UNIT-2

Chapter -3

3. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
When one think as to come in your mind , how the various components of machines are
produced, many techniques come to the mind, for example ,casting, forging, rolling, maching,
welding etc.

3.1Classification of manufacturing process:

1. Casting processes: in this process the metal in the molten state is poured into a
mould and allowed to solidify in to a shape. Example are sand casting, permanent
mould casting, die casting, precision investment casting and centrifugal casting
etc.
2. Deformation processes: in this process the metal is plastically deformed under
the action of an external force, to produce the required shape. Examples are
forging, rolling, extrusion and drawing etc.
3. Machine processes: it is also known as metal cutting or metal forming processes,
material removed from a work piece to get the final shape of the product.
Examples are turning, milling, drilling etc.
4. Joining processes: in this processes two or more components are joined together
to produce the required product. Examples are welding, brazing, soldering etc.
5. Assemble processes: the assemble processes for machines and mechanisms is the
part of the manufacturing process concerned with the different joining of the
finished parts.

3.2 Casting Process Working Principle in Detail: In this part, we will learn the detailed
working process and Basic terminologies of Casting as shown in fig 3.1.

Basic Terminologies of Casting Process:

1) Flask: A metal or wood frame in which mold is formed.
2) Cope: The upper half of the flask is called cope.
3) Drag: The lower half of the flask is called drag.
4) Core: Core is used to create an internal hollow cavity in the final product.
5) Vents: These are the places created in the mold to carry off-gases produced when
the molten metal comes in contact with the sand.
6) Mold cavity: This is the hollow space in the mold where the metal part is formed.
7) Riser: It is the reservoir of molten metal that supplies additional metal in case of
any reduction.

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 8) Runner: It is the passage from where the molten metal can be regulated before
reaching the mold cavity.
9) Pouring Cup: It is the cup or basin from where molten metal is poured in the
metal.
10) Pattern: It is the duplicate of the shape needed to form.
11) Sprue: It is the cavity through which molten metal flows downward.
12) Parting Line: This is the line that separates the cope and drag.

Fig 3.1 Basic Terminologies of Casting Process

3.2.1 Steps Involved in Casting Process: There are five steps involved in the casting process

1. Pattern Forming: The First step of this process is to select the shape that we have to
cast. Then we have to make the dummy material of that equipment that we have selected to cast.
The dummy material is also called the pattern. The dummy material can be made of wax, wood,
metal, plastic, etc.

2. Core Forming: After making the pattern then comes the core making. The core is
made when the casting requires some internal features like a hole. The core is made from the
sand of higher purity. Now after making the core comes the mold making.

3. Mold Making: To make the mold we take a wooden box, and then place the pattern in
the wooden box. After that, we will put the drag above the wooden box and fill the drag with the
sand. We will fill the sand tightly in the drag. After the sand sets, we will reserve the drag as the
pattern pointing upward. Now we will remove the pattern. As we remove the pattern we can see
the mold cavity has formed. Now we can create a runner and a gate that regulate the flow of
molten metal to the cavity. Now we will place the cope above the drag and attach it tightly with
the help of locating pins. In the cope, we will make sprue and riser.

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 4. Pouring Process: The first step of this method is to select the type of metal to be used
for the casting purpose. Then the selected metal is melted to remove all the impurities and gases.
While melting the treatment of the metal is done like degassing, fluxing, etc.

Then the molten metal is filtered and this step can be directly in the mold or before
pouring in the mold. This is done to remove impurities, dross, traces, etc.

And then this molten metal is poured into the mold in such a way that the release of gases
produces due to contact of the sand mold with the molten metal is the least. As well as the gases
present in the mold get enough time to exit from the vents.

5. Solidification Process: This process depends upon the gating system and the
temperature gradients after pouring molten metal. Efforts always made to raise the raiser or use
the chills to get suitable temperature gradients.

Casting should be designed in such a way so, that directional solidification (from one end
to another end) takes place to avoid defects. Chills & Padding are useful for directional
solidification.

Advantages:

1. Design flexibility
2. Reduced costs
3. Dimensional accuracy
4. Versatility in production

Disadvantages:

1. Lot of molten metal is wasted in riser & gating

2. Casting may require machining to remove rough surfaces

3.3. Metal forming processes: Large set of manufacturing processes in which the material is
deformed plastically to take the shape of the die geometry. The tools used for such deformation
are called die, punch etc. depending on the type of process as shown in fig 3.2.

Various metal forming techniques and their analysis, viz., forging, rolling, extrusion, wire
drawing, sheet metal working, spinning, swaging, thread rolling; Super plastic deformation;
Metal forming defects.

3.3.1 General classification of metal forming processes:

1) Rolling: In this process, the work piece in the form of slab or plate is compressed
between two rotating rolls in the thickness direction, so that the thickness is reduced. The
rotating roll draws the slab into the gap and compresses it. The final product is in the
form of sheet.

