TEACHER: MR. SHIFAFURE ANDREAS MURONGA **PHYSICS NOTES** GRADE 10-11 TEACHER: MR.

ADE 10-11 TEACHER: MR. SHIFAFURE ANDREAS MURONGA **PHYSICS NOTES** GRADE 10-11

PHYSICS NOTES.  Look at the number to the right of it.

1. Scientific Processes  If that number is larger than 5, add 1 to place value. If number is less than
1.1 Mathematical Requirement 5, number stays the same.
Add, subtract, multiply and divide rounding the answer correctly.  Delete all numbers to the right of place value.
Example: NB: In Physics we round off to two decimal places. Otherwise
Addition (+) is the summation of two or more numbers. instructed.
 Adding two positive numbers, answer is positive. a. Round of 6.6789 to the nearest whole number.
2459 + 105 = =
 Adding two negative numbers, answer is negative. b. Round of 6.6789 to one decimal places.
-4 321 +(-121) = =
 Adding positive number to negative number, answer is either positive or c. Round of 6.6789 to two decimal places.
negative depending on magnitude (size). (Answer takes the sign of bigger =
number). d. Round of 6.6789 to three decimal places.
a. -3 000 + 4500 = =
b. -8 700 + 404 =
Subtraction (-) is the working out the differences between two or more numbers. Use averages, decimals, fractions, percentages, ratios and reciprocals
 Subtracting smaller positive number from larger positive number, answer Use averages
is positive. Averages tells us the following:
2 345 – 1234 =  The general value that all the results are close to.
 Subtracting a larger positive number from a smaller positive number,  Reduces experimental errors.
answer is negative.  Give easier ways to compare results to other similar experiment.
6 782 - 8 900 =  For accuracy purposes.
 Subtracting a positive number from a negative number, answer is negative. State the equation for calculating averages.
-250 –(+40) = Average
 Subtracting a negative number from a positive number, answer is positive
(operation changes to addition).
3 400 – (-255) = Example:
Multiplication (x) is working out the products of two or more numbers. A number of sample with the same volume of carbon were collected and their masses
determined using a sensitive electronic balance. The results are given in the table
 Multiplying two positive number, answer is positive.
below.
12 x 5 =
 Multiplying two negative number, answer is positive.
Sample number 1 2 3 4 5
-15 x -10= -15 x (-10)=
Mass/g 36.6 41.9 38.7 37.2 36.4
 Multiplying positive number and negative number, answer is negative.
-10 x 6 =
What is the average mass of the sample? NB: Units are vital at the answer.
7 x -20 =
=
Division (÷) is working out the quotient of two numbers.
Determine the average of the following data points: 7;5;4;6;7;5;4;3
 Dividing two positive numbers, answer is positive.
=
12 ÷ 4 =
Use decimals
 Dividing two negative numbers, answer is positive. Decimal is a fraction that has a denominator that is a power of 10. The numerator of a
-20 ÷ -5 = fraction is expressed as decimal by placing digit to the right of the decimal point to separate a
 Dividing positive number by negative number, answer is negative. whole and part of a whole.
30 ÷ -5 = Adding decimal numbers
 Dividing negative number by positive number, answer is negative.  4.67 + 33.678 + 489.9
-40 ÷ 10 = Subtracting decimal numbers
Rounding the answer correctly  98.524 – 5.37
Rounding off a number is making it simpler, while keeping its value as close as Multiplying decimals
possible to its actual value.
 A length and breadth of classroom were measured as 8.73 m and 5.26 m respectively.
Steps in rounding off numbers:
What is the area of the floor in the classroom?
 Determine place value or number which you need to round off to. Dividing decimals (use any method)

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 13 ÷ 4 = o =
Use fractions Use direct and inverse proportion.
Fraction is a part of a whole. Fractions has numerator and denominator separated by a Proportionality
horizontal line. E.g. Proportion is the relationship between two variables.Dependent variable plotted on y-axis
Proper fractions, numerator is smaller than denominator. E.g. and Independent variable plotted on the x-axis.
Use direct proportion. (symbol is α)
Vulgar or improper fractions, numerator is greater than the denominator. E.g. Direct proportional is a relationship when one variable increases at the same rate the other
Mixed fractions, combination of whole number and a proper fraction. E.g. variable increases. It produces straight line graph. ( y α x ). Graph will pass through the
point of origin (0;0).
Examples:
(y)
1. Convert to mixed numbers.
Dependent variable
2. Convert to improper fraction.
3. Work out:
a. + = Independent variable (x)
b. - =
Gradient = ==
c. x =
d. ÷ =
Use percentages
Percentages is a number expressed as a fraction of 100.
NB: percent (%) means part of 100.
Formula for calculating percentages
Use inverse proportion

Examples: Inverse proportional is a relationship when one variable decreases at the same rate the other
1. What percentage did a learner achieve for the test if she scored 16 out of 60? variable increases. It produces smooth curved line graph. ( y α ). Graph will never pass
2. Express this fraction as percentage. through point of origin (0;0). Have equation: .
3. Write this percentage 42% as a fraction.
4. Express this decimal 0,66 as percentage. (y)
5. Express this percentage 14% as decimal.
Dependent variable
Use ratios
Ratios shows us the relationship between quantities or numbers. It is used to compare
numbers or quantities. NB: Sometimes ratio can be expressed as fraction. E.g. 2:3 can be Independent variable (x)
written as .
Examples: Use positive and negative, whole number indices and exponents in calculations
1. There are 16 electrons and 20 protons in a positively charged ion. What is the ratio of Indices is also called exponents
electrons to protons in their simplest form? Index or Exponents tells us how many times we multiply a number by itself.
2. A man’s mass is 90kg and a dog’s mass is 30kg. write down the ratio of man’s mass  53 = (5 is the base and 3 is the index or exponent)
to dog’s mass. NB: any number with exponent of 0 is equal to 1
Use reciprocals Positive index/exponents
Reciprocal is the inverse of fractions. NB: Reciprocal of whole number is one divided by that  33 =
number. E.g. Reciprocal of 3 is . Negative index/exponents (NB: negative index tells us that number is less than 1)
Examples:  2-2 =
 Write the reciprocal of Dividing exponents
o 9=  Dividing exponents with the same base we subtract the exponents.
o = 64 ÷ 62 =

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 Dividing exponents with different base exponents are not subtracted.  V=lxbxh
64 ÷ 42 = Volume of a cylinder
Multiplying exponents  V = πr2h or Volume = pi x radius2 x height
 Multiplying exponents with the same base, exponents are added together.
108 x 106 = Use the refractive index n= sin i / sin r
 Multiplying exponents with different base, exponents are not added together.
43 x 32 = Refractive index is a measure of how much light is refracted when it travels from one medium
Make approximate evaluations of numerical expressions. to another medium like: air to glass; air to water or air to plastic.
Approximation is the value or amount that is nearly to correct value. It allows NB:
scientists to quickly express values before doing calculations.  Optical density of a medium affects the refractive index of the medium.
Numerical expressions is mathematical expression made up of numbers, variables and  Refractive index have no unit.
operators (+, x, ÷ and -). Expressions have no equal signs and they can only be solved
but can be simplified. Formula for calculating refractive index.
Expression: x + 4y  n=
Equation: x = 4y
Example: when calculating area of circle, we use the value of pi (π) as 3.14. this is an n is refractive index
approximate value of pi, the exact value is 3.1415926……..(decimal continues). This i is the angle of incidence
gives us the correct answers but not exact in our calculations. r is angle of refraction.
Approximate the following: Example:
5.82 mm ÷2.1 mm = A ray of light in air strikes a block of glass. The angle of incidence is 330. The angle of
Use usual mathematical instruments (ruler, compasses, protractor, set square) refraction is 220. What is the index of refraction of a block of glass?
Ruler, used to measure length and distance.
Compasses, used to draw circles with a set diameter. Solve equation of the form x=y+z and x=yz for any one term when the other two are known.
Protractor, used to determine the angle between two lines.
Set square, used to draw straight lines at right angle to another line. An equation is a mathematical statement which uses an equal sign to show that two
expressions are equal.
Explain the meaning of angle, curve, circle, radius, diameter, square, parallelogram, Eamples:
rectangle, diagonal Using the formula x = y + z
Angle¸ a space between two or more intersecting lines measured in degrees. 1. Find a, if b =19 and c = 30.
Curve, a boundary of a circle. Using the formula x = yz
Circle, a round shape with each point along the boundary is at equal distance from the centre. 2. Calculate y when x = 30 and z = 10.
Radius, a line from the centre of a circle to any point along the circumference.
Diameter, straight line that passes through the centre of a circle. Recall and use Pythagora’s theorem for a right angled triangle.
Square, shape made up of four lines of equal length, all at right angle to one another.
Parallelogram, shape with opposite sides are parallel to one another. Pythagoras theorem is used to calculate the length of an unknown side of a right angled
Rectangle, shape made up of four lines of which two sides are shorter than the others. triangle
Pythagoras theorem states that: in a right angled-triangle, the square of the length of the
Diagonal, lines that join the corners of equilateral.
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides.
Use: AC2= AB2 + BC2 to determine the missing length in each of these triangles.
Recall and use formulae for the area of square, rectangle, triangle and circle.
Area of square A
 A = s2 or A= s x s
Area of rectangle
 A=lxb
(a)
Area of triangle 12
 A= xbxh cm
Area of circle.
 A = πr2 C
Recall and use formulae for the volume of a cuboid and a cylinder. B
Volume of cuboid 5 cm

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 Perform the planned investigation (carry out plan, record results, use apparatus, store
results for later analysis).
 Interpret the results (sit back and study result to understand what it shows about the
(b) set question, calculating, drawing graphs, classifying, transcribing). Called analysing
20 cm data.
12
 Draw a conclusion (summary of what the hypothesis shows as stated in the beginning)
c
Make observations accurately
m Define observation
 Is using your senses to find information about your environment
c State the five senses used in science and their sense organs
Senses Sense organ
Recognise and use points of a compass (N, S, E, W), bearings taken and the rules for bearing Sight Eye
taking.
Touch Skin
A magnetic compass is a device which uses a magnetised needle that points in the direction of
magnetic north. Compass can be use by sail ships and aircraft. Smell Nose
Compass bearing is a direction in which you are facing with reference to another direction. Hearing Ears
Cardinal points refers to four main directions on a compass. Which are north (N), east (E),
south (S) and west (W). Taste Tongue

Rules of bearing taking Why do the sense of taste is not usually used in science laboratory?
 Bearing from a compass is always specified by an angle that is measured clockwise
 Because it is dangerous (as substances are poisonous, corrosive or dangerous to your
from a reference point (north).
health)
 Bearing is always given in three-digit degree value. E.g. 0010, 0300 , 2700 .
 The measure bearing in clockwise is called the true bearing. NB:
 Direction (conventional bearing) is given as a number of degrees east or west of  We say observations are accurate because these are things that can be seen, smelt,
north-south lines. heard or felt.
 Direction is always between 00 and 900.
 Others is specified by stating whether it is east or west of north or south. Use appropriate techniques and handle apparatus or materials.
 We always write the N or S first, then the degrees, then the E or W. Eg. N500E, we
say by describing it as: 500 east of north.

North represents 00or 3600, East represents 900, South represents 1800 and West
represents 2700

Examples on lesson plan from textbooks:

1.2 Scientific Skills

1.2.1 Planning and Conducting Investigations

Steps(ways) of carrying out a scientific method

 Ask a question (knowing about the reason for specific observation)
 State the hypothesis (idea to be tested about possible answer to question).
 Plan the investigation (how to go about it, ways to do it, variables, apparatus to get
data)

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 Smell by wafting fumes towards your nose using hand rather than smelling directly in
container.
 Always follow teachers’ instructions.
 Do not poor chemical in the sink unless instructed to do so.
 Inform teacher immediately if you spill chemicals or broke anything.
 Never leave open flame like lit Bunsen burner unattended.
 Never add water to acid for diluting, always add acid to water.
 Wash and dry glassware immediately after use.

Distinguish between dependant, independent and control variable.

 Dependent variable is a factor that is being measured. It changes in response to
change in other factors in an investigation. Plotted on y-axis.
 One or more independent variables are factors that change or controls on purpose by
investigator. Plotted on x-axis.
 Control variables are variables that must remain constant during the experiment.
Controls makes the test fair.

Predict the hypothesis or aim of the investigation in relation to dependent, independent and
control variables.
 Change in one variable will cause the predictable change in the other variable.
 Knowing the relationship between two variables is useful for predicting an effect
without having to set up a test first.
 The relationship helps us to apply our new knowledge in a useful way.

1.2.2 Recording data

Locate, select and organise information from a variety of sources
 Recording and collection of data are the important steps during investigations and
experiments.
 Collected data is used to find trends and pattern to draw conclusions.
 It is important to record data using accurate measuring instruments.
Some sources where we can locate, select and organise informations are:
 Library books
 Internet usage
 Consulting specialists
Some scientific ways of presenting data.
 Tables
 Graphs
Record results of experimental investigations in a logical manner (tables or graphs)
Time/min Temperture/ 0C
0 -15
2 -4
4 0
Safety measures in science when carrying out scientific investigations 6 0
 Get prepared before going in laboratory. 8 3
 Never take food/drinks in laboratory. 10 20
 Wear protective clothing: coat, safety googles and gloves. 12 40
 Tie long hair.
 Never taste any substance in laboratory. Explain the importance of units and recording results of experimental investigations

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 Help us to avoid making mistakes in computation.  Bar graph

 Help us to check after our calculations are completed.  Line graph
 Help us to write relationship between variable in graphs.
 Help us in sorting quantities. Steps to remember when drawing graphs
Present each column of a table by heading it with the physical quantity and the appropriate  Always include heading that shows what is being recorded and it should mention
unit, e.g. time/s (units should be in the heading of the column and not in the measurements in dependent and independent variables.
the column)  Horizontal axis is the x-axis; it shows independent variable. Use suitable scale for
axis.
Temperature vs time graph  Vertical axis is the y-axis; it shows dependent variable. Use suitable scale for this
Time/s Temperture/ K axis.
0 0  Label axis appropriately including unit of measurement. The column heading in table
2 5 can be transferred directly to the axes on the graph. You will be asked to use data in
4 10 table to draw graph.
Use column headings of a table to create the axes of a graph  Individual values are plotted as data points on sets of axes with cross (x) if another
Time/s Temperture/ K curve or graph is needed on same grid we use encircled dot ( ) and plus (+) .
0 0  An appropriate line is drawn through relevant points, this results in a graph with either
2 5 straight line or smooth curve.
4 10 NB:
Some points might not be touched when drawing the straight line (best line that
1.2.3 Drawing graphs and tables fits) after plotting.
 In graph with straight line as a result of constant value, we calculate gradient (slope).
Steps to remember when drawing tables The equation to calculate gradient is:
 Use a pencil and a ruler to draw table outlines. m=
 Entries in body of table to be written in pen or ink, with no units next to entries. Symbol Δ is called Delta and m stands for gradient. Therefore, the equation entails:
 Tables should have a title which include dependent and independent variable change in y (y-axis) divided by change in x (x-axis), you get the gradient or slope.
mentioned.
 Table may be horizontal or vertical.
 In horizontal table, rows should have title that includes units of measurement.
 In vertical table, column should have title that includes unit of measurement.
 Independent variable is always recorded in the first row or column of the table.
 Solidus (/) should be used to separate items being measured from its unit.
 The number of digits or significant figures should be consistent.

Example of horizontal table

Determining the effects of adding different loads to identical rubber, not thickness.
Mass added /g 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Length of rubber/mm 300 312 323 334 358 396 405
Example of vertical table
Table showing the time in which an athlete covered a specific distance.
Distance /m Time /s
0 0
10 2
20 4
30 6 1.2.4 Basic units and derived units
40 8 Explain and use the relationship between length, surface area and volume and their units on
metric scales.
Some types of graphs we are going to use are: Explain and use the relationship between length, surface area and volume.
 Pie chart  They are all physical quantity that can be measured in term of basic and derived units.

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 Length (km, m, cm, mm, dm), surface area (m2, dm2, cm2, mm2) and volume (m3,
dm3, cm3).
International System (SI) of units, is abbreviated from French Système International
(d’unités)

Identify the correct SI units

Basic quantity Unit name Symbol of unit
Length Metre M
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second S
Temperature Kelvin or degree Celsius K or 0C
Amount of matter/substance Mole Mol
electric current Ampere A
Luminous intensity Candela Cd

Identify the derived units

Explain and use multiple prefixes (mega, kilo) and sub-multiple prefixes (centi, milli, micro,
nano) of units.

Specific prefixes make it easier to report very large or very small measurements.

Multiple prefixes are used to quantify (calculate or measure) very large measurements.

Prefix Abbreviation Standard Scientific Example of use

or symbol notation notation
Mega M 1x1 000 000 1x106 The Van Eck Power station in Windhoek can
generate 120MW of power.
3
Kilo K 1x1 000 1x10 A bag of flour typically has a mass of 2.5 kg.

Sub-multiple prefixes are used to quantify (calculate or measure) very small measurements.

Prefix Abbreviation Standard Scientific Example of use

or symbol notation notation
centi C 1÷100 1x10-2 Your thumbnail is about 1 cm wide
milli M 1÷1000 1x10-3 A medicine spoon holds about 5 ml.
micro µ 1÷1 000 000 1x10-6 A specific medicine contains 50 µg
aspirin per tablet
nano N 1÷1 000 000 000 1x10-9 A calcium atom has a radius of about 0.2
nm

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Use standard notation Example:

Standard notation/form is the normal way of writing numbers. a. You decide to check how accurately food producer weight and package food.
Scientific notation is a form of writing numbers that uses exponents. You buy five packets of sugar which should be 500 grams each as stated on the
packaging.
Examples: What to do:
a. Write the following standard notation into scientific notation. o You measure the mass of each packet of sugar and find that each packet is 475
i. 1000 = grams. None of the packets of sugar have 500 grams.
ii. 7 400 = o This is a measure of accuracy, as all packets of sugar have a mass of 475
iii. 0.00109 = grams, close to true value of 500 grams.
b. Write the following in standard notation o This is a measure of precision, because they all have exactly the same mass of
i. 700 x 10-3 = 475 grams, but they are not accurate because none of them have the mass of
ii. 1.9 x 100 = 500 grams as stated on packaging.
iii. 8.230 x 106 =
Round a value correctly to an appropriate number of significant figures when required. Explain that measurements may involve error.
 We round off numbers to a significant figures(digits) so that we can make
approximations. Error is the difference between the measurement and the true value.
Points to remember when rounding numbers to significant figures
 Decide which last digits to keep. Concepts of errors
 If next digit is less than 5, leave the digits the same (rounding down).
 If next digit is more than 5, increase the last digit by 1 (rounding up). Absolute error is the range of possible values for measurement. Eg. 10 to ± 10.5
 Zero after a decimal and before non-zero numbers are not significant. Relative error is error expressed as a percentage or ratio of absolute error.
 All non-zero numbers are significant. Relative error = absolute error ÷calculated value (x100 to convert to percentage)
 Zero after non-zero number in a decimal are significant.
List two categories of errors
 Rounding to:
o 1 sig.fig. first look at second figure. If ˂5, round down; if ≥ 5, round up.  Systematic (determinate) errors
o 2 sig.fig. first look at third figure. If ˂5, round down; if ≥ 5, round up.  Random (indeterminate) errors
o 3 sig.fig. first look at fourth figure. If ˂5, round down; if ≥ 5, round up. Systematic errors are errors caused by using faulty equipment and they are the same
o 4 sig.fig. first look at fifth figure. If ˂5, round down; if ≥ 5, round up. throughout the investigation.
Example: E.g. *using incorrect standardise solution
a. Round the following figure 9.635498 to: *using a balance that is not zeroed.
i. 1 sig. fig. = o These errors are easily noticeable and corrected by checking concentration of solution
ii. 2 sig. fig. = and balance correctly zeroed.
iii. 3 sig. fig. = Random errors are errors for taking one of the measurement incorrectly.
iv. 4 sig. fig. = E.g. taking readings incorrectly.
Use acceptable methods of stating units, e.g. metres per second or m per s can be written as o As the readings are constantly done incorrectly, results may be precise, but not
m/s or m s -1 accurate.
 Know how to write:
o metre per second as m/s or m/s-1
o kilometre per hour as km/h
o cubic centimetre as cm3
o metre per second square as m/s2 and more.

1.2.5 Error, accuracy and uncertainty

Explain precise measurement and accurate measurement.

Precise measurement is when all measurements are close to one another or the same.
Accurate measurement is when all measurements have an average close to the true value.

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NB: Always take readings correctly to avoid errors due to parallax.

Explain uncertainty 2. General Physics
 The interval on either side of a measured value within which the true value is
expected to lie (the range). 2.1 Length, time and volume.
Handle and process experimental observations and data, including dealing with anomalous Use and describe the use of a metre rule, a ruler and measuring tape to determine length,
or inconsistent results and measuring cylinders to determine volume.
 Anomalous or inconsistent results is the results that is very different from the pattern Define length
or trend formed by other results.  Measure of how long an object is from one end to the other.
o In a graph it can be seen as a point(s) that lies far away from the rest of the data State the SI unit of length
points.  Metre (m)
Derived units of length
Evaluate presented results or experimental data by applying scientific knowledge and  Millimetre (mm)
interpret and draw appropriate conclusions from practical observations and data in relation
 Centimetre (cm)
to hypotheses.
 Kilometre (km)
 Compare all results with one another by means of:
Converting between units of length
o Drawing graph in case of numerical data
1 km = 1000 m
o Photographs for visual results.
1 m = 100 cm
o Original hypothesis will determine the method you will use to draw conclusions.
1 cm = 10 mm
o Subscribing and interpretation for qualitative data to draw conclusions.
× 1000 × 100 × 10
Km m cm mm
Discuss trends in results and suggest sources of error (random and systematic error).
 Incorrect results as a result of errors
÷ 1000 ÷100 ÷10
Convert the following to the degree of accuracy shown
 Correct results due to precision and accuracy.  3km to m = _____________
 6cm to m = _____________
Suggest possible improvements to reduce errors
 7km to mm = ___________
 Repeat measurements several times and take average of all readings.
List the instruments we use to measure length
 Ensure that you know how to operate apparatus you are going to work with.
 Ruler
 Avoid error of parallax.
 Metre rule
 Record readings correctly.
 Measuring tape
 Round off numbers correctly.
 Vernier calipers (Vernier or dial)
 Be careful when changing readings from one unit to another unit.
 Micrometer screw gauges
Describe the use of a metre rule, a ruler and measuring tape to determine length
 Rulers is used to measure length of objects, shorter than or equal to 30 cm or 300mm.
o Most ruler measure centimeters on one side and millimeters on the other side.
 Metre rule is used to measure length of longer objects, shorter than or equal to 100cm
or 1m.
Describe how to use a ruler or metre rule to measure length
o Place an object to be measured on flat surface.
o Place one end of an object on the zero mark and note the furthest point
reached by the other end.
o Take the reading at the end of the other side.
o Use the correct unit as used either cm or mm.
 Measuring tape is used to measure different shorter and longer lengths of ± 4m, some
can measure up to 30m.
o It is flexible
o It can measure circumference of objects.

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o Place one end of an object on the zero mark and note the furthest point 2. Put in the irregular object(s), shake gently to remove bubbles of air and record your
reached by the other end. final volume.
o Take the reading at the end of the other side.
o Use the correct unit as per tape measure depending on length. 3. Volume of object(s) = final volume − initial volume
4. If more than 1 object was used:
Use and describe the use of a measuring cylinders to determine volume. Volume of one object = Volume of all objects
Define volume Number of objects
 Amount of space occupied by an object. State the formula for calculating the volume of a solid cuboid
State the SI unit of volume  Volume = length x breadth x height
 Cubic metre (m3) Calculate the volume of the solid below.
Other units of volume
 Cubic decimeter (dm3)
 Cubic centimeter (cm3) 9cm
 Litre (l)
Converting between units of volume
1 m³ =1000 000 cm³
5cm
1 cm³ = 1000 mm³
12cm

Use and describe the use of mechanical methods for the measurement of a small distance
× 1000 000 × 1000 (ruler, caliper (Vernier or dial) and micrometer screw gauge).
m³ cm³ mm³
÷ 1000 000 ÷ 1000 Name two special instruments of measuring very small length or distance
1 m=10dm
 Vernier calipers
1 m3= 1 000 dm3
 Micrometer screw gauge
1l = 1 dm3
What is a caliper
1l = 1 000 ml
1l = 1 000 cm3  A special instrument used to measure very small length or distance of objects
1 ml = 1 cm3 accurately.
Convert the following to the degree of accuracy shown Name two types of calipers
 8ml to l = _____________  Vernier caliper
 4cm3 to ml = ___________  Dial caliper
State the units used when using a Vernier caliper
 9l to cm3 = _____________
List the instruments we use to measure volume of liquids  Millimeter (mm)
 Measuring cylinder  Centimeter (cm)
Describe the Vernier caliper as it;
 Pipette
 Have internal jaws (measures inner dimensions)
 Burette
Describe the use of a measuring cylinder to determine volume of liquids (precautions)  Have outer jaws (measures outer dimensions)
 Place a measuring cylinder on a firm and flat surface before taking readings.  Have main scale (to be read first) measures values correct to 0.1 cm or
1mm/1.0mm write value to a decimal.
 Never hold measuring cylinder when you take readings.
 Have Vernier scale (to be read second) measures values correct to 0.01cm or
 Make sure that your eyes are directly in line with the bottom of the liquid meniscus
0.1mm
level.
Meniscus level  Have stem (measuring depths)
 Have clamp screw (secure jaws in place)
 Never pour hot liquids into measuring cylinder  Have thumb screw (to get tight grip of object to be measured)

How can you find the volume of an irregular object (solid)

 We use the displacement method (eureka can and cylinder to find the volume of an
irregular object
1. Take a measuring cylinder, put in water and record your initial volume.

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Describe how to use and read Vernier caliper

 Zero the callipers.
 Place object to be measured between jaws of the callipers.
Dial calipers
 Use main scale to take first reading, the number just in front of zero mark on Vernier
scale.  is a calibrated precision measuring tool that is useful for taking accurate
measurements with a dial indicator.
 Use Vernier scale to take second reading, the reading is the value that is exactly
State the units used when using a dial caliper
aligned (in straight line) with main and Vernier scale.
 millimeter (mm)
 The reading of Vernier calliper is the sum of the two readings on main and Vernier
Describe the dial caliper as it has features on the diagram below.
scale. (Thus: Reading = main scale + Vernier scale)
NB: Use the units used in the question between cm and mm, if not specified use mm.

Describe how to use and read dial caliper

 Place object to be measured between jaws of dial caliper, turn until jaws tighten
a. Find the reading on the vernier calliper. around object.
 The zero on the sliding jaw points to between 2 and 3 on fixed jaw, i.e. 2 cm  When taking measurements, you should first read the value on the main scale.
 The next reading is between 2 cm and 3 cm, but close to 2cm i.e. 0.2 cm  This will be the number immediately to the left of the reference edge.
 The final reading is taken where the markings on both scales are in a straight line, i.e.  On a metric dial caliper, this will be given in millimetres (mm). Each increment on
0.05 cm the scale is equal to 1mm.
 The reading is 2 cm + 0.2 cm + 0.05 cm = 2.25 cm (2.2 cm+0.05cm =2.25cm)
20mm + 2mm + 0.5mm = 22.5mm (22mm+0.5mm = 22.5mm)
b. Write down the reading shown on the set of Vernier caliper below.

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 Next, read the value shown on the dial indicator.

 On most metric dials each increment is equal to 0.02mm.

 Using the diagram above : 15mm (shown on the beam scale) + .0.43mm (shown on
the dial scale) = 15.43mm.
 In this example, the caliper is showing a reading of 15.43mm.
 To get your total reading, add the two values together.
Micrometre screw gauge
Example: State the units used when using a micrometer screw gauge
 Millimetre (mm)
 Centimeter (cm)
Describe the micrometer screw gauge as it;
 Have jaws anvil and spindle (holds object to be measured firmly)
 Have sleeve/barrel-main scale (indicate readings in millimeter)
 Have frame (provide basic structure and hold objects)
 Have thimble/column (to show measurement value in fraction)
 Have rachet (avoid overtightening of micrometer across measuring object and ensure
equal pressure force of each measurement)
 Have lock nut (controls the spindle movements)

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Describe how to use and read micrometer screw gauge

 Place object to be measured between jaws of micrometer, turn barrel until jaws
tighten around object.
 Use main scale to take reading to the nearest 0.5mn.
 Read fractional scale on barrel to measure the extra fraction of a millimeter
 Final measurement is the sum of main scale on sleeve or barrel and circular scale on
thimble or column.

Example:
a. What is the reading on the micrometer screw gauge below? Use and describe the use of clocks and devices for measuring an interval of time (wrist watch
and stop watch).

Time
State the SI unit of time
 Seconds (s)
Other units of time
 Minutes (min)
 Hour (h)
Name the devices or instruments used to measure time
 Clocks
 Stopwatch (manual and automatic)
 wristwatch (digital and analogue)
Converting between units of time
 Long lines are every millimeter, shorter one are half a millimeter in between. 1 h = 60 min
 Take first reading from main scale on its linear scale. =2.5mm 1 min = 60 s
 Than look at rotating scale. =0.46 1 h = 3600 s
 Add the two numbers. 2.5 mm + 0,46mm = 2.96mm ×60 × 60
b. Write down the reading shown on the micrometer screw gauge below. Hour minutes seconds
÷ 60 ÷ 60
Convert the following to the degree of accuracy shown
 5 min to h __________________
 4h to min = _________________
 6h to s = ___________________
What is a wrist watch?
 Device used to know what time of the day is, people wear it on the wrist.

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What is a stop watch?  Take average

 Specialized device which measure time taken from when it is activated (started) to
when it is deactivated (stopped).  The period T is T =
o Stop watches are used to measures short period of time e.g. few minutes or
less in unit of minutes, seconds and one hundredths of second.
o Used in investigation in Physics laboratory (period of pendulum), athlete
racing and more.
o Manual stop watches are started and stopped by operator (person using it).
o Automatic stop watches clock is started and stopped by sensors.
Points to remember before using stop watches
 Know the hour and minute hands on the analogue clock.
 Know three controls on digital stop watches: one to start and stop timing, one to reset
the clock to zero and one to change the mode from a stop watch to a normal watch.
 Know digits and how to write them on digital stop watches: from left;
o first indicates minutes,
o second indicates seconds
o last indicates hundredths of seconds Describe a simple experiment to establish that the only variable that affects the period of a
How to use manual stop watch to measure time? pendulum is the length
 Reset the device to zero What happens if you change the length of the string?
 Press the start/stop button to start measuring.  If string is shortened, the distance it must travel to complete the oscillation is less.
 Press the start/stop button to stop measuring.  If string is lengthened, the distance it must travel to complete oscillation is more.
 Take the readings and record it. o We can conclude that the length of string determines the time taken for each
oscillation.
Evaluate the advantages of the above devices. What happens if you change the mass of the bob?
 Easy to use and relatively cheap (wrist watch)  It makes no difference for the time taken for each oscillation.
 More accurate can determine time up to 0.1 s (analogue stop watch). o Because the mass of the bob is accelerated towards the ground at a constant
 Most accurate to measure time up to 0.01 s (digital stop watch) rate which is gravitational constant, g.
Evaluate the disadvantages of the above devices. Define frequency
 Not very accurate, only measures time to nearest seconds (wrist watch).  Number of oscillation or vibrations per second.
 More expensive (analogue stop watch)
 More expensive digital stop watch) Frequency = (ƒ) =
Measure and describe how to measure a short interval of time including the period of a
Example:
pendulum.
1. A simple pendulum made 30 oscillations in 45 seconds.
What is a pendulum?
Calculate:
 A string attached to pivot, so that it can swing freely with a spherical metal ball (a bob
a. Period, T.
called weight) is attached to the other end of the string.
b. Frequency, ƒ.
o It makes fairly accurate measurement of short time interval.
o Oscillation/one cycle/one complete vibration is one full swing of a pendulum.
o Period is the time taken for one oscillation of a pendulum. NB: it is also time
PRACTICAL on pendulum (simple experiment)
taken for complete wave to pass a point.
Describe how to measure a short interval of time using the period of a pendulum.
2.2 Scalars and vectors
 Note distance of string adjustments for different lengths and masses of bobs to be
used.
What are the two types of physical quantities?
 Start the pendulum to oscillate to and fro by displacing the pendulum bob at small
 Scalars
angle of less than 100 and release.
 Vectors
 Start stop watch when motion is steady at one end of its motion. Define scalar
 Stop the stop watch after 20 oscillations. Record the time t1.  A quantity which has magnitude but no direction.
 Repeat step 2 and 3 for another set of reading t2.

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Define vector HINTS: North as per directions

 A quantity which has both magnitude and direction.
b. Describe the force shown in the diagram below.
Explain the difference between scalars and vectors and give common examples.

Physical quantity Differences Common examples

Scalars  Time, length
A quantity which has magnitude(size) but no direction. or
distance, speed,
temperature, mass
and volume.
Vectors  A quantity which has both magnitude (size) and Displacement,
direction. velocity,
acceleration, weight
and force.
State two ways of finding resultant vector through calculation if two vectors are at right
What is resultant? angle (900).
 A single vector that has the same effect as a number of vectors working together.  Head-to-tail method (using Pythagoras theorem)

NB: + A line drawn with an arrow is used when drawing vectors on a paper. Look
Vector B
below at vector diagram to show vehicles velocity (speed and direction).
Vector A

R =A + B
+ Magnitude of the vector is shown by the length of the arrow. R = A + B
+ If the length of the arrow is the same, it means magnitude of vector is constant
(Vector diagram showing a vehicle’s constant velocity)
 Tail-to-tail method (using parallelogram method)

+ If vector increases, length of arrow also increases to show increasing vector.

(vector diagram showing a vehicle’s accelerating).
B R=A + B

Example: R = A + B
A
a. Describe the acceleration shown in the diagram below.

↓ Acceleration: Scale; 1 mm : 1 m/s2

Head-to-tail method (using Pythagoras theorem)

=Use a ruler to measure length of vector (an arrow)= 11 mm

=Use the scale to convert the length to the size of the vector= 11 mm x 1 m/s2 = 11 m/s2
 Put in mind four directions, N, E, S and W, and draw + if need be.

=Use protractor to measure bearing,  We place tail of one vector to the head of the other vector.

↓
 We draw straight line from the tail of one vector to head of other vector this is the
resultant vector. Using a ruler and use protractor if angles are given.
 Magnitude is calculated using Pythagoras theorem.
 Direction of resultant vector is calculated with trigonometry.

= always take north as being at the top of the page, bearing =1800 Add two vectors at right angles by calculating to determine a resultant in magnitude and
direction.

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a force of 120 N on bearing of 0900. Use a scale of 1cm:20 N to find force applied to
Examples: Wilfried.
a. A bird is flying on a bearing of 1800, due south, at a speed of 20 m/s.
An east wind of strength 30 m/s blows the bird off the course. Determine by
calculation, the resultant velocity of the bird. 2. Two forces act on an object: one of 6 N on bearing of 0300 and another of 4 N on a
bearing of 1800. Find the resultant force.

Graphical method and calculation to find resultant vector of two vectors acting on a point in
straight line. (adding vectors on the same plane)

Points to remember when finding resultant vector of two vectors on a point in straight line
b. The diagrams below show two forces acting on an object. One force is pulling the  If two vectors are acting in the same direction, we add them together to find resultant
object up, while the other pulls to the right. force, not forgetting direction.
Find the resultant force F, the single force with the same effect as the two forces  If two vectors are acting in opposite directions, we subtract them to find resultant
shown. force, not forgetting direction. Here we allocate positive value to one and negative
value to the other.
50 N Examples:
120 N a. Find resultant force in the following vector diagrams.
i. .

c. A man walks 150 m north. He then turns and walks 200 m west. Calculate the ii.
resultant displacement (position) of the man.

d. A man travels 40 m east and then 30 m north. Determine the resultant displacement of
the man.

Tail-to-tail method (using parallelogram method)

 Two vectors that act on a point in a straight line.
 We place tail of one vector to the other tail to form parallelogram (sometimes right
angle and draw a rectangle). iii.
 Draw diagonal of rectangle, this is the resultant vector (r) and label the angle (Ө).
 Magnitude is calculated using Pythagoras theorem.
 Direction of resultant vector is calculated with trigonometry.

Add two vectors that are not at right angles by a graphical method to determine a resultant in
magnitude and direction 2.3 Speed, velocity and acceleration
2.3.1 Position, displacement and distance.
Example: Recognise and state that the concepts ‘position’ and ‘reference point’ (can be represented as
1. Ronel and Aini are pulling on two ropes that are tied to Wilfried. The angles between x, y or z) are fundamental in the study of speed, velocity and acceleration.
the two ropes is 1200. Ronel pulls with a force of 150 N on bearing 3300. Aini applies  Position is a place from where a comparison begins.

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 To describe the position of an object one should refer to starting point or origin (point 6m
you will measure from).
 Reference point is a point which the position or motion is compared to. i. Calculate:
o Comparing places e.g. map work in geography, Cartesian plane coordinates o The total distance that Lucia travels.
and more. o Lucia’s displacement.
Recognise that position, relative to a reference point, can be either positive or negative.
 Positions on Cartesian plane can have both negative and positive numbers depending
on the quadrant it will be found. Acceleration also can be positive and negative
depending on motion directions.
Define distance 2.3.2 Speed, average speed, average velocity and instantaneous velocity
 Is a measure of how far an object travels along a particular path (without considering Define speed
direction).  The rate of change of distance.
Jafet walks in a straight line for a distance of 3km from his
State the SI unit of speed
home at position B (see diagram left). What is his position?
 Metre per second (m/s)
B
= He can be anywhere at any position from origin B. but we  Kilometre per hour (km/h)
will not know exactly the position where Jafet is. NB: What instrument is used to measure speed
distance is a scalar quantity which do not need direction.  Speedometer
Define displacement NB: speed is a scalar quantity
 Is a vector which has a magnitude equal to the shortest distance between the initial
and final points and a direction from the initial to the final point. Define instantaneous velocity
Using Jafet’s example, if the direction he walked could be  The rate of change of displacement’ or speed in a given direction.
known, it will be easy to find his position. If he moved in State the SI unit of velocity
B northern direction he could be at point C on the circle.  Metre per second (m/s or m/s-1) + direction
 Kilometre per hour (km/h or km/h-1) + direction
NB: displacement is a vector quantity which considers
NB: velocity is a vector quantity
direction, N, S, E and W.
You can only calculate displacement if the movement did not come back to starting Define average velocity
point.  The velocity an object would have if it covered a certain displacement in a certain
If movement comes back to starting point displacement becomes 0. interval and travelled at the same speed the whole time.
 (displacement for the whole motion ÷ time taken for the whole motion)
Examples: Explain what positive and negative values of velocity mean
a. Rot drove home from church at point D to meet a pastor at point F, instead of going  When cars are travelling in different directions (east and west) at the same magnitude
straight home he first stops at a bridge E. 20 m/s. you can decide on which one can be positive or negative.
E Maybe you can choose east to be positive velocity (+20 m/s) and west to be negative
6 km velocity (-20 m/s)
8 NB: Some people use – and + signs to show directions. + to show positive and – to show
F negative direction.
k

Example:
10km
D 1. Two trucks are moving to the west at 30 m/s. Two cars, one moving south and one
moving north, are each travelling at 50 m/s.
i. Calculate the distance Rot travelled. a. Which of these vehicle pairs have the same speed?
ii. Find Rot’s displacement. b. Which of these vehicle pairs have the same velocity? Explain your answer.
b. Lucia rollerblades from point W to point X, then to point Y and finally back to point
W. W Use and recall the equations average speed = total distance/total time; speed = distance /
time
10m State the equation or formula for calculating speed
8m  Speed =

Y 
X
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v = speed in metre per second (m/s)

d = distance in metre (m)
t = time in seconds (s)
State equation or formula for calculating average speed
 Average speed = Plot readings for and interpret a distance-time graph

v = average speed in metre per second (m/s)

d = total distance in metre (m)
t = total time in seconds (s)

State equation or formula for calculating average velocity

 Average velocity =

Δv = velocity (m/s)
Δx = displacement (m)
Δt = time (s)

Examples:
1. A bus travels 140 km in 2 hours. Calculate its speed.
2. A bicycle travels at a speed of 2 m/s for 1 min. How far does the bicycle travel in this
time?
3. If a speed of sound in air is 300 m/s, calculate how long it would take for sound to NB:
travel 1 000 m.
 Graph is constant, steady or uniform speed because equal distance covered in equal
4. A car travels at a constant speed of 100 km/h. Calculate how far it travels in:
time intervals.
a. 2 hours
 In distance time graph, stationary is the same as at rest
b. 2.5 hours.
5. A cyclist travels 60 km in 3.0 hours. Find his average speed in:  Gradient can be taken anywhere on the graph the results will still be the same.
a. km/h Speed is found by determining the gradient of (slope) of the graph.
b. m/s. 
6. A motorist is chased down the highway by a police car. It covers a distance of 448 m
in 10 s. the speed limit for the high way is 120 km/h. is the driver breaking the speed Plot readings for and interpret a speed-time graph
limit?

7. A car drives 800 m east, stops and then drives 200 m west. The trip takes 80 s.
80 m
car

800 m
Calculate:

a. Average speed
b. Average velocity

8. A car is travelling on a free way in an area where the speed limit is 120 km/h-1. The
car approaches a traffic camera and the camera records that the car travels 0.36 m in
0.01 s.
a. What is the instantaneous speed of the car in m/s-1?
b. Convert your answer in a) to km/h-1. NB:
c. Will the car get a speeding fine? Explain.

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 Graph is constant or uniform acceleration because equal speed covered is in equal

time intervals
 In the graph above, constant/uniform/steady speed means the same.
 Constant/uniform/steady deceleration or retardation.
 In speed-time graph, stationary is the same as at rest at 0.0 in this graph.
 Gradient can be taken anywhere on the graph the results will still be the same.

Describe the motion of the graph below

Identify from the shape of a distance-time or speed-time graph when a body is moving with
changing speed

When describing the motion of an object try to be as detailed as possible. For instance...
 During 'Part A' of the journey the object travels +8m in 4s. It is travelling at
a constant velocity of +2ms-1
 During 'Part B' of the journey the object travels 0m in 3s. It is stationary for 3
seconds
 During 'Part C' of the journey the object travels -8m in 3s. It is travelling at
a 'constant velocity' of '-2.7ms-1' back to its starting point, our reference point 0.

Identify from the shape of a distance-time graph when a body is at rest

 Graphs help us to understand the relationship between speed, velocity and time.
Identify from the shape of a distance-time or speed-time graph when a body is moving with  Time on horizontal axis (x-axis), because it changes independently.
constant speed/steady speed/uniform speed  Velocity or speed and distance on the vertical axis (y-axis), because they are
dependent on time.
 Graphs help to calculate acceleration and distance covered.

Uniform and Non-uniform graphs

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1. A car travelling at 10 m/s speeds up to 30m/s in 5s. Calculate acceleration of that

period.
2. A vehicle accelerates uniformly from rest to 8 m/s-1 in 5 seconds.
Calculate its acceleration in m/s-1.
3. A motorbike travelling at 4 m/s to the right, accelerates for 10 s until reaching a final
velocity of 12 m/s to the right. Calculate the acceleration experienced by the
motorbike.
4. Brakes are applied to a Van that is moving at 15 m/s. the Van stops after 5 seconds.
Calculate its acceleration in m/s-2. What is the sign of acceleration?
5. Nghidimbwa has a brand new sport car. He wants to test its maximum speed on the
track. He starts from rest and accelerates at 0.4 m/s2 to the right for one minute. What
is the maximum velocity reached by his car?
Distinguish between speed and velocity by means of similarities and differences Explain what positive and negative values of acceleration mean
 Positive acceleration when a car’s acceleration is increasing it results in positive
Speed Velocity acceleration, written as +24 m/s2.
Similarities  Measures length moved per  Measures length moved per unit time  Negative acceleration when a car’s acceleration is decreasing / slowing down /
unit time  Unit m/s decelerated over a certain period of time, it results in negative acceleration /
 Unit m/s deceleration / retardation. Written as -24 m/s2 of a displacement graph and an
Differences  rate of change of distance.  rate of change of displacement’ or speed in a given acceleration is the slope of a velocity graph.
 Depends on total path length. direction.
 Independent of direction.  Depends on change in position. Negative and positive acceleration graph
 Scalar quantity.  Dependent on direction in which change takes place.
 Calculated using distance.  Vector quantity.
 Have magnitude (size) only  Calculated using displacement.
 Have both magnitude and direction.

2.3.3 Acceleration.
Define acceleration
 The rate of change of velocity.
 The above diagram shows the graphs of velocity and acceleration of an object. The object
goes with an increase in velocity with a constant positive acceleration up to a point P and
NB: Acceleration is a vector quantity. then goes with an decrease in velocity with a constant negative acceleration from
point P. The acceleration graph drops down to a negative value at point P
State the SI unit of acceleration Identify linear motion for which the acceleration is constant and calculate the acceleration
 m/s2 or ms-2 (from dividing unit of velocity and time; m per s per s. or m/s per s)
Write the formula of calculating acceleration



a = acceleration
Δv = change in velocity
Δt = change in time


 Hint: The acceleration can be obtained from the gradient of the graph.
v= final(end) velocity (m/s)
.u= initial(starting) velocity (m/s) From the graph above, Calculate acceleration.
t= time (s)
Example:

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Calculate the area under a speed-time graph to determine the distance travelled for motion Determine:
with constant acceleration a. Describe the motion of the car at:
1. Consider this motion of velocity-time graph below: i. First 10 s.
ii. Between 10 s and 22.5 s.
iii. Between 22.5 s and 40 s.
b. Acceleration of the first 10 s.
c. Distance travelled on this graph.
4. A car moves with uniform acceleration from 10 m/s-1 to 20 m/s-1 in 4 seconds. The car
then moves with uniform velocity for another 4 seconds until the brakes are applied
and the car comes to rest in 2 seconds.
a. Draw velocity-time graph for this situation.
b. Use the graph to find the value of the acceleration for each part of the motion.
c. Use the graph to find the total displacement.
5. An object starts from rest and reaches a speed of 15 m/s-1 in 3 s after moving with
uniform acceleration. The object then moves with uniform speed for the next 7
seconds until it starts decelerating uniformly for 5 seconds. This object comes to rest
at the end.
a. What is the initial speed of this graph? a. Draw a graph and calculate the distance moved in the first 3 s.
b. What is the final speed of this graph? b. Calculate the distance moved in the last 5 s.
c. Find the gradient (acceleration/speed) in the first 4 s. c. Calculate the distance covered in the whole journey.
d. Find the distance travelled in the first 4 seconds.
e. Calculate the total distance covered. State that the acceleration of free fall for a body near the Earth’s surface is constant and has
Hint: Total distance covered = area of triangle + area of the rectangle a value of approximately 10 m/s2
2. Study the speed-time graph showing a journey taken by a tourist and answer
 Acceleration due to gravity (g) for a freely falling body has an average value of 9.8
questions.
m/s2.
 Therefore, objects falling from rest has velocity of approximately 10 m/s-1 after one
second, until it reaches its maximum height where its velocity is 0 m/s-1.
 Then, it begins to drop from rest and its velocity again increases by 10 m/s-1 every
second.
recall and use motion equations in calculations involving constant acceleration
Equation 1. a =
Equation 2. v = u + at
Equation 3. s = ut + ½ at2
Equation 4. v2 = u2 + 2as
a. What is the highest speed of the car? Equation 5. s =
b. Find the acceleration in the first part of the journey.
Where:
c. What is the gradient of the first part of the journey?
 u = initial velocity
d. Calculate the distance covered in the whole journey.
 v = final velocity
3. Another person travelled as indicated on the motion graph below. Study it
well and answer questions.  a = uniform acceleration
 t = time interval
 s = displacement
points to remember when working with equations of motion
 know what each symbol represents.
 Write down all quantities you have value for (given or known).
 Use equation that contains given quantities except one.
 You can rearrange the equation to find the missing value.
 Always include units in your answer

Examples:

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1. A car starts from rest with a constant acceleration of 2 m/s-2. (“a resultant force acting on an object cause acceleration which is directly proportional to the
Find: magnitude of the force, in the same direction as the force, and inversely proportional to the
a. The speed at the end of the fifth second. mass of an object”).
b. The distance covered in five seconds.
c. The speed after covering 100 m. Identify types of force acting on an object being pulled to the right
2. A motor vehicle starts from rest and accelerates at 5 m/s2 for 20 s. Calculate the final Normal force
velocity and total distance travelled. air resistance force
3. A driver of a car travelling at 90 km/h, applies the brake and brings the car to rest with pulling force
uniform deceleration in 20 s. Calculate deceleration in m/s2.
4. A bus travelling at 4 m/s has to stop for a woman at the next bus stop. This driver brakes, Frictional force
but the bus continues to travel for 10 m before stopping. Determine the bus’s acceleration.
5. A runner travelling at 1 m/s sees the finishing line in front of him and accelerates at 0.5 Gravitational or Weight force
m/s2 until he reaches the finishing line 5 s later. What was his velocity as he crossed the line? Describe the ways in which a force may change the motion of a body
 Get an object moving
2.4 Effects of forces  Make an object move faster
 Stop an object
What is force?  Change direction in which the object is moving
 Is a push or pull  Return changes in motion
State force is measured in, (the SI unit of force)  Change position of an object
 Newton (N) Identify in everyday life:
Name the instruments used to measure force Different forces in everyday Agent applying the force Object the force is applied to
 Spring balance life
 Force metre Electrical force Charges (positive and Hairs / other charges and
 Newton metre negative) neutral objects
What are the groups or types into which force is classified? Magnetic force Magnets On other magnets or on
magnetic materials
 Contact forces
Gravitational force Planets Centre Objects on earth
 Non-contact forces Weight force Earth Stationary or falling objects
State the examples of contact forces Tension force Hand / human Cable, rope or chain
 Friction Frictional force Moving objects Surfaces of objects
 Tension Air resistance force Air Moving objects
 Push/pull
State the examples of non-contact forces Find the resultant of two or more forces acting along the same line
 Weight What is resultant force/Net force?
 Magnetic force  Is the combining effects of all the forces acting on an object
 Electrostatic force What can you do if all forces are acting in the same direction?
State that force may produce (effects of force)  Add all forces to find resultant force
 Can change in size 8N
object
 Can change shape of object object
 Can break an object 5N F
 Can change the speed / velocity of the body
 Can change the position/direction of an object F =
How to relate these ideas of effects of force to Newton’s first and second laws of motion? =
 Newton’s first law states that: What can you do if force act in opposite direction?
 “An object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless  Subtract smaller force from bigger force to find resultant force
acted upon by an external force”. object object
 Newton’s second law 4N 10 N F
 F = m × a -acceleration is proportional to the force, and inversely proportional to
mass F =
=

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What is the resultant force of a cyclist moving at a constant speed below? Opposite forces
creating state of equilibrium
Cyclist
36 N 36 N
Friction force Forward force exerted by cyclist
F =
=
Plot and interpret extension-load graphs
What is extension?
 Is the increase in length of spring. Calculating the load
What is a spring?  Weight is the force responsible for stretching due to gravitational force
 Coiled length of certain types of metal. How can you calculate weight when the mass is known?
How can you find the extension? Weight = mass x gram (10g/kg)
 Measure the length of the spring or height above the ground, after each load has been w=mg
added. Extension/load graph
The diagram below shows how a spring stretches when different loads are hung on it. Extension is dependent variable; load is independent variable.

a. Use your ruler and measure the length of a, b and c.

a_____________ b_____________ c_______________ Identify the 'limit of proportionality' for an extension-load graph (elastic limit of
b. Use your answer in a to find the extension. proportionality)
Use formula: Extension = length of stretched spring with load – length of unstretched  A limit to how much you can load a steel spring without damaging it until at L.
spring without load  When a spring reaches a limit of not going back to its original shape when load is
a. _________________________________________ taken off from L and above. Curving starts.
b. _________________________________________ Describe the associated experimental procedure and use proportionality in simple
c. _________________________________________ calculations
When the height above the ground is measured you can work out the extension using Materials needed
the formula:  Clamp
Extension = height above the ground without load – height above the ground with  A retort stand
load  20 g mass pieces
NB: extension is measured directly.  A helical spring or rubber band
 A metre rule
 A pointer (piece of tape or wire to act as pointer)
Methods or procedures
 Set up apparatus. (as in the diagram given).
 Wrap piece of wire or tape above the mass piece. (as in diagram given)
 Note the value on the metre rule reached by a pointer.
 Attached an additional mass piece and note a new reading on the metre rule.

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 Keep adding mass piece until a total mass of 200 g has been added. Note the new  From graph extension is direct proportional to the force until elastic limit is reached.
reading on the metre rule each time. (it is called limit of proportionality or elastic limit)
 The extension is equal to the difference in the metre rule readings.  At limit of proportionality, permanent deformation occurs and the law no longer
Apparatus/materials set up to prove Hooke’s Law applies.
 The spring will no longer return to its original shape.
State Hooke's law
 The restoring force of a spring is directly proportional to its small displacement.
Recall and use the expression F = kx (formula for Hooke’s law where F is the force applied,
k is the spring constant and x is the extension of the spring
 F = kx (Hooke’s Law downward force) and F= -kx(Hook’s Law restoring spring
force)

F = force applied (N)

k = spring constant (N/m)
x = extension of the spring (m) if cm or mm given convert to m before calculating.
Example:
1. What is a force required to stretch a spring with a spring constant of 10 N/m by 500
cm?
2. A spring is extended by 7 cm by a force of 56 N. Calculate the spring constant for the
spring.
3. Use F = kx to solve the following:
Results a. A vertical spring stretches 10 cm under a load of 300 g. determine the spring
 Record your reading in the table like the one below. Example how to do it constant.
Mass added to the Weight added to Ruler reading (cm) Extension (cm) b. When a 14.5 kg mass is placed on top of a vertical spring, the spring compresses
hanger (g) the hanger (N) by 7.5 cm. Find the spring constant of the spring.
0 0.00 21.3 0.0 Describe the relation between force, mass and acceleration, including direction,
20 0.20 21.8 0.5 What is the relationship between force and acceleration?
40 0.40 22.3 1.0  The greater the force the greater the acceleration OR force is directly proportional to
This table continues until 200 g mass piece is added. acceleration.
NB: What is the relationship between mass and acceleration?
 You can use equation/formula: w = mg to calculate weight.  The greater the mass, the smaller the acceleration OR mass is inversely proportional
Conclusion to acceleration.
 Your graph should look like this one below. It is called Extension-Load graph Recall and use the formula F =ma (Newton’s second law of motion)
A graph of force against extension. Newton’s second law state that:
 Acceleration produced by a resultant force is directly proportional to the force and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
OR
 F = m × a -acceleration is proportional to the force, and inversely proportional to
mass
 The more mass an object has, the more force you must apply to make
it accelerate—to change its speed or direction or both.
Following Newton’s second law of motion you can see that:
 If an object moves at constant velocity, the resultant force acting on it must be zero,
because in equation F=ma, if a=0 then F=0.
NB: Force is mass times acceleration, or F= m x a. This means an object with a larger mass
needs a stronger force to be moved along at the same acceleration as an object with a small
mass. This is Newton's Second Law of Motion.

 Resultant force = mass x acceleration

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 F = ma  Change in momentum (kg.m/s) = force (N) x time of action impulse (s).

Units: F = Newton (N) Δρ = F x Δt
m= kilogram (kg)
a=metre per second square (m/s2 or m/s-2) Where: Δρ = change in momentum in kg.m.s
Δt = change in time for which force is applied in (s).
F
F = force in (N)
Example 1
m a 1. A car of mass 750 kg collides with a tree and comes to stop in 15 s. the driver maintains
Example: that she was travelling at a speed of 20 m/s when she collided with a tree.
1. Consider the questions below: a. Calculate the change in momentum of the car.
a. A car can accelerate at 2 ms2 from a stop street. The car has a mass of 1000 kg. b. Calculate the resultant force of the tree on the car during the collision.
What is the total force needed to give it this acceleration? 2. A ball (mass 50 g) hits a wall horizontally with a speed of 15 m/s. It rebouns horizontally
b. The car approaches a road traffic light, which means it must stop again. The force from the wall at a speed of 12 m/s.
applied by the breaks is 1500 N. Calculate the acceleration of the car. Calculate:
Recall and use the formula momentum = mass × velocity a. Its change in momentum
Define momentum b. The resultant force acting on it if it remains in contact with the wall for 0.05 s.
 The product of mass and velocity of an object. Define the principle of conservation of momentum
NB:  When two or more objects interact (collides), their total momentum remains constant,
 Momentum is a vector, has magnitude and direction. provided that no external resultant force is acting on them
 If velocity of an object remains constant, momentum is usually conserved, becsuse in Apply the conservation of momentum in simple applications.
most cases mass of object will not change.  If no external force applied during collision, momentum is conserved.
 The larger the mass or velocity, the greater the object’s momentum. (momentum is (in a collision total sum of momentums before a collision is the same as the total sum
proportional to mass or velocity) of momentums after the collision. [pbefore = pafter] (principle of Conservation of
State the equation / formula for momentum Momentum).
 Momentum (km.m/s) = mass (kg) x velocity (m/s) Formula or equation for Conservation of momentum is:
 Symbol for momentum is p. o m1u1+ m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
Therefore, equation / formula in short: WHERE:
p=mxv m= mass of a given object in (kg)
Example: u= initial velocity (m/s)
1. Determine a momentum of a 100 g golf ball travelling with a velocity of 25 m/s to the v= final velocity (m/s)
right. Hint: Mass must be measured in kilograms. NB: We regard directions; to the right as positive and to the left negative
2. Determine the momentum of a ... Examples:
a. 60-kg halfback moving eastward at 9 m/s. 1. A 250 kg car, travelling at a 40 m/s to the right, collides with a 300 kg truck travelling
b. 1000-kg car moving northward at 20 m/s. at 20 m/s to the left. After collision, the car continues moving to the right, but now it
c. 40-kg freshman moving southward at 2 m/s have a velocity of 20 m/s.
Recall and use the change in momentum = force × time of action Calculate the final velocity of the truck.
What is change in momentum or impulse? 2. Car A, with a mass of 500 kg, travelling at 4 m/s east, collides with car B, which has a
 Is the force causing the change in velocity and the time for which the force is applied. mass of 300 kg and is travelling west at 5 m/s. after collision the cars sticks together.
 The greater the force, and the longer it is exerted for, the greater the change in Determine the velocity of the cars after the collision.
momentum. 3. A projection of mass 0.001 g travelling at 80 m/s collides head on with another
State the formula / equation of change in momentum projectile of mass 2 kg travelling at 60 m/s in the opposite direction. If the projectiles
‘stick’ together after their collision, what is their velocity after colliding.
 change in momentum = mass x (final velocity – initial velocity)
The conservation of momentum in elastic and inelastic collisions between two bodies in one
Δρ = mΔt
dimension (definitions of an elastic and inelastic collision are not required)
Δρ = mv-mu
Elastic collision
Δρ = m(v-u)
m =mass in (kg)  Collision in which total kinetic energy of the object (system) after collision is equal
v = final velocity in (m/s) to their total kinetic energy before the collision.
u = initial velocity in (m/s)  Internal kinetic energy is conserved and objects do not stick together but bounce off
Δρ = change in momentum in kg.m.s from each other.

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 Conservation of momentum applies that: total momentum before object collide must  The gravitational force or weight per unit mass.
equal the momentum after collision. State that gravitational field strength is equal to the gravitational acceleration
Inelastic collision  Earth’s gravitational field strength (g) is the attractive force that the Earth exerts on
 Collision in which most of the kinetic energy of the object (system) converted into objects. This is why all objects fall to the Earth. Earth’s constant value is 10 N on 1
other forms of energy, like sound, heat and etc. kg of mass (10 N/kg)
 Internal kinetic energy is not conserved and objects stick together.  This force is a measure of gravitational acceleration of a freely falling object towards
 Conservation of momentum applies that: momentum of smaller object cancels out the Earth, due to gravitational force (approximate value is 10 m/s2, precise value is
part / small amount of greater object’s momentum. 9.8 m/s2) , if no air to resist motion.
 Because they stick together, two objects have combined mass equal to the sum of
their masses, but with a velocity much smaller than either of the objects in impact. Describe qualitatively the motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field with and
 Sometimes called perfectly inelastic because it reduces internal kinetic energy more without air resistance, including reference to terminal velocity
than does any other type of inelastic collision  Consider parachutist:
Formula or equation for calculating collision o As a person falls weight(downward) and air resistance (upward) forces acts
o mA × uA + mB × uB on his body.
WHERE o Amount of air resistance of falling body depends on surface area of object and
mA = mass of car A speed at which it is falling.
uA = initial velocity of car A o The smaller the object and the slower it falls, the smaller the air resistance.
mB = mass of car B This is the reason why a feather experience greater air resistance than a stone.
uB = initial velocity of car B o Due to gravitational acceleration, falling object will speed up. As it falls it
Formula for calculating kinetic energy moves faster and faster and air resistance begins to increase.
o Later on, air resistance acting upwards equals the weight acting downwards.
o mv2
o Then, object stops accelerating and falls at constant speed. This constant
For collision we use this equation as below speed is called terminal velocity
o mA ×(uA)2 + mB ×(uB)2 o At terminal velocity acceleration is zero.
Example: Recall and use the equation weight = mass × gravitational field strength and know that near
1. Car A of mass 900 kg travelling at 60 km/h towards the east. Car B of mass 1 200 kg the Earth’s surface g is approximately 10 N/kg
is travelling towards the west when it collides into car A.
a. If the two car links and travel at 20 km/h to the west, what was the initial velocity Define weight
of car B?  The force with which an object is attracted by gravity towards the Earth.
b. Is the collision elastic or inelastic? State the SI unit of weight
 Newton (N)
2.5 Mass and weight List the instruments used to measure weight of an object
Define mass of a body  spring balance
 A measure of the matter in a body and that mass depends on the number of particles  force metre
the body contains and the mass of those atoms.  newton metre
State the SI unit of mass State the equation / formula for weight:
 kilogram (kg)  weight (w) = mass (m) × gravitational field strength (g)
Other units of mass are: w=mxg w = mg
 tonnes (t)
 grams (g) where: w = weight (N)
List the instruments used to measure mass of an object m = mass (kg)
 beam balance g = gravitational field strength (N/kg)
 lever balance NB:
 electronic digital balance  On Earth, gravitational field strength is 10 N/kg.
 triple beam balance  On the moon, gravitational field strength is 1.6 N/kg
NB: Mass is a scalar quantity  In most cases 10 m/s2 will be used in this syllabus instead of 10 N/kg for gravitational
Define inertia force of free fall.
 The property of mass which 'resists' change in motion (Newton’s first law of motion) Example:
Define gravitational field strength (g) 1. Find:

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 Fill the same beaker with water.

a) Weight in A 36 kg bag of sand.  Measure the mass of the beaker filled with water e.g. m2 = 445 g using a balance.
i. On Earth  Suppose that the volume of the water is 340 ml (1 ml = 1 cm3)
ii. On the moon  Mass of water = mass of beaker with water (m2) – mass of an empty beaker (m1)
b) Mass 12, 5 N stone. =
i. On the moon  Use formula ρ = m/v to calculate density
ii. On Earth =
2. A man has a mass of 80 kg. Describe an experiment to determine the density of a regularly shaped solid and make the
a. What is the weight of the man on Earth? necessary calculation.,
b. What is the weight of the man on the moon? Aim:
c. What is the mass of the man on the moon?  To determine the density of a regularly shaped solid.
Determine the mass of an object from its weight (using a balance or a spring) Materials needed
 We can use spring balances to obtain weight in Newton. For instance:  Ruler
1. You weight an object using a spring balance and recorded its weight as 220 N.  Scale balance
Determine the mass of the object. NB: w = mg  One regular box (cuboid or cube)
2. An object has a weight of 100 N. Calculate the mass of the object. Procedures or methods
 Find mass of an object using a beam balance. Record it.
2.6 Density  Measure its dimension with a ruler and calculate volume using its formula/equation.
Relate the term density to (define density)  Calculate density using formula or equation.
 The mass per volume of an object. Example:
Recall and use the equation density = mass / volume a. A cube made of a certain material is 4 cm and its mass is 172.8 g.
What is the equation or formula for calculating density of the object? Calculate the density of the materials.
 Density ( ρ )(rho) )= mass (m) / volume (v Describe the determination of the density of an irregularly shaped solid by the method of
 displacement, using measuring cylinder.
Where: ρ = density (g/cm3 or kg/m3)
m = mass (g or kg) a. Aim:
v = volume (cm3 or m3)  To determine the density of irregularly shaped solid using measuring cylinders.
Materials needed
 A 100 cm3 measuring cylinder (whichever available)
 Balance scale or digital balance
 Irregularly shaped object. E.g. stone
 water
Example: Procedures or Methods
1. A sack of mealie meal has a mass of 50 kg and a volume of 0.05 m3. Calculate the  Measure mass of a solid on a scale balance and record the reading e.g. 9 g
density of the sack.  Pour water into the measuring cylinder and record volume e.g. v1 = 15 cm3
2. The density of copper is 9 g/cm3.  Slowly put the stone into the measuring cylinder and record volume e.g. v2 = 19 cm3
Find:
(a) the mass of 5 cm3
(b) the volume of 63 g.
Describe an experiment to determine the density of a liquid: water
Aim:
 To determine the density of liquid. E.g. water
Materials needed
 A 100 cm3 measuring cylinders (whichever size available)
 Water
 A digital pan or balance scale  Find the volume of the stone by taking the difference of v2 – v1
 Water =
Procedure or Methods  Calculate density using the formula ρ = m/v
 Measure the mass of an empty beaker. E.g. m1= 105 g using a balance scale. =

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OR  Is the measure of its turning effects to cause other objects to turn.

b. Aim: What do moment depends on?
 To determine the density of irregularly shaped solid by displacement method, using  Magnitude (size) or amount of the force applied
Eureka can.  The perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force
Materials needed Give everyday examples of turning effect.
 Eureka can  Crowbar
 Stand  Wheelbarrow
 A 100 cm3 measuring cylinders (whichever available)  Pliers
 Balance scale or digital balance  Scissors
 Irregularly shaped object. E.g. stone  Tweezers
 Water  Tongs
Procedures or Methods Describe the difference between moment and work
 Measure mass of a solid on a scale balance and record the reading. Moment Work
 Fill Eureka can with water to the level of spout. No water should escape.  Is the measure of its turning effects  Product of magnitude of force and
 Place empty measuring cylinder at the spout, ready to collect any water. to cause other objects to turn. distance moved in the direction of
 Now place an object in the can. the force.
 The water that is collected out of the spout of the Eureka can is collected in mearing  Distance involved is perpendicular  Distance involved is in the same
cylinder. Take its reading, this gives you volume of a stone. to the force. direction as applied force.
 Use the equation or formula ρ = m/v to calculate density  Vector quantity (cross product)  Scalar quantity (dot product)
=  Its direction is clockwise or  Its direction is in the direction of the
Describe floating and sinking in terms of different densities anticlockwise. force.
 Objects sinks in a liquid of lower density than its own density.  Unit Newton metre (Nm)  Unit Joule (J)
 Objects floats in a liquid of higher density than its own density.  Formula: moment = F x d  Formula: Work done = F x d or F x s
 A piece of glass of density 2.5 g/cm3 sinks in water of density 1.0 g/cm3, but floats on
mercury with density 13.6 g/cm3. Identify load, effort and fulcrum in everyday examples of common machines (e.g. spanner,
This happens because piece of glass is denser than water and floats on mercury wheelbarrow)
because it is less dense than mercury.
 An iron nail sinks in water, because it is denser than water, but an iron sheep floats Define the following:
because it averages density is less than that of water. Turning point/pivot/fulcrum
NB:  The point around which the object is turning
 When a liquid (substance) is mixed with other liquids (substances) of different Effort
densities, denser liquid (substance) sinks to the bottom, while less dense liquid  Overcoming force applied to body or object.
(substance) floats on top. PRACTICAL Load
State that the density of water around 4 0C is at its maximum (usual / strange property of  Resisting force applied to a body
water) Lever
 Density of water decreases as temperature drops 4 0C. Making ice on water surface to  A device that turns about a pivot
float.  Crowbar
 Therefore, volume reaches its smallest value; the density is at its maximum.
Explain how this density of water around 4 0C at its maximum is an advantage to aquatic life
 It makes the transition between seasons less abrupt.
 It warms the water below and help aquatic life to live.
2.7 Turning effect
Describe the moment of a force as a measure of its turning effect and give everyday examples
(such as crowbar, wheelbarrow, pliers, scissors, tweezers or tongs)

Describe moment of force

Define turning effect
 Is the moment of a force.
Moment of a force

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 Wheelbarrow

 Pliers Recall and use the formula moment = force × perpendicular distance

State the formula or equation for calculating moment of force

 Moment of force (Nm) = force (N)x perpendicular distance from turning point (m)
Moment = F x d
Moment = Fd
Where: moment in newton metre (Nm)
Force (F) in Newton (N)
Distance (d) in perpendicular distance from turning point in metre (m)
State what happens when there is no resultant force and no resultant turning effect?
 Scissors  A system is in equilibrium
NB: Turning can take place in two directions clockwise and anticlockwise.

Example:
NB: Moment of force is a vector remember to state directions

1. A force of 10 N is applied to a spanner with length of 20 cm.

 Lever forearm Determine the moment of the force.
2. In each of the situation below, determine the moment of the force, and state the
direction in which it acts.
A

 Tweezers B

C
 Tongs

 Lever: spanner

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3. Mwene used a spanner to loosen a nut as shown below. He uses an upward force of
140 N.

Calculate the turning effect/moment.

Moment = Fd

What can Mwene do to increase the moment of force and loosen the nut faster?
 Use larger force
 Use a longer lever
 He must use a larger force (same distance) Use the conditions of equilibrium in simple calculations
If he uses a force of 180 N. Find increased moment of force. What does the condition of equilibrium states?
Moment of force = Fd  The sum of the forces in one direction equals the sum of forces in the opposite
direction.
 He must use a longer spanner to increase the moment (same force) The principle of moment of force states that:
If he found a longer spanner where the distance from the pivot to his hand is 45 cm. What is  When a body is in equilibrium the sum of the clockwise moments about any point
the moment of force? equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments about that point.
What is the formula for calculating moment of force in equilibrium?
Moment of force = Fd  Clockwise moment=anticlockwise moment
F1 x d1 = F2 x d2
Describe an experiment (involving vertical forces) to verify that there is no net moment on a a. Below is a diagram of two children, a boy and a girl, sitting on a see-saw. The boy has
body in equilibrium a mass of 45 kg, and the girl has a mass of 30 kg. Calculate the moment.

Investigating moments for an object in equilibrium

Aim: to investigate if there is net moment on a body in equilibrium
Apparatus / materials needed
 Retort stand
 Metre rule with drill hole at the 50 cm mark
 Pivot
 10 g slotted mass with hanger labelled W1
 100 g slotted mass with hanger labelled W2
Procedures / methods b. A boy, weighing 600 N, sits 6m away from the pivot of a see-saw. What force, 9m
away from the pivot, is needed to balance the see-saw?

2.8 Centre of mass

What is centre of mass or centre of gravity of a human being?
 Is the point somewhere around our waist through which the weight acts.
 Is the point on object through which its weight acts.
Describe an experiment to determine the position of the centre of mass of a plane lamina

Aim:
 To find the centre of mass of an irregularly shaped plane lamina (plane lamina is a flat
sheet of paper or cupboard).

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Apparatus needed:
 1 piece of cupboard
 50 cm string
 1 nail
 1 mass piece e.g. a stone
 1 stand
Procedures/methods:
 Cut piece of cardboard into irregular shape
 Make two holes at any two corners you choose. Label them A, B and C. Attach a
mass piece to one end of string and the other end to the pin infront of the lamina and
let it hang down.
Effects of width on object stability of simple objects.
 Pass nail through hole A and clamp it to a stand.
 Hang the lamina from the nail. Make sure the lamina swings freely.
 Attach mass to one end of string and attach another end to the nail infront of the
lamina and left it hang down.
 Take pencil and make two dots P and Q underneath the string.
 Take the lamina down and join these two dots, using a ruler. Label this line PQ.
 Repeat the steps above using hole C. Label these line RS.
Conclusion/ results
 The point where line PQ and RS cross/intersect is the centre of mass or centre of
gravity. Mark this point G.

Types of stability
Describe the effect of the position of the centre of mass on the stability of simple objects.  Stable equilibrium (displaced object returns to its original position when released).
 Unstable equilibrium (slight displacement increases when object is released).
Define stability  Neutral equilibrium (displaced object remains in its position when released).
 Is the ability of an object not to fall over easily
What are the factors influencing stability?
 The base
-the wider the base of an object the more stable the object
 The height of centre of mass above the ground
-the closer the centre of mass to the ground the more stable the object.

Effects of position of centre of mass on object stability of simple objects in different positions.

2.9 Friction
Define friction.

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 The force that opposes the relative motion of two objects that are in contact with one  Air cushion: Keep moving parts apart by using compressed air e.g. hovercrafts.
another.
OR Force that act when object move and rub against each other.

Friction force Pulling force

Weight
Describe the effect of friction on objects and how friction depends on the surfaces
Write down the three factors upon which friction depends
 Type of surface: Rough surface, more friction
Smooth surface, less friction.
 Size of the surface area: Large surface area, more friction
Small surface area, less friction.
 Weight: Heavy object, more friction
Lighter object, less friction.
Describe how to reduce friction and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of friction in  Streamlining: Used to reduce friction in fluids (liquids and gases). The surface area of
everyday life the front end is reduced which reduces friction because only a small area is in contact
Suggest ways to reduce friction with the air or liquid.
 Lubricating using oil or grease: The lubricants separate the surfaces that rub causing
parts not to be in great contact and this reduces the friction.

 Making the surfaces in contact smoother.

 Using wheels or rollers: Surfaces roll over each other instead of rubbing.

Discuss the advantages of friction

 It makes it possible for us to walk by pushing us forward or to stop.
 It enables us to hold the pen firmly when writing.
 It enables cars and bicycles to stop when brakes are applied.
 Friction between the tires or shoes and the road or floor prevents skidding (sliding).
Discuss the disadvantages of friction
 It makes surfaces that rub to worn out (to be damaged).
 Using ball bearings: Ensures that surfaces roll over each which reduces friction.  It causes overheating of parts e.g. in a car. Water is therefore put in the radiator of a
car to cool the parts that rub against each other to avoid overheating.
 It makes work difficult.

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2.10 Energy, work and power What are the uses of solar energy?
2.10.1 Major sources of energy -heating food
Define energy -photosynthesis
 The ability to do work. -power photovoltaic cells
Who was the first scientist to identify electrical energy? -to generate electricity
 Benjamin Franklin
Outline sources of energy  Wind energy
 Chemical/fuel energy (regrouping of atoms) -Using wind power to generate electricity.
 Potential energy from water (hydroelectric energy, waves, tides) How wind energy works?
 Geothermal energy  Large turbines are built in areas with strong winds that often blows.
 Nuclear energy (nuclear fission of heavy nuclei)  The wind turns turbines, which powers generators and convert kinetic energy
 Solar energy (producing thermal and photovoltaic energy from the fusion of nuclei in into electrical energy.
the Sun) Compare advantages and disadvantages of the use of different sources of energy
Source of Advantages Disadvantages
 wind energy energy
Describing sources of energy Chemical/fuel -Relatively cheap -Produce greenhouse gases
 Chemical/fuel energy energy -Easy to use -Sulfur lead to acid rain formation
-Energy found in food, natural gas, petrol, coal and wood. -Non-renewable source
How chemical/fuel energy works? Potential energy -No pollutants -Disrupts surrounding ecosystem
from water -Renewable sources -During drought no electricity
 Chemical energy is obtained from burning these fuels, then chemical energy is Geothermal -Little impact on environment -Very expensive
converted into kinetic energy, heat, or light energy. energy -Self-replenishing -Limited number of suitable sites
 Potential energy from water – hydroelectric energy -Geothermal reservoirs refills themselves.
-Falling water stored in dams or reservoirs is used to generate electricity -Renewable source
(Hydroelectricity) Nuclear energy -No pollutants -Expensive t start up
-Small amount of fuel produce large amount of -Risk of nuclear contamination
How potential energy from water works? energy -Non-renewable source
 When water is allowed to flow from the dam, it turns turbines which create Solar energy -No pollutants -Expensive (solar panels)
electricity (Ruacana) -Renewable source -Rely of climate which is unpredictable
 Energy produced by forwards and backwards/upwards and downwards of tides Wind energy -Produces relatively large amount of energy. -Requires large area where to build turbines.
and waves (wave and tidal energy) at high-tide (sea/oceans) is used to turn -Renewable source
turbines that generates electricity. Compare distinction between finite (non-renewable sources and renewable sources
 Geothermal energy  Finite/non-renewable sources are sources which cannot be replaced once they have been
-heat produced by the earth from underground hot spring or boiled water is used to used up. Examples: fuels like; coal, petrol, oil and nuclear.
generate electricity.  Renewable sources are sources which can be replaced once they are used up. Example:
How geothermal energy works? solar, hydroelectricity, geothermal and wind.
 When water boils naturally from springs, the steam formed is used to drive Discuss radioactive isotope
turbines that generate electricity.  Several species of the same chemical element with different masses whose nuclei are
 Nuclear energy (nuclear fission of heavy atoms) REFERENCES TO CHAPTER 6 unstable and dissipate excess energy by spontaneously emitting radiation in the form
-Steam from splitting of unstable nuclei is used to generate electricity. of alpha, beta, and gamma rays.
How nuclear energy works?  Radioactive isotopes form smaller, more stable isotopes by fission.
 Formed when nucleus of unstable atoms splits into parts (nuclear fission of  During fission some mass is lost and energy is produced according to Einstein’s
heavy atoms like Uranium-253 or plutonium- 239). formula: E = mc2 [energy = mass x the square of the speed of light; E=energy (J),
 This process produces a large amount of energy which produces steam. m=mass (kg), c=speed of light (3 x 108 m/s)
 The steam then powers generators that produce electricity. Discuss radioactive isotopes conversion to electrical energy
 Solar energy  During radioactive isotopes decay heat is released, which is converted into electricity
-Using energy from the Sun to produce electricity. by means of thermoelectric junctions circuits.
How solar energy works? Discuss the problems associated with using radioactive isotopes to generate electricity.
 Energy from the sun is produced by process of fusion of nuclei of atoms in the  Require nuclear reactors for production
Sun.  Can cause damage to healthy tissue and health problems, including cancer, if not used
 Hydrogen atoms combines to form helium atom which produces large amount of or stored safely
light and heat energy.  Radioactive waste requires disposal

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2.10.2 Renewable energy sources  Solar collector absorbs energy from the Sun and transfer it in the form of heat energy
Explain the use of renewable energy sources: to the liquid in the collector.
Sources of energy Their uses  Once water is heated by collector, it is moved to storage tank (container).
Wind, water, solar Electricity generation  Storage tank should be well insulated to prevent heat loss to surroundings.
Solar Heating  Water moves around solar water system by natural, convection or by electrical pump.
Wind, solar, chemical/fuels Water pumping  Warm water is less dense, so it rises to the storage container above where water is
Solar Greenhouses stored.
Solar Refrigeration  Cold water is denser, so it sinks to the bottom.
Solar Air-conditioning  In PV system electrical or solar photovoltaic pump is used to circulate water.
NB: Appreciation to Namibia’s solar energy potential for being second highest irradiance in
the World after Chile.

Take note: Photo means light whereby Voltaic means electricity

Describe a basic solar photovoltaic (PV) system stating energy change involved.
 PV uses solar panels to provide electricity in households.
 Solar panel (array) convert power solar from the Sun into electrical energy in form of
direct current (d.c)
 PV either stand alone or linked to electricity grid or battery for continuous supply of
electricity to households.
 PV system has inverter which convert direct current to alternating current (a.c).
Why is an invert essential/important in PV?
 Because our appliances use alternating current
 Energy change involved: Sun light energy electrical energy
Describe a basic wind energy systems stating energy change involved.
 Wind energy system consists of: windmills, turbines and generators.
 Wind energy system uses the power of air to turn windmills.
 Windmills turn turbines to power generators which produces electricity.

Describe a basic solar water heater stating energy change involved.

 Three main components of solar water heater: -solar collector, transfer medium
(connecting pipe) and storage container (tank).

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2.10.3 Energy conversions Example

1. A man lifts a weight of 500 N upward over a distance of 2 m. how much work does
Give examples of energy in different forms, its conversion and conservation and apply the the man do?
principle of energy conversion to simple examples Describe kinetic energy as energy of motion and potential energy as energy of position (e.g.
gravitational potential energy and strain potential energy)
Give examples of energy in different forms  Kinetic energy- energy of motion. E.g. in moving ball (objects), an arrow from bow and
 Chemical potential energy- stored energy in chemicals and released during chemical etc.
reactions. E.g. in food, battery, fuels and etc.  Potential energy- energy of position.
 Kinetic energy- energy of motion. E.g. in moving ball (objects), an arrow from bow and -Gravitational potential energy- stored energy of a body due to its position above the
etc. earth’s surface (ground). E.g. stored water in dams or containers.
 Potential energy- energy of position. -Strain (elastic) potential energy- stored energy objects that stretches, compressed or
-Gravitational potential energy- stored energy of a body due to its position above the deformed. E.g. stretched bow, catapult, rubber bang and etc.
earth’s surface (ground). E.g. stored water in dams or containers. Recall and use the formulae for kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy Ep = mgh
-Strain (elastic) potential energy- stored energy objects that stretches, compressed or and Ek = ½ mv2
deformed. E.g. stretched bow, catapult, rubber bang and etc.
 Mechanical energy – the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy of a body. Formula for kinetic energy
 Hydro-electric energy- energy from falling water.  Kinetic energy =1/2 x mass x vlocity squared
 Light energy- energy from light emission objects. E.g. stars, sun and etc. Ek = mv2
 Tidal energy- energy caused by tides at the sea/oceans. EK =kinetic energy(J)
 Heat energy- energy due to heat. E.g. from fire. m = mass of object (kg)
 Sound energy- energy caused by vibration of objects. E.g. string of guitar. v = velocity/speed of the object (m/s-1 OR m/s)
 Electric energy- energy from electricity (current) Example:
State the Law or Principle of conservation of energy 1. A car which has a mass of 750 kg is moving with a speed of 20 m/s. Calculate the
 Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be changed from one form to kinetic energy of the car.
another
Describe conversion of energy in simple examples by which energy is converted from one Formula for gravitational potential energy
form to another (energy flow diagram)  Gravitational potential energy = mass x gravitational acceleration x height above
i) Pendulum the ground
 Kinetic energy potential energy Ep = mgh
NB: When pendulum bob is at its highest, it has its maximum potential energy. As it falls, its Ep = potential energy (J)
potential energy decreases, and its kinetic energy increases. Its total energy (mechanical m = mass of the object (kg)
energy) stays constant provided the air resistance (resistive forces) are negligible. g = gravitational acceleration=10 m/s2
ii) Radio using cells h = height (m)]
 Chemical energy  electrical energy  sound energy Example:
iii) Electric kettle 1. A book with a mass of 500 g lies on a table, which is 1.3 m high. Workout the
 Electrical energy  heat energy gravitational potential energy of the book.
iv) Light bulb
 Electrical energy  light energy + heat energy
Describe energy transfer in terms of work done and make calculations involving F × d 2.10.4 Work
 When work is done, energy is transferred from one form to another. Thus, transferred Define work done
energy is equal to the amount of work done.  The product of the magnitude of a force and distance moved in the direction of the
 The unit for both energy and work is Joules (J) or Newton meter (N/m), force.
Therefore: 1 Nm = 1J Explain energy
 Work is a scalar quantity, the product of two vectors: force and displacement.  is the ability to do work.
 Work can be calculated using the formula: W = F x d State the unit of both energy and work
W= work done (in joules)  Joule [J]
F = force applied (in Newton) State the unit of work
d= distance over which the force is applied (in metres)  Joule (J)
 Newton meter (Nm)

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NB: 1 J = 1 N m
Recall and use the equation ∆W= F x d

Formula for calculating work done

 ∆W= F x d

NB:  Wheelbarrow
 The amount of work done increases when force or distance is increased and
 Decreases when force or distance decreased.
When can you say work is done?
 When force moves an object.
NB:
 Holding a heavy load while standing you are not doing any work. Upward force is exerted
but no motion.
 When work is done energy is transferred  Scissors
Examples:
1. A 50 kg bag of sand is raised by 5 m to put it into a track and it took the person 3
minutes to do this. How much work is done when lifting the bag?
2. Calculate the work done when a force of 250 N acts on body and cause it to move a
distance of 15 m along its line of action.
Identify examples of levers, gears and pulleys and explain how they are used for making the
effort easier (NOTE: the work stays the same but the force required becomes less)  Lever: spanner
What are machines?
 Are devises that are used to make work easier.
Name the simple devices or machines which makes work easier
 Levers (wheel barrows, screws, scissors).
 gears (car gear, bicycle gear)
 pulleys Identify examples of gears and explain how they are used for making the effort easier
Identify examples of levers and explain how they are used for making the effort easier Gears:
Levers:  Is a combination of toothed wheels used to transmit motion between rotating shafts.
 Are machines that make work easier. Levers have three main parts in common; the They are used in cars, bicycles, and many moving machines. The gears don’t turn in
fulcrum (pivot)(point),effort(force) and load(weight). the same direction. When one goes clockwise, the other goes anticlockwise.
NB: A gear changes the direction of the effort.

NB: The further away the lifting force is from the pivot (fulcrum), the easier the job but the
amount of work done remains the same.
NOTE: The work stays the same but the force required becomes less. Example:
 Crowbar A bicycle has a pedal gear with 90 teeth and a rear gear with 30 teeth. If the pedal gear
revolves 1 time, calculate how many times the rear gear will revolve. The ratio is: 3 : 1

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Number of times = number of teeth on big gear ÷ number of teeth on the small gear Suggest why the efficiency is not always 100 %?
= ………..  Because some of the energy is converted into other forms of energy for example heat and
= ......... times Therefore: if the big gear rotates 1 time, small one will sound energy.
rotate ….. times. Example:
How many times will the small one rotate if the big one rotates 10 times? 1. A power station has a power input (from burning coal) of 285.7 MW. (1MW= 106).
………………………… Its power output is 100 MW. Calculate the efficiency of the power station.
How many times will the big one rotate if the small one rotates 15 times? 2. A crane lifted 12 kg to a height of 8 m. Calculate the efficiency of the crane if the
………………………… input energy is 6000 J.

Identify examples of pulleys and explain how they are used for making the effort easier 2.10.5 Power
Pulleys: Define power
 Is a wheel or a combination of wheels, and a rope, a belt or a chain, which  The rate of doing work. OR
transmits motion.  The rate of energy conversion (1 J S-1 = 1 W)
They are used to lift loads that are too heavy to lift directly. Relate power as
Pulleys change the direction of the effort and also reduce the effort.  The amount of work done per unit time.
State the unit in which power is measure
To reduce the effort, increase the number of wheels of the pulley system.  Watt (W)
 Joule per second (J/s)
More wheels increases the number of ropes that divides the effort of the load making Recall and use the formula of power to calculate the power output in everyday applications
work easier. or in simple systems
 P= and P =
P= power (in watts)
W= work done (in J)
t= time taken (in s)
E=kinetic energy (in J)
1. A car engine does 30 000 J of work in 1 minute. Determine its power.
2. A man weighing 1900 N runs up a flight stairs with a height of 12m in 19
seconds. Calculate the power exerted by the man.
3. 100 J of work is done in 2 seconds when you open a coke bottle. Calculate the
power used.
4. A man pushes a wheelbarrow with a constant horizontal force of 500 N over a
distance of 80 m. His power output is 800 W. How long does it take him to do
this?

2.11 Pressure
Define pressure?
 The perpendicular force acting on a unit area.
State the unit of pressure.
 Pascal (Pa) small unit
 Newton per meter square (N/m2) small unit.
 Kilopascal (kPa) big unit.
NB: 1000 Pa = 1 kPa
Pascal is only = N/m2(1N/m2 = 1 Pa), But not to N/cm2.
Write the formula for calculating pressure.
Define efficiency  Pressure (p) =
 The percentage of useful energy output from the total energy input.
Recall and use equation of efficiency: P=pressure (in Pa or kPa)
F= force (N)
 Efficiency = x OR Efficiency = A= area (m2)

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Examples:
1. Rauna used a force of 20 N to push a drawing pin into the notice board.
The area of the tip is 2 cm2. Calculate the pressure.
2. A bicycle with a mass of 2 kg has tyres with an area of 0.1 m2. Calculate the pressure
exerted by the bicycle on the ground.
3. a force of 1200 N is exerted on an area that is 2.5 m in length and 1.2 m wide. Calculate
the pressure that is exerted.

NB:
 The bigger the surface area, the smaller the pressure (force).
 The smaller the surface area, the bigger the pressure (force).

Interpret the relationship between pressure, force and area: explain, for example, what
happens to the pressure when either the force or the area is changed

Interpret the relationship between pressure, force and area

 Increasing force and keep area constant, the pressure increases. Example:
 Decreasing force and keep area constant, the pressure decreases. 1. A force of 100 N is applied to a liquid in a cylinder with a surface area of 50 cm2. What is
Describe and explain the transmission of pressure in hydraulic systems with particular the pressure in liquid?
reference to hydraulic brakes on vehicles and hydraulic jacks
State that the pressure beneath a liquid surface is related to depth and to density using
Hydraulic brakes on vehicles appropriate examples
 When you push down on brake pedals in car, brake fluids is force through small  Pressure exerted by liquids depends on
pipes. o Depth of liquid-the deeper divers goes, the more the pressure on the diver in
 The pressure forces the brake pads to squeeze, shut and close against the wheel, all directions. At the same depth pressure will be the same.
eventually it stops the car. o Density of liquid – the denser the liquid, the greater the pressure. E.g. oil
exerts less pressure than water.
 See below.
o Size of contact area between liquid and another surface. – the bigger the
contact area with surface the more the pressure.

Recall and use the equation for change in pressure exerted by liquid.
 Change in pressure Δp = ρgΔh
Where:
P = pressure exerted by the liquid in (Pa)
ρ = density of the liquid in (kg/m3)
g = gravitational acceleration in (m/s2)
h = depth of the liquid in (m)
NB: g = gravitational acceleration or acceleration of a free fall = 10 m/s2

Example:
1. Calculate the pressure at the depth of 200 mm in a container of ethanol. The density of
ethanol is 800 kg/m3.
Hydraulic jacks 2. Water has a density of 1 000 kg/m3. Calculate the pressure exerted by the water at the
 Jacks are used to lift heavy objects easier. bottom of fish tank that is 60 cm deep.
 Small force is applied to the input piston, forcing the fluids through pipes resulting in
larger upward force acting on the output piston. What is altitude?
 Small force on piston 1 is used to create great pressure on piston 2 which lifts heavy  The height above sea level.
object. What is atmospheric pressure?
 The pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere.
Describe the atmospheric pressure changes with changes of altitude

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 Air moves from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure.

Low atmospheric pressure
 When air is heated, it expands, becomes less dense and rises. This leads to low air
pressure.
 High pressure areas and anticyclones indicates fair and sunny weather. Because, in
high air pressure air dries out as it sinks, leaving sunny sky.
High atmospheric pressure
 When air is cooled, it contracts, becomes denser and sinks down. This leads to high
air pressure.
 Low pressure areas and cyclones, indicates cloudy or rainy weather. This causes water
vapour condensing into clouds and rain as air rises.
NB:  Difference between two levels can be used to determine the pressure exerted.
 Reducing pressure in the metal can either for jam / oil / fuel can causes it to collapse.  The total pressure, or absolute pressure, is the sum of gauge pressure and
Example: atmospheric pressure: total pressure or absolute pressure (Pabs) = gauge pressure
1. A pressure in a metal can is 1.0 x 104. It was reduced to 5 000 Pa using a bicycle pump. (Pg) + atmospheric pressure (Patm)
The reduction in pressure causes the metal can to collapse. Draw it if possible:
 A mercury manometer measures pressure in mmHg. 1 mmHg = 133.33 Pa
a. Explain why a metal can collapse when all the air is pumped out of it using a vaccum
Performing calculation on manometer
pump?
Change in pressure Δp = ρgΔh
=Because the pressure outside becomes much larger than the pressure inside.
Where:
=The larger difference in pressure causes the can to collapse.
P = pressure exerted by the liquid in (Pa)
b. If collapsed surface of the metal can is 0.13 m2. Find resultant of the collapsed surface
ρ = density of the liquid in (kg/m3)
of metal can.
g = gravitational acceleration in (m/s2) = 10 m/s2
=
h = depth of the liquid in (m)
NB: List of Instrument used to measure pressure
NB: g = gravitational acceleration or acceleration of a free fall = 10 m/s2
 Manometers
 Aneroid barometers Example:
 Bourdon gauges 1. A liquid column of height 306 mm in a manometer experiences a pressure of 3 kPa.
Use and describe the use of a manometer and perform calculations on the manometer Determine the density of the liquid and then guess what liquid was in the manometer.
2. A liquid column below shows height of water 15 cm and height of oil 50 cm respectively
What is the use of manometer? with mercury at the bottom. The density of water is 1 000 kg/m3 and the column experiences
 To measure pressure of liquid (mercury) in container. a pressure of 4 kPa from oil.
Describe a manometer
 U-shaped glass tube
 Filled with liquid (mercury) up to a certain level. Water
 When both ends are exposed to atmosphere, level of liquid is the same in both arms Oil 15 cm
called condition for atmospheric pressure in liquids.
50 cm

Mercury
a. What condition will you apply to make sure that mercury surface is at the same level
in both columns?
 If you exert pressure on one side, liquid level drops on that side and rises on the other
b. Using the height of water above, calculate the pressure exerted by the water on
side.+
mercury.
c. Calculate the density of oil.

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State that a wind is caused by high and low pressure systems  After the ball has been heated it expands and can no longer pass through the ring due
 Wind is caused by air moving from a region of high pressure system to a region of to expansion.
low pressure system.
 High pressure zone indicates warm weather with clear skies. (Cold air sinks leading to
high pressure).
 Low pressure zone indicates cold weather with overcast and possibility of rain.
(Warm air rises leading to low pressure).

3. THERMAL PHYSICS

3.1 The particle nature of matter

Thermal refers to heat energy. 2. Thermal expansion in a metal bar and a gauge
Explain the kinetic particle theory of matter.
 All matter consists of tiny particles.
 There are forces between the particles.
 There is constant state of motion of the particles.
 There are elastic collisions between particles.
 There is an increase in kinetic energy of the particles as temperature rises
Explain and analyse by means of the kinetic particle model of matter the processes of
expansion in solids, liquids and gases
Thermal expansion of solid, liquid and gases

What is thermal expansion?

 Expansion that takes place due to heat. What happens during the expansion of liquid when heated?
Define Expansion  Liquid particles move slowly when cold.
 The increase in the volume of a substance as a result of a rise in temperature.  Liquid particles gains more energy when heated and starts moving around and more
NB: Particles in solid, liquid and gas are constantly moving. further away from each other
What happens to particles in solid, liquid and gases when heated?  Spaces between particles increases due to expansion
 When temperature increases due to heating, particles gains more kinetic energy and  The volume of liquid increases when heated
move faster randomly. Cold liquid Hot liquid
 Particles pushes each other apart and spaces between particles increases.
NB: Particles do not increase in size.
What happens during the expansion of solid when heated?
 Solid particles vibrate slowly when cold.
 Solid particles gains more energy when heated and vibrate faster
What happens during the expansion of gases when heated?
 Spaces between particles increases due to expansion
 Particles in gases move slow when cold
The diagram below shows particles in cold solid and in hot solid
 Gas particles gains more energy when heated and starts moving around more freely
and move further away from each other
 Spaces between particles increases due to expansion
 The volume of gases increases when heated

Everyday applications of thermal expansion

1. Thermal expansion in a metal ball and a ring
 When it is cold the ball slips easily through the ring

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NB:  A piece of filter paper, large enough to cover the mouth of both jars.
 Gases expands the most and solid expands the least when heated at the same  Pipette
temperature, because forces holding particles together in solids is very strong Methods/Procedures:
and more heat is needed to break them.  Place few drops of bromine in one of the gas jar.
 Size of particles do not increase, only space between particles increases.  Cover the gas jar with the filter paper.
Explain and analyse by means of the kinetic particle model of matter the processes of  Put the second gas jar upside down on top of the first jar on the filter paper.
compressibility in solids, liquids and gases Observation and results
Define compressibility 
The ability of a substance to withstand pushing (squashing) forces without breaking. 
Explain compression in solid: NB: IF AMMONIA SOLUTION AND HYDROCHLORIC ACID IS AVAILABLE, DO
 Solids cannot be compressed, because there are very small spaces between particles. DIFFUSION IN A GLASS TUBE.
Explain compression in liquids: Identify and explain some of the everyday life applications (uses) of thermal expansion
 Can be compressed but not like gases, because there are a bit big spaces between  Getting off a stubborn screw tops from a bottle
particles.
Explain compression in gases:
 More compressible than liquids, because there are big spaces between particles.
Explain and analyse by means of the kinetic particle model of matter the processes of
diffusion in liquids and gases
Define diffusion:
 The process in which particles move from a region of high concentration to a region
of low concentration.  Fitting steel wheel to a rim
Explain diffusion in solids  Bimetallic strip
 No diffusion in solid (it rarely happens), because particles only vibrates in fixed Describe a bimetallic strip
position and no space for movement.  It consists of two different metals brass and iron tightly joined together or copper
Explain diffusion in liquids and zinc or copper and iron.
 Diffusion is lower in liquids than in gases. Because of the movement of the particles  Brass and iron expands at different rate when heated or cooled
which roll over each other.  Bimetallic strip is straight when cold
Experiment: Diffusion in liquid

Aim: To investigate the rate of diffusion in water using a crystal of magnesium permanganate
Materials needed:
 Bimetallic strip bents when heated, making brass strip slightly longer than the iron
 Transparent tall bottle or measuring cylinder
strip.
 Water
 Crystal of potassium permanganate or food colouring or coloured crystal.
Methods/Procedures:
 Fill the bottle or cylinder with water and place it on flat and firm surface.
 Gentle immerse the crystal into the bottle and let it sink to the bottom.
Observation and results NB: Brass expands more than iron, copper expands more than zinc and copper expands more
 than iron.
 How are the bimetallic strips used?
Explain diffusion in gases  Used a thermostats is used to control the temperature of:
 Diffusion is fastest in gases than in liquid, because of big spaces between particles, - Irons (see diagram below)
causing high speed of particles in gases.
Experiment: Diffusion in gases

Aim: To investigate the rate of diffusion in gases using Bromine.

Materials needed:
 Bromine
 Two gas jars with the mouth of the same size.

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 Causes bending railway track or steel if no gap for expansion was left
When metallic strip gets hot, it bends and opens the circuits  Causes bridges to collapse if no expansion is allowed to take place.
When the bimetallic strip is cooled, it straightens and closes (completes) the circuit.  Causes buckling or cracks in joints if no space for expansion was left.
-heaters
-ovens
-fridges (Endo)
A thermostat is a switch controlling the temperature of equipments.
Identify and explain some of the consequences of thermal expansion
 Causes cables expansion in Overhead power lines causing it to become longer and
(Exo
)
hang down in summer. Causes contraction, tightening and breaking of cables in
winter (cold seasons). (Endo (Endo)
)
 Causes bending railway track or steel if no gap for expansion was left
 Causes bridges to collapse if no expansion is allowed to take place. (Exo)
 Causes buckling or cracks in joints if no space for expansion was left. (Exo)

Compare the differences between phases of matter in terms of differences in the behaviour
and arrangement of particles

Properties Solid Liquid Gas

Forces between Very strong Strong Weak
Definition of the processes
particles
Melting, change of substance from solid to liquid.
Spaces between Very small Small, larger than in Very large Vaporation (evaporation)/boiling change of substance from liquid to gas.
particles solids Condensation, change of substance from gas to liquid.
Movement of Vibrates in fixed Slide (past) each Very fast in all Freezing, change of substance from liquid to solid.
particles (same) position other. directions (randomly) Sublimation, change of substance from solid to gas.
Shape/arrangement Fixed Fills the container Takes the shape of Deposition/resublimation, change of substance from gas to solid
from bottom and the container and fills Explain what happens to the temperature of matter during the phase change (change of state)
takes the shape of the the container.  The temperature of matter is constant.
container but not fill Explain why the temperature of matter remains constant during phase change.
the container.
 Because, the average kinetic energy of the substance will remain the same during
phase change, the temperature will remain same too.
 This is because during phase change the energy given or taken in is called
latent heat which is used only to form bonds between molecules or break the
Volume Fixed Fixed Takes volume of the bonds between molecules. This heat won’t affect the average kinetic energy of
container the substance.
Compressibility Cannot be Can be compressed, More compressible Interpret the temperature of a gas in terms of the motion of its molecules
compressed but not easily  The hotter the gas, the faster the motion of its particles.
compressible o (When a gas is hot, its particles move quickly and collide often. This is
Expansion Expands when heated Expands when heated Expands when heated because heat energy is given to the particles, giving them the kinetic energy to
and contracts when and contracts when and contracts when move)
cooled cooled cooled Describe qualitatively the pressure of a gas in terms of the motion of its molecules
Diffusion None Diffuses but slower Diffuses faster than  The pressure of the gas depends on how often and how hard the molecules are
than in gases in liquids colliding with the inside of the container.
Interpret the change from one phase of matter to another which involves an energy change o (Imagine you've got a sealed container containing gas. When the gas particles
(heat energy is either given out or taken in) moves, they hit the sides (walls of the container; this creates pressure on the
NB: Indicate (endo) and (exo) next to processes on the diagram below. container).
Identify and explain some of the consequences of thermal expansion
 Causes cables expansion in Overhead power lines causing it to become longer and
hang down in summer. Causes contraction, tightening and breaking of cables in
winter (cold seasons).

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Describe qualitatively the effect of a change of temperature on the pressure of a gas at Mathematically representation: V = kT
constant volume (Pressure Law) Gay-Lussac’s Law
 Pressure Law states: Pressure inside a gas container is directly proportional to the Describe qualitatively the effect of a change of volume on the pressure of a gas at constant
temperature (K) at constant volume. temperature (Boyle’s Law)
o (The higher the temperature of gas, the more pressure of the gas at constant  Boyle’s Law states: Pressure and volume are inversely proportional when the gas is at
volume. You know that a high temperature = faster motion and faster motion a constant temperature (K).
= more pressure). o (Lowering the volume will increase in a higher pressure, and vice versa. This
Symbolically representation: p α T is because if a gas has a smaller volume, there is less space for the particles to
Graphically representation: straight line graph move; they hit the sides of the container more frequently, resulting in higher
pressure)
o Equation for calculation purposes:
The equation pV = constant at constant temperature.
Symbolically representation: p α Vα
Graphically representation: curved or hyperbola or straight line graph

Mathematically representation: =
Mathematical representation: p1V1=p2V2
Describe qualitatively the effect of a change of temperature on the volume of a gas at
constant pressure (Charles’s Law)
 Charle’s Law states: The volume of the gas container is directly proportional to the
temperature (K) at constant volume.
o (If temperature inside the container increases while the pressure is kept
constant, the volume of the container will increase. Thus, if temperature
decreases, the volume of the container will decrease).
Symbolically representation: v α T
Graphically representation: straight line graph

Describe the random motion of particles in a suspension as evidence for the kinetic particle
model of matter
What is Brownian motion?
 Random motion of visible particles like dust and pollen grains.
Describe this random motion (sometimes known as Brownian motion) in terms of random
molecular bombardment
 Brownian motion was explained that: -pollen grains were moving because they were
much smaller than water particles and moving faster, and water particles were
constantly colliding with them.

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Diagram showing: Pollen grains collision (bombardment) with water particles State the SI-unit of measuring temperature
 Kelvin (K)
 Degree Celsius (0C)
 Fahrenheit (F)
State the concept of absolute zero and the Kelvin scale of temperature
 Absolute zero is the lowest temperature of the substance when all particles stop
moving at 0 K (The temperature at -273 0C).

Remember:
 When substances are cooled, kinetic energy and particle’s vibration of
NB: You tube video for demonstration purposes movement decreases.
 Substance cannot be cooled at temperature lower than -273 0C, as there is no
3.2 Thermal properties temperature lower than -273 0C.
3.2.1 Measurement of temperature Recall and use the information that absolute temperature is given by T/K = T/ºC + 273
(example 20ºC is 20ºC + 273 = 293 K)
What is temperature?  Kelvin temperature is defined as K= 0C + 273. (Meaning the Kelvin temperature
 Is a measure of average kinetic energy in the particles of a substance. corresponding to 0 0C is 273 K, while Kelvin temperature corresponding to 100 0C is
What instrument do we use to measure temperature? 373 K).
 Liquid-in-glass bulb thermometer (mercury-in-glass thermometer and alcohol-in-glass Formula or equation to convert from Kelvin to degrees Celsius
thermometer)  T(K) = t (0C) + 273
Formula or equation to convert from degrees Celsius to Kelvin
 t (0C) = T(K) - 273
Where: T = temperature in Kelvin
t = temperature in degrees Celsius
NB:
 To convert from degree Celsius to Kelvin scale add 273 to the degree Celsius
given. To convert from Kevin scale to degree Celsius subtract 273 from given
Kelvin scale.
Examples:
1. Convert the following temperature to Kelvin.
a. 0 0C =
b. 40 0C =
c. -30 0C =
2. Convert the following temperature to degrees Celsius.
 Thermocouple device a. 0 K =
b. 98 K =
c. 373 K =
Explain what is meant by the sensitivity of thermometers
 The ability of a thermometer to determine small temperature changes.
Explain what is meant by the range of thermometers
 The lowest and highest temperature that each type of thermometer can measure.
Explain what is meant by the linearity of thermometers
 When the liquid in a liquid-in-glass thermometer expands evenly, the thermometer
gives linear readings.
 The length of the liquid increases constantly
o In case whereby different liquids expands by different amount at different
temperature, the difference in the amount of liquid in the tube of alcohol
and mercury thermometer will not rise by the same amount with each
degree difference in temperature.

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 Thermocouple do not change linearly with respect to temperature, but resistance Describe the structure of a thermocouple thermometer
thermometer do change linearly.  It is made using wires from different metals (called junctions): copper and constantan
Identify fixed points of temperature (an alloy mixture of copper and nickel)
 Lower fixed point  A sensitive ammeter or galvanometer.
 Upper fixed point Describe the actions of a thermocouple thermometer
Explain lower fixed point  Scale on ammeter is made to read temperature instead of electric current.
 Is the temperature of melting point of pure water (0 0C).  One junction is placed into a substance of a known temperature e.g. block of ice,
Explain upper fixed point while the other substance is placed into the substance whose temperature will be
 Is the temperature of boiling point of pure water (100 0C) at standard pressure like at measured (unknown temperature).
sea level
Describe the structure of liquid-in-glass thermometers
 It is made up of glass bulb, liquid thread and fine tube
 It is calibrated in negative and positive numbers
 It uses two common liquids namely: mercury and coloured alcohol
Describe how the structure of liquid-in-glass thermometer affects the range and sensitivity
 The bulb of a liquid-in-glass thermometer must not be too thick (because glass is a
bad conductor of heat)
 Tube / capillary in a liquid-in-glass thermometer is very fine which increases its
sensitivity
 Not too thick glass (to make thermometer responds quickly to both low and high
temperature)
Describe the action of liquid-in-glass thermometers Explain the uses of thermocouple
 When the glass is heated , liquid in glass bulb expands up the fine tube  For measuring high temperatures (as metals have high melting point).
 When temperature changes, the liquid used in thermometer expands or contracts a lot  For measuring temperature which vary (changes) rapidly (as metals are good
and it can be seen conductors of heat and electricity).
Describe the advantages of mercury in liquid-in-glass thermometers
 Thermometer is easy and accurately to be calibrated (due to uniform/regularly 3.2.2 Thermal capacity
expansion per unit of temperature increase or decrease). Relate a rise in a temperature of a body to an increase in internal energy
 Mercury is an opaque liquid and easily seen in fine tube. Explain internal energy
 Mercury thermometer works between freezing and boiling points of liquid used  Energy associated with motion and potential energy of the particles that make up a
(between -39 0C freezing point and 357 0C boiling point of mercury) substance.
Describe the disadvantages of mercury in liquid-in-glass thermometers o If the temperature of a body is increased, internal energy of the body also
 Mercury is expensive increases.
 Mercury is poisonous and harmful (as it evaporates easily when the capillary is o As temperature of a body increases, particles inside the body gains more
broken). kinetic energy and move more quickly.
 Mercury cannot be used for very low temperatures (in cold regions of arctic and Explain the term thermal capacity (C)
Antarctic regions as temperature is close to freezing point of mercury).  The amount of energy or heat required to raise the temperature of a body by one
 Mercury cannot be used for very high temperatures. Kelvin.
Describe the advantages of alcohol in liquid-in-glass thermometers Define heat capacity of an object [C]
 Alcohol is cheaper  The heat required to raise its temperature by one Kelvin.
 It can read much lower temperature up to -115 0C Recall and use the equation for heat capacity of thermal capacity of substance or body:
 Temperature range between the alcohol-in-glass thermometer can be used (-115 0C  Thermal capacity or heat capacity =
freezing point and 78 0C boiling point of alcohol)
Describe the disadvantages of alcohol in liquid-in-glass thermometers and
 Alcohol cannot be used to read very high temperature above 78 0C. Change in temperature = final temperature - initial temperature
 Dye has to be added to make it visible (as it is a colourless liquid).  C= and Δ = Tf - Ti
 More time-consuming and less accurate (due to alcohol which sticks to the walls of
the capillary tube as it expands and contracts)

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Where: C = thermal capacity or heat capacity in joule per Kelvin (J/K)  When substance undergoes phase change, temperature of substance remains the same.
Q = amount of heat energy required in Joule (J) During this phase change latent heat energy is used to overcome intermolecular or
Δ = change in temperature in Kelvin (K) interparticle forces and break or form bonds between particles.
Tf = final temperature in Kelvin (K)  The latent heat of fusion, Lf, is:
Ti = initial temperature inn Kelvin (K) o Energy needed to change from solid to liquid at constant temperature. or
Examples: o Energy released when substance freezes at constant temperature.
1. The amount of heat energy required to increase the temperature of iron by 350  The latent heat of vaporation, Lv, is:
0
C is 20 000 J. What is the heat capacity of iron? o Energy needed to change from liquid to gas at constant temperature. Or
2. A beaker of liquid is heated until its temperature rises by 4 K. How much o Energy released when substance condenses at constant temperature.
energy is transferred if the liquid has a heat capacity of 2 010 J/K.
Define specific heat capacity [c]
 The heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by one Kelvin.
The amount of energy needed (Q) to change the temperature of a substance depends on:
 The mass of the object (m).
 Type of material used to make the object, which directly affects the specific heat
capacity of the object.
 Amount of heat energy transferred to the object (the more the heat energy transferred
to the object, the greater the increase (change) in temperature of the object.
Recall and use the equation for specific heat capacity (c) Latent heat

 Specific heat capacity =

 c=
where: c = specific heat capacity in joule per kilogram per Kelvin (J/kg.K)
Q = amount of heat energy required in joules (J)
m = mass of substance in kilogram (kg)
Δ = change in temperature in Kelvin (K)
Examples:
1. Water has a specific heat capacity of 4 200 J/kg.K. How much will the temperature 5 00 g
of water rise if 20 000 J of energy is transferred?
Flow chart of latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporation during phase changes
Describe an experiment to measure the specific heat capacity of a substance Recall and use in calculations, the equation (l = Q / m)
 Specific latent heat (l) is the quantity of heat energy absorbed or released when 1 kg
Define latent (hidden) heat (L) of a substance changes state without changing its temperature.
 The quantity of heat energy absorbed or released when a substance changes state Unit of specific latent heat:
without changing its temperature (L = Q) - Joule per kilogram (J/kg)
Define specific latent heat (l)  Specific latent heat of fusion, lf, and specific latent heat of vaporation, lv, are the
 The quantity of heat energy absorbed or released when 1 kg of a substance changes energies required per kilogram of the substance for melting and boiling, respectively.
state without changing its temperature. Equation for specific latent heat of a substance:
Use the term, and give a molecular interpretation of latent heat  Specific latent heat =
 Latent heat is the quantity of heat energy absorbed or released when a substance
changes state without changing its temperature (L = Q)  l=
Unit of latent heat: where: l = specific latent heat of fusion or vaporation in J/kg
- joule (J) Q = amount of heat energy required in J
 When substance change state from solid to liquid and liquid to gas, thermal energy is m = mass of the substance in kg
absorbed by the substance and temperature of the substance increases. Example:
 When substance change state from gas to liquid and liquid to solid, thermal energy is 1. 1 kg of ice requires 330 000 J to turn into water. How much energy is required to melt 2.5
released by substance and temperature of substance decreases. kg of ice?
2. Determine the specific latent heat of a substance if 3 kg of the solid requires 450 000 J of
energy to melt.

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3.2.3 Melting, boiling and evaporation  B – C (solid & liquid): at B, solid ice is melting and the temperature is
Describe melting and boiling in term of energy input without a change in temperature constant at 0 0C (melting point of pure ice). Heat energy is used in melting the
 When solid is heated it melts, changing its phase to a liquid. ice by breaking the inter-particle or intermolecular forces between the solid
 When liquid is heated it evaporates, changing its phase to a gas. particles. At C liquid, water starts boiling.
Define melting point  C – D (liquid only): at C liquid, water is boiling and temperature is increasing
 The temperature at which the substance changes from solid state to liquid state. up to point D.
Define boiling point
 D-E (liquid and gas): at D liquid, temperature stays constant at 100 0C
 The temperature at which the substance changes from state liquid to gas (vapour)
state. (boiling point of pure water at sea level). Heat energy is used to overcome
Distinguish between boiling and evaporation attractive forces between liquid particles.
Boiling Evaporation  E-F (gas only): at E gas, temperature of gas increases at above 100 0C to point
 Take place throughout the liquid  Take place at the surface of the liquid F. Heat energy from flame increases kinetic energy of particles. Particles move
 Takes place at one specific  Takes place at any temperature around faster.
temperature  Affected by surface area and wind
 Not affected by surface area and wind  No bubbles form HOMEWORK on Cooling curve of water:
 Bubbles form throughout the liquid  Has a cooling effect
 Does not cause cooling 3.3 Transfer of thermal energy
Plot and interpret heating and cooling curves of water Thermal energy refers to heat energy
Heating curve and cooling curve of water as it changes phases. What are the three ways of transferring heat?
 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation
3.3.1 Conduction

Define conduction of heat

 The flow of heat through a material without any flow of the material.
Describe experiments to demonstrate the properties of good and bad conductors of heat
Materials needed
 Different metal rods of same length; iron, copper, brass and aluminium
 Match sticks
 Tripod stand
 Melted wax
 burner
Methods or Procedures
 stick a matchstick onto each rod at one end using wax
 put the rods over the tripod so that the ends without matchsticks touches each other.

Interpretation of heating curve of solid (ice) and cooling curve of water above

Heating curve of water solid (ice):

 A – B (solid only): at A, is solid ( ice), the temperature is increasing from -20  Heat the ends of metal rods without the matchstick using a burner.
to 00C. at B, ice is melting. Observation
 The matchstick on copper falls off first.

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 Matchstick on aluminium, brass and iron will fall off at different times. Conduction in liquid
 Matchstick of glass and wood will not fall off.
Conclusion
 Copper is the best conductor of heat than the other three rods aluminium, brass and
iron. (Metals are good conductor of heat, because they have free moving electron “sea
of electrons” that are able to move through the metals)
 Glass and wood are non-metals and they are bad conductor of heat. They are
insulator.  Liquid (water) are poor conductor of heat
NB: Classroom Practical activity on page 165 Living physics  Water on top will start boiling
Give a simple molecular account of the heat transfer in insulators and  The bottom temperature will not change or changes slightly, because liquid particles
 Insulators do not conduct heat very well, because their molecules are bound to the are further away from each other. Then heat takes time to conduct another particle.
atoms.  Convection is required in liquids
 In atoms of non-metals, electrons are held tightly in position due to strong forces. Conduction in gases
The migration of electrons in metals  Gases are worse conductor of heat
 Metals are good conductor of heat, because they are made up of positive ions  Particles in gases are far away from each other and do not conduct heat.
(cations) and have free moving electron “sea of electrons” that are able to migrate  Gases are insulators e.g. any material that contain trapped air
through the metals. END of Additional information NOT in specific objectives on conduction
 This is because electrons are not tightly bound by metal atoms. 3.3.2 Convection
Define convection
START of Additional information NOT in specific objectives on conduction  The flow of liquid or gas (fluids) caused by a change in density, in which the whole
Conduction in solid medium moves and carries heat energy with it.
 Use a metal spoon and heat the other end with candle, flame heat is transferred to Explain the difference between conduction and convection in terms of the physical movement
other end. This is because metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. You of the medium
cannot see heat but you can feel it  Conduction, energy is transferred from particle to particle and particles do not move.
What happens when a metal conducts heat? Materials contact one another to transfer energy.
 Material receives heat energy, molecules near the source of heat begins to vibrate  Convection, all particles of fluid moves to carry energy.
more and gain more kinetic energy Describe convection in fluids as due to density change
 Kinetic energy passes from one molecule without the movement of  When liquid are heated, the particles gained more energy and move further apart
particles/molecules, as a result heat energy is transferred (expands).
NB: metals have electrons that moves around which receive energy and begin to vibrate and  The volume of fluid increases but mass remains the same
collide with another.
 Density of liquid decreases
Insulators are bad conductor of heat and electricity, because their particles do not have
 Warm fluid rises to the top carrying its energy, because its density is decreased (less
freedom to move and cannot transfer heat energy to another particle.
dense)
Most metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
Non-metals are bad conductors of heat and electricity.  Hot fluids rises (less dense) and cold fluids sinks (more denser) causing convection
List some of the examples of good conductors’ heat and electricity current.
 Copper
 Aluminium
 Brass
 Silver
 Iron
List some examples of bad conductor of heat and electricity
 Glass
 Wood
 Plastic

Describe experiments to illustrate convection

Aim: To illustrate convection current in liquid (water)

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Materials needed
 Flat-bottom flask or Pyrex glass beaker
 Spirit burner or Bunsen burner or candle
 Tripod stand
 Gauze
 Cool drink straw or tube
 Crystal of potassium permanganate or coloured crystal or copper sulpahte crystal
 Water
 Matches
Method or procedure
1. Fill the flask or beaker with water.
2. Place the flask or beaker on gauze and tripod stand.
3. Carefully lower some potassium permanganate crystal into the flask or beaker through
a tube or straw. Move slowly not to disturb water.
4. Place the Bunsen burner underneath the flask on tripod stand and light it.
5. Heat gently.
6. Repeat step 1 to 5, by placing crystal close to the wall of the beaker. Crystal in middle Crystal close to the wall Crystal close to the wall
7. For accuracy purposes repeat step 1 to 6. NB: Arrows are used to indicate the direction of convection current in terms of rising and
sinking.
Conclusion
 As water gains thermal energy, its density decreases leading to formation of
convection current.
 Warm water from bottom rises and cold water from top sinks to replace warm water
forming the pattern of colour in the beaker (see diagrams above). This process is
called convection current.

3.3.3 Radiation
Define radiation
Observation  The transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves which do not require a medium.
NB: Heat travels through a vacuum during radiation
 Where crystal is placed in the middle, purple colour from crystal is carried with
current upward and downward from the centre to side-wards. What happens during the absorption of radiation?
 Where crystal is place close to the wall of beaker, purple colour is carried with current  Some energy will be absorbed and some will be reflected by the object
upwards from one wall and downward to another wall of the beaker.  The surface determines how much heat will be absorbed or reflected
 When object absorbs heat it takes in energy and temperature rises.
Describe experiments to show the properties of good and bad emitters of infra-red radiation
(heat).
Aim: To demonstrate properties of good and bad emitter of infra-red radiation (heat).
Materials needed:
 A kettle
 Two empty cooldrink cans
 Black paint
 White paint
 Water
Method or Procedure:
1. Paint one can white and another can black and allow paint to dry completely.

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Emission of radiation depends on:

 surface of substance
 temperature of substance
Note: When an object emits radiation (heat energy,) it gives off heat.

3.3.4 Consequences of energy transfer

Identify and explain some of the everyday applications of conduction, convection and
White painted can Black painted can radiation
2. Use the kettle to boil water. Application of conduction
3. Carefully fill each can with boiling water.
 We wear warm clothes during cold days. (woollen sweaters keep us warm and
4. Place the back of your hand +- 5 cm from each can and feel which can heats up your
prevents warm air next to our skin from escaping)
hand the most. [The back of the hand is used because it is good relatively to test
 Bird uses feathers to keep them warm
temperature variations]
Observation  Animals uses fur to keep them warm
 Black can should feel warmer than white can.  Handles of saucepans are made of wood or plastics which are bad conductors to
Conclusion prevent our hands from being burned.
Application of convection current
 Black is the best emitter of heat and white is the worst emitter of heat.
Describe experiments to show good and bad absorbers of infra-red radiation  Heating element of kettle is always at the bottom, because hot water rises when water
above heating element is heated
Aim: investigate best surface absorber of energy and reflector of radiation (heat).  In geysers, the heating element is also at the bottom, because hot water rises when
Apparatus needed: water above heating element is heated
Applications of radiation (good and bad absorbers)
 Bunsen burner
 One metal painted black  Houses are painted white to reflect sunlight
 One metal painted silver or white covered with aluminium foil  Roofs of houses are made from shiny silver to reflect most heat
 Candle wax  We wear white clothes in summer to reflect heat
 Two drawing pins  We wear black clothes in winter to absorb heat
Procedure or Method: Applications of radiation or heat (good and bad emitter)
 Fix a drawing pin with a wax to black side and white side of metal plate  Teapot painted shiny silver, to keep tea inside hot for long time.
 Place metal plate about 10 cm from heating source (Bunsen burner)  Fridge cooling fins at the back painted black, to emit or radiate the heat away.
 Light flames and observe which drawing pin falls off first  Household heater
o Heat is conducted to surrounding air.
o Hot air rises and cause convection currents.
o Some heat radiated away from the heater by infra-red radiation.
o All three methods of heat transfer heats up the room when a heater is used.

Observation:
 Drawing pin at black metal plate falls off first
Conclusion:
 Black surfaces are best absorber of heat/radiation and white / shiny silver are best
reflectors of radiation.
NB:
 Black surfaces are best absorbers of heat and also best radiators or emitters of heat.
Black surfaces are bad reflectors of heat.
 Shiny silver / white surfaces are best reflectors of heat energy. Shiny silver surfaces
are bad absorbers and radiators of heat energy.
 Order of colours from best emitter of heat to worst emitter of heat: Black, Red,
White, Shiny Silver.

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 Thermos flask or Dewar flask, designed to reduce flow of heat into or out of the flask 4. PROPERTIES OF WAVES
to keep liquids cold or hot. Explain waves
Functioning of thermos flask  Are series of vibrations produced by regular movement.
Why waves are importance:
 Because they carry energy from one place to another.
Name the two types of waves
 Transverse waves
 Longitudinal waves
4.1 General wave properties
Define pulse
 Is a single disturbance in a medium.
Define oscillations or simple harmonic motion
 Is any repeated to-and-fro motion of a fluid or elastic solid.
Examples of oscillations or simple harmonic motion
 a tuning-fork
 pendulum
 stretched string
o Plastic stopper at top reduces heat transfer by preventing evaporation and Describe what is meant by wave motion (propagation)
convection.  An oscillation which transfers energy from one place to another without any net
o Stopper and plastic mouth made from good insulator of heat, prevent heat loss movement of the medium.
by conduction. Wave motions or propagation is illustrated or shown by:
o Flask, made from double-walled glass with vacuum in between, to prevent  vibration in ropes
heat transfer through conduction and convection.
o Outer surface of inner wall and inner surface of outer wall painted silver, to
reflects heat back into the contents (liquids) and prevent heat loss through
radiation.
2.3.4 Consequences of energy transfer

Identify and explain some of the consequences of conduction, convection and radiation  springs
 Conduction
o
 Convection
o

 Radiation
o causes greenhouse effects (preventing the heat inside greenhouse from
radiating out).
o Increase of greenhouse gases in the air by people. This increases radiation
bouncing back to the earth and reduces radiation leaving the top of atmosphere  experiments using water waves
resulting in global warming.

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State typical values of the speed of sound and light in air, water and glass and the speed of rope.
light in a vacuum
Medium Speed of sound m/s Speed of light m/s
Air (gas) 330 3x108 300 000 000
Water (liquid) 1 493 225 000 000
Glass (solid) 4549 200 000 000
Vacuum 0 (zero) 300 000 000
What is a vacuum? Longitudinal wave
Rarefaction or expansion or low pressure
 An empty space or space without matter.
Compression high pressure
Explain why sound travels faster in solids than in gases, using ideas about molecules
 Because the molecules are close together, it easily carry sound waves through.
Outline some of the practical consequences of the difference of the speed of sound and light
in air, such as the observation that thunder always follows lightning
 Light travels at approximately 300 000 000 m/s in air faster than sound which travels
at about 340 m/s in air.
 Lightning strikes first, before the sound of thunder is heard later.
 Lightning strikes and kill people Describe how can you produce transverse wave using a slinky spring?
 Lightning can cause fire in house, cars and buildings.  By tying one end of a slinky on a fixed point and move the other end up and down.
 Lightning affects body organs and systems.
 Lightning can destroy vegetation.
Define lightning
 Is an electrical discharge in the form of electrical current.
-Lightning produces bright light.
Distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves (in terms of the direction of vibration
Describe how can you produce longitudinal wave using a slinky spring?
of the particles and the direction of travel of the wave) and give examples of each
 By tying one end of the slinky on a fixed point and move the other end forward and
Transverse wave Longitudinal wave backward.
The direction of energy transmission is The direction of energy transmission is
perpendicular to wave motion. parallel to wave motion.
It have crest and trough It have compressions and expansion.
List the examples of transverse wave
 light waves What is meant by a wave front?
 water waves  Is a section through a wave were all particles are at the same level.
 electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, micro waves, infrared waves, ultra violet Examples:
waves, gamma rays and X-rays)
 Rope wave (when you move it up and down from a point).
List the examples of longitudinal wave
 sound waves
Distinguish between transverse and longitudinal waves by means of diagrams to show each
type of wave and label it.
Transverse wave Give the meaning of speed c, frequency f, period T, wavelength λ and amplitude
Define crest:  Wavelength (λ): the distance between two successive crests or points.
- Highest point of a wave.  It’s measured in the unit cm or m.
Define trough:  Period (T): the time taken to complete one wave / oscillation.
- Lowest point of a wave.  It is measured in the unit seconds (s)
State the formula for calculating period
Period = 1/frequency or T = 1/f (meaning 1 second = 1/1 hertz
 Amplitude (A): maximum displacement of a particle from its rest position (the height
above or below the normal line).
 It is measured in the unit mm, cm or m.

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 Frequency (f): the number of vibrations per second (number of complete wave).
 It is measured in the unit. Hertz (Hz)
State the formula for calculating frequency
 Frequency = number of vibration ÷ time taken
 Frequency = 1/Period (f = 1/T)
 Velocity (v): Speed with directions.
 It is measured in the unit meters per second (m/s).
Speed of a wave(c): is the distance moved by one complete wave in one
second.
 It is measured in meter per second (m/s)
State the equations for calculating velocity and speed of wave
 Velocity(v): = wavelength(λ) × frequency(f). (v= λ f) Use the term wave front to describe the observation of water waves in a ripple tank
 Speed of wave (v): = wavelength (λ)× frequency(f). (v= λ f) OR undergoing:
Speed of wave (c): = wavelength (λ)× frequency(f). (c= λ f) - Reflection at a plane surface (wave fronts reflect at the same angle to the surface)
Recall and use the equations (formula) c = λ f and f = 1/T
 c=λf
where: c = speed of wave in metre per second (m/s or m/s-1 )
λ = wavelength in metre (m)
f = frequency in Hertz (Hz)
 f = 1/T
where: f = frequency in Hertz (Hz)
T = period in seconds (s)
Examples: - Refraction due to a change in depth, changing the speed, and the wavelength but not the
1. When the end of a taut rope is plucked so that it vibrates at 30 Hz, waves of frequency
wavelength 50 mm are seen moving along the rope. What is the speed of the waves?
2. Calculate the frequency of a wave with a speed of 2 m/s-1 and a wavelength of 600
mm.
3. What is the period of the wave in example 2?

Define the term wave front in wave motion

 The line containing adjacent points that are in the same phase
Draw circular and plane wave fronts on the surface of water
4.2 Light
Examples:
4.2.1 The basic concepts of light
Outline the difference between luminous and illuminated objects
 Luminous objects: objects that produce and emit their own light.
Examples of luminous objects are:
- Sun
- Stars
- light bulb
- flames
- fire flies.
 Illuminated objects: object that do not produce their own light but reflects light.
Examples of illuminated objects
- moon
- rocks
- buildings
- other shiny objects.
Explain how light travels
 Light travels in a straight lines

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Explain how light leads to the formation of shadows 4.3 Properties of light
 Light travels in straight lines and falls on opaque objects. 4.3.1 Transmission and absorption
 The area behind object becomes dark, forming shadows. Explain the use of apparatus such as a ray-box, mirror, glass window, Perspex strips,
Explain how light leads to the appearance of the image (pin-hole camera) protractor and rectangular block to investigate what happens when light falls on different
 It works on the principle that light travels in a straight line. objects that are translucent, transparent and opaque
 When an object is moved closer to the pin-hole, the image of the object becomes Transparent materials: materials that allow light to pass through and the object on the other
bigger. side is seen clearly.
 When the hole is made bigger, the image becomes brighter but blurred (not sharp).  When light falls on transparent materials, all of it passes through it.
Examples of transparent materials
- Glass window
- Perspex strip
- Protractor
- Diamond
- water
- air.
Translucent material: materials that allow some light to pass through, but some light is
absorbed, reflected in different directions and the object on the other side cannot be seen
State the characteristics of the image formed by a pin-hole camera
clearly.
 real image
 When light falls on translucent materials, only some light will pass through, some
 inverted (upside down) lights will be absorbed and reflected.
 Image is of a different size to that of the object. Examples of translucent materials
Explain how light leads to the Eclipses of the sun and moon, including the terms umbra and - rectangular block
penumbra - Frosted glass
Name the types of eclipse - Tracing paper.
 Sun (solar) eclipse - Some plastics
 Moon (lunar) eclipse Opaque material: materials that cannot allow light to pass through and the object on the other
Describe what use to happen during sun (solar) eclipse. side cannot be seen because no light from it enters the eye.
 During solar eclipse, the moon and the earth use to be in the same line from the sun.  When light falls on opaque materials, no light will pass through.
 Therefore the moon will block the light from reaching part of the earth. Examples of opaque materials
- Ray-box
- mirror
- stone
- building wall
- tree
Name two parts of shadows formed by the moon onto the Earth.
- wood
 Umbra - corrugated iron
 Penumbra - metals
 Umbra is the dark central part of the shadow (full shadow) 4.3.2 Reflection by mirror
 Penumbra is the lighter outer part of the shadow (partial shadow) Draw a ray diagram to show the formation of the image of a point on an object produced by
Describe what use to happen during moon (lunar) eclipse. a plane mirror
 During lunar eclipse, the earth and the moon use to be in the same line from the sun.
 Therefore the earth will block light from reaching part of the moon.

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Give the characteristics (position, nature, size and lateral inversion) of an optical image  Used in microscope, periscope, camera, projectors and other optical light apparatus.
formed by a plane mirror Practical using mirrors
 the image is laterally inverted (left to right; up and down and vice versa)  Used in car head lights and torches (parabolic / curved mirror).
 the image is upright.  Used to harness sun’s energy which is converted to other forms of energy.
 Virtual image (light do not actually come from the image) Describe disadvantages of reflection, including everyday applications of reflection such as
 The image is the same size as the actual object. the uses of different kinds of mirrors and the reflecting surfaces behind lights
 Position (distance) from the object to the mirror is the same to the position (distance)  Light reflected from windows, water or tired road can cause accident.
from the mirror to the image. First Law of Reflection  Light reflected from shiny surfaces can cause eye damage.
 Angle of incident is equal to reflected angle. Second Law of Reflection  Bright animals are easily seen by predators.
Identify and measure the angles of incidence and of reflection (angle of incidence is equal to Recall and use the law: angle of incidence = angle of reflection
angle of reflection) and the normal at the point a ray strikes the surface State the law of reflection:
 The angle of incidence (i) and angle of reflection (r) is always equal. Second Law of
reflection.
 The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal line all lies on the same plane.

Perform simple constructions, measurements and calculations on a ray diagram

Aim: Determining the position of an image on a plane mirror DRAW IN NOTE BOOKS
What to do:
 Draw a thick line to represent a mirror.
 Draw two incident rays from the object to the mirror, rays should hit the mirror at an
angle.
 Draw normal lines perpendicular to the mirror, where the incident rays meet the
mirror.
 Measure the angle of incidence, i1 and i2. Record it.
plane mirror  Measure and plot the angle of reflection, r1 and r2. Record it. NB: angle of i is = angle
Distinguish between regular and diffuse(irregular) reflection (ADDITIONAL) of r.
Regular Reflection Diffuse(irregular) reflection  Draw the reflected rays from the mirror where they meet with incident rays.
 Angle of incidence is equal to angle  Angle of incidence is not equal to  Extend reflected rays behind the mirror until they meet. Where they meet is the image
of reflection. angle of reflection. of the object.
 Parallel incident rays are reflected  Parallel incident rays are not 4.3.3 Refraction of light
parallel to each other. reflected parallel to each other. Relate that light travels in straight lines to explain divergent, convergent and parallel rays or
E.g. reflection by a plane mirror. E.g. Reflection by a rough surface beams of light
like wood. Divergent ray: the rays that spread out (move away) from each other.

Convergent ray: the rays that move toward each other and meet at a point.

Describe advantages of reflection, including everyday applications of reflection such as the

uses of different kinds of mirrors and the reflecting surfaces behind lights
 Use to check our appearance. (E.g applying make-up and when shavings) Parallel ray: the rays that moves in the same direction and same distance from each other and
will never meet.
 Use for safety when driving.
 Used by dentist to inspect or examine the back of the teeth.
 Sued for security in shops and supermarkets.

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Define refraction of light As it pass through triangular block

 As the change in direction of light entering or leaving a medium with different optical  The ray will be refracted and split into a spectrum.
density. o Red light is refracted the least and violet light is refracted the most, causing
Draw the refraction of a ray of light as it passes through a rectangular block and a the coloured light to spread out to form a spectrum.
triangular prism
Rectangular block

Measure the angle of refraction r and i as light enters and leaves a rectangular block

Triangular block

Recall and use the equation refractive index n = sin i /sin r

 Refractive index (n) =
Describe the refraction of a ray of light as it passes through a rectangular block and a n is refractive index called constant
triangular prism sin i =sine of angle of incidence in air(degree).
As it pass through rectangular block sin r= sine of angle of refraction in medium(degree).
1. Use the measurement you took in the diagram above and calculate refractive index
 When light rays inter the rectangular block, the ray will bend toward the normal line
and when it leaves, the ray will move away from the normal line.  Refractive index (n) =
2. A rectangular block have incidence angle of 1000 and the angle of refraction is 600.
Calculate the refractive index of the block.
3. Determine angle of incidence when a light ray is refracted through a medium with
refractive index of 1.5 at an angle of refraction of 300.
4. The refractive index of water is 1.33. find the angle of refraction when light in air
strikes water at an angle of incidence of 240.
5. The speed of light through a glass is 1.7 x 108 m/s. if the speed of light through a
vacuum is 3.0 x 108 m/s. what is the refractive index of the glass?

Give the meaning of critical angle

 Is the angle of incidence that causes an angle of refraction that is at 900 to the normal.
Describe internal and total internal reflection
 Internal reflection: is the complete reflection of a light ray at the boundary of
two media, when the ray is in the medium with greater refractive index.

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 Total internal reflection: is the reflection of light on the inside of the medium when Define the principal focus (F) (focal point) or secondary principal focus of a converging lens
light is travelling towards a medium of lower optical density, and the angle of  Place (point) where parallel rays to the principal axis meet after being bent
incidence is larger than the critical angle. No light is refracted only reflected. (converged/refracted) at the lens.
Define the focal length
 Is the distance between the optical centre of the lens and the focal point.
Define optical centre (axis)
 A point in the middle of the lens where all the rays that pass through remains
unrefracted.
Define principal axis
 A line passing through the optical centre of the lens.
Describe how to measure the focal length of a converging lens using a distant object
 Focal length can be obtained by using a distant object and a converging lens.
Recall and use the definition of refractive index in terms of speed or wavelength  Focus light from a distant source on a piece of paper through a converging lens.
Define refractive index.  Measure the perpendicular distance from the plane of the image to the centre of the
 Is the ration of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light through another lens, this distance is the focal length (F).
medium.  Repeat the procedures several times and take the average of the measurement to
 Is the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence in air or a vacuum to the sine of the improve your accuracy.
angle of refraction in the medium. Draw ray diagrams for the formation of real image and a virtual image by a single lens
Types of lenses The three special rays used to find image in ray diagrams of convex lens
 Convex lens (converging lens)  Central ray- light ray which strikes the optical centre and it continues straight.
 Concave lens (diverging lens)
 Plano concave

 Parallel ray- light ray parallel to principal axis, strikes the line of symmetry of the
lens and bent through the principal focus (F).

 Focal point ray – light ray that passes through the principal focus (F), strikes the line
of symmetry of the lens and then bends parallel to the principal axis.

Points to remember when drawing ray diagram of converging lens for formation of real and
virtual image
 Use F to represent principal focus labeled F on ray diagram.
 Draw a vertical arrow to represent the object.
Describe the action of a thin converging lens on a parallel beam of light  Point twice focal length of the lens is denoted by 2F.
 Draw central ray and parallel ray from top of the arrow.
 Central and parallel rays meet at the top of a real image.
 If the rays diverge (moving away from each other) the points which they appear to
come from is the top of the virtual image.
 Object position is denoted by O.

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Object beyond 2F [eye and camera] Object between F and 2F [projectors and enlargers]

2F O F F 2F
O 2F F F 2F

Characteristic of the image formed

Characteristic of the image formed when object is beyond 2F (eye and camera)  image is beyond 2F
 Image is between F and 2F.  real image
 Real image.  inverted
 Inverted (sides switched).  enlarged
 Diminished (size changed become shorter/smaller). Object at F [to produce parallel lines]
Object at 2F [to turn inverted image around without changing the size]

2F F F 2F
2F F F 2F O
O

Characteristic of the image formed

 parallel rays
 image at infinity (no image)
Object between F and lens [magnifying glass and ocular lens]

Characteristic of the image formed

 image is at 2F
 real image
 inverted
 same size as object

2F F O F 2F

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Characteristic of the image formed

 image is behind the object
 virtual image
 upright
 enlarged
Distinguish between a real and a virtual image
Real image (from camera or pin hole) Virtual (from mirror)
 Image is inverted (left to right, upside  Image is upright(erect)
down and vice versa)
 It can be produced(seen) on a screen  It cannot be produced(seen) on a
screen
 The size of the image and object are  The size of the image and the object
not the same. Or The image is are the same.
diminished.
 Light rays meet after refraction  Light rays do not meet after refraction
 Examples: Image produced by pin-  Examples: Image produced by a plane
hole camera, slide projector, cinema mirror.
screen, image on retina of the eye.
Give the characteristics of an optical image formed by a converging lens
 Real image
 Inverted
 Diminished
 same size as object
 Enlarged
 virtual image
 Upright
 image at infinity (no image)
Describe the use of a single lens in a camera and the human eye
 In camera: single lens is used manually or automatic to focus light onto photosensitive Compare the functioning of the human eye with the functioning of the camera
The Functioning of eye Functioning of camera
surface (film) at the back of the camera.
camera
 In human eye: single lens is used automatic to focus light onto the retina through parts
accommodation (where the lens changes shape). Lens -convex (converging lens), automatic focusing of light -Convex (converging), manual or automatic focusing
Drawing ray diagrams to show how each forms an image on retina. Through process of accommodation where of light onto film or digital sensor (photosensitive
lens changes shape. surface) at the back of the camera.
Focusin -Cilliary muscles: stretches suspensory ligament to -Users adjust the focus for near and far or distant
g screw adjust the shape of the lens. objects.
-Ciliary muscle contract to make the lens fatter and
focus on near object or
-relax to make the lens flatter and focus on far away
objects.
Apertur -Iris: adjust the amount of light entering the eye by -Diaphragm: user adjusts amount of light entering the
e increasing or decreasing the size of the pupil. camera under different light conditions.
Shutter -Not applicable, but human have eyelids. -User controls the speed at which diaphragm opens
and closes and controlling exposure time of film.
Photose -Retina: detect light and convert it into light impulses -Allows the storage of image in photographic film or
nsitive that are sent along the optic nerve (a pair of cranial in memory card.
surface nerves to transfer visual information to the brain).
(film/di
gital
sensor

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Describe short sight and long sight and describe the correction of these eye defects - Explain the passage of light through a prism (dispersion) and identify the colours of the
(diverging lenses are only mentioned at this stage) spectrum produced from white light
State the two types of sight defects Dispersion: The spreading out of light rays into different rainbow colours.
 Short (near) sight (slightness) or myopia  Light is a mixture of colours which are separated by allowing light to pass
 Long (far) sight (slightness) or hyperopia through a triangular prism.
Describe short sightedness (myopia)  Triangular prism split light into different colours. SEE BELOW.
 Short sighted people cannot see (focus) distant objects clearly.  The longer the wavelength, the less refraction.
 The lens is too fat and the image is formed in front of the retina
 Violet is refracted more because it has the shortest wavelength.
Identify the colours of the spectrum produced from white light
(ROYGBIV)

Describe how to correct short sight defect (myopia)?

 By wearing spectacles fitted with diverging lens (concave), to diverge the light before
it reach the lens in the eye.

- Explain how rainbows can be formed by the internal reflection of light in water
 Rainbows are formed when light is refracted and reflected through spherical
raindrops.
 When light is reflected internally, dispersion takes place resulting in the
formation of a rainbow (spectrum of colours).
Rain drop
Describe long sightedness (hyperopia)
 People who are long sighted cannot see (focus) objects that are close to them.
 They cannot read without glasses, because the lens focuses light from a close object
behind the retina.

- Explain how mirages are formed as an optical illusion that uses the phenomena of
reflection and refraction
 Is a result of an optical illusion (when our senses give us false information).
Describe how to correct long sight defect (hyperopia)?  On a hot day, there seem to be a pool or film of water on the road. This is
 By wearing spectacles fitted with converging lens (convex lens), to converge the because of refraction.
light before it reach the lens in the eye.  The air near the road becomes hotter and less dense than the air above.The
difference in density causes light rays to bend and this is seen as a pool of
water.

Describe applications of the refraction of light in nature such as the rainbow, size and
position of objects under water and mirages to explain:

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Explain an optical illusion that uses the phenomenon of reflection and refraction
 Illusions are false appearance of shapes of objects or length.
 rod in river or water appears to bent
 coin or stone in water appears to be higher up as a results of refraction.

Real and apparent depth

 Apparent depth is a false depth.
 Real depth is the exact or actual depth.
 Apparent depths are caused by refraction of light as it moves from a medium
of low speed (water) to a medium of high speed (air).
 Parallel light rays are refracted parallel to each other away from the normal.

4.3.4 Electromagnetic spectrum

What is electromagnetic spectrum?
 Is the range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation and their respective
wavelengths and photon energies.
State the components of the electromagnetic spectrum
REMEMBERINGSLOGAN : [Rabbits Mate In Very Unusual eXpensive Garden
Describe the main features of the electromagnetic spectrum
 Radio waves Rabbits
 They travel in vacuum (through space)
 Microwaves Mate
 They travel at speed of approximately 3.0x108 (300 000km/s) in vacuum.
 Infrared light waves In
 They are all transverse waves.
 Visible light waves Very
 They all obey wave equation: speed (v) = frequency (ƒ) x wavelength (λ) [v =ƒλ]
 Ultraviolet light Unsual
 They travel in straight lines in the vacuum.
 X-rays eXpensive State that all e.m.f waves are:
 Gamma rays Gardens
 transverse waves
Place the components of electromagnetic spectrum in the correct order of frequency and
 travels with the same high speed in vacuum
wavelength
 speed at which e.m.f waves travels is 3.0 × 108 m/s
Describe the role of electromagnetic waves in:
- Radio and television communications (radio waves)
 Used for wireless transmission of sound messages
 Used for communication
 Used for maritime and aircraft navigation

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 Used to carries information in form of signal to bring music to radio and television. - Sterilisation (ultra violet)
NB:  Used to sterilize food and pharmaceutical products. E.g. UV light is used to sterilize
 radio waves have the longest wavelength and shortest frequency surgical equipment in operating theatres in hospitals.
 Radio wave has a frequency of between 10 000 HZ and 20 000 Hz.  Used to detect forged bank notes.
 1 000 000 Hz = 1 000 Hz = 1 MHz = 0.001 GHz.  Used to harden types of dental filling.
 Used for lighting effects in night clubs.
 Used to attract flying insects, which are than electrocuted by high voltage wires near
the lamp.
 Used to stimulate the body to produce vitamin D, which helps to combat vitamin D
deficiency and skin disorder.
Lamps

- Medicine and security (X-rays)

- Satellite television and telephones (microwaves)  Used by radiographer to detect breaks and fractures in bones.
 Used for radios  Used by medical expert to treat some cancers by applying concentrated beams of X-
 Used for sending signals to satellites. rays to abnormal cells.
 Used for beaming television and telephone signals round the country.  Used to find security threats in suitcases and cargo (load/goods) because X-rays pass
 Used in microwaves ovens for cooking food faster than in conventional ovens. through flesh, but not dense material like bones.
NB: X-ray machine
 Microwaves has a frequency of 5MHz and upwards

- Electrical appliances, remote controllers for televisions and intruder alarms (infrared)
radiation (radiant heat)
 Used in remote controls for household appliances.
- Optical fibres (visible light and infrared)
 Used for security devices like; burglar alarms, that use heat sensor.
 Used for light signals
 Used for locating victims in dangerous situations after earthquake and in hostage
 Used in optic fibres and infrared waves to transmit digital information.
situations.
 Used to see a rainbow of colours. (Dispersion).
 Used as infrared light for drying the paint on cars during manufacture.
 Used by plants to manufacture food (photosynthesis).
 Used in satellite and aircraft to detect and develop photographic films that allows
E.g rainbow colours.
pictures to be taken in the dark (just like flashes in our Smartphone).
E.g. a toaster

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- killing cancerous cells and detecting cracks in metals (gamma rays) Suggest the approximate range of audible frequencies for the healthy human ear (20 Hz to 20
 Used to kill cancerous cells, without difficult surgery in radiotherapy. 000 Hz).
 Used in tracers to detect body processes functioning and looking at still pictures.  Frequency of 20Hz – 20 000Hz (20 kHz).
 Used to kill microbes (sterilize) in food so that it can be kept fresh for loner time Note:
(process called irradiation).  Sounds wave above audible frequencies cannot be heard by human, because they
 Used to sterilize medical equipments. travel at higher speed. This type of sound are called ultrasonic sound or supersonic
NB: sound.
 Gamma rays have the shortest wavelength and highest frequency.  Sounds wave below audible frequencies cannot be heard by human, because they
E.g.. Tracer travel at lower speed. This type of sound are called infrasonic.
Discuss the effect of noise levels on human hearing
 Loud noise is unpleasant and can damage the ears.
 Causes impaired hearing.
 Causes hearing loss
Discuss the frequency of vibration in relation to the pitch of the sound
What is a pitch?
 How high or low the tone of sound is.
(Pitch is a term used to describe how a noise or musical notes sound)
Describe the effect of frequency on the pitch of the sound.
Describe the main dangers of the electromagnetic spectrum  An increase (high) frequency makes high pitch
 Internal heating of body tissues (microwaves)  A decrease (low) frequency makes low pitch.
 Skin burns (infrared)
 Damage cells, cause mutations and cell death that lead to cancer (UV, X-rays, gamma High pitch due to high frequency Low pitch due to low frequency
rays)
Outline the safety issues regarding the use of a microwave oven and X-rays
 Don’t operate microwave oven if the door does not close firmly or is bent.
 Do not heat water in microwave oven longer than recommended time.
 Use microwave-safe containers.
 Do not use metal or foil trim materials in the oven. NB: -high frequency=high note=high tone=high energy opposite
 Limit dose received by patients and staff when X-ray photographs are taken. -low frequency=low note=low tone=low energy
4.4 Sound Discuss the amplitude of vibration in relation to the loudness of the sound
Describe the production of sound by vibrating sources, how sound moves through the air and  A high amplitude makes a loud sound
how the ear receives sound waves  Low amplitude makes a quite sound
Describe how sound is produced. Low amplitude makes quite sound High amplitude makes a loud sound
 Sound is produced when sources vibrate.
For example
-guitar strings produce sound when they move.
-using ruler.
-using a tuning fork. Describe displayed waveforms on a cathode-ray oscilloscope or a PC oscilloscope (C.R.O)
NB: Loudness of the sound is measured in the unit decibels (dB). What is a cathode-ray oscilloscope (c.r.o)?
Describe how sound move through air. o Is an instrument used to measure voltage and frequency of a waveforms.
 Sound is a longitudinal wave that makes the molecules of air to move forward and State the uses of c.r.o
backward. This produces compressions and rarefactions (expansions). o To measure voltage
 In compression, the air pressure is greater than normal while in rarefaction the air o To measure frequency
pressure is less than normal. o To display waveforms
Describe how the ear receive the sound. List the components or parts of c.r.o
 The ears detect the changes in pressure caused by the sound wave. o Electron gun (contains; filament with cap(cathode), grid and two or three nodes)
 This change in pressure is transmitted through the ear by bones and hairs then o Fluorescent screen
transmitted as electrical impulse to the brain were the sound is interpreted. o Deflection tube (system) (consists of two parallel X-plates and Y-plates)

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Deflection due to the X-plates

When voltage is applied to X-plates only.

o Electron beam sweeps across the screen.

o It forms a straight horizontal line and return to start again.
NB: The applied voltage on X-plates must be in saw-tooth shape wave, to make the
beam sweep across the screen and quickly go back to start.
Describe the use of a c.r.o. to display waveforms
When a.c voltage is applied on the Y-plates at the same time as a saw-tooth d.c voltage is
applied on X-plates.

X-plates are vertical on sides of electron beam

X-plates deflect the beam horizontally in x-direction when p.d is applied across them.
X-plates make the electron beam sweep across the screen and form a straight horizontal line.
Then it goes back to start again.
Y-plates are horizontally above and below the electron beam.
Y-plates deflect the beam vertically in the y-direction when p.d is applied across them.
Deflection due to the Y-plates
If there is zero voltage across both voltage (by keeping p.d between X-plates and Y-plates
equal to zero)

o The beam falls on centre of screen as a bright dot)

Steady d.c voltage across Y-plates with no voltage on X-plates.
o It will cause a sin wave to form on the screen as the two diagrams above.
o Sin wave formed due to a.c voltage on Y-plates causing beam to move up and down,
and d.c voltage on X-plates causing beam to move horizontally across the screen.
How can sin wave be illustrated?
o One learner move a pencil up and down on clean sheet of paper, while another learner
o The beam move upwards if the upper plate is made positive and lower plate negative moves the paper to the right.
(vice versa).
o In this case the lower plate repel the electron beam and the upper plate attract it.
o Electron beam will appear as bright spot above the zero point.
When A.C voltage across Y-plates and zero voltage on X-plates.

o The beam moves rapidly up and down the centre of the screen.
o Its movement will form vertical straight line.
o A.c voltage makes the charge on plates to change quickly to positive and negative on
plates. A.c also changes in magnitude (size).

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What is a vacuum?
 An empty space or space without matter, where there is no oscillations and sound.
Explain why astronauts on the moon can see each other but cannot hear each other?
 They cannot hear each other because sound cannot travel in vacuum but light can.
Suggest why a flash of lightning is seen before the sound during thunderstorm?
 Because the speed of light is faster than the speed of sound in air (gas).
Design and conduct an experiment to show how sound is reflected

An experiment on the reflection of sound

Materials needed
 Two metal or cardboard tubes
 Ticking watch
 A board
Procedures or methods
 Two metal or cardboard tubes are set up, inclined to one another in a horizontal plane,
Displayed waveforms and pointing towards a vertical flat surface of any hard material, e.g., a drawing-board
High pitch same loudness Same pitch softer sound A pure note (Fig. 27.5).
 A ticking watch is placed near the end of one tube and the ear is placed at the
end of the other tube.
Observation and results
 Sound waves pass down the first tube and are reflected from the board,
 The loudness of the sound heard through the second tube is found to be a maximum
when the board is adjusted so that the normal to it lies in the plane of the tubes and
A noise makes equal angles with their axes.
 Under these conditions the incident and reflected waves and the normal are in
the same plane and the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
 Sound thus obeys the same laws of reflection as light.

Explain that a medium (solid, liquid and gas) is required in order to transmit sound waves
 Sound travels the fastest in solids than liquids and gases, because particles are closed
together.
 Sound travels faster in liquid than in gases, because particles in liquids are a bit close
together.
 Sound travels slowest in gases, because particles are far from each other to carry What is echo?
vibrations along.  Is a reflected sound wave.
Explain how echoes are produced
 Sound waves and Echoes
 The sound waves left your mouth, traveled through the air, hit a hard surface, such as
a wall, and then bounced back again, causing you to hear the sound again.
 An echo is made by sound waves bouncing off a hard surface
Discuss how human use echoes
 By fisherman (fishing boat / ship) to locate position of fish shoal (group of fish
swimming).
 By explorer (fisherman) to find the depth of the sea. This is being done by using
under water echoes known as echo sounding SONAR (sound navigation ranging).
 In hospitals in ultrasound-scanning to view the 3 dimension picture of foetus in
pregnant women.

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 By submarine periscope.
Discuss how animals use echoes
 By bats to find its way in darkness when flying.
 By bats to locate (navigate/identify) their food (Echolocation)
 By Dolphins and Whales for them to see better and communicate underwater.
Describe a measurement of the speed of sound in air using an echo from a vertical flat
surface 4. Calculate. Use equation: Speed = distance ÷ time (. To work out the speed of the
What you need: sound in metres per second, divide the distance in metres by the average time in
 Two or three people seconds. For example 2 x 170 metres (340 m) divided by 2 x 0.50 seconds (1s) [340
 Two wooden blocks m ÷ 1 s]= 340 m/s. You have calculated the speed of sound.
 A stopwatch
 A notepad
 Pen or pencil
 Measuring tape 100 m
 Large and open space.

NB:
 If value of complete echo [distance and time, whichever applies] is given,
remember to divide it by two. Echo is to and from sound wave.
 Some equation to use:
Procedures or methods:
1. Measure distance. Pick two points in the area that are at least 170 m apart, but should Speed of sound = or Speed of sound = Speed of sound =
see each other. Measure distance between the two points using measuring wheel or
online map or measuring tape and make a note of it in your notepad. Where: d = distance in metres (m)
t = time in seconds (s)
v = speed of sound in metres per second (m/s)
Examples:
1. A fishing boat uses SONAR to detect a shoal of fish. A short pulse of sound waves is
emitted from the boat and the echo from the shoal is detected 0.1 s later. The sound
waves travels through seawater at 1 500 m/s. How far below the boat is the shoal of
fish?
2. Clack. One person should stand with the blocks at first point, while another person 2. A bat hanging from a tree sends out sound waves to determine if there are any insects
stands at the other point with the stop watch and signal to the friend holding the block nearby. If it takes 0.12 seconds for the echo to come back to the bat, how far away is
to clack them together hard. the insect? Take speed of sound as 243 m/s1.

5. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

5.1 Electrostatics and electric charge
What is electrostatics or static electricity?
 The build up of charges on the surface of materials.
What causes charge?
 The imbalance (unequal) of protons (positive charge) and electrons (negative
3. Time the sound. The person at the other end should start the stop watch when they see charges).
the two blocks hit each other. Then press stop watch when they hear the sound. (note: How do atoms (objects) become charged?
your timing will varies (differ) slightly as reaction times varies. For accuracy
 Atoms or objects become charged by either losing or gaining electrons.
estimate repeat the experiment 10 times, making a note of each timing. Then add them
 If an atom gains electrons it becomes negatively charged.
all up and divide by 10 to find the average).
 If an atom loses electrons it becomes positively charged.
State the formula to calculate charge:
 charge (Q) = current (I) x time (t)

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Describe simple experiments to show the production of charges by friction  Bring charged object closer to metal cap
Apparatus or materials needed How do we detect charges using gold leaf electroscope?
 plastic ruler (polythene ruler)  Rub plastic ruler with a cloth and bring it closer to metal cap of electroscope
 tissue papers or cloth or duster  The gold leaf move away (repelled/deflects) from metal plate
 papers  If the charged ruler is removed the gold leaf collapsed or falls
 scissor  A positive charge remains on metal cap and metal plate and gold leaf becomes
Procedure negatively charged and repels each other.
 Tear small tissue/ paper into small pieces using a scissor and place them on a
table/desk.
 Bring plastic ruler near to pieces of paper. What happens?
 Rub the plastic ruler with a cloth or duster.
 Bring the rubbed ruler near the pieces of paper. What happens now?
Observations (what happens)
 First time you brought a plastic ruler near pieces of paper nothing happened.
 But when you brought a rubbed plastic ruler near pieces of paper it picked up
(attracted) the papers. This means you charged the ruler by friction.

Other examples by diagrams

Detection of electrostatic charges (using gold leaf electroscope)

What instrument is used to detect the presence of small amount of charges?

 A gold leaf electroscope
Components / parts of a gold leaf electroscope
Metal cap or disc
Insulating plug
Metal rod or stem (copper)
Vacuum

Gold leaf

Metal plate Glass window

How to discharge a charged gold leaf electroscope?
 By touching metal cap with your finger
Wooden or earthed metal
What is earthing? case
 The act of connecting charged object to the earth
How do we charge a gold leaf electroscope?
 Touch a metal cap with charged object

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 Is a region in which an electric charge experiences a force due to its charge.

Distinguish between electrical conductors and insulators using the simple electron model and
give typical examples
 Electrical conductors are any material that allows the flow of electrical current to
pass through.
 Touch metal cap with a conductor  Insulators are any materials that do not allow the flow of electrical current to pass
through.
Simple electron model of electrical conductors and insulators

State that there are two types of electrostatic charges

 Positive charges (+)
 Negative charges (-)
Atomic structure from chemistry section can be used to explain charges Give typical examples of conductors:
 Copper
 Iron
 Silver
 Nichrome
 Aluminium
State the SI unit in which charge is measured  Graphite (lead in pencil)
 Coulombs (C)  Eureka.
State that unlike charges attract and that like charges repel  Salt solutions
 Properties of like and unlike charges Give typical examples of insulators:
 Like charges repel each other  Plastic
 Wood
 Rubber
 glass
 Unlike charges attract each other  Ceramics
 Air
 Oil
State the direction of the electric lines of force and describe simple electric field patterns,
including the electric field around a point charge and between two parallel plates with
 Neutral atoms have no effects on one another opposite charges
State the direction of the electric lines of force
 Always point away from positive charge (+) to negative charge (-).

State the uses of electrostatics

 Photocopying Describe simple electric field patterns
 Electrostatic precipitator  It occurs between like charges similar to magnetic field between like poles.
 Ink-jet printing  It occurs between unlike charges similar to magnetic field between unlike poles.
Explain lightning  Electric field pattern is strongest where they are close together and weakest where
 Is a discharge from a cloud. they are far from each other.
Describe an electric field

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Describe simple electric field patterns around a point charge

 Magnetic field points outwards from positive charge and inwards towards the
Describe and explain charging by induction
negative charge.
Define induction
 Is a method used to charge an object without actually touching the object to
any other charged object.
 Charging by induction in the presence of positive charge.

 Charging by induction in the presence of negative charge.

Describe simple electric field patterns between two parallel plates with opposite charges
 Electric filed pattern points from positive to negative point charge.

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5.2 .1 Current Explain and distinguish between

 State that a current is a flow of charge and that current is measured in amperes [A] - Alternating current (a.c) and direct current (d.c)
using an ammeter Direct current (d.c) Alternating current (a.c)
Define electric current Current that flows in one direction from one terminal Current that changes direction by moving to and from
 The flow of charge in a closed circuit. to another. in cycles.
How do the electric current flows? Example of source that produces d.c are Cell and Example of devices/source that produce a.c is
 Electric current flows from positive (+) terminal to a negative (-) terminal. Battery. Generators or main supply.
State that electric current is measured (SI-unit) in:
 Amperes (A) (NB: 1 A = 1 000 mA) Electricity used in cars, radios, cell phones and torch Electricity used in schools, offices or homes are a.c
 Coulomb per second (1 A = 1 C/s) are d.c
Name the instrument used to measure electric current:
 Ammeter
State and use the correct way to connect an ammeter in a circuit. - The direction of the electron flow and the direction of the conventional current
 It is always connected in series. Direction of electron flow Direction of conventional current
Series circuit diagram The flow of electrons (negative charge) from The conventional current flows from positive to
negative terminal to positive terminal of a cell negative terminal of a cell.

5.2.2 Potential difference and electromotive force

Recall and use the equation of electric current = charge ÷ time taken [I= Q/t] Define electromotive force (e.m.f)
 current (I) = charge (Q) ÷ time taken (t)  Is a maximum amount of energy per unit charge supplied by the battery.
I=Q÷t  It is measured as the energy dissipated (supplied) by a source in driving unit charge
Where: I = current (A) round a complete circuit.
Q= charge (C) State that e.m.f. equation/formula is
t = time taken (s)  Electromotive force = total energy ÷ charge e.m.f or V = E ÷ Q
Examples: or
1. If a charge of 150 C flows through a lamp every 2 minutes, calculate the electric current Electromotive force = total work done ÷ charge e.m.f or V = W ÷ Q
through the lamp. where: e.m.f = electromotive force in volts (V)
2. How much charge passes a point in a circuit in three minutes if the ammeter reading is 5 E = energy in joules (J)
A? W = work done in joules (J)
3. A battery in a circuit makes it possible for charges to flow for half a minute. The current in Q = charge in coulombs (C)
such a circuit is 4 A. calculate the amount of charge that passes through the switch if it E.m.f is measured (SI-unit) in:
remains closed for half a minute.  Volts (V)
Define potential difference (p.d)
Distinguish between static electricity and current electricity  Is the work done (energy transferred) in moving a charge through the circuit
Static electricity Current electricity component.
The build up of charge The flow of charge in a closed circuit  Is a difference in electrical potential between two points in electrical circuit.
Result of lose or gain electron through rubbing. Has source like battery, conducted along State the equation/formula for potential difference (p.d) across a component
wires at constant power.  Potential difference = work done in the component/charge passed through the
Move by transferring electrons from one surface to another Move by transferring electrons from one component
through air in uncontrolled and sudden manner atom to another in controlled manner. V=W÷Q
Used only in specific applications, photocopying, ink-jet printing Used for all applications that need power. where: V = voltage in volts (V)
and electrostatic precipitators, by using attractive force between W = work done in joules (J)
positive and negative charges. Q = charge in coulombs (C)

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State the SI- unit of both both e.m.f and p.d across a circuit component 5.2.4 Relationship between current and voltage in an electric conductor
 Are measured in volts [V] (Ohm’s Law)
NB: I volt is equal to 1 joule per second (1 V = 1 J/C) sketch and interpret graphically and by calculation the relationship between current and
State the correct way to connect a voltmeter voltage in an electrical conductor at a fixed temperature
 Always connected in parallel in a circuit.

What enables current to flow around a circuit? Example:

1. Use the graph to calculate resistance when:
 Potential difference between the terminals of a cell.
a. Voltage is 12.0 V and current is 3.0 A.
State the difference between e.m.f. and p.d
b. Current is 1.5 A and potential difference is 6.0 V.
Electromotive force (e.m.f) Potential difference (p.d)
NB:
Total energy per charge The work per charge in a part of the circuit
 The constant number you obtain as your answer in a and b is the resistance of
5.2.3 Resistance
that wire used in the graph above.
Define resistance [R]
State Ohm’s Law and discuss the temperature limitation on Ohm’s Law
 Is the tendency of a conductor to oppose the flow of charges. State Ohm’s Law:
State the SI-unit in which resistance is measured
 Current through a metallic conductor at a constant temperature is directly proportional
 ohms [Ω] to the potential difference (voltage) between its two ends..
State the instrument we use to measure resistance Ohm’s law is summarized by:
 ohmmeter  Resistance = voltage ÷ current
State factors that influence the resistance of a metal (conductor): - Dividing the voltage by current will always give the same
 Length of the wire (how long the conductor is): the longer the wire, the greater the (constant) result, this constant number is the resistance of that
resistance. Therefore, resistance is directly proportional to the length of a wire (R α wire. (Try on the graph above)
l). NB:
 Thickness (cross-sectional area) of the wire (how big the wire is): the thinner the  The law is true when temperature of the wire and other physical properties are
wire, the greater the resistance. Therefore, resistance is inversely proportional to the kept constant.
cross-sectional area of a wire (R α ) Resistance can also be defined as
 Temperature of the conductor (how hot or cold the wire is): the hotter the wire, the  Potential difference divided by current
greater the resistance. As the temperature of a wire increases, the resistance also Recall and use equation for resistance
increases. Therefore, , resistance is directly proportional to the temperature (R α T).  Resistance = voltage across the component / current through the component
 The type of conductor or material used (what the wire is made of): some metals R=V/I
have higher resistance than a wire that are of same size but made from other metals. Where: R = resistance of the wire in ohms (Ω)
- copper is a better conductor of electricity because copper has less resistance than V = voltage in volts (V)
iron. I = current in amperes (A)
- Copper wire has a low resistance but nichrome and tungsten wire have higher Examples:
resistance. 1. Calculate the resistance of a lamp if a voltage of 12 V across it causes a current of 4A.
Exercise 2. A television runs off a 12 V battery, and has a resistance of 30 Ω. How much current
1. Which of these conductors causes greater resistance? Motivate. will it take?
3. Calculate the pd across a 10 Ω resistor carrying a current of 2 A.

2. Which of the conductors causes less resistance? Motivate/ Describe an experiment to measure the resistance of a metallic conductor using a voltmeter
and an ammeter and make the necessary calculations
PAGE 371 -372 SOLID
3. Which conductor will cause high resistance? Explain.
W 36 °C X 90 °C

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Question 1 Describe an investigation a student could do to find how the resistance of a metal
A student sets up a circuit like the one shown below: sample varies with temperature. The student uses the equipment shown.
Include in your answer:
 how the student should use the equipment
 the measurements the student should make
 how the student should use these measurements to determine the resistance
 how to make sure the results are valid [6 marks]
Answer
Describe how the student could use her circuit to investigate how the current through 1. read the voltage and current and record for the starting temperature
a filament lamp affects its resistance. [4 marks] 2. apply heat
Answer 3. remove the source of heat and stir before taking readings
The ammeter is used to measure current. 4. read the voltage and current for at least three different temperatures
The voltmeter is used to measure potential difference. 5. plot a graph of resistance against temperature
The resistance of the variable resistor is adjusted to change the current in the circuit or 6. determine R from: R = V ÷ I
the potential difference across the filament lamp.
The resistance of the lamp can be calculated using: .
Question 2 For this type of question, a list of clear and logical instructions is needed. The answer
A resistor is a component that is used in an electric circuit. should be written so that someone can easily follow the set of instructions, even if
they have not done the experiment before.
Distinguish between ohmic (e.g. fixed resistors) and non-ohmic (e.g. light bulbs and semi-
conductors) conductors and sketch their V/I characteristic graphs
Ohmic conductor Non-Ohmic conductor
These are conductors that obey Ohm’s law, These are conductors that do not obey Ohms
because the resistance is constant and they law, because the resistance increases as the
Describe how a student would use the circuit to take the readings necessary to produce a perfect straight line graph showing wire gets hotter and they produces a curved
determine the resistance of the resistor. [6 marks] that voltage and current are directly line graph because of the change in
Answer proportional at constant temperature. temperature.
1. switch on the circuit Examples of Ohmic conductors: fixed Example of non-Ohmic conductor: light
2. read both the ammeter and voltmeter resistors, copper, nichrome and Eureka wire. bulbs filament and semi-conductors (diodes
3. adjust the variable resistor to change the current and transistors).
4. take new readings from the ammeter and voltmeter
Sketch a graph for an Ohmic and non-Ohmic conductor.
5. draw a voltage-current graph Ohmic conductor (fixed resistors)
6. use the equation: resistance = voltage ÷ current
For this type of question, a list of clear and logical instructions is needed. The answer
should be written so that someone can easily follow the set of instructions, even if
they have not done the experiment before.
Question 3
When some metals are heated the resistance of the metal changes.
The equipment for investigating how the resistance of a metal changes when it is
heated is shown in the diagram.
Non-Ohmic conductor (light bulbs)

Semi-conductors (diodes or transistors)

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To switch to main supply

Relay coil

Protect us from shock

Semi-conductor (thermistor) Earth / ground
Motor Convert electrical energy into kinetic energy
M
Generator Convert kinetic energy to electrical energy
G
Loudspeaker Convert electrical energy to sound energy
5.3 Electric circuits (series and parallel)
d.c supply + - Supplies direct current
Circuit components
Name Circuit symbol Functions
Supplies alternating current
Bulb / Filament Convert electrical energy into light energy
a.c supply
lamp
Step-up and step down voltage
Transformer
Conductor/ To conduct electric current
connector Thermistor Regulates voltage, temperature and protects the
circuit
Ammeter To measure electric current in series circuit
A Galvanometer It detects electric current
Voltmeter To measure voltage (p.d) between two points in
V
parallel
What is an electric circuit?
Switch open To break or open the circuit.
 Is a closed path in which current can flow.
Two-way switch To break or close the circuit
Draw circuit diagrams with power sources (cell, battery or a.c. mains), switches (closed and
open), resistors (fixed and variable), bulbs/lamps, ammeters, voltmeters, fuses, and relays
Close switch To close or complete the circuit
1. Draw a circuit with two cells in series and three bulbs connected in parallel, an
Cell Convert chemical energy into electrical energy
ammeter, a variable resistor and a voltmeter to measure the potential difference
Battery (Two or Convert chemical energy into electrical energy
across each cell.
more cells)
2. Sketch a simple circuit that includes a battery, closed switch, and light bulb. Then
Fixed resistor Reduces current make a circuit diagram to represent your circuit, using standard circuit symbols.
3. Use electrical circuit symbols to sketch a circuit diagram of the circuit below.

Rheosta/variable Vary (change) the current at required level in

resistor the circuit.

Fuse Breaks the circuit if there is too much current.

Diode Rectifies or changes a.c to d.c.

Electric bell
Convert electrical energy to sound energy

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State the current in series circuit

 Current is the same at any point (resistors) in the circuit.

Calculations
IT=0.3A
I1=
I2=
I3=

NB:
 Ammeter have to be connected in series in the circuit.
State the current in parallel circuit
 Current from the source is the sum of the currents in the separate branches (resistors).

IT = I1+I2+I3
=
=
 If the components have different resistances, current through each component may be
different but it when you add them together they must add up to the total amount of
current leaving the source.

IT = I1+I2+I3
=
State the sum of the potential difference (p.d.) across the components in a series circuit
 The sum of the p.d. across the circuit is equal to the sum of p.d. across each
component.

VT=V1+V2+V3
=

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NB: Resistors in parallel

 Voltmeters have to be connected parallel to the components (resistor/bulb/battery) it  When resistors are connected in parallel the total resistance goes down, so resistors in
is measuring. parallel reduces the total resistance.
 If the resistance are not equal they may have different amounts of potential difference  Formula: = + + + ….
across them but when added up they must always equal the p.d. supplied by the cell or Examples:
source.
 Find total resistance in the following:

(a) 3Ω (b) 4Ω (c) 4Ω

3Ω
5Ω 6Ω 5Ω
VT=V1+V2+V3 5Ω
=
State the potential difference (p.d) for parallel circuit (d) (e)
 P.d is the same across each branch and equal to the p.d supplied by the source.

Discuss the advantage of making a battery from several identical sources of e.m.f. arranged
in parallel
 Greater voltage stability when serving loads that draws more current.
VT= 12V  Longer life given the same loading. (Two batteries in parallel provide the same, but
V1= more stable voltage, with twice the current (amp) hours as one battery).
V2= Explain what happens when increasing the number of cells in series in a circuit
V3=  Increases the current flowing around the circuit
State that the combined resistance of two or more resistors in parallel is less than that of  Increases the potential difference across components in the circuit
each resistor by itself State the use of variable resistors (rheostat), fuses and relays
Recall and use the equations RT = R1 + R2 + … for combining resistances in series and Variable resistor (rheostat) Fuses Relays
1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +… for combining resistances in parallel Vary (change) the current at Melts and breaks the circuit if To switch to main supply to
Calculating total resistance of resistors required level in the circuit. there is too much current flow. control, protects and
Resistors in series operates various circuits or
 Increasing the number of resistors in series causes the total resistance to increase. Controls : volume, brightness and Used in : cars, stoves, power system.
 The total resistance of resistors in series is equal to the sum of the resistance of the voltage. surge detector, generators bulbs
resistors. and etc.
 Formula: Total resistance (Rtot) = R1 + R2 + R3 +…
Example: 5.4 Electric power
 Find total resistance in the following: Define electric power
(a) 4Ω 5Ω 6Ω (b) 5Ω 3Ω  The rate at which electrical energy is transferred to other sources of energy by an
electric circuit.
(c) What is the SI-unit in which power is measured?
 Watt (W)
 Kilowatt (kW) [NB: 1 kW = 1 000 W]
What is the SI-unit of energy?
 Joules (J) or kilo joules (kJ)
What is the SI-unit of time?
 Seconds (s) or hours (h)

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Recall and use the equations power = voltage × current [P=VI], and energy = voltage × Distinguish between mains electricity (a.c 220 V) and electricity from batteries (d.c low
current × time [E=VIt] and energy = power x time [E=Pt] voltage)
What is the equation for calculating power? Alternating current (a.c) Direct current (d.c)
 Power (P) = voltage (V) x current (I) [P=VI] Electron change directions so that the current changes from Charges flow only in one direction
 Electrical energy (E) = voltage (V) x current (I) x time (t) [E=VIt] positive to negative at particlular frequency (50 cycles per
 Energy (E) = power (P) x time (t) [E=Pt] second in Namibia.
Homes are wired for a.c Some radios are d.c
Where: P= power in (W or kW) More efficient for sending electricity over long distances because Voltage is not easy to change and a lot of
V= voltage in (V) the voltage is easy to change (use of step up transformer for energy is wasted when transmitting large
E= energy in (J) transmission and step down transformers for home use) currents over distances.
t= time in (s) Describe the uses of electricity in heating:
Example:  To produce heat in kettles and heaters
1. Calculate electric power of a bulb that is rated at 10 V and 0,6 A.  To produce heat for cooking and for radios
2. A potential difference of 40 V drives a current of 3 A through a resistor. How much NB: Nichrome wire is used in electrical stoves and heaters as heating element.
potential energy is converted into heat during 10 s? Describe the uses of electricity in lighting:
3. Light bulb is marked 15 W. Calculate the energy converted to heat and light in 15  To produce lights when connected in parallel in houses, school or offices
min.  To produce lights when connect in series
4. What is the current for an electric circuit that is running on 60 W power and 5 V? NB:
=Tungsten filament is used in light bulbs
Interpret the power rating of bulb/lamps and other electrical appliances and the energy =Argon and Nitrogen are filled in filament bulbs to prevent reaction between oxygen and
consumption in kilowatt hours tungsten.
=new developed light bulbs uses fluorescent tube instead of filament.
Formula: Describe the uses of electricity in bells
 E=Pxt/v  To switch on and off the circuits (pushing bell switch completes the circuit and bell
sounds; releasing the bell switch circuit is incomplete and the bell does not sound)
1. A heating element in a kettle is 1.2 kW. It takes 2 minutes to heat a litre of water. Describe the uses of electricity in relay:
(a) Calculate the amount of electrical energy used if the voltage supply is 220 V.  It opens and closes another electric switch which is able to deal with larger amount of
(b) What is the current flowing through the element? current
(c) Calculate the cost of electricity if the cattle is used for 30 minutes everyday and if  It interconnects electric circuits by making or breaking contact when voltage is
one unit costs 20 cents, in the month of April. supplied (electromagnetisms).
Describe the uses of electricity in motors:
Calculate the cost of using electrical appliances where the unit is the kWh
 In drilling machine
Equation for calculating cost of using electrical appliances
 To produce turning effects in electric motor
 Cost of electricity = power (kW) x time (h) x cost (N$ per kWh)
 In fans, hair dryers, shavers, washing machines
1. An electric bulb with a power rating of 100 W has been used for 10 hours in a month.
State the dangers of electricity caused by damaged insulation, overheating of electric cables,
Calculate the amount of electrical energy the bulb has consumed in the month.
overloading of sockets (multiple plugs on one socket) and damp conditions
2. The electricity supplier charges for each unit or kilowatt hour used. If 1 kWh costs
State the dangers of electricity involve:
N$1.14, what is the cost of using the bulb?
Damaged insulation
3. The rating plate for an electric hair dryer is given below:
 Gives electric shock (current flows into bare wires and charges the appliance)
Model: LHOPE-1979  Causes short circuit (when bare live wire touches a bare neutral wire)
Overheating of electric cables
1 500 W 200 V 40 Hz
 Heat up wire and causes fire
If the dryer is used for 30 min a day, and the cost of electricity is N$1.995/kWh, how Overloading of sockets (multiple plugs on one socket)
much would it cost to use everyday?  Causes wire to be heated up which cause fire.
Damp condition
 Cause electric shock
5.5 Electricity in the home Discuss the importance of safety devices, including earthing, circuit breakers, placing
switches in the live wire, circuit breaker settings, double insulation, fuses and fuse ratings

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State safety devices of electricity

 Placing switches in live wire
 Fuses and fuse rating
 Earthing
 Circuit breaker settings
 Double insulation
Describe the importance of safety devices of electricity
Earthing
 Allow the current to flow through the earth wire to the ground instead of the human
body.
 Protects us from shock.
Circuit breaker settings or earth leakage circuit breakers
 Breaks the circuit faster during the power surge.
Fuses and fuse ratings
 It allow a certain current to flow through it. This prevents appliances from surges
(unexpected high values in current).
 Fuse rating implies that if appliance requires 6 A fuse, use fuse rating of 7 A or 8 A
for appliance to work normally.
Double insulation
 To avoid electrical part inside not to touch each other or body of appliances.
Placing switches in a live wire Discuss how electrical energy in the home can be conserved
 To turn off and isolate the appliances from power supply when not in use making it  Switch off all the lights when you sleep and when no one in the room
safe to touch.  Remove anything in the socket when not in use e.g a charger.
Describe how to wire a mains plug safely, state the meaning of the terms live, neutral and  When boiling water use a kettle instead of a pot.
earth and be able to identify the wires by colour code
 Do not set freezing temperature lower than necessary.
Describe the wiring of an electrical plug
 Do not open refrigerator door needlessly
1. green/yellow is the earth wire connected to earth (used for safety precautions)
2. brown (previously red) is the live wire is connected to the live terminal (carries high  Keep oven door completely closed until finished cooking.
voltage making it very dangerous, gives serious shock and death).
3. blue (previously black) is the neutral wire (completes the circuit, no electric shock from 5.6 Simple phenomena of magnetism
this wire). State the properties of magnets
 Magnets have north and south poles
 North Pole of a magnet always points at the north pole of the earth.
 There are magnetic forces between magnets.
 Like poles of magnets repel each other.
 Unlike poles of magnets attract each other.
Explain magnetism and induced magnetism in terms of alignment of magnetic dipoles
(molecular magnets)
Explain magnetism
 A non-contact force that attract or repel some metals.
Explain induced magnetism in terms of alignment of magnetic dipoles (molecular magnets)
 In ferromagnetic materials, molecular magnets or dipoles are arranged in disorderly
manner.

Unmagnetised

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 When magnetic material comes close to a magnet molecules magnets (dipoles) Method or procedure
behave like tiny magnets and rearrange in an orderly way to point in the same 1. Place a permanent bar magnet on clean sheet of paper and mark its outline. (not to
direction by grouping in magnetic domains. miss the point even if it moves during experiment). See diagram below.

Magnetised
 These ordered dipoles collectively form a magnet.
State that the Earth has bar-magnet like properties and that a magnet freely suspended will
align itself with the Earth’s magnetic field (convention: the north-seeking pole will be termed
the “north pole” of the magnet)
State that the Earth has bar-magnets like properties and magnet freely suspended
 A freely suspended magnet will always align itself with the Earth’s magnetic field
through convection. 2. Place plotting compass near the north the north pole of the magnet.
 North-seeking pole will be termed the (“north pole” of the magnet). 3. Mark a dot to show the direction in which the north of the compass needle points.
Distinguish between ferrous and non-ferrous materials 4. Then move the plotting compass so that the south of the compass needle points
Ferrous (ferromagnetic) materials Non-ferrous (non-ferromagnetic) materials towards the dot you marked.
Materials that can be attracted or repelled by Materials that cannot be attracted or repelled 5. Mark another dot to show the direction in which the north of the compass needle
magnets. by magnets. points.
Example: Iron, nickel and cobalt Example: copper, aluminium and other
metals and non-metals.
State that ferromagnetic materials are:
 Iron
 Nickel
 Cobalt
 Alloys (steel)
State non-ferromagnetic materials are:
 Aluminium & Aluminium Alloys.
 Copper.
 Brass.
 Lead. 6. Repeat step 4 and 5 until you reach the other pole (South) of the magnet.
 Zinc. Observation and results
 Stainless Steel.  North pole of compass needle points away from north pole of magnet (repelled).
 Electrical Cable.
 Direction gradually changes as the compass is moved, until it reaches the south pole
Explain the magnetic field lines of forces around a magnet.
of the magnet.
 Magnetic fields lines always move from North Pole to South Pole.
 North pole of compass needle points towards the south pole of the magnet.
What is magnetic field lines?
 The area where a magnetic force has an effect on magnetic material.
 Magnetic field lines shows the strength and direction of the magnetic field.
Type of magnets.
 Bar magnet
 Horseshoe magnet
Describe an experiment to show the magnetic field around a bar magnet
Aim: To investigate the pattern and direction of the magnetic field around a bar magnet.
Materials needed:
 Permanent bar magnet
 Clean sheet of paper
 Plotting compass
 Pencil

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Conclusion 5.7 Electromagnetic effects

 Experiment showed how to draw the magnetic field lines around a bar magnet. 5.7.1 Electromagnetism
 Experiment proved that magnetic field lines run in direction from south pole to north 5.7.1.1 Forces on a current carrying conductor
pole inside the bar magnet and from north pole to south pole outside (around) the bar
magnet. Describe an experiment to demonstrate that a current carrying conductor in a straight
conductor has an induced magnetic field around it
Draw and explain the pattern of field lines around a bar magnet and a horseshoe magnet Aim: To show that magnetic field is set up around a current –carrying conductor in a straight
conductor.
Bar magnet Horseshoe magnet Materials needed:
 Rectangular piece of stiff cardboard.
 2 m length copper wire (and a thick conductor if available)
 Plotting compass (any number).
 4 cells
 Insulated retort stand (if available)
 A switch (optional)
Drawing magnetic field lines around two unlike poles of a magnet facing each other What to do or procedure
1. Punch a hole through stiff cardboard.
2. Support cardboard with retort stand (insulated not conductor)
3. Pass copper wire (vertical) through the hole in the cardboard and do not connect to
N S N S S N S N cells or battery. (if white blank page available punch it and put it on top of cardboard).
4. Place plotting compass (or iron filling) on cardboard.
5. Close the switch (if need be tap the card gently)
Drawing magnetic field lines around two like poles of a magnet facing each other 6. Note magnetic field pattern shown by the direction of the plotting compass needle.

N S S N S N N S

Magnetic field lines around a bar magnet using iron fillings

7. Open the switch and change the polarity (terminals of cells) connection to the circuit.
8. Repeat step 6 and 7 again.
Observation and conclusions
 Needle of plotting compass moved to show direction of magnetic field set up around a
current-carrying conductor.
 Pattern shows circular magnetic field around the conductor..
Iron fillings around bar magnet iron fillings around horseshoe magnet  Direction of magnetic field changes when the polarity of the battery is changed.
Describe and explain the difference between the design and use of permanent magnets and
electromagnets (as used in e.g. a bell and a d.c. motor)
Permanent (hard) magnet Electromagnets (Temporary (soft) magnet)
 Made from hard magnetic materials  Made from soft magnetic materials
which are difficult to magnetised but which are easily magnetised but lose
stay magnetized for long time (do not their magnetism easily.
lose their magnetism easily).  Strength can be adjusted by the
 Strength depends on the material amount of electric current allowed to
used. flow into it.
 Example: Steel  Example: Iron

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Right-hand grip rule demonstrating current-carrying conductor in straight conductor  copper wire
 iron fillings.
 4 cells or battery
 A switch (optional)
What to do or method or procedure
1. Punch a set of parallel holes through the cardboard or paper.
2. Coil a length of insulated copper wire through the holes.
3. Complete the circuit by connecting a switch and a battery.
4. Close the switch and tap the card or paper gently.
Observation
 Iron fillings arranged the way it arranges around a bar magnet.
Right-hand grip rule demonstrating current-carrying solenoid
Describe an experiment to demonstrate that a current carrying a solenoid has an induced
magnetic field around it

NB: solenoid German word meaning:

solen: pipe
Oides: shape

Aim: To investigate the properties of current-carrying solenoid as a magnet. Sketch the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire (both shape and direction of
Materials needed: magnetic field lines are required, the direction can be found from the right-hand grip rule)
 Rectangular piece of stiff cardboard.
 copper wire
 Plotting compass (any number).
 4 cells or battery
 A switch (optional)
What to do or method or procedure
1. Make a solenoid by coiling copper wire into cylindrical shape Magnetic field around current-carrying conductor into and out of the paper
2. Attach coil to a battery.
3. Place the compass near the coil. What do you observe?
4. Point your right thumb in the direction of the current flow (blue arrow in
diagram below and your finger will curl (bent) in direction of magnetic field

Sketch the magnetic field around a current carrying solenoid (both shape and direction of
magnetic field lines are required, the direction can be found from the right-hand grip rule)

Observation and conclusion

 Plotting compass needle deflects and point towards magnetic field like that of magnet.
OR

Aim: To find out is a solenoid is a magnet.

Materials needed:
 Rectangular piece of cardboard or paper.

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5. Wind another layers of the coil on the nail in the same direction as the first layer.
Repeat step 2.
6. Place electromagnet on the table or desk and place a sheet of paper over it. Sprinkle
iron fillings over the paper, tap it gentle and observe the field pattern. Make rough
sketch of the field.
7. Use right-hand grip rule to find out which end of electromagnet is the north pole.
Observation:
 Strength of electromagnet is increased when current in coil is increased.
 Strength of electromagnet is increased when number of turns in the coil is increased.
 Magnetic field will be like for the bar magnet studied.
How to increase the strength of electromagnet
 Increase current
 Increase number of turns on coil
Outline the uses of electromagnets
 Generation of electricity
 Electrical motors
 Cranes (for lifting iron and steel objects)at scrap yard to sort metals into ferrous
metals and non-ferrous.
 Circuit breakers
 In loudspeakers
Describe how to build an electromagnet and outline its uses  In electric bells
What is an electromagnet? Describe an experiment that shows the difference between the electromagnetic properties of
 A temporary magnet created using an electric current passing through coils around a iron and steel
soft iron core (nail). Iron properties Steel properties
o Electromagnet can be switched off and on unlike permanent magnets. Easily magnetised, but loses its Slow or difficult to be magnetised, but
o It has a core of soft iron which can be magnetized only when current flows in the magnetism easily when induced magnet is keeps its magnetisms for long time when
surrounding coil. removed. induced magnet is removed.
Practical Used to makes temporary (soft) magnet Used to makes permanent (hard) magnet
like electromagnets
Aim: To build a simple electromagnet It holds paperclips with induced magnet, It hold pins with induced magnet, if
Materials needed once induced magnet is removed, induced magnet is removed, steel pins
 An iron nail paperclips falls as it loses its magnetism. will still be held as it keeps its magnetism
 Insulated copper wire for longer period.
 A battery or cells Describe and use the relative directions of the force, current and magnetic field for a wire
 Paperclips carrying a current in the field using Fleming’s left-hand rule
 Iron fillings (if available) State the use of Fleming’s left-hand rule.
Methods or procedures or what to do:  To find directions of force caused by interaction between the magnetic field produced
1. Wrap some insulated copper wire around a soft iron core (nail). by magnet and the field due to current into the wire.
2. Attach a battery to uninsulated ends of copper wire NB:
3. electric current will begin to flow  Moving charges (current) has an electric field and magnetic field which are at right
4. Soft iron core will become magnetized. angle to each other.
Directions of fingers in Fleming’s left hand rule
 Index finger indicates the direction of original field
 Middle finger indicates the direction of current flowing through the conductor
 Thumb indicates the direction of force or motion exerted on the conductor.”

Fleming’s left-hand rule

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5.7.1.2 Direct current (d.c) motor

Explain how a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field experiences a turning effect

1. If a current carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field (As shown in diagram above), a
Example: pair of forces will be produced on the coil. This is due to the interaction of the
Draw in arrow to predict direction of force and field. magnetic field of the permanent magnet and the magnetic filed of the current carrying
coil.
2. The direction of the force can be determined by Fleming's left hand rule.
3. Since the current in both sides of the coil flow in opposite direction, the forces
produced are also in opposite direction. The 2 forces in opposite direction produces a
turning effect to make the coil rotate.
Explain how to increase the turning effect (speed of the motor)
 Increase the number of turns on the coil,
 Increase the current in the coil
 Use stronger magnet (to Increase the strength of the magnetic field).
Discuss how this turning effect is used to make a simple electric motor
 Motor effect is due to the action between magnetic field produced by magnet and field
due to current flowing into the wire.
How can you increase the force of the wire?  Fields due to wire are circles and field due to magnet are dotted lines and their
 Increase current in the coil direction is towards the right. Diagram (a). The two fields cancel each other.
 Use stronger magnet (to increase the magnetic field)  Combination of both fields is shown in diagram (b). There are more field lines below
 Increase the length of the wire in the field. than above the wire since both fields act in the same direction.
Describe an experiment to show the corresponding force on beams of charged particles  If lines are like stretched elastic, those lines below will try to straighten out and exerts
 An electron gun creates a beam of electrons. an upward force on the wire.
Diagram of the cause of the motor effect
 The screen is coated with a fluorescent material which glows when electrons strike it
(TV screens).
 Current is passed through a pair of coils, to create a magnetic field.
 the direction of the electron beam is the opposite to the conventional current direction
(Circuit flow of current).

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 To make strong magnetic field or to make more powerful magnet.

Describe the action or function of winding coil onto a soft-iron cylinder
 Maintains electrical contact between split ring and power source.

5.7.2 Electromagnetic induction

5.7.2.1 Principles of electromagnetic induction
Define electromagnetic induction
 Is the production of voltage or electromotive force due to a change in the magnetic
field.
Who discovered electromagnetic induction and the year?
 Michael Faraday in the 1830s.
Describe an experiment which shows that a changing magnetic field in a circuit or a
magnetic field moves across a wire can induce an e.m.f.
Motor Generator Aim: To find out if magnetic field can be used to induce (produce) current.
Current is supplied to produce motion Current is produced from motion of wire in Materials needed:
magnetic field  A magnet
Has split ring commutator at each end of Full slip rings at each end of the coil  A coil (insulated copper wire
coil  Zero-centred galvanometer
Change electrical energy into kinetic Change kinetic energy into electrical Method or Procedures:
energy energy  Make a solenoid and connect it to a galvanometer
Suggest how to convert an electric motor into a generator  Bring the north pole of the bar magnet close to the coil.
 Remove the battery -Observation: deflection in galvanometer is noticed
 Put small bulb in place of battery This means current is induced in the coil causing galvanometer pointer/needle to be
 Turn the (shaft) magnet faster by hands deflected.
 Withdraw the magnet
-Observation: deflection in galvanometer noticed but in opposite direction.
 Let magnet stays at one place.
Observation: No deflection.
This means no current is induced in the coil.
 Move the coil close and away from the magnet.
Observation: deflection in galvanometer is noticed
State the factors affecting the magnitude of the induced e.m.f
 Number of turn on the coil
 Speed of motion of magnet or solenoid rotation
 Strength of the magnet
State that the direction of induced current is such as to oppose the change causing it (Lenz’s
Law)
 It oppose the change causing it in solenoid (Lenz’s law)
What are the two rules used to find direction in which current will flow when magnet is push
in and pulled out?
 Lenz’s law: state that; current in solenoid is induced to produce magnetic field (flux)
in the coil that opposes the change/motion causing it.
- Used to find the north or south pole of the coil (also known as polarity of the
Generator in which mechanical energy (movement) is supplied by hand drill
coil)
Describe the action or function of split ring commutator
 Right-hand grip rule: used to find direction of the current in coil after Lenz’s law has
 To avoid twisting of the wires at the end of the coil.
been practiced.
 To ensure current flow constantly in the same direction, next to each pole of the NB:
magnet.
 Induced current in a coil or solenoid is directly proportional to the rate of change
Describe the action or function of winding coil onto a soft-iron cylinder
of magnetic lines.

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 Changing the poles pushed into the solenoid has no effect on the magnitude (size) Right-hand grip rule and Lenz’s law diagram
of the current used; it only changes the direction of deflection of the Descriptions of the above diagram
galvanometer needle or pointer.  Lenz’s law; the end of the solenoid closest to the south pole of the magnet is the south
Lenz’s law diagrams pole of the coil/solenoid.

 Right-hand grip rule; right thumb point toward the north pole and outstretching
fingers points in the direction of the current in the coil/solenoid.

Descriptions of the above diagram

 When North Pole is pushed into the solenoid, the end of solenoid closest to magnet’s
entry point becomes a north pole.
 North Pole of magnet and North Pole of coil repel each other (because they are like
poles).
 When the north pole is pulled out of the solenoid or coils, the end of the coil nearest to
to magnet’s exit point will become a south pole. 5.7.2.2 Alternating current (a.c) generator
 South Pole of coil and North Pole of magnet will attract each other (because they are Describe a simple form of a.c. generator (rotating coil or rotating magnet) and the use of slip
opposite poles). rings where needed
 When the magnet is inside the solenoid no induced current and no deflection on the
sensitive galvanometer.

Diagrams of rotating –coil generator

Describe a rotating-coil generator
 a simple a.c generator consists of:
o Rotating coil
o Slip rings or commutators
o Magnet.
 Generators uses electromagnetic induction (magnets) to produce electric current
Describe the use of slip rings
 Slip rings hold the coil in fixed position and turn round with it.
 for constant electrical connection between coil and external circuit.
How an a.c generator (alternator) uses electromagnetic induction to produce electric current
(a.c)?
 The wire is wound in rectangular coil and placed between poles of magnet
 The coil is attached to slip rings
 Slip rings rotate with the coil between poles of magnets
 Brushes press on slip rings

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 Brushes collect the current induced (produced) in the coil

 Rectangular coil is rotated between poles of magnet.
 Poles of magnet have parallel, horizontal magnetic field lines.
 Coil cuts magnetic field lines as it rotates and current is induced in the coil
 Current induced in coil changes direction after every half a cycle (one way and the
opposite way) (called alternating current).
What can you do to the alternator to generate a higher or more current?
 Increase the number of turns on the coil
 Use a stronger magnet
 Rotate the coil faster
What is the use of Fleming’s right-hand generator rule in a.c generator?
 To find directions of the motion, magnetic field and current induced. Discuss the generation of current using a simple generator
Fleming’s right-hand generator rules  It uses mechanical energy (energy of motion and position).
 to produce electricity.
 Current is produced by turning coil in a magnetic field.
 The coil if turned by turbine through mechanical energy

5.7.2.2 Transformer
Transformer
 Is a device used for increasing or decreasing an a.c voltage in electrical power
transmission.

To what direction do the fingers in Fleming’s right-hand generator rules points?

 Thumb – motion
 First finger - magnetic field (points towards the south pole)
 Second finger – current
Sketch a graph of voltage output against time for a simple a.c. generator and the effect on the
graph of increasing the frequency of rotation

Name the types of transformer

 Ideal transformer
 Step-down transformer
 Step-up transformer
Ideal transformer
 An imaginary transformer that has no losses, its output voltage is exactly equal to the
input voltage.
Step-down transformer
 Transformer that convert high input voltage to a low output voltage.

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Step-up transformer Example:

 Transformer that convert low input voltage to a high output voltage. 1. A step-up transformer has 100 turns on its primary coil and 10 000 turns on its
secondary coil. Calculate the output voltage if the primary coil is supplied with a 12-
V a.c supply.
2. A transformer is operating froma 12V supply. It has 400 turns on the primary coil and
2400 turns on in the secondary coil. Calculate the output voltage for the transformer.
State the advantages of high voltage transmission
 It reduces the loss of heat
 Minimizes energy loss during transmission
 Long cables has high resistance.
Discuss the environmental and cost implications of underground power transmission
compared to overhead lines
Overhead cables Underground cables
Unsightly Out of sight
Take up space, which is at a premium in Burried underground Burried underground
Describe the structure of a simple iron-cored transformer towns and cities.
 Transformer consists of: Cheaper to install Can be 4-14 times more expensive than
o Soft-iron core overhead lines
o A.c supply Expose to damage from weather, people, Cheaper in area where pylons (tall tower) are
o Primary coil wild animals (elephant) and motor car vulnerable in the long run.
o Secondary coil crashes.
Voltage limitations Voltage can be taken as high as required
over long distances.
Recall and use the equation Vp Ip = Vs Is (for 100% efficiency)
Example:
1. Electrical energy is generated at apower station to give voltage of 2 500 V and a
current of 1 000 A. The voltage is stepped up by a transformer to 400 000 V for high
voltage transmission. Calculate the amount of current in the cables.
2. An electric organ is connected to a 240V power source by a transformer. The rating
for the organ is 12V, 0.2 A. Calculate the current flowing in the primary coil.
Describe how electricity is generated and transmitted in Namibia and how this process
requires the use of transformers
o When voltage is increased for transmission the current decreases (step-up
transformer).
Describe the principle of operation of a simple iron-cored transformer
o Less current is flowing in long cables causing reduced loss of energy during
o Primary coil is always connected to a.c supply or power source. transmission.
o A.c voltage flows in primary coil. o When the voltage is decreased before distributed to houses the current increases (step-
o A.c causes the primary coil to produce a changing (fluctuating) magnetic field which down transformer).
spread out and dies out.
o Magnetic field move over (cut) coil in secondary circuit. 6. Nuclear physics
o This induces altanating voltage or e.m.f in secondary coil. 6.1 The nuclear atom
o Increasing voltage in transformer decreases current 6.1.1 The nucleus
Recall and use the equation (Vp / Vs) = (Np / Ns) Describe the composition of the nucleus in terms of protons and neutrons
Note: Vp = voltage on primary coil
 An atom of elements have a nucleus located at the centre of an atom.
Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ip = current in the primary coil  The nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
 The nucleus is surrounded by shells carrying electrons.
Vs = voltage on secondary coil  Electrons orbit on shells at high speed around the nucleus.
Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Is = current in the secondary coil

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 Protons have a positive (+) charge, electrons have a negative (-) charge and neutrons Proton number =
have no charge. In a neutral atom, protons and electrons are equal in number making a Neutron number =
combined charge of an atom zero. Electron number =
 Mass of atoms is made up of protons and neutrons. Use the nuclide notation in equations to show alpha and beta decay
 Alpha decay
o When a nucleus undergoes alpha decay, nucleon number decreases by 4 (-4)
and proton number decreases by 2 (-2).
o General equation for alpha decay: → +
- Y is an element formed with two less protons and four less nucleons
than initial element X.
- Alpha decay always forms helium nucleus ( )
Example:
Bohr model of the structure of neon atom 1. Show the decay of uranium-238 to thorium-234.
Use the term proton number (atomic number), denoted by Z 2. Write the alpha decay equation for the isotope radium-222.
 Atomic number is the number of proton in an atom’s nucleus.  Beta decay
 Proton number is called atomic number or number of electrons in an atom of an o When a nucleus undergoes beta decay, nucleon number does not change (0)
element. and proton number increases by 1 (+1)
 Atomic number or proton number is denoted by letter Z. [beta decay converts a neutron into a proton and electron, then loses
 The electrons determine the chemical properties of an atom. electron since its light and mobile to stabilise the nuclide].
 The atomic number determines the position or arrangement of the element on the o General equation for beta decay: → +
Periodic Table. - Z is an element formed with one more protons and unchanged nucleon
Use the term nucleon number (mass number,) denoted by A numbers.
 Nucleon number (mass number) is the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. - Therefore; if you add proton numbers on the right-side of the equation
 Nucleon number is denoted by letter A. you should obtained the proton numbers on the left-side.
 Generally, A = Z + N (neutron number). - Beta decay is a fast moving electron( )
Use the term nuclide and nuclide notation nuclide notation Example:
Nuclide 1. Show the decay of strontium-90 to yttrium-90.
 An atom that is characterised by the number of protons and neutrons that it contains. 2. Write the beta decay equation for the isotope carbon-14.
o All nuclides has:
- chemical symbol of element (X) 6.1.2 Isotopes
- atomic number (Z) Define isotope
- mass number (A)  The atoms with the same proton number but different nucleon number.
Nuclide notation Examples of isotopes are:
 A method used to represent an element and show how many subatomic particles it Give the examples of isotopes of hydrogen
contains.  ; and are all hydrogen but have different nucleon number.
Give the examples of isotopes of carbon
 ; and all carbon but have different nucleon number.
Give the examples of isotopes of chlorine
 ; all chlorine but have different nucleon number.
Give the examples of isotopes of uranium
 ; all uranium but have different nucleon number.
Give the examples of isotopes of iodine
WATCH OUT NUCLIDE NOTATION IN SOME TEXTBOOK E.G. NAMCOL.  ; all iodine but have different nucleon number.
Example of nuclide notation of element Calcium Give and explain examples of practical applications (uses) of isotopes in carbon – 14 dating
 Radioactive carbon-14 is used for archaeological dating (to calculate the time/age
From the nuclide notation above deduce: that has passed since living matter or excavated fossils).
Atomic number =  Carbon-14 in carbon dioxide is used by trees to photosynthesise.
Mass number =  Carbon-14 is taken in by animals when they eat plants or other animals.
Nucleon number =

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Give and explain examples of practical applications of isotopes in nuclear medicine  Storage container must have labelled hazard symbol (warning sign) of radioactive
 Sodium-24 used to diagnose internal bleeding. materials.
 Gamma rays from cobalt-60 is used for cancer treatment (to kill cancerous growths in  Separate all waste by isotope and physical form.
cancer patients).  Keep the container of radioactive material closed, except when materials are being
Give and explain examples of practical applications of isotopes in radiology added.
 Radioactive materials used to get information about functioning of person’s organs.  Request for hazardous waste collection when you are ready for waster pick-up.
Give and explain examples of practical applications of isotopes in biochemical tracers
 Iodine-131 is used by doctors to see if thyroid gland is working properly and diagnose 6.2.2 Detection of radioactivity
the patient. What is background radiation?
 Phosphorus-32 is added to fertilizers to determine the rate at which plants absorbs  Low-level natural radiation that occurs on earth’s surface.
phosphorus (to identify plants that give better yields). Describe the existence and major causes of background radioactivity
Give and explain examples of practical applications of isotopes in radiotherapy  Cosmic rays (cosmogenic), radiation that reaches the Earth from space.
 Radium-226 is used for cancer treatments.  Rocks and soil (terrestrial), some radioactive rocks and contains radioactive isotopes
Give and explain examples of practical applications of isotopes in detection of leaks in pipes (radioactive radon gas-from uranium in igneous rock).
 Very small amount of sodium-24 is used to detect leaks in underground pipes  Living things, plants absorb radioactive material from the soil and this passes through
(inserting a radioactive material at one end of the pipe and use a radiation detector the food chain.
outside the pipe or above the ground to track how the amount of radiation decreases. ARTIFICIAL SOURCES OF RADIATION
The area above the ground with higher concentration of radiation is where the leak is  Medical x-ray
located. You then dig and seal the leak).  Radioactive tracer
Give and explain examples of practical applications of isotopes in determination of thickness  Radioactive waste from nuclear power stations.
of materials  Nuclear missiles from atomic bomb explosions (nuclear weapon testing).
 Alpha, beta and gamma are used to determine the thickness of materials during Radioactive emission takes place randomly in space at any time.
manufacture. What instruments do we use to detect radioactivity
Give and explain examples of practical applications of isotopes in power generation  Cloud chamber
 Uranium-235 is used for generating electricity in power generation.  Geiger Mῢller (G-M) counter
Give and explain examples of practical applications of isotopes in sterilisation  Photographic film
 Gamma rays are used to sterilise hospital blankets and equipments. Describe the detection of alpha-particle (α), beta-particle (β) and gamma-rays (γ), (cloud
 Cobalt-60 is used to kill bacteria in food products. chamber, Geiger Mῢller (G-M) counter and photographic film)
Cloud chamber diagram
6.2 Radioactivity
6.2.1 Safety precautions
Describe how radioactive materials are handled and used in a safe way
 Display warning signs and it should be visible for all to read in the radiation
laboratory.
 Wear protective clothing (disposable latex gloves, full laboratory coat with full
buttoned sleeves rolled down or radiation suit and closed shoes).
 Keep extra clothing and shoes in laboratory in case your clothes become
contaminated.
 Keep exposure time to radiation as short as possible.
 Do not eat or drink in a room labeled with radioactive materials signs.
 Cloud chamber mainly consists of:
 Do not leave radioactive materials unsecured in an unattended laboratory, even for a  Perspex (window) chamber with a detachable lid
short time, unless the door is locked.  pieces of dry ice
 Supervise your visitors to the laboratory; they must not be left unattended.  Sponge (or pad or dark-coloured cloth) that should be moistens with methyl
 Use tongs, forceps, or robotic arms during practical. alcohol.
 Never work alone in radiation laboratory  Radiation source or material
Describe how radioactive materials are stored in a safe way  Bright light
 Store radioactive material or source in strong two lead-lined containers, one inside the  Plastic or glass container
other. Describe the detection of radiation in cloud chamber

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 When the radiation particles are fired, they make alcohol evaporates and condenses, Geiger Mῢller (G-M) counter consists of:
leaving the vapour tails of visible droplets (tracks of particles) which clearly reveal  Geiger Mῢller (G-M) counter and Geiger Mῢller (G-M) tube
the path of the ray.  Thin mica window (small closed glass)
 The path taken by ionising radiation is detected by cloud chambers.  High-voltage supply
The tracks left by various radiation is shown below. Tracks in circle and radiation below.  Anode (thin central wire)
Bold and straight tracks Much fainter tracks Very faint tracks  Cathode (inside surface coated or metal wire)
 Scaler or pulse counter or rate meter
 Tube containing gas argon
Describe the detection of radiation in Geiger Mῢller (G-M) counter
 Radiation enters the tube and reacts with gas (argon) and removes electron from the
gas.
 Atoms in the gas become positively charged ions (atom become ionized).
 Negative ions (removed electron) flow to central wire in the tube (anode) producing
electric current.
 Positive ions moves towards the metal tube (cathode)
Geiger Mῢller (G-M) counter diagram
 The current flows to counting device (or scaler or pulse counter or rate meter) that
Diagram A
shows a measure of radioactivity. Reading can be either: analogue reading, flashes of
light or clicking sound.
 More counts per second means radiation is high.
Photographic film diagram

Diagram B

Diagram C

 It is placed in film badges worn by people working in radioactive places.

 The film badges are made up of; thin aluminium window, copper, lead-tin alloy
window and a plastic case with an open area at the centre.
Describe the detection of radiation in photographic film
 Photographic film becomes darker when it absorbs radiation. The more radiation the
film absorbs the darker it becomes.
6.2.3 Characteristics of the three kinds of emission
State that radioactive emission occurs randomly over space and time
 Radioactive emission takes place at random in space at any time.
 Radioactive isotopes spontaneously decay.

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 The decay of unstable isotopes is independent of the change in environment like Describe radiation deflection in electric fields
temperature, pressure and state of material.  Positively charged alpha particles are deflected or attracted towards the negatively
Describe radioactive emission: charged metal plate (negative electrode).
 their nature (e.g. its composition, relative charge, mass)  Negatively charged beta particles are deflected or attracted towards the positively
Type of Nature (composition) Relative Relative Nuclear charged metal plate (positive electrode).
radiation charge atomic symbol  Gamma rays have no effects on electric field (no deflection) because they have no
and symbol mass charge (uncharged).
(amu)
Alpha (α)  Helium nucleus. +2 4 Behaviour of radioactive particles in an electric field
 Consists of two protons and two or
neutrons.
Beta (ᵦ) o High kinetic energy. -1 0 or
o Consists of electrons.
or

Gamma (ᵧ)  Very high-frequency electromagnetic 0 0

radiation
 their relative ionising effects
Type of radiation and Relative ionizing effects
symbol
Alpha (α)  very high ionizing abilities.
Beta (ᵦ) o moderate ionizing abilities, with
smaller mass than alpha.
Describe radiation deflection in magnetic fields
Gamma (ᵧ)  the lowest ionizing abilities.
 Alpha particles are deflected by a strong magnetic field at right angle.
 their relative penetrating abilities  Beta particles are deflected easy by the magnetic field at right angle.
Type of radiation and symbol Relative penetrating abilities (power)  Gamma rays are not deflected by magnetic field.
Alpha (α)  Low penetration. NB:
 Stopped by: - thick sheet of paper or  Fleming’s left-hand rule can be used to find deflection of alpha and beta in magnetic
- skin (human hand) field.
- about 5 cm in air  The rule works on direction of conventional current which is the direction of the flow
Beta (ᵦ) o Moderate penetration of positive charge.
o Mostly stopped by few millimetres of  Therefore, for beta particles, the middle finger points in direction opposite to that in
metal like aluminium. which they are moving.
Gamma (ᵧ)  Highly penetrating.
x
Behaviour of radioactive particles in an magnetic field ( ) means into the page.
 Mostly stopped by a thick layer of
lead or concrete.
Diagrams showing the penetrating abilities of alpha, beta and gamma-rays

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Define ionizing effects of radioactive material  Becquerel (Bq)

 The ability to remove electrons from an atom to form a positive ion. 80 Becquerel means 80 nuclei break down per second.
Interpret their relative ionising effects (power) Use the term half-life in simple calculations which might involve information in tables or
 Alpha –particles have the highest ionizing effects. decay curves
 Beta-particles have moderate ionizing effects.  At time of 0, the isotope contains parental atom formation.
 Gamma-rays have the lowest ionizing effects due to lack of charge.  At time 1( ), 50% of the atoms remains ( ÷2).
6.2.4 Radioactive decay  At time 2( ), 25% of the atoms remains and it continues ( ÷2)…..
State the meaning of radioactive decay
Decay graph A
 The change in unstable nuclide and releases energy in the form of radiation (alpha
particles, beta particles and gamma rays).
Give appropriate nuclide equations (decay equations) to represent changes in the
composition of the nucleus when alpha-particles are emitted
o General equation for alpha decay: → +
- Y is an element formed with two less protons and four less nucleons
than initial element X.
- Alpha decay always forms helium nucleus ( )
Examples:
1. Use nuclide equation for alpha to show how the following decays.
a. radium – 226
b.
Give appropriate nuclide equations(decay equations) to represent changes in the
composition of the nucleus when beta-particles are emitted
o General equation for beta decay: → + Decay graph A
- Z is an element formed with one more protons and unchanged nucleon
numbers.
- Therefore; if you add proton numbers on the right-side of the equation
you should obtained the proton numbers on the left-side.
- Beta decay is a fast moving electron( )
Examples:
1. Use nuclide equation for beta to show how the following decays.
a. iodine-131
b.
Give appropriate nuclide equations to represent changes in the composition of the nucleus
when gamma rays are emitted
 Gamma emission cause no change in atomic and nucleon number.
 Emission of alpha and beta leaves proton and neutron in “excited” state.
 Protons and neutrons become rearranged in the form of gamma radiation due to loss
of energy.
6.2.5 Half-life

Define half-life
 The time taken for half ( ) of the radioactive nuclei to decay
NB: a. What fraction survives after four half-lives?
To measure the half-life of a radioactive substance, we have to measure the rate of decay
(activity) using a GM tube and rate meter. b. What fraction survives after five half-lives?
Define activity
 The average number of disintegration per second.
State the SI-unit for activity
Examples

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