ‘give’, and ‘oblivion’.

Chapter 9 – Figures of Speech 233

[j] Glide, as in ‘yes’, ‘yellow’, ‘million’, and ‘halcyon’.
[jɛs] [jɛloʊ] [mɪljən] [hælsiən]

[k] Stop-plosive, unvoiced consonant. Cognate of [g].

[l] Lateral, voiced consonant made with the tongue and teeth ridge (alveolar ridge).

[m] Nasal, voiced bilabial (both lips) consonant.

[n] Nasal, voiced consonant made with the tongue blade (tip) and the alveolar ridge.

[ŋ] Nasal, voiced consonant made with tongue and the hard/soft palate,
as in ‘sign’, ‘long’, and ‘clang’.
[sɪŋ] [lɔŋ] [klæŋ]

[ɲ] Nasal, voiced consonant. The enya is found in the English word ‘onion’, and the
Spanish words mañana and niño.

[o] Back, closed vowel found in the words obey, oblivion, okay, and over.

[ɔ] Back, open vowel found in the words bought, caught, and saw.

[p] Stop-plosive, unvoiced and bilabial consonant. [p] is a cognate of [b].

[q] Stop-plosive consonant that typically makes a [k] sound found in the words: quiet,
quick, and quart = [kwɑɪ jət], [kwɪk], and [kwɔrt].

[r] A retroflexed, voiced consonant. The tongue pulls backward to produce [r] in English.

[ɝ] Stressed R-coloured vowel, such as: ‘herd’, ‘burn’, blur’, ‘jury’.

[ɚ] Unstressed R-coloured vowel, such as ‘over’, ‘colour’, ‘underling’.

[s] Unvoiced, fricative consonant made with the tongue blade and the alveolar ridge,
as in the words bus, simple, and bluster.

[ʃ ] Unvoiced, fricative consonant made with the tongue blade and the alveolar ridge,
as in the words sure, wish, hash, and short.

[t] Stop-plosive, unvoiced consonant that is a cognate of [d].

[θ] Theta, an unvoiced, consonant combination found in the words maths, thin,
and zither.

[ð] Voiced ‘th’, as in the words wither, then, that, there, and they.

[u] Closed, back vowel as in the words coo, woo, strewn, and blooper.

234 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

[ʊ] Neutral vowel, as in the words book, could, stood, and pull.

[ʌ] Stressed, central vowel, as in the words up, butter, and huddle.

[ə] Unstressed, central vowel, as in the words batten, broaden, and carpet.

[v] Voiced, fricative consonant that is a cognate of [f], as in the word voice.

[w] Voiced, bilabial consonant, as in the words water, win, and wallet.

[hw] Unvoiced, bilabial consonant, as in the words which and whiff.

[x] May be voiced or unvoiced. Unvoiced = ‘excellent’ [ɛk sə lənt].

Voiced = ‘example’ [eg zæ mpəl]

[y] Glide, as in ‘yes’, ‘yours’, and ‘yawn’. [jɛs], [jɔʊrz], [jɔn]

[z] Voiced, fricative consonant, as in ‘buzz’, ‘was’, and ‘cousin’. Cognate of [s].

[ʒ] Voiced, fricative consonant, as in ‘azure’, ‘pleasure’, and ‘vision’. Cognate of [ʃ ].

Chapter 9 – Figures of Speech 235

236 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity
Glossary

Acoustic phonetics — the study of what sounds Conversation Analysis (CA) — a type of discourse
sound like and includes properties of pitch, length, analysis which analyses conversations; a useful
or amplitude tool for learning how language learners negotiate
communication within social contexts
Agglutinative languages — Languages in which
words are made up of linked morphemes expressing Corpus language planning — a process
different meanings and grammatical functions of developing a language including the
development of an orthography, literature
Alphabetic principle — The requirement that and even vocabulary creation
one letter represents only one sound
Critical Classroom Discourse Analysis
Articulatory phonetics — the study of how and (CCDA) — a type of discourse analysis used
where within the vocal tract speech sounds are within the classroom context to raise social and
produced political awareness
Aspirated sounds — The audible release of air Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) — a type
when articulating or pronouncing stop sounds of discourse analysis which focuses on the
(e.g. [ph]) relationship between power and language

Auditory phonetics — the study of how speech Design features of language — features
is heard and perceived of human language that make it unique,
i.e. differentiates human language from other
Behaviourist theory — A psychological theory
forms of communication
of language acquisition which states that whatever
children come to learn and know, they gain Dialects — related varieties of the same language.
from the environment around them by imitation People speaking dialects of the same language
and reinforcement have mutual intelligibility, that is, they understand
each other
bi-, mono-, multi- — prefixes joined to -lingual
(language) to refer to the number of languages Discourse Analysis — a branch of linguistics at
spoken in a country or by individuals; mono = one, a level higher than a sentence concerned with the
bi= two and multi = many study of language in its intra-linguistic context
Cognates — shared words across languages as a Divine Source Theory — a belief that language
result of their similar ancestral language origin comes from a divine (a God or gods) source

Comparative linguistics — a field of linguistics endo-, exo- — prefixes jointed to glossic

which studies the similarities and differences (language) to refer to the adoption of language
between languages and their possible origins policies that include either: an inside or native
language (endoglossic) as an official language; a
Consonant clusters — a combination of
foreign language (exoglossic) as an official language
consonants which are not digraphs or trigraphs
(e.g. nd (nasal plus a stop) called a nasal cluster) Ethnicity — refers to the ethnic group/tribe
that a person self-identifies with due to a shared
Consonants — Sounds produced by the narrowing
culture, norms, values and language
or blocking off and release of the airflow (e.g. p, t, f)
Field — field denotes the subject matter or
Conversation — A talk or other form of discourse
content being discussed in written and spoken
between two or more people in which news or
discourse. In other words, field refers to the
ideas are shared
presentation of ideas as they are represented
through the grammar of language (e.g. nouns,

Glossary 237
verbs, adjectives, prepositions and other parts Ideophones — words and/or phrases that may
of speech) (Schleppegrell, 2004) and how this depict a variety of sensory experiences (i.e.
grammar reflects the participants, processes, sound, taste, movement, inner feelings) but
circumstances, and connections within language also have specific marked orthographic features
(Humphrey, 2020) (i.e. reduplicated roots)

Figurative language — a non-logical language Idiom — a figure of speech that means something
which comprises words used in a new and non- different froma literal translation of the words
literal sense which departs from the logical usage would lead one to believe
of language in order to gain special effects
Interactionist theory — a theory of language
Figure of speech — a literary style or device that acquisition that combines behaviourism and
involves the use of words to effectively express a nativism, acknowledging that part of learning
given concept language involves imitation and part involves
what the child brings to the learning experience
Fluency — the ability to read a text accurately
with appropriate speed and intonation International Phonetic Alphabet — an alphabet
created in the 19th century to represent all of the
Formalist linguistics — approach to the study of sounds of language
language which focuses on language structures
(the form) and not their meanings; often contrasted Interpersonal metafunction — an appraisal system
with functional linguistics below from which attitudes are represented according to
their polarity (positive, negative, neutral) and force
Functionalist linguistics — linguists who have the (intensely, softly). Put differently, the interpersonal
view that language is used for performing various metafunction refers to the relationships that exist
social functions (e.g. making requests, orders, between the speaker and his addressee as well as
apologies, etc.) and that this is more important than between the speaker and his own message
focusing on the form, as in formalist linguistics
Language — a conventional, structured system
Genre — how language is organised to express human use to communicate by sound, written text,
various social purposes in such forms as poetry, or gestures
essays, stories and so on
Language acquisition — the process of how
Grapheme — a symbol or letter (used in a similar children become speakers of the language of the
way to the phoneme) that represents a sound in a community or family in which they are born
spoken language
Language learning — the formal or explicit teaching
Heteroglossia — refers to the presence of multiple of language to a child or adult
varieties of the same language
Linguistic competence — the knowledge of
Holophrastic stage — when children appear to use grammatical rules possessed by a speaker of a
just one word to communicate a whole message language which are used to construct sentences

Hyperbole — the use of deliberate exaggeration Linguistic evidence — evidence of the origins of
or overstatement for emphasis or to achieve a language that comes from considering similarities
humorous effect, without any intention to deceive in language structures across languages (typology)
the reader or audience but bring out some sense and comparative linguistics
of humour
Linguistic performance — the use of linguistic
Ideational metafunction — a function of language rules (grammar) in generating sentences in
that interprets our material experiences (external actual communication
world), mental experiences (inner world),
and relational experiences (identification and Linguistics — the scientific study of language
classification of experiences) (Schleppegrell, 2013).
Literacy — the ability to read and write
In other words, the ideational metafunction refers
to what is being talked about.

238 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

 Phonological awareness — an awareness of
Metalanguage — metalanguage refers to any
the fact that words are composed of individual
language or symbolic system used to discuss,
sounds (phonemes) that can be manipulated in
describe, or analyse another language. This is
various ways
different from object language, which is the
language being discussed by metalanguage Phonology — the study of how sounds pattern
together in language to encode meaning
Metaphor — a figure of speech containing an
implied comparison Polygenesis — the view that language has many
(poly) origins (genesis)
Mode — mode refers to the channel of
communication, such as monologic/dialogic Polyglot — a Greek word (poly = many, glot =
or spoken/written, including visual contact. tongue/language) which refers to a person who
has command of many languages
Monogenesis — the position that language
has one (mono) origin (genesis) Pragmatics — a branch of linguistics concerned
with how context shapes how we use and
Morpheme — the smallest unit of meaning
interpret language
in a word
Prosodic properties — properties of intonation,
Morphology — the study of the internal
stress, and length
structures of words
Psycholinguistics — a branch of linguistics
Mutual intelligibility — able to understand
concerned with the study of the relationship
each other. A characteristic of dialects that
between the mind and language
while different are so similar that people can
understand each other Reduplication — a process by which whole words
or stems are repeated or written twice
Nativist theory — a language acquisition
theory suggesting that children are born Register — register refers to how a language
already programmed to acquire languages user varies his or her speech according to local
or situational aspects such as where the language
Nonlinguistic evidence — evidence on the origin
is being used, for what purposes, how it’s organised
of language not based on linguistics such as myths,
or presented, and whether there is interaction
religion, anthropology, archaeology, etc.
between a speaker and an audience
Official language(s) — a language prescribed by
Semantics — the study of meaning in language
law to be used as the language of government
administration, education and so on (e.g. English Simile — a figure of speech that compares two
in Zambia) different things in an interesting way using the
words like or as
Opaque orthograph — orthographies where
the correspondences between letters and Sociolinguistics — a branch of linguistics which
sounds are inconsistent (e.g. English) studies all aspects of the relationship between
language and society
Orthography — the spelling system of a
language or a set of rules that are followed Status language planning — a process for
in writing words in a language determining which languages or dialects should
be officially used in different social domains
Personification — a figure of speech in
which inanimate objects, animals or abstract Syllable — a unit of pronunciation usually larger
ideas are endowed with human form, character, than a sound but smaller than a word (Crystal,
or sensibilities 2008:467). It can consist of a single vowel or a
combination of a vowel and one or two consonants.
Phoneme — the smallest unit of sound that
Open syllables end with vowels (e.g. ba) while
signals a difference in meaning in a word
closed syllables with consonants (e.g. cat).
Phonetics — the study of speech sounds

Glossary 239
Syntax — the study of sentence structure; how
words combine to form words, phrases, clauses,
and sentences

Systemic functional grammar — this is a type of

grammar concerned with the social and pragmatic
functions of language, relating these to both formal
syntactic properties and prosodic properties.

Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) —

a theory of language centred around the notion
of language function. SFL places the function of
language as central in terms of what language
does and how it does it

Telegraphic speech — in this phase, children

start stringing together two or more words but
omit some such as function words like articles
or inflections in Bantu languages

Tenor — tenor refers to the participants in a

particular discourse, how they relate to each
other and their purposes in discourse

Textual metafunction — the textual metafunction

is that part of the meaning potential which
makes a text into a text and involves phenomena
such as thematic structure, information structure,
and coherence

Transparent orthographies — orthographies

where there is a clear correspondence between
letters and sounds in a language (e.g. Zambian
languages orthographies)

Unaspirated sounds — the release of a stop

without an audible puff of air (e.g. [p])

Vowels — sounds produced without interruption

in the vocal tract, principally the mouth
(e.g. a, e, i, o, u)

240 USAID Transforming Teacher Education Activity

References
Chapter 1
Bloch, B., & Trager, G. L. (1942). Outline of linguistic analysis. Linguistic Society of America at the
Waverly Press, Inc.

Bloomfield, Leonard. (1914). An introduction to the study of language. Henry Holt and Company.

Chomsky, A. N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. MIT Press.

Chomsky, A. N. (1957). Syntactic structures. Mouton.

Eggins, S. (2013). An introduction of systemic functional linguistics (2nd ed.). Bloomsbury.

Finegan, E., & Besnier, N. (1989). Language: Its structure and use. Harcourt Brace.

Halliday, M. A. K. (1973). Exploration in the functions of language. Edward Arnold.

Halliday, M. A. K. (1975). Learning how to mean: Exploration in the development of language. Edward Arnold.

Halliday, M. A. K. (1978). Language as social semiotic: The interpretation of language and meaning. Edward Arnold.

Lucas, T., & Villegas, A. M. (2013). Preparing linguistically responsive teachers: Laying the foundation in pre-service
teacher education. Theory into Practice.

Robins, R. H. (1971). General linguistics: An introductory survey (3rd edition). Longman. (First Edition, 1964).

Sapir, Edward (1921). Language: An introduction to the study of speech. Harcourt, Brace and Company.

Stevenson, A. (Ed.). (2010). Oxford dictionary of English. Oxford University Press.

Swann, J., Deumet, A., Lillis, T., & Mesthrie, R. (2004). A dictionary of sociolinguistics. Edinburgh University Press.

Tomasello, M. (1998). Uniquely primate, uniquely human. Developmental Science, 1, 1–16.

Trask, R. L., & Stockwell, P. (2007). Language and linguistics: The key concepts. Routledge.

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