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 2) Forging: The work piece is compressed between two dies containing shaped contours.
The die shapes are imparted into the final part.
3) Extrusion: In this, the work piece is compressed or pushed into the die opening to take
the shape of the die hole as its cross section.
4) Wire or rod drawing: similar to extrusion, except that the work piece is pulled through
the die opening to take the cross-section.
5) Sheet forming: Sheet metal forming involves forming and cutting operations performed
on metal sheets, strips, and coils. The surface area-to-volume ratio of the starting metal is
relatively high. Tools include punch, die that are used to deform the sheets.
6) Bending: In this, the sheet material is strained by punch to give a bend shape (angle
shape) usually in a straight axis.
7) Deep (or cup) drawing: In this operation, forming of a flat metal sheet into a hollow or
concave shape like a cup, is performed by stretching the metal in some regions. A
blankholder is used to clamp the blank on the die, while the punch pushes into the sheet
metal. The sheet is drawn into the die hole taking the shape of the cavity.
8) Shearing: This is nothing but cutting of sheets by shearing action.

Fig 3.2 General Classification of Metal Forming Processes

3.4 Joining Processes: Joining is one of the manufacturing processes that are used to assemble
two or more solid components or structures together. It can be employed to permanently or
temporarily join any type of engineering materials such as metals, ceramics, plastics and
composites. In order to cater the need to join wide variety of materials in several ways, there
exist various joining processes, which can be broadly classified into two groups as shown in fig
3.3.

1. Temporary joining: As the name suggests, a temporary joint is not fixed. That means
it allows easy and quick dismantling of jointed structures without breaking them. This is very

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useful for inspection, maintenance and repairing purposes. However, such joint may not
necessarily be strong and leak-proof. Typical joining processes that allow temporary joints
include fastening, cotter joint, knuckle joint, key joint, press fit, seam joint, etc.

2. Permanent joining: A permanent joint is meant to stay fixed for long duration. It does
not allow disassembly of jointed structures without breaking them. It possesses challenge during
inspection, maintenance and repairing purposes as sometimes component or structure parts are
required to damage. However, it offers a sound, reliable and leak-proof joint with high load
carrying capacity. Typical permanent joining processes include welding, riveting, soldering,
brazing, coupling, adhesive joining, etc.

Fig 3.3 General Classification of Metal Joining Processes

3.5 Machining processes: Machining is a manufacturing process that involves removing

material from a larger piece of raw material to create a desired shape or part.

3.5.1 Classifications of machining process: General classification of machining joining

processes is two types that is as shown in fig 3.4

1) Rotating type: the work piece or tool it will be rotating for metal removing process as
shown in fig 3.5

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 2) Reciprocating type: the work piece or tool it will be moving the horizontal or vertical
for metal removing process..

Fig 3.4 Classifications of Machining Process

Fig 3.5 Different Machining Operations

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3.6 Introduction to CNC machines: CNC means Computer Numerical Control. When
computers are used to control a Numerical Control (NC) machine tool than the machine
is called CNC machine. In other words the use of computers to control machine tools
like lathe, mills, shaper etc is called CNC machine. The cutting operations performed by the
CNC is called CNC machining, in CNC machining, programs are designed or prepared
first and then it is fed to the CNC machine. According to the program, the CNC controls the
motion and speed of the machine tools.

Fig 3.6 Block Diagram of CNC Machine

3.6.1 The main parts of the CNC machine are:

1) Input Devices: These are the devices which are used to input the part program
in the CNC machine. There are three commonly used input devices and these are
punching tape reader, magnetic tape reader and computer via RS-232-C communication.
2) Machine Control Unit (MCU): I t i s t h e h ea r t o f t h e C N C ma ch i n e. I t
p e r fo r ms a l l t h e controlling action of the CNC machine, the various functions
performed by the MCU are
a. It reads the coded instructions fed into it.
b. It decodes the coded instruction

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 3) Machine Tool: A CNC machine tool always has a slide table and a spindle to control of
the position and speed. The machine table is controlled in X and Y axis direction and the
spindle is controlled in the Z axis direction.
4) Driving System: The driving system of a CNC machine consists of amplifier circuits,
drive motors and ball lead screw. The MCU feeds the signals (i.e. of position and speed)
of each axis to the amplifier circuits. And the actuated drive motors rotate the ball
lead screw to position the machine table.
5) Feedback System: This system consists of transducers that acts like sensors. It is also
called as measuring system. It contains position and speed transducers that
continuou sly monitor the position and speed of the cutting tool located at any instant.
The MCU receives the signals from these transducers and it uses the difference between
the reference signals and feedback signals to generate the control signals for correcting
the position and speed errors.
6) Display Unit: A monitor is used to display the programs, commands and other useful
data of CNC machine

Fig 3.7 Main Parts Of the CNC Machine

3.6.2 Different Types of CNC Machines: There are several types of CNC machines
1) Mill CNC Machine
2) Lathe CNC Machine
3) Drilling CNC Machine
4) Grinding CNC Machine
5) Laser Cutting CNC Machine

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 6) Plasma Cutting CNC Machine
7) Water jet Cutting CNC Machine
8) EDM (Electric Discharge Machine)

3.6.3 Advantages:

1) It can produce jobs with the highest accuracy and precision than any other manual
machine.
2) It can be run for 24 hours a day.
3) The parts produced by it have the same accuracy. There is no variation in the partsmanufa
ctured by a CNC machine.
4) A highly skilled operator is not required to operate a CNC machine. A semi-skilled
operator can also operate accurately and more precisely.
5) Operators can easily make changes and improvements and reduces the delay time.
6) It has the capability to produce complex designs with high accuracy in minimum possible
time.
7) The modern design software, allows the designer to simulate the manufacturer of his/her
idea. And this removes the need for making a prototype or model and saves time and
money.
8) Fewer workers are required to operate a CNC machine and save labor cost.

3.6.4 Disadvantages:

1) The cost of the CNC machine is very high as compared with a manually operated
machine.
2) The parts of the CNC machines are expensive.
3) The maintenance cost in the case of CNC is quite high.
4) It does not eliminate the need for costly tools.

3.6.5 Application:

Almost every manufacturing industry uses CNC machines. With an increase in the
competitive environment and demands, the demand for CNC usage has increased to a greater
extent. The machine tools that come with the CNC are lathe, mills, shaper, welding, etc. The
industries that are using CNC machines are the automotive industry, metal removing industries,
industries of fabricating metals, electrical discharge machining industries, wood industries, etc.

3.7 3-D printing: 3D printing is the process of creating a three dimensional object from a
digital design by building up layers of material with a 3D printer. 3D printing is also known
as additive manufacturing because material is added during the process of manufacturing to
form the object. The opposite of this, known as subtractive manufacturing, is where material
is cut away from a sheet or a block of material to form the object, for example
manufacturing processes such as milling or laser cutting.

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3.7.1 Where is 3D printing used: 3D printing is now being used across a wide range of
industries including engineering, automotive, aerospace, construction, architecture, medicine,
product design, food and fashion.

Examples:

a. Used for rapid prototyping of parts and components in engineering, aerospace and
automotive industry.
b. Creation of custom jigs and templates for the automotive industry.
c. In medicine, 3D printing from patient scans to assist in planning operations or for student
training.
d. Production of custom low cost prosthetics and disability aids.
e. 3D printing shelters and humanitarian aids.
f. Small enterprises creating personalised 3D printed products and gifts.
g. 3D printing shoes,

Fig 3.8 3d Printing Process

3.7.2 Overview of the 3D printing process:

The 3D printing process consists of a number of stages from initial design to production
of a 3D printed object.

1) 3D modeling: The 3D printing process starts with a 3D model. You can design your own
3D model using 3D CAD software such as TinkerCAD, you can also download free
models that have been designed by others from 3D model repositories such as these can

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 be edited in 3D CAD software if required to customise the designs to your own
requirements.
2) Saving the 3D model: When the 3D model is complete, it needs to be saved as a suitable
format. The most common 3D -le type is .STL so save the -le as a .STL -le where
possible. The Ultimaker software will also support the .OBJ .3MF formats, so if you
cannot save as a .STL save as one of these.
3) Preparing the 3D model for printing: Before you can 3D print a CAD model, the
model needs to be sliced and code needs to be generated that the machine can understand.
This is done in special 3D printer slicing software. The Ultimaker slicing software is
called Cura.

3.8 Smart manufacturing: Smart manufacturing refers to the use of new technologies like data
analytics, the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), automation, and cloud computing to make
basic manufacturing processes more efficient. By extension, a smart factory is a manufacturing
facility that employs smart manufacturing principles.

Smart manufacturing differs from traditional manufacturing in several key ways. While a
traditional manufacturing model incorporates digital technology to some extent, most
applications are limited to basic automation, rigid systems, and integrations that rely on manual
processes and periodic updates.

Fig 3.9 Smart Manufacturing

3.8.1 Advantages of Smart Manufacturing:

1) Increased Efficiency
2) Increased Production
3) Improved Process Quality
4) Energy Savings
5) Reduced Fixed Costs
6) Increased Reactivity

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 7) Increased Competitiveness
8) Higher Productivity

3.8.2 Disadvantages of Smart Manufacturing:

1) High initial cost

2) Poorly designed systems
3) Lack of skilled workers
4) Organizational resistance

3.8.3 Applications:
1) Predictive maintenance
2) Data capture
3) Data analytics
4) Automation and machine building

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 Chapter -4
4. Thermal Engineering

Thermal engineering is a specialized sub-discipline of mechanical engineering that deals

with the movement of heat energy and transfer. The energy can be transferred between two
mediums or transformed into other forms of energy.

4.1 STEAM BOILERS: A steam generator or a boiler is defined as a closed vessel in which
water is converted into steam by burning of fuel in presence of air at desired temperature,
pressure and at desired mass flow rate.

4.1.1 Function of a boiler: The steam generated is employed for the following purposes

1. Used in steam turbines to develop electrical energy

2. Used to run steam engines
3. In the textile industries, sugar mills or in chemical industries as a cogeneration plant
4. Heating the buildings in cold weather
5. Producing hot water for hot water supply

4.1.2 Classification of Boilers: According to the flow medium inside the tubes

a) Fire tube: the boilers in which hot flue gases are inside the tubes and water is
surrounding the tubes are called fire tube boilers. Example: Lancashire, locomotive, Cochran and
Cornish boilers

b) Water tube boilers. When water is inside the tubes and the hot gases are outside, the
boiler is called water tube boiler. Example: Simple vertical boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler.

4.1.3 Comparison between water-tube and fire tube boilers:

Fire Tube Boiler Water Tube Boiler

Hot gases are present inside the boiler Water is present inside the boiler tubes while
1 tubes while water is flowing in the outer the hot gases are in the outer area.
area.
Generally used for low pressure purposed Generally used for high pressure purposed
2 and applications like heating system or and applications like electricity generation
drying.
3 The steam generation rate is low The steam generation rate is high
The overall efficiency of this boiler is The overall efficiency of this boiler is high
4
low and is considered up to 75% and is considered up to 90%

4.1.4 COCHRAN BOILER: It is a Vertical drum axis, natural circulation, natural draft, multi
tubular, low pressure, solid fuel fired fire tube boiler with internally located furnace.

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 Fig 4.1 Cochran Boiler

4.1.4.1 Constructional details: It consists of

1) Shell: It is hemispherical on the top, where space is provided for steam.

2) Crate: It is placed at the bottom of the furnace where coal is burnt.
3) Fire box: It is also dome-shaped like the shell so that the gases can be deflected back till
they are passed out through the flue pipe to the combustion chamber.
4) Flue pipe: It is a short passage connecting the fire box with the combustion chamber.
5) Fire tubes: A number of horizontal fire tubes are provided
6) Combustion chamber: It is lined with fire bricks on the side of the shell to prevent
overheating of the boiler. Hot gases enter the fire tubes from the flue pipe through the
combustion chamber.
7) Chimney: It is provided for the exit of the flue gases to the atmosphere from the smoke
box.
8) Man-hole: It is provided for inspection and repair of the interior of the boiler shell.

4.1.4.2 Working of the Cochran boiler: Coal is fed into the grate through the fire hole and
burnt. Ash formed during burning is collected in the ash pit provided just below the grate and
then it is removed manually. The host gases from the grate pass through the flue pipe to the
combustion chamber. The hot gases from the combustion chamber flow through the horizontal
fire tubes and transfer the heat to the water by convection. The flue gases coming out of fire

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tubes pass through the smoke box and are exhausted to the atmosphere through the chimney.
Smoke box is provided with a door for cleaning the fire tubes and smoke box.

4.1.4.3 Advantages of Cochran Boiler:

1) Low initial installation cost.

2) It requires less floor area.
3) Easy to operate and handle.
4) Transportation of Cochran boiler is easy.
5) It can use all types of fuel.
4.1.4.4 Disadvantages of Cochran Boiler:
1) Low rate of steam generation.
2) Inspection and maintenance is difficult.
3) High room head is required for its installation due to the vertical design.
4) It has limited pressure range.
4.1.4.5 Applications of Cochran Boiler :
1) Variety of process applications in industries
2) Chemical processing divisions  Pulp and Paper manufacturing plants
3) Refining units
4.1.5 LA MONT BOILER:
La Mont boiler is a high pressure, forced circulation, water tube boiler with
internally fired furnace. An external pump is used to circulate the water within small
diameter water tubes of the boiler.

` This boiler works on basic principle of forced convection. If the water is

circulating by a pump inside the tube, the heat transfer rate from gas to the water is
increases. It is the basic principle of it.

4.1.5.1 Working:

1. In Lamont boiler, the feed pump circulates the water in the economiser of the boiler. The
economiser heats the water to some degree. From economiser, water enters into steam
separating drum.
2. From steam separating drum the mixture of water and steam is forced circulated through
the radiant evaporator by an external centrifugal pump. In forced circulation, the pressure
of circulation of water through the tubes is more as compared with the natural circulation.
3. Radiant evaporator heats the water and changes it into steam. Form radiant evaporator the
water-steam mixture passes through the convective evaporator. Here the temperature of
the fluid increase and most the water gets converted into saturated steam. And after that
the saturated steam enters into the steam separator drum.
4. The steam separator drum as names indicates separates the steam from water. The steam
gets collected at the upper portion of the drum. From steam separator drum, steam passes

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 through the super heater. The super heater increases the temperature of the steam to the
desired level. And finally the superheated steam is either transfer to the steam collecting
drum or made to strike on the blades of the turbine.

Fig 4.2 Lamont boiler

5. The working pressure, temperature and capacity of this boiler is 170 bar, 773 K and 50
tonnes/hour.

4.1.5.2 Advantages:

1. It is a high pressure boiler.

2. It is flexible in design.
3. This boiler can be reassembled into natural circulation boiler.
4. It can be easily started.
5. It has high steam generation capacity of about 50 tonnes/ hour.
6. This boiler has higher heat transfer rate
.
4.1.5.3 Disadvantages:
1. There is a bubble formation at surfaces of the tubes in this boiler.
2. This reduces the heat transfer rate to the steam.

4.2 Otto cycle: The Otto cycle, also referred to as the spark-ignition cycle, is the fundamental
thermodynamic cycle used in petrol engines. It operates on the principle of constant volume
combustion and consists of four processes: intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust.

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 Fig 4.3 Otto cycle

Process:

1-2 (Adiabatic process): In this process compression takes place, as the piston moves
from BDC to TDC increasing its temperature.

2-3 (Isochoric process): In this process, ignition is taking place, combustion happens
when the piston is at TDC and pressure increases at a constant volume.

3-4 (Adiabatic process): In this process expansion is taking place, the heat produced due
to the combustion pushes the piston down which rotates the crankshaft.

4-1 (Isochoric process): In this process, heat rejection is taking place at constant volume.
The compression ratio of the Otto cycle is 8 to 12.

4.3Diesel cycle: The Diesel cycle is a thermodynamic process that is commonly used in diesel
engines for internal combustion. It operates on the principle of constant pressure combustion and
consists of four distinct processes: intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust.

Process:
1-2: In this process suction takes place
2-3(Adiabatic process): In this process compression takes place. Both the inlet and
exhaust valves are closed and the compression takes place which is much higher than that
of an Otto cycle. This increases the pressure and temperature.
3-4 (Isobaric process): In this process, fuel is added, and combustion occurs due to high
temperature, while maintaining a constant pressure because the volume is also increasing.
4-5 (Adiabatic process): In this process expansion takes place, due to combustion the
piston moves from TDC to BDC and power is generated.

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 5-2 (Isochoric process): In this process, heat rejection is taking place at constant volume.
Compression ratio is 14 to 22

Fig 4.3 Diesel cycle

4.4 Refrigeration&air-conditioning cycles:

4.4.1 Refrigeration: It is defined as the process of providing and maintaining a

temperature well below that of surrounding atmosphere. In other words refrigeration is the
process of cooling substance.

4.4.2 Refrigerators and heat pumps: If the main purpose of the machine is to cool some
object, the machine is named as refrigerator. If the main purpose of machine is to heat a medium
warmer than the surroundings, the machine is termed as heat pump.

4.4.3 Terminologies of Refrigeration and air-conditioning:

a) Compressor b) condenser c) Expansion device d) Evaporator

a) Compressor: Compression is the first step in the refrigeration cycle, and a compressor
is the piece of equipment that increases the pressure of the working gas. Refrigerant enters the
compressor as low-pressure, low-temperature gas, and leaves the compressor as a high-pressure,
high-temperature gas.

b) Condenser: The condenser, or condenser coil, is one of two types of heat exchangers
used in a basic refrigeration loop. This component is supplied with high-temperature and high-
pressure, refrigerant coming off the compressor. The condenser removes heat from the hot
refrigerant vapor gas vapor until it condenses into a saturated liquid state.

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 c) Expansion device: create a drop in pressure after the refrigerant leaves the condenser.
This pressure drop will cause some of that refrigerant to quickly boil, creating a two-phase
mixture.

d) Evaporator: This happens when refrigerant enters the evaporator as a low temperature
liquid at low pressure, and a fan forces air across the evaporator’s fins, cooling the air by
absorbing the heat from the space in question into the refrigerant.

Fig 4.4 Refrigeration&air-conditioning cycles

4.4.4 Capacity of a Refrigeration Unit: Capacity of refrigerating machines is expressed by their

cooling capacity. The standard unit used for expressing the capacity of refrigerating machine is
ton of refrigeration.

4.4.4.1 One ton of refrigeration Unit of refrigeration rating for Refrigeration indicates the rate
of removal heat. The unit of refrigeration is expressed in terms of ton of refrigeration (TR).

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 One ton of refrigeration is defined as the amount of refrigeration effect (heat transfer
rate) produced during uniform melting of one ton (1000kg) of ice at 0°C to the water at the 0°C
in 24 hours.

Calculation for one ton of refrigeration:

Latent heat of ice is 335KJ/kg (heat absorbed during melting of one kg ice) 1 Ton of
refrigeration,

1TR= 1000*335 in 24 hours =(1000×335)/(24×60) in one minute

= 232.6 kJ/min

= 232.6/60

= 3.88 kJ/sec

Theoretically one Ton of refrigeration taken as 232.6kJ/min, in actual practice, it is taken as

210kJ/min. 1 ton of refrigeration approximately equal to 3.5kW

4.4.4.2 Applications of Refrigeration:

1) In chemical industries, for separating and liquefying the gases.

2) In manufacturing and storing ice.
3) For the preservation of perishable food items in cold storages.
4) For cooling water.
5) For controlling humidity of air manufacture and heat treatment of steels.
6) For chilling the oil to remove wax in oil refineries.
7) For the preservation of tablets and medicines in pharmaceutical industries.
8) For the preservation of blood tissues etc.
9) For comfort air conditioning the hospitals, theatres, etc.,

4.5 IC engines:

4.5.1 Heat Engines: A heat engine is a machine, which converts heat energy into mechanical
energy. The combustion of fuel such as coal, petrol, and diesel generates heat. This heat is
supplied to a working substance at high temperature. By the expansion of this substance in
suitable machines, heat energy is converted into useful work. Heat engines can be further divided
into two types:

(i) External combustion and

(ii) Internal combustion.

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4.5.2 Classification of Heat Engines:

Heat Engine

External Combustion Internal Combustion

Reciprocating rotary gas turbine

CI Engine SI Engine

Two Stroke Four Stroke Two Stroke Four Stroke

4.5.3 External combustion engine: Here, the working medium, the steam, is generated in a
boiler, located outside the engine and allowed in to the cylinder to operate the piston to do
mechanical work.

4.5.4 Internal combustion engine: In internal combustion engine, the combustion of fuel takes
place inside the engine cylinder and heat is generated within the cylinder. This heat is added to
the air inside the cylinder and thus the pressure of the air is increased tremendously. This high
pressure air moves the piston which rotates the crank shaft and thus mechanical work is done.
Most of the internal combustion engines are reciprocating engines with a piston that reciprocate
back and forth in the cylinder.

4.5.5 Classification of Internal Combustion Engines:

1) Based on fuel used :

1. Diesel engine 2. Petrol engine 3. Gas engine
1. Diesel engine: Diesel is used as fuel
2. Petrol engine – Petrol is used as fuel
3. Gas engines – propane, butane or methane gases are used

2) Based ignition of fuel

1. Spark ignition engine (Carburetor type engines)

2. Compression ignition engine (injector type engines)

1) Spark ignition engine: A mixture of air and fuel is drawn in to the engine
cylinder. Ignition of fuel is done by using a spark plug. The spark plug produces a

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 spark and ignites the air- fuel mixture. Such combustion is called constant volume
combustion (C.V.C.).
2) Compression ignition engine : In compression ignition engines air is
compressed in to the engine cylinder, Due to this the temperature of the
compressed air rises to 700-900C. At this stage diesel is sprayed in to the cylinder
in fine particles. Due to a very high temperature, the fuel gets ignited. This type of
combustion is called constant pressure combustion (C.P.C.) because the pressure
inside the cylinder is almost constant when combustion is taking place.

3) Based on working cycle:

1. Four stroke cycle engine: When the cycle is completed in two revolutions of
the crankshaft, it is called four stroke cycle engines.
2. Two stroke cycle engine: When the cycle is completed in one revolution of the
crankshaft, it is called two stroke cycle engines
4.5.6 FOUR STROKE CYCLE ENGINE ( DIESEL/ PETROL ENGINE): In four stroke
cycle engines the four events namely suction, compression, power and exhaust take place inside
the engine cylinder. The four events are completed in four strokes of the piston (two revolutions
of the crank shaft). This engine has got valves for controlling the inlet of charge and outlet of
exhaust gases. The opening and closing of the valve is controlled by cams, fitted on camshaft.
The camshaft is driven by crankshaft with the help of suitable gears or chains. The camshaft runs
at half the speed of the crankshaft. The events taking place in I.C. engine are as follows:
1. Suction stroke 2. Compression stroke 3. Power stroke 4. Exhaust stroke

1. Suction stroke: During suction stroke inlet valve opens and the piston moves
downward. Only air or a mixture of air and fuel are drawn inside the cylinder. The
exhaust valve remains in closed position during this stroke. The pressure in the engine
cylinder is less than atmospheric pressure during this stroke.

2. Compression stroke : During this stroke the piston moves upward. Both valves are in
closed position. The charge taken in the cylinder is compressed by the upward movement
of piston. If only air is compressed, as in case of diesel engine, diesel is injected at the
end of the compression stroke and ignition of fuel takes place due to high pressure and
temperature of the compressed air. If a mixture of air and fuel is compressed in the
cylinder, as in case of petrol engine, the mixture is ignited by a spark plug.

3. Power stroke: After ignition of fuel, tremendous amount of heat is generated, causing
very high pressure in the cylinder which pushes the piston downward. The downward
movement of the piston at this instant is called power stroke. The connecting rod
transmits the power from piston to the crank shaft and crank shaft rotates. Mechanical
work can be taped at the rotating crank shaft. Both valves remain closed during power
stroke.

4. Exhaust stroke: During this stroke piston moves upward. Exhaust valve opens and
exhaust gases go out through exhaust valves opening. All the burnt gases go out of the

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 engine and the cylinder becomes ready to receive the fresh charge. During this stroke
inlet valve remains closed. Thus it is found that out of four strokes, there is only one
power stroke and three idle strokes in four stroke cycle engines. The power stroke
supplies necessary momentum for useful work.

Fig 4.5 Four Stroke Cycle Engine (Diesel/ Petrol Engine)

4.5.7 TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINE (PETROL ENGINE): In two stroke cycle engines,
the whole sequence of events i.e., suction, compression, power and exhaust are completed in two
strokes of the piston i.e. one revolution of the crankshaft. There is no valve in this type of engine.
Gas movement takes place through holes called ports in the cylinder. The crankcase of the
engine is air tight in which the crankshaft rotates.

Fig 4.6 two stroke cycle engine

1. Upward stroke of the piston (Suction + Compression): When the piston moves
upward it covers two of the ports, the exhaust port and transfer port, which are normally
almost opposite to each other. This traps the charge of air- fuel mixture drawn already in

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 to the cylinder. Further upward movement of the piston compresses the charge and also
uncovers the suction port. Now fresh mixture is drawn through this port into the
crankcase. Just before the end of this stroke, the mixture in the cylinder is ignited by a
spark plug Thus, during this stroke both suction and compression events are completed.

2. Downward stroke (Power + Exhaust): Burning of the fuel rises the temperature and
pressure of the gases which forces the piston to move down the cylinder. When the piston
moves down, it closes the suction port, trapping the fresh charge drawn into the crankcase
during the previous upward stroke. Further downward movement of the piston uncovers
first the exhaust port and then the transfer port. Now fresh charge in the crankcase moves
in to the cylinder through the transfer port driving out the burnt gases through the exhaust
port. Special shaped piston crown deflect the incoming mixture up around the cylinder so
that it can help in driving out the exhaust gases. During the downward stroke of the
piston power and exhaust events are completed.

4.5.8 COMPARISON OF CI AND SI ENGINES:

1. Reliability of the CI engine is much higher than that of the SI engine. This is because in
case of the failure of the battery, ignition or carburetor system, the SI engine cannot
operate, whereas the CI engine, with a separate fuel injector for each cylinder, has less
risk of failure.
2. The distribution of fuel to each cylinder is uniform as each of them has a separate
injector, whereas in the SI engine the distribution of fuel mixture is not uniform, owing to
the design of the single carburetor and the intake manifold.
3. Since the servicing period of the fuel injection system of CI engine is longer, its
maintenance cost is less than that of the SI engine.
4. The expansion ratio of the CI engine is higher than that of the SI engine; therefore, the
heat loss to the cylinder walls is less in the CI engine than that of the SI engine.
Consequently, the cooling system of the CI engine can be of smaller dimensions.
5. The torque characteristics of the CI engine are more uniform which results in better top
gear performance.
6. The CI engine can be switched over from part load to full load soon after starting from
cold, whereas the SI engine requires warming up.
7. The fuel (diesel) for the CI engine is cheaper than the fuel (petrol) for SI engine.
8. The fire risk in the CI engine is minimized due to the absence of the ignition system

4.5.9 Advantages and Disadvantages Of Two-Stroke Cycle Over FourStroke Cycle

Engines:

4.5.9.1 Advantages:
1) The two-stroke cycle engine gives one working stroke for each revolution of the
crankshaft. Hence theoretically the power developed for the same engine speed and
cylinder volume is twice that of the four-stroke cycle engine, which gives only one
working stroke for every two revolutions of the crankshaft. However, in practice, because
of poor scavenging, only 50- 60% extra power is developed.

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 2) Due to one working stroke for each revolution of the crankshaft, the turning moment
on the crankshaft is more uniform. Therefore, a two-stroke engine requires a lighter
flywheel.

3) The two-stroke engine is simpler in construction. The design of its ports is much
simpler and their maintenance easier than that of the valve mechanism.
4) The power required overcoming frictional resistance of the suction and exhaust strokes
is saved, resulting in some economy of fuel.
5) Owing to the absence of the cam, camshaft, rockers, etc. of the valve mechanism, the
mechanical efficiency is higher.

6) The two-stroke engine gives fewer oscillations.

7) For the same power, a two-stroke engine is more compact and requires less space than
a four-stroke cycle engine. This makes it more suitable for use in small machines and
motorcycles.
8) A two-stroke engine is lighter in weight for the same power and speed especially when
the crankcase compression is used.
9) Due to its simpler design, it requires fewer spare parts.

10) A two-stroke cycle engine can be easily reversed if it is of the valve less type.

4.5.9.2 Disadvantages:
1. The scavenging being not very efficient in a two-stroke engine, the dilution of the
charges takes place which results in poor thermal efficiency.
2. The two-stroke spark ignition engines do not have a separate lubrication system and
normally, lubricating oil is mixed with the fuel. This is not as effective as the lubrication
of a four-stroke engine. Therefore, the parts of the two-stroke engine are subjected to
greater wear and tear.

3. In a spark ignition two-stroke engine, some of the fuel passes directly to the exhaust.
Hence, the fuel consumption per horsepower is comparatively higher.

4. With heavy loads a two-stroke engine gets heated up due to the excessive heat
produced. At the same time the running of the engine is riot very smooth at light loads.

5. It consumes more lubricating oil because of the greater amount of heat generated.
6. Since the ports remain open during the upward stroke, the actual compression starts
only after both the inlet and exhaust ports have been closed. Hence, the compression ratio
of this engine is lower than that of a four-stroke engine of the same dimensions. As the
efficiency of an engine is directly proportional to its compression ratio, the efficiency of a
two-stroke cycle engine is lower than that of a four-stroke cycle engine of the same size.

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4.6 Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) has two types of energy
storage units, electricity and fuel. Electricity means that a battery (sometimes assisted by
ultracaps) is used to store the energy, and that an electromotor (from now on called motor) will
be used as traction motor.

Fuel means that a tank is required, and that an Internal Combustion Engine (ICE, from
now on called engine) is used to generate mechanical power, or that a fuel cell will be used to
convert fuel to electrical energy. In the latter case, traction will be performed by the electromotor
only. In the first case, the vehicle will have both an engine and a motor
4.6.1. Hybrid vehicles: When compared to conventional vehicles, hybrids offer better power and
fuel efficiency as they combine the benefits of high fuel efficiency and low emissions. When
hybrid vehicles are cruising or while braking, the result is excess power which is used to charge
the batteries.
Hybrid electric vehicles are powered by an internal combustion engine and an electric
motor, which uses energy stored in batteries. A hybrid electric vehicle cannot be plugged in to
charge the battery. Instead, the battery is charged through regenerative braking and by the
internal combustion engine.

Fig 4.7 Block diagram of the hybrid vehicle

Fig 4.8 Structure of the hybrid electric vehicle

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4.6.1.1 Components of Hybrid Vehicles:
1. Motors: are the "work horses" of Hybrid Electric Vehicle driving systems. The electric
traction motor drives the wheels of the vehicle. A main advantage of an electromotor
(Motor) is the possibility to function as generator. In all HEV systems, mechanical
braking energy is regenerated. The maximum operational braking torque is less than the
maximum traction torque; there is always a mechanical braking system integrated in a
car.
2. The battery pack: in a HEV has a much higher voltage than the SIL automotive 12 Volts
battery, in order to reduce the currents and the I2R losses.
3. Accessories: such as power steering and air conditioning are powered by electric motors
instead of being attached to the combustion engine. This allows efficiency gains as the
accessories can run at a constant speed or can be switched off, regardless of how fast the
combustion engine is running. Especially in long haul trucks, electrical power steering
saves a lot of energy.

4.6.1.2 Advantages and Limitations of hybrid vehicles

Advantages
1. Environmentally Friendly
2. Financial Benefits
3. Less Dependence on Fossil Fuels
4. Regenerative Braking System
5. Built from Light Materials
6. Assistance from Electric Motor
7. Smaller Engines 8. Automatic Start and Stop
8. Electric-Only Drive 10. Higher Resale Value

Disadvantages:
1. Less Power
2. Can be Expensive
3. Poorer Handling
4. Higher Maintenance Costs
5. Accident from High Voltage in Batteries
6. Battery Replacement is Pricey
7. Battery Disposal and Recycling
8. Hydrogen Fuel Cell Issues

4.6.2 Electric Vehicles: The use of electric vehicles is an active action in conserving the
environment. The use of these vehicles promotes the protection of the environment by reducing
greenhouse gas emissions while promoting renewable energy sources that are less likely to
amount to the carbon footprint.
An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle that uses one or more electric motors for propulsion.
It can be powered by a collector system, with electricity from extravehicular sources, or it can be
powered autonomously by a battery (sometimes charged by solar panels, or by converting fuel to

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electricity using fuel cells or a generator) EVs include, but are not limited to, road and rail
vehicles, surface and underwater vessels, electric aircraft and electric spacecraft.

Fig 4.9 Block diagram of the electric vehicle

Fig 4.8 Structure of the electric vehicle

4.6.2.1 Advantages and Limitations of electric vehicles:

Advantages
1. Less Strain on the Environment
2. Electricity is Renewable, unlike Gasoline
3. Low Maintenance 4. Quieter and Smoother Motion

Limitations:
1. High upfront Costs
2. Limited Selection
3. Charging Complications
4. Battery Life

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4.6.3 Comparative study of diesel, petrol, hybrid and electric Vehicles.

Description Diesel Petrol Hybrid Electrical

Power High Moderate Moderate Moderate
Initial Cost Medium Less High Medium
Maintenance Medium Medium Low Very low
Range High High High Low
Availability Medium High Low Low
Resale value High High Moderate Low
Battery Cost Very low Very low Low High

4.6.4 Specification of electric and hybrid vehicles:

Specification Hybrid Vehicles Electric Vehicles

Power/fuel Electricity and Fossil Fuel Electricity through Battery Pack
source (Petrol & Diesel) (DC)
Engine IC Engine and Electric Motor Electric Motor
Combination of ICE & Battery
Fuel efficiency Depends on Battery Range
Range
Lower Compared to ICE & Hybrid
Emission level Higher Compared to Electric Cars
Cars
Price range Similar to Conventional ICE Car High
charging Not Needed Needed

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