CHAPTER 2: COMPLEX NUMBERS

S. ARICHE

UNIVERSITY SAAD DAHLAB OF BLIDA

FACULTY OF SCIENCES

Contents
1. Definitions 1
2. Algebraic operations on complex numbers 2
3. Conjugate of a complex number 2
4. Modulus of a complex number 3
5. Geometrical representation of complex numbers 3
6. Polar form 4
7. De Moivre formula 5

1. Definitions
Consider the equation
x2 + 1 = 0.
The question is: Is there any real solution for this equation? The answer is no there is
no real number which satisfies x2 = −1. In other words, we can say that there is no real
number whose square is -1. In order√ to solve such equations, let us imagine that there
exist a number "i" which equal to −1.
In 1748, a great mathematician, L. Euler named a number "i" as Iota whose square is −1.
This Iota or "i" is defined as imaginary unit. With the introduction of the new symbol
"i", we can interpret the square root of a negative number as a product of a real number
with i. Therefore, we can denote√the solution of equation above as x = ± i.
Thus, for example, −4 = 4i2 ⇒ −4 = 2i.
Definition 1.1. Any√number which can be expressed in the form a + bi where a, b are
real numbers and i = −1, is called a complex number, denoted generally by the letter z,
where
• a is called the real part of z and is written as <z,

• b is called the imaginary part and is written =z.

We call this form of writting z, the algebraic form.
Remark 1.2.
• If a = 0 and b 6= 0, then
√ z = b i which is a purely imaginary complex number.
Example: −7i, 3i and 2i are all purely imaginary numbers.
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• If a 6= 0 and b = 0 then z = a which is a real number.

Example: 5, 2.5 and 7 are real numbers.
• If a = 0 and b = 0, then z = 0. Hence the real numbers are particular cases of
complex numbers.

2. Algebraic operations on complex numbers

Let z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + id be two complex numbers.
• Additions of complex numbers The addition of z1 and z2 is given by:
z1 + z2 = (a + c) + (b + d)i
for example, if z1 = 1 + 3i and z2 = −2 + 5i then z1 + z2 = −1 + 8i.
• Subtraction of complex numbers The Subtraction of z1 and z2 is given by
z1 − z2 = (a − c) + (b − d)i.
For example, if z1 = 10 + i and z2 = 4 + 3i then z1 − z2 = 6 − 2i.
• Multiplication of complex numbers Remembering that i2 = −1, we have
z1 · z2 = (a + bi)(c + di) = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc)i.
For example, (1 + 2i)(1 − 3i) = (1 − (−6)) + (−3 + 2)i = 7 − i.
• Division of two complex numbers Let supose that z2 6= 0 then,
z1 a + bi (a + bi)(c − di) ac + bd bc − ad
= = = 2 + 2 i.
z2 c + di (c + di)(c − di) c + d2 c + d2
For example,
3+i (3 + i)(4 + 2i) 1 1
= = + i.
4 − 2i (4 − 2i)(4 + 2i) 2 2
• Equality of two complex numbers Two complex numbers are equal if and
only if their real parts and imaginary parts are respectively equal. In general,
a + bi = c + di if and only if a = c and b = d.

3. Conjugate of a complex number

Definition 3.1. Let z = a + bi be a complex number. The number z̄ := a − i b is called
the conjugate of z. It is obtained by changing the sign of the imaginairy part.
Example If z = 2 + i then z̄ = 2 − i.

Proposition 3.2. Here are some properties of complex conjugates:

(1) The conjugate of a real number is the numbre itself, i.e. if z ∈ R then z = z̄.
(2) If z is a purely imaginary number then z̄ = −z
(3) Conjugate of the conjugate of a complex number is the number itself, i.e. z̄ = z.
(4) The conjugate f the addition is the addition of conjugates, i.e.
∀z, w ∈ C, z + w = z̄ + w̄.
(5) The conjugate f the product is the product of conjugates, i.e.
∀z, w ∈ C, z · w = z̄ · w̄.
 CHAPTER 2: COMPLEX NUMBERS 3

(6) The addition of a complex number and its conjugate is a real number, i.e.
∀z ∈ C, z + z̄ = 2<z.
(7) The subtraction of a complex number and its conjugate is an imaginary number,
i.e.
∀z ∈ C, z − z̄ = 2i=z.
2−i
Example: Simplify 1+3i .
Multiplying and deviding by the conjugate of (1 + 3i), we obtain
2−i (2 − i)(1 − 3i) −1 − 7i −1 7
= = = −i .
1 + 3i (1 + 3i)(1 − 3i) 1+9 10 10
4. Modulus of a complex number
Definition 4.1. Let z = a + ib be a complex number. We call the modulus or absolute
value of a complex number z and we denote it by |z| the formula
√
|z| = a2 + b2 .

p
For example, if z = −3 + 4i then |z| = (−3)2 + 42 = 5.
Proposition 4.2. The modulus of a complex number z satifies these properties:
• |z| = 0 ⇔ z = 0.
• |z| = |z̄| and |z| = | − z|.
• If =z = 0 then z 2 = |z|2 .
|z|
• ∀z, w ∈ C, |zw| = |z||w| and | wz | = |w| (if w 6= 0).

