LESSON I

CHEMICAL FOUNDATION

Chemical knowledge is expanding at a phenomenal rate. At present nearly

500,000 research reports in various areas of chemistry are publish yearly. Clearly is not
humanly possible to master the entirety of chemical knowledge; however, it is not
important to understand at least the basics of chemistry.
Chemistry deals with all materials of the universe and the changes that these
materials undergo. Chemistry involves in activities as diverse as looking for molecules
in space, exploring the fundamentals particles of matter, making new materials, and
trying to find out how organisms, such as humans work.
In this module you will review the basics concepts in the study of chemistry. The
study of chemical foundations is also good start to understand how chemists use
theories and laws to explain the concepts in the study of chemistry. Another equally
important goal is to inspire you to be more creative in handing and communicating this
knowledge. To do so, you must appreciate the relevance of this knowledge in your daily
life.

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
1. discuss the approach to science, the scientific method.
2. define the terms chemistry, hypothesis, theory, and scientific law.
3. state the differences and relationships between science and technology.
4. distinguish between data and results.
5. learn the major units in the English and metric system, and be able
to convert from one system to another.
6. compare and contrast the terms error, accuracy, precisions and
uncertainty.
7. report data and results using scientific notations and the proper number
of significant figures.
8. apply appropriate experimental quantities in problem solving.
9. calculate the density of an object from mass, volume data and calculate
the specific gravity of an object from density.

I.I The Discovery Process

Chemistry is the study of matter, its composition, its properties, its transformations
from one form to another and the energy that accompanies its transformation. Matter is
anything that has mass and occupies space. Energy is the ability to do work and to
accomplish some change. The changes that matter undergoes always involve either
gain or loss of energy. Matter and energy are at the heart of chemistry.
 Chemistry encompasses the following specialties.
Inorganic Chemistry is the study of matter that consists of all of the elements other
than carbon and hydrogen and their combinations. Inorganic chemists have been
responsible for the development of unique substances for industrial use such as
semiconductors and high temperature ceramics.
Organic Chemistry is the study of matter that is principally composed of carbon and
hydrogen. Organic chemists study methods of preparing such as diverse substances as
plastics, drugs, solvents, and host of industrial chemicals.
Biochemistry is the study of life at the molecular level and the process associated
with life, such as reproduction, growth, and respiration.
Analytical Chemistry involves the analysis of matter to determine its composition
and the quantity of each kind of matter is present. Analytical chemists detect traces of
toxic chemicals in water and air. They also devise methods to analyze human body
fluids for drugs, poisons, and levels of medication.
Physical Chemistry is a discipline that attempts to explain the way in which matter
behave. Physical chemists develop theoretical concepts and try to improve
experimentally. This helps us further understand chemical systems behave.
The scientific method is a systematic approach to the discovery of new information.
How do we learn about the properties matter, the way it behaves in nature, and how it
can be modified to make useful products? Chemists do this by using scientific method
to study the way in which matter changes under carefully controlled conditions.
The scientific method is not a “cookbook recipe” that if followed faithfully, will yield
new discoveries; rather; it is an organized approach to solving scientific problems. Every
scientist brings his/her own curiosity, creativity, and imagination to scientific study. But
scientific inquiry still involves some of the “cookbook approach.” For example, in the
laboratory you may use a procedure that was developed by others to measure certain
physical properties of matter, such as measuring the density of urine to determine the
amount of sugar present. By doing this, you are applying part of the scientific method.
Characteristics of the scientific process include the following:
1. Observation. The measurement of the temperature of water or boiling
point of alcohol results from observation. The description of, for example,
the color, odor, or taste of a substance is a result of observation.
2. Formation of question. Human kind’s fundamental curiosity motivates
questions of how and why things work.
3. Cause and effect relationships. If a scientist finds basis of generalized
explanation of substances and their behavior.
4. Developing theories when scientists observe a phenomenon, they want to
explain it. The process of explaining observed behavior an attempt to
explain an observation, or series of observations, in a commonsense way.
If many experiments support a hypothesis, it may attain the status of a
theory. A theory is a hypothesis supported by extensive testing that
explain scientific facts and can predict new facts.
5. Experimentation. Demonstrating the correctness of hypothesis and
theories is at the heart of the scientific method. Thus, is done by carrying
out carefully designed experiments that will either support or disprove the
theory or hypothesis.
 6. Summarizing information. A scientific law is nothing more than the
summary of a large quantity of information. For example, the law of matter
state that matter cannot be created nor destroyed only converted from one
form to another. This statement represents a massive quantity of chemical
information gathered from experiments.
The scientific method involves the interactive use of hypothesis, and thorough
testing of theories using well-designed experiments and summarized in Figure 1.

OBSERVATION

AObservation
QUESTION

A HYPOTHESIS

EXPERIMENTATION

THEORY NEW HYPOTHESIS

FURTHER DEVELOPMENTA OF NEW

EXPERIMENTION EXPERIMENTATION AND
THEORY

Science can be defined as the systematic of human kind and our surrounding
environment.
 Technology is the conversion of materials or information from its current form to a
more useful form. Many would describe technology as applied science, the use of
science principles to meet human needs.
Clearly, science breeds technology with both its benefits and its potentials dangers.
A scientific experiment produces data. Each piece of data is the individual result of a
single measurement or observation. Mass, length, volume, temperature, time and
energy are common types of data obtain from chemical experiments.
Results are the outcome of an experiment. Data and results may identical, but more
often several related pieces of data are combined, and logic is need to produce a result.

1.2. Measurement in Chemistry

The English system is a collection of functionally unrelated units. In the English
system of measurement, the standard pound (lb) is the basic unit of weight. The
fundamentals unit of length is the standard yard (yd), and the basic unit of volume is the
standard gallons (gal). The English system is used in United State in business and
industry. However, it is not used in scientific work, primarily because it is difficult to
convert from one form to another. In fact, the English “system” is not really a system at
all. It is simply a collection of measures throughout the English history.
The united State, the last major industrial country to retain English system, has
begun efforts to convert to the metric system; the metric system is truly “systematic”. It
is composed of sets of units that have related to each other decimally, in other words,
as power of ten. Because the metric system is a decimal based system, it is inherently
simpler to use and less ambiguous. For example, the length of an object maybe
represent as;
1000 millimeters= 100 centimeters=10 decimeters=1meter
Only the decimal point moves in the conversion from one unit to another, simplifying
many calculations.
The metric system was originally developed in France just before the French
revolution in 1789. The modern version of this system is the System international, or S.I.
system. Although the S.I. system has been inexistence for over forty-five years, it has
yet to gain widespread deceptance. To make the S.I. system truly systematic, it utilizes
certain units, especially those for pressure that many people find difficult to use.
In this module we will use the metric system not the S.I. system, and we will use the
English system only to the extent of correcting from it to the more scientifically useful
metric system.
In the metric system there are three basic units. Mass is represented as the gram,
length as the meter, and volume as the liter. Any subunit or multiple unit contains one of
the power of this units preceded by which a prefix indicating the power of ten to form the
base unit is to be multiplied to form the subunit or multiple unit.

The most common metric prefixes are shown in Table 1.1.

 Table 1.1 Some Common Prefixes used in the Metric System
Prefix Multiple Decimal Equivalent
exa (E) 1018 1,000,000,000,000,000,000
peta (P) 1015 1,000,000,000,000,000
tera (T) 1012 1,000,000,000,000
9
giga (G) 10 1,000,000,000
mega (M) 106 1,000,000
kilo (k) 10³ 1,000
hecto (u) 10² 100
deka(da) 10¹ 10
--------- -------- ------------------------------------------
deci (d) 10¹ 0.1
centi (c) 10-² 0.01
milli (m) 10-³ 0.001
micro () 10-6 0.000,001
nano (n) 10-9 0.000,000,001
12
pico (p) 10- 0.000,000,000,001
femto (f) 10-15 0.000,000,000,000,001
18
alto (a) 10- 0.000,000,000,000,000,001

To convert from one unit to another, we must have a conversion factor or series of
conversion factor that relate of two units. The proper use of this conversion is called the
factor-label method. This method is also called dimensional analysis.
This method is used for two kinds of conversion to convert from one unit to another
within the same system or to convert units from one system to another.
In the conversion of units within the same system, for example in the English
system,
1 quart = 2 pints
1 quart 1 quart

The expression in the left is equal unity (1); therefore

2pints 1 quart
1 = 1 quart or 1= 2 pints
Now multiplying any other expression by the ratio 2 pints, 1 quart will not change
the value of the term, because multiplication of any number by 1 produces the original
value. However, there is one importance difference: the units will have changed.

Sample Problem:
 Using conversion factors
Convert 24 pints to unit of quarts

Solution: 1 quart
24 pints x 2 pints = 12 quarts
The conversion for 1 quart/ 2 pints, serves as a bridge or linkage
between the units that was given (pints) and the unit that was sought
(quart).

Conversion of units within the metric system may be accomplished by using the
factor label methods as well. Unit prefixes that dictate the conversion factor facilitate
unit conversion.

Sample Problem:
Using Conversion Factors
Convert 20.0 centimeters to meters

Solution:
1 meter or 100 centimeters
100 centimeters 1 meter

20.0 cm x 1 m = 0.200 m
100 cm

Checkpoint 1.2
A. Convert 2.0 liters to each of the following units, using the factor-label method.
a. millimeters
b. micro liters
c. kiloliters
d. centiliters
e. dekaliters
B. Convert 2.0 grams to each of the following units:
a. micrograms
b. milligrams
c. kilograms
d. centigrams
e. decigrams
 The conversion of a quantity expressed in units of one system to a quantity in the
other system (English to metric or vice versa) requires a bridging conversion unit.
Commonly used bridging units for intersystem conversion are shown in the Table 1.2

Table 1.2 Commonly Used “Bridging” Units For Intersystem Conversion

Quantity English Metric
Mass 1 pound = 454 grams
2.2 pounds = 1 kilogram
Length 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters
1 yard = 0.91 meter
Volume 1 quart = 0.946 liter
1 gallon = 3.78 liters

The conversion may be represented as a three-step process:

1. Conversion from the units given in the problem to a bridging unit.
2. Conversion to the other system using the bridge.
3. Conversion within the desired system to unit required by problem.

Sample Problem:
Using Conversion Factors between System
Convert 2.2 pounces to kilograms
Solution:
Step 1.
A convenient bridging unit for mass is 1lb= 454 grams. To use
this conversion factors, we relate ounces to pounds:

2.2 ounces x 1 pound = 0.1375 pound

16 ounces
Step 2.
Using the bridging unit conversion, we get

0.1375-pound x 454 grams = 62.4250 grams

1 pound

Step 3.
Grams may be then directly converted to kilograms, the desired
unit:

62.4250 grams x 1 kilogram = 0.062425 kilograms

1000 grams
 Sample Problem:
Using Conversion Factors
Convert 3.0 meters² to centimeters²

3.0 m² x(10² cm)² = 3.0 m² x 10x4 cm²

(1m) 1 m²
= 3.0 x 104 cm²

Checkpoint 1.2
C. Convert the following:
a. 0.01 inch to meters
b. 0.50 quart to liters
c. 50 grams to ounces
d. 30 cm² to m²
e. 50 m² to cm²

1.3 Error, Accuracy, Precision, and Uncertainty

Error is the difference between the value and our estimation or measurement of the
value. All measurements are associated with some degree of error. Two types of error
exist; random error and systematic error. Random error causes data from multiple
measurement of the same quantity to be scattered in a more or less uniform way
around some average value. Systematic error causes data to be either smaller or larger
than accepted value.
Accuracy is the degree of agreement between the true value and the measure value.
Uncertainty is the degree of doubt in a single measurement. Precision is a measure of
agreement of replicate measurements.

1.4 Significant Figures and Scientific Notation

The term significant figures is defined to be all digits in a number representing data
or results that are known certainty plus one uncertainty digit. The number of significant
figures associated with a measurement is determined by the measuring device.
Conversely, the number of significant figures reported is an indication of the
sophistication of the measurement itself.
Only significant digits should be reported as data or results. However, are all digits
as written significant digits? Let’s examine at a few examples illustrating the rules that
are used to represent data and results with the proper number of significant digits.

Rule:
All nonzero digits are significant.

i.e. 8.925 has four digits

Rule:
Zeros located between nonzero digits are significant.

i.e. 20.023 has five significant figures

Rule:
Zeros at the end of the number (often referred to as trailing zeros) are significant
if the number contains a decimal point.

i.e. 3.900 has four significant figures

Rule:
Zeros to the left of the nonzero integer are not significant they serve only to
locate the position of the decimal point.

i.e., 0.0028 has two significant figures

Checkpoint 1.4
A. How many significant figures are contained in each of the following numbers?
a. 8.88
b. 888
c. 800.8
d. 8.0
e. 0.0880

Scientific Notation or exponential notation is the representation of a number as a

power of ten.

Rule:
To convert number greater than 1 to scientific notation, the original decimal point
is moved x places to the left and the resulting number is multiplied by 10 x. The exponent
(x) is a positive number equal to the number of places the original decimal point was
moved.
i.e., 18000000000000 is 1.8 x 10¹²

Rule:
To convert the number less than 1 to scientific notation, the original decimal point is
moved x places to the right, and the resulting number is multiplied 10- x. The exponent (-
x
) is a negative number equal to the places of the original decimal point was moved.
i.e., 0.0000000000018 is 1.8 x 10-¹²
Checkpoint 1.4
B. Represent each of the following numbers in scientific notation.
a. 0.00029
b. 0.0120
c. 236
d. 480.00
e. 95.60

In most calculations you will need to round off numbers to obtain the correct number
of significant figures. The following rules should be applied for rounding off.

Rule:
When the number to be dropped is less than 5 the preceding number is not
changed. When the number to be dropped is 5 or larger, the preceding number is
increased by one unit.

Sample Problem:
Rounding Numbers
Round off each of the following to three significant figures.

Solution:
a. 58.678 becomes 58.7. Rationale: 7 > 5
b. 90.116 becomes 90.1. Rationale: 1 < 5

Checkpoint 1.4
C. Round off each of the following numbers to three significant figures.
a. 21.20
b. 8.273
c. 0.07738
d. 5.2373
e. 4785

1.5 Experimental Quantities

The quantities that are most often determined include mass, length, volume, time,
temperature, and energy.
Mass describes the quantity of matter in an object. The common conversion units for
mass as follows;
1 gram= 10-³ kilogram =1/ 454 pound
The standard metric unit of length, the distance between two points, is the meter.
Common conversions for length are as follows;
1 meter = 10² centimeters= 3.94x10¹ inch
 The standard metric unit of volume, the space occupied by an object, is the liter. A
liter is the volume occupied by 100 grams of water at 4 degrees Celsius (ºC). the
volume, 1 liter, also corresponds to:
1 liter= 10³ milliliters = 1.06 quarts
The standard metric unit of time is the second. Temperature is a measure of the
amount of heat in the object. Three common temperature scales are Fahrenheit (ºF),
Celsius (ºC), and Kelvin (K).
Although Fahrenheit is most familiar to us, Celsius and Kelvin temperature is used
exclusively in scientific measurements. It is often necessary to convert a temperature
reading from one scale to another. To convert from Fahrenheit to Celsius, we use the
following formula;
ºC = 5/9 (ºF-32) or ºF-32
1.8
To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit, we use the formula;
ºF= 1.8 ºC+ 32

To convert from Celsius to Kelvin, we use the formula;

K= ºC+273

Sample Problem
Normal body temperature is 98.6 ºF. Calculate the corresponding
temperature in degree Celsius.

Solution:
Using the expression relating ºC and ºF,
ºC= ºF-32
1.8
Substituting the information provided,

= 98.6-32 = 66.6 = 37.0 ºC

1.8 1.8
Calculate the corresponding temperature in Kelvin units.
Solution:
Using the expression relating K and ºC
K= ºC + 273
Substituting the value obtained in the first part,
= 37.0 + 273 = 310 K
Checkpoint 1.5
A. The boiling temperature of water is 212ºF
Calculate the temperature of water in;
a. Celsius unit
b. Kelvin units

Energy the ability to do work, may be categorized as either kinetic energy, the
energy of motion, or potential energy, the energy of position.
Another useful way of classifying energy is by form. The principal forms of energy
include light, heat, electrical, mechanical, and chemical energy. All these forms of
energy share the following set of characteristics.
In chemical reaction, energy cannot be created nor destroyed.

Energy may be converted from one form to another.

Energy conversion always occurs with less than 100% efficiency.

All chemical reactions involve either a “gain” or “less” of energy.

Energy absorbed or liberated in chemical reaction is usually in the form of heat

energy. Heat energy may be represented in units of calories or joules, the relationship
being;

1 calorie (cal)= 4.18 joules (J)

One calorie is defined as the amount of energy required to increase the temperature
of 1 grain of water 1 ºC.
Concentration is a measure of the number of particles of a substance or the mass of
those particles that are contain in a specific volume. Concentration is a widely used way
of representing mixtures of different substances.
Density, the ratio of mass to volume.

D= mass = m
volume V

Density is a useful way to characterize a substance because each substance has a

unique density.
In density calculation the mass is usually represented in grams and volume in given
in either millimeters (ml) or cubic centimeters (cm³ or cc).

1 ml = 1cm³ = 1cc
 The unit of density would therefore be g/ml, g/cm³, or g/cc.

Sample Problem
Calculating the Density of Solid
2.00 cm³ of aluminum are found to weigh 5.40 g. calculate the density of
aluminum in units of g/cm³.

Solution:
The density expression is;
d= m = g
V cm³
Substituting the information given in the problem,
= 5.40 g = 2.70 g/cm³
2.00 cm³

Table 1.5 Density of Some Common Materials

Substance Density (g/ml)
Air 0.00129 (g/ml °C)
Ammonia 0.00771 (at 0°C)
Benzene 0.879
CO² 0.01963 (at 0°C)
Ethyl alcohol 0.789
Gasoline 0.66-0.69
Gold 19.3
Kerosene 0.82
Lead 11.3
Mercury 13.6
Oxygen 0.00143 (at 0°C)
Rubber 0.9- 1.1
Water 1.000 (at 0°C)
Sample Problem
Calculating The Mass of a Gas from its Density
Hydrogen has a density of 0.69 g/ml. What is the mass of a 5.0 L sample
of air?
5.0 L Hydrogen x 10³ ml Hydrogen x 0.001 g = 5.0 g
1 ml Hydrogen ml
Checkpoint 1.5
B.
a. The density of gasoline is 0.69 g/ml. Calculate the mass of a 20.0
ml sample.
b. Calculate the volume in millilitres of a 10.0 g Turpentine solution
that has a density of 0.87 g/ml.

For convenience, values of density are often related to a standard, well-known

reference, the density of a pure water at 4°C, these “reference” density is called the
specific gravity, the ratio of the density of the object in the question to the density of
pure water at 4 °C.

Specific Gravity = Density of the object (g/ml)

Density of water (g/ml)