WHITE PAPER

Practical PID Process Dynamics

with Proportional Controllers

Rationally minded design engineers understand the importance of competent controls engineers when it
comes time to implement their designed process. After spending months or years designing, specifying, and
securing the necessary equipment, design engineers must trust the controls engineer to complete the vision and
automate a repeatable process. While the collaboration between engineering disciplines continues imperatively,
design engineers who develop a practical understanding of PID loop control are best positioned to specify and
secure optimal equipment, which improves the probability of successful implementations and may significantly
reduce the time to return on investment.

Clippard Instrument Laboratory

www.clippard.com

© Copyright 2019, Clippard Instrument Laboratory, Inc.

 Every time we modify our behavior based on a previous result, we create a control
loop. As humans, we continually form new control loops and tweak old ones in
an attempt to regulate our experience. We adjust the speed of our vehicles by
varying fuel input based on speedometer readings. We walk outdoors, sense the
temperature, and add or subtract clothing to create comfort. The human brain
is the most prolific loop controller in existence. Naturally, we implement similar
techniques to control our manufacturing and industrial processes.

The vast majority of industrial control loops utilize important? Analog proportional controllers are
some combination of PID control. PID is an acronym fast, but do microcontroller-based devices offer
for Proportional, Integral, and Derivative. These any advantage? Is it possible for a proportional
mathematical terms reference algorithms that controller to provide flexibility and performance?
controls engineers use to manipulate actuation
signals to achieve desired process results. Industrial
process loops incorporate multiple sensors Proportional, Integral,
and various valves, cylinders, or other devices
requiring actuation. Typical PID loop utilization and Derivative
includes temperature, pressure, flow rate, chemical
composition, speed, and level. A controls engineer Tendencies
utilizes PID algorithms to record process data and
PID loops give controls engineers a customizable
calculate setpoints to various actuation devices.
method to control numerous conditions, from
The challenge is to overcome numerous variables
speed to temperature and everything in between.
and reach the desired setpoint at the correct time
The loop’s authority modifies device behaviors
with minimal over or undershoot.
to maintain stable output and improve response
A common component in many control loop rates. The most common proportional controllers
processes is the proportional controller. This device are electronic pressure regulators (EPR) consisting
requires a setpoint from a master controller with of fill and exhaust valves, an onboard transducer,
the expectation it generates an equal output. and PID controls to adjust response performance.
The master controller may utilize PID loop control EPRs only require an external setpoint command to
to calculate a setpoint to the proportional controller. become a closed-loop control scheme. The setpoint
However, modern proportional controllers have is continually compared against the onboard
incorporated their own onboard adjustable PID loop transducer to produce an “error term.” The singular
to achieve the commanded setpoint. intent of industrial PID control loops is to reduce
and maintain the error term at or near zero at all
It is within the context of proportional times. So, how does each algorithm contribute
controllers that this paper explores and to this goal?
discusses practical PID process dynamics.

By understanding basic PID theory and behavioral THE PROPORTIONAL ALGORITHM

tendencies, design engineers are equipped to CONTRIBUTION
appreciate the nuances and priorities of each As the first ingredient in our control loop, the
specific process and select optimal proportional proportional algorithm is generally the most
controllers. Speed, accuracy, resolution, and stability impactful and most crucial of the three. The P
influence each other, and each one is affected component is responsible for adjusting the control
when PID settings are modified. Which one is most variable proportionally to the amount of calculated

2 Digital vs. Analog Control in Proportional Applications

error in the process. The calculation for P output If a steady wind is blowing, the I component
is simple: ‘present-error’ x Kp (proportional gain produces an ever-increasingly stable altitude as the
constant). Adjusting the P-gain value increases or accumulation of historical error is averaged and
decreases the rate of response. Some processes implemented. However, if an unexpected gust of
employ a P-only control scheme. However, if
wind occurs, the I response may not be sufficient to
the proportional algorithm is the only element
compensate, and the derivative algorithm activates.
engaged in a system, stable operation can occur,
but a steady-state error persists, and oscillation may
become inherent in the process.
Graph of the integral
Consider the analogy of quadcopter drones.
These aircraft utilize complex PID algorithms that Pressure (psig)
use onboard sensor data to calculate the speed
motors should spin to maintain the aircraft’s
desired position. In this example, the P algorithm Output
is the responsiveness and sensitivity setting, and it
determines how vigorously the controller works to
correct the error. Generally speaking, a low P setting
feels soft and sloppy on the controls, and a high
P setting feels sharp and snappy. However, if the P
setting is too high, it over-corrects and overshoots
the setpoint, creating high-frequency oscillations.
These oscillations can be reset and biased out
manually, but to automatically eliminate the
steady-state error inherent with oscillations,
the integral must contribute its function to the
control scheme. Time
(seconds)

THE INTEGRAL ALGORITHM CONTRIBