University of Guyana

Faculty of Engineering & Technology

Department of Civil Engineering
CIV 3118 – Structural Design I
L e c t u r e 1 : P h i l o s o p hy o f
Design
Presentation Outline
1. Introduction
2. Basis of Design
3. Ultimate and serviceability limit
states
4. Characteristics and design values
5. Reinforced Concrete Structures
6. Design Standards
7. Eurocode: Basis of Structural
Design
8. Eurocode 1: Actions on Structure
9. Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete
Structures
References
1.0 INTRODUCTION FR
• Any structure must be designed to satisfy the needs of the client and the user. This is the
responsibility of the structural engineer.

• The structure must be safe, economical to build and maintain, and aesthetically pleasing.

• Design can be described in many ways. However for the structural and civil engineers, it
starts from the planning, concepts, feasibility studies through mathematical calculations
to working drawings.

• The drawings, bills of quantities, a specification and a contract which constitutes the
necessary legal and organization framework for the contractor under the supervision of
the engineers and architects can execute the project.
3
1.0 INTRODUCTION FR
• There are many inputs into the engineering design process.These are:
1. Client brief

2. Experience

3. Imagination

4. A site investigation

5. Model and laboratory tests

6. Economic factors

7. Environmental factors

4
1.0 INTRODUCTION FR
• The engineering design process is divided into two stages:
1. A feasibility study – encompasses the comparison of alternative forms of structure and the selection of
the most suitable type.
2. A detailed design of the chosen design – provided stage 1 is successful, entails the detail design through
the utilization of the codes of practices for structural design such as British Standards (BS), Euro Code
(EC) and American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASTHO). These
documents are based on the immense experience of many generations of engineers that resulted in
research. These research give rise to amendments to the codes of practice to avoid recurrence of
errors.

• This course will be focused on the design to Eurocodes of practice for concrete design
(EC 2).
5
2.0 BASIS OF DESIGN FR
• The following table highlights risk factors that are associated with activities that persons
employ. Air and road travel possessing the largest degree of risk.

• In the design process, for a structural member there are critical points (mid-span of
beams) where the design process is focused.

• Consider the following curves, the left one represents the actual maximum material
stresses at critical points due to loading. However, these loading varies according to
occupancy and environment conditions. The design process is imperfect and will vary
about the modal value (peak).

6
2.0 BASIS OF DESIGN FR
• The right curve, this represents the material strengths at these critical points, which are
not constant due to the variability of manufacturing conditions and construction
practices.

• The overlap between the two curves represents a possibility that failure may take place
at one of the critical points, as stress due to the loading exceeds the strength of the
material.

• To ensure safety, the overlapping must be kept to a minimum. This can be done by
considering three design philosophies: permissible stress design, load factor method and limit
state design.
7
3.0 ULTIMATE AND SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES
FR
• The aim of limit state design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that a structure will
not become unfit for its intended use during its design life or that it will not reach a limit
state.

• There are many ways a structure can become unfit. These are excessive conditions of
bending, shear, compression, deflection and cracking. Each mechanisms must be dealt
with individually.

• Deflection and cracking affect the appearance of the structure. These are referred to as
Serviceability limit states. While bending, shear and compression are referred to as
Ultimate limit states and may lead to partial or complete collapse of the structure.
8
3.0 ULTIMATE AND SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES
FR
• Furthermore, there are other limit states that are consider in the design process such as
durability and resistance to fire.

• Essentially, it is left to the engineer to adjudicate which limit states should be considered
in the design of particular structures.

9
4.0 CHARACTERISTICS AND DESIGN VALUES FR
• A design cannot be certain of either the strength of the material composing the member
or the load which the member must carry. The material strength may be less than
intended because of its variable composition and the variability of manufacturing
conditions during constructions.

• The strength variable is dealt with by using a characteristic value. The characteristic
strength is the value below which the strength lies only a small number of cases.

• Similarly the characteristic load is the value above which the load lies in only a small
percentage of cases.

10
4.0 CHARACTERISTICS AND DESIGN VALUES FR
• The strength characteristic value when determined from testing was defined as the value
below which not more than 5% of the test results fall.

• At this point statistical principles cannot be applied to loads due to insufficient data.
Therefore, characteristic loads are taken from design loads such as Eurocode 1 which
supersedes BS 648 and BS 6399.

11
4.0 CHARACTERISTICS AND DESIGN VALUES FR
• The overall effect of the variability of load is allowed by using a partial safety factor, 𝛾𝑚
for strength and 𝛾𝑓 for load. The design strength is obtained by dividing the characteristic
strength by the partial safety factor strength:

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = … 𝑬𝒒. 𝟏
𝛾𝑚

• The design load is obtained by multiplying the characteristic load by the partial safety
factor for load:
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 × 𝛾𝑓 … 𝑬𝒒. 𝟐

12
4.0 CHARACTERISTICS AND DESIGN VALUES FR
• The value of 𝛾𝑚 will depend upon the properties of the actual construction materials
being used.

• Values for 𝛾𝑓 depend on other factors which will be dealt with in a subsequent lecture.

• Essentially in the design:

𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ≥ 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 … 𝑬𝒒. 𝟑

13
5.0 REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES FR
• Concrete is one of the most utilised building material for engineering structures.

• It has the ability to be molded into any shape for structural forms. In addition, it is
durable and possess great fire resistance.

• Concrete can be used for all standard buildings both single storey and multistorey and
for containment and retaining structures and bridges.

• Some common building structures are as follows:

• Single-story portal supported on isolated footing;

• Medium-rise framed structure which may be braced by shear walls or unbraced supported by either
isolated footings, strip foundations or a raft;
14
5.0 REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES FR
• Some common building structures are as follows:
• Tall multistorey frame and core structure where they resists wind loads. The building is usually
supported on a raft which in turn may bear directly on the ground or be carried on piles or caissons.

• A structure can be divided into the following elements:

• Beams: horizontal members carrying lateral loads,

• Slabs: horizontal plate elements carrying lateral loads,

• Columns: vertical members carrying primarily axial loads but maybe subjected to axial and moment,

• Walls: vertical plate elements resisting vertical, lateral or in-plane loads,

• Bases and foundations: the loads from columns or walls so that they can be supported by the ground
with excessive settlement.
15
5.0 REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES FR
• The first function in design is the planning carried out by the architect to determine the
arrangement and layout of the building to meet the client’s requirements.

• The structural engineer then determines the best structural systems or forms based on
the architect’s concept.

• Subsequently, the following must be addressed:

1. Idealisation of the structure into load-bearing frames and elements for analysis and design;

2. Estimation of loads,

3. Analysis to determine the maximum moments, thrusts, and shears for design;

4. Design of sections and reinforcement arrangements for slabs, beams, columns, and walls from (3).

16
5.0 REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES FR
• Subsequently, the following must be addressed:
5. Production of arrangement and detail drawings and bar schedules.

17
6.0 DESIGN STANDARDS FR
• The development of the Eurocodes started in 1975, and is described as the most
technically advanced structural codes in the world.

• There are ten Eurocodes covering all the main structural materials. They were produced
by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) in 28 countries.

• Each country is required to prepare their own National Annex (NA).

• The following the list of Eurocodes, typical layout of a code and concrete related
Eurocodes and their equivalent.

• Eurocode 2 applies to the design of buildings and civil engineering works in concrete. It
is based on the limit state principles and comes in four parts.
18
6.0 DESIGN STANDARDS FR
• These are:
• EC 2, Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings;

• EC 2, Part 1.2: Structural fire design;

• EC 2, Part 2: Reinforced and prestressed concrete bridges,

• Liquid retaining and containment structures.

• Eurocode 2 should result in more economic structures than BS 8110.

• The Eurocodes are logical and organized to avoid repetition.

• The Eurocodes proposes new terms, principles, application, etc., which we will discuss
now.
19
6.0 DESIGN STANDARDS FR
• According to EC0:
• A principle is general statements and definitions for which there is no alternative as well as requirements and
analytical models for which no alternative is permitted unless specifically stated.

• Principles are identified by the letter P following the paragraph number.

• The application rules are generally recognized rules which comply with the principles
and satisfy their requirements. In EN 1990, the application rules are identified by a
number in brackets.

20
6.0 DESIGN STANDARDS FR
• Common terms and definitions used in the Eurocodes include:
• Construction material: material used in construction work, e.g. concrete, steel, timber, masonry.

• Structure: organised combination of connect parts designed to carry loads and provide adequate
rigidity.

• Structural member: physically distinguishable part of a structure, e.g. a column, a beam, a slab.

• Special terms relating to design in general:

• Design working life: assumed period for which a structure or part of it is to be used for its intended
purpose with anticipated maintenance but without major repair being necessary.

• Transient design situation: relevant during a period much shorter than the design working life of the
structure and which has a high probability of occurrence.
21
6.0 DESIGN STANDARDS FR
• Special terms relating to design in general:
• Persistent design situation: design situation that is relevant during a period of the same order as the
design working life of the structure (normal use).

• Seismic design situation: design situation involving exceptional conditions of the structure when
subjected to a seismic event.

• Terms relating to actions:

• Actions: set of forces (loads) applied to the structure (direct); and a set of imposed deformations or
accelerations caused e.g. temperature changes, moisture variation, uneven settlement or earthquakes
(indirection).

• Effect of action: effect of actions on structural members e.g. internal force, moment, stress, strain.

22
6.0 DESIGN STANDARDS FR
• Terms relating to actions:
• Permanent action (G): action that is likely to act throughout a given reference period and for which
the variation in magnitude with time is negligible.

• Variable action (Q): action for which the variation in magnitude with time is neither negligible nor
monotonic.

• Accidental action (A): usually short duration but of significant magnitude, that is unlikely to occur on a
given structure during the design working life.

• Reference period is a chosen period of time that is used as a basis for assessing
statistically variable actions and possible for accidental actions.

23
6.0 DESIGN STANDARDS FR
• Terms relating to reference period:
• Characteristic value (𝑋𝑘 ): value of a material or product property having a prescribed probability of
not being attained in a hypothetical test series. This value generally corresponds to a specified fractile
of the assumed statistical distribution.

• Representative value of an action (𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑝 ): value used for the verification of a limit state. A value may be
characteristic value (𝐹𝑘 ) or an accompanying value (𝜓𝐹𝑘 ).
• Design value of an actions (𝐹𝑑 ): value obtained by multiplying the representative value by the partial
factor 𝛾𝑓 .
• Combination value of a variable action (𝜓0 𝑄𝑘 ): value chosen – in so far as it can be fixed on statistical
bases – on that the probability that the effects caused by the combination will be exceeded is
approximately the same as by the characteristic value of an individual action.

24
6.0 DESIGN STANDARDS FR
• Terms relating to reference period:
• Frequent value of a variable action (𝜓1 𝑄𝑘 ): value determined – in so far as it can be fixed on statistical
bases – so that either the total time, within the reference period, during which it is exceeded is only a
small given part of a reference period, or the frequency of it being exceed is limit to a given value.

• Quasi-permanent value of a variable action (𝜓2 𝑄𝑘 ): value determined as that the total period of time
for which it will be exceeded is a large fraction of the reference period.

• Accompanying value of a variable action (𝜓𝑄𝑘 ): value of a variable action that accompanies the leading
action in a combination.

25
7.0 Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design FR
• For each variable action there are four representative values. The principal
representative value is the characteristic value and this can be determined statistically, or
where there is insufficient data a nominal value may used.

• The other representative values are combination, frequent, and quasi-permanent; these
are obtained by applying to the characteristic value the factors 𝜓0 , 𝜓1 , and 𝜓2
respectively.

• The combination value of an action takes into account of the reduced probability of the
simultaneous occurrence of two or more variable actions.

26
7.0 Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design FR
• The frequent value is such that it should be exceed only for a short period of time and is
used primarily for the serviceability limit states (SLS) and also accidental ultimate limit
state (ULS).

• The quasi-permanent value may be exceeded for a considerable period of time, or can
be considered as an average loading over time.

• In the Eurocodes the term combination of actions is specifically used for the definition of
the magnitude of actions to be used when a limit state is under the influence of different
actions. It should not be confused with load cases, which are concerned with the
arrangement of variable actions to give the most unfavourable conditions.
27
7.0 Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design FR
• The following procedure can be used to determine the value of actions used for analysis:
• Identify the design situation (persistent, transient, accidental).

• Identify all realistic actions.

• Determine the partial factors for each applicable of combination of actions.

• Arrange the actions to produce the most critical conditions.

• Where there is only one variable action (e.g. imposed load) in a combination, the
magnitude of the actions can be obtained by multiply them by the appropriate partial
factors. If there is more than one variable action in a combination, it is necessary to
identify the leading action (𝑄𝑘 , 1) and other accompanying actions (𝑄𝑘 , 𝑖).

28
7.0 Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design FR
• The accompanying action is always taken as the combination value.

• The ultimate limit states are divided into the following categories:
• EQU: loss of equilibrium of the structure,

• STR: internal failure or excess deformation of the structure or structural member,

• GEO: failure due to excessive deformation of the ground,

• FAT: fatigue failure of the structure or structural members.

• For persistent and transient design situations under STR limit state, Eurocode defines
three possible combinations, which are given in expressions (6.10), (6.10a), and (6.10b) of
the Eurocode.

29
7.0 Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design FR
• There are three combinations of actions that can be used to check the serviceability
limit states. Eurocode 2 indicates which combination should be used for which
phenomenon.

30
8.0 Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures FR
• Eurocode 1 supersedes BS 6399: Loading for buildings and BS 648: Schedule of Weights
of building materials.

• It contains ten parts required by the designer to assess the individual actions on a
structure.

• The most notable exception is the bulk density of reinforced concrete which has be
increases to 25 kN/m3.

• The term load arrangements refers to the arranging of variable actions to give the most
onerous forces in a member or structure and are given in Eurocode 2.

31
8.0 Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures FR
• For building structures, the UK NA to Eurocode 1, Part 1-1 allows any of the following
sets of load and arrangements to be used for both the ultimate limit state and
serviceability limit state:
• Load set 1: alternative or adjacent spans loaded

• Load set 2: all or alternative spans loaded

• Load set 3: simplified arrangements for slabs

32
8.0 Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures FR
• For load set 1:
• Alternative spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads with other spans loaded with only
the design permanent load.The value of 𝛾𝐺 should be the same throughout.

• Any two adjacent spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads with other spans loaded
with only the design permanent.The value of 𝛾𝐺 should be the same throughout.

33
8.0 Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures FR
• For load set 2:
• All spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads.

• Alternate spans carrying the design variable and permanent loads with other spans loaded with only
the design permanent load.The value of 𝛾𝐺 should be the same throughout.

• Generally, load set 2 will be used for beams and slabs in the UK as it requires three load
arrangements to be consider, while load set 1 will often require more than three
arrangements to be assessed.

34
8.0 Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures FR
• For load set 3:
• In a one-way spanning slab the area of each bay exceed 30 m2 (a bay means a strip across the full
width of a structure bounded on the other sides by the lines of support).

• The ratio of the variable actions (𝑄𝑘 ) to the permanent actions (𝐺𝑘 ) does not exceed 1.25.

• The magnitude of the variable actions excluding partitions does not exceed 5 kN/m2.

35
9.0 Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures FR
• Eurocode 2 is laid out to advice on the basis of phenomena (e.g. bending, shear, etc.)
rather than by member types as in BS 8110 (e.g. beams, slabs, columns, etc.)

• Design is based on characteristic cylinder strengths not cube strengths.

• Units for stress are mega pascals. MPa (1 MPa = 1 N/mm2).

• Eurocode 2 uses a comma for a decimal point.

• The partial factor for steel reinforcement is 1.15. However, the characteristic yield
strength of steel that meets the requirements of BS 4449 will be 500 MPa; so overall
effect is negligible.

36
9.0 Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures FR
• Eurocode 2 is applicable for ribbed reinforcement with characteristic yield strengths of
400 to 600 MPa.

• Minimum concrete cover is related to bond strength, durability and fire resistance. In
addition to minimum cover an allowance for deviations due to variation in execution
(construction) should be included.

• Higher strengths of concrete are covered by Eurocode 2 up to class C90/105.

• The Variable Strut Inclination method is used in Eurocode 2 for the assessment of the
shear capacity of a section.

37
9.0 Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures FR
• The punching shear checks are carried out at 2d from the face of the column and for a
rectangular column, the perimeter is rounded at the corners.

• Serviceability checks can still be carried out using deemed to satisfy span to effective
depth rules similar to BS 8110. However, if a more detail check is required, Eurocode 2
guidance varies from the rules in BS 8110 part 2.

• The rules for determining the anchorage and lap lengths are more complex than the
simple tables in BS 8110. Eurocode 2 considers the effects of, amongst other things, the
position of bars during concreting, the shape of the bar and cover.

38
End of Presentation.
Any Questions
FR

40
FR

41
FR

42