5. Geometrical representation of complex numbers

• A point Let z = a + bi be a complex number.
Let two perpendicular lines (OX) and (OY ) be taken as X-axis and Y-axis respectively,
O being the origin.
A complex number z can be considered as a couple ordered of real numbers. We say that
the complex number z = a + bi is represented by the point M (a, b) in the complex plane
and z is called the affix of the point M . So, (OX) is called the real axis and (OY ) is
called the imaginary axis.
Example: The complex number z = 2 + 5i can be reprensented by the point M (2, 5) in
the complex plane.

Remark 5.1. If M1 is the point of affix z, the point M2 of affix z̄ is the symetric of the
point M1 with, respect to the X-axis.
• A circle
In the complex plane, a circle of radius r and center z0 = x0 + iy0 , is defined by the
equation
|z − z0 | = r.
Example: Let A : {z ∈ C, |z − i| < 3}.
As explained above, |z − i| = 3 represents the circle of radius 3 and center z0 = i, we
deduce then that A represents the inside of the ball of radius 3 and center (0, 1).
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• Segment Let z0 and z1 be two complex points of the complex plane.

The line segment connecting two complex points z0 and z1 is the set defined by
{z ∈ C, z = (1 − t)z0 + tz1 such that t ∈ [0, 1]}.
• Graph Let x ∈ [a, b] and let f be a continous function. The graph of f is defined as
the set
Gf = {z ∈ C; z = x + if (x) with x ∈ [a, b]}.

6. Polar form
Let P (a, b) represent the complex number z = a + bi, a ∈ R, b ∈ R, and OP makes an
angle θ with the positive direction of x-axis. Draw P M ⊥ OX, let OP = r, then
a = r cos θ and b = r sin θ.
As a consequence,z = a + ib can be written as
(6.1) z = r(cos θ + i sin θ),
√
where r = a2 + b2 and tan θ = ab .
The formula (6.1) is known as the polar form of the complex number z, and r and θ are
respectively called the modulus and argument √ of the complex number.
Example 1:√Find the polar form of z = 3 + i.
We have |z| = 4 = 2 and √
3 1
cos θ = , sin θ = ,
2 2
then θ = π6 , and the polar form is given by
π π

z = 2 cos( ) + i sin( ) .
6 6
Example 2: Find √ the polar formula of z = 1 − i.
We have |z| = 2 and
√ √
1 2 −1 − 2
cos θ = √ = , sin θ = √ = ,
2 2 2 2
then θ = −π4
, and the polar form is given by
√ −π −π

z = 2 cos( ) + i sin( ) .
4 4
. Example 3: Find the polar formula of z = − cos( π5 ) + i sin( π5 ).
We have |z| = 1 and
π π π π
cos θ = − cos( ) = cos(π − ), sin θ = sin( ) = sin(π − ),
5 5 5 5
π 4π
then θ = π − 5 = 5 , and the polar form is given by
4π 4π
z = cos( ) + i sin( ).
5 5
Remark 6.1. If −π ≤ θ ≤ π, then θ is called the principal argument, denoed by arg z,
we have then θ = arg z + 2kπ, k ∈ Z.
Proposition 6.2. Let z, z be two complex nembers, we have the following properties:
• arg(zz 0 ) = arg(z) + arg(z 0 ) + 2kπ.
 CHAPTER 2: COMPLEX NUMBERS 5

• arg( z1 ) = arg(z̄) = − arg(z) + 2kπ.

• arg( zz0 ) = arg(z) − arg(z 0 ) + 2kπ.
Remark 6.3. We define: eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ. Using the polar form, we can rewrite z as
z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) = reiθ .
This last form is called the exponential form.
For example,
√ 3π 3π
√ π
−2 + 2i = 2 2 cos( ) + I sin( ) = 2 2e3I 4 .
4 4

7. De Moivre formula
If
z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ),
then


z1 z2 = r1 r2 cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 ) ,
If z1 = z2 = z, this leads to,

2
z 2 = r(cos θ + i sin θ = r2 cos(2θ) + i sin(2θ) .

In the same way, a generalisation of the last formula allows to deduce

n
z n = r(cos θ + i sin θ = rn cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ) ,

which we call De Moivre formula.

Roots of a complex number:
As a consequence of De Moivre’s formula, we can now calculate the n-th root of a
complex number a + ib.
1
If z n = a + ib then z = (a + ib) n . Using De Moivre formula, we get

n1 θ + 2kπ
1 θ + 2kπ

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ = r n cos(
) + i sin( ) , k = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1,
n n
and we conculde the existance of n n-th roots difference of a + ib.
Example 1: Calculate the 4-th roots of 1:
Writting 1 in the polar form we have:
1 = cos(0 + 2kπ) + i sin(0 + 2kπ),
thus
1 1 2kπ 2kπ
1 4 = cos(0 + 2kπ) + i sin(0 + 2kπ) 4 = cos( ) + i sin( ), k = 0, 1, 2, 3
4 4
For :
k = 0, z0 =1
k = 1, z1 =i
k = 2, z2 = −1
k = 3, z3 = −i.
Therefore the 4-th roots of 1 are 1, −1, i, −i.
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1
Example 2: Calculate (1 − i) 3 .
1
√

1 −π −π
3
(1 − i) 3 = 2 cos( + 2kπ) + i sin( + 2kπ)
4 4
√ 1
 −π −π 
4
+ 2kπ
4
+ 2kπ

= ( 2) 3 cos + i sin , k = 0, 1, 2
3 3
√ 1
 
−π 2kπ
−π 2kπ

= ( 2) cos
3 + + i sin + , k = 0, 1, 2.
12 3 12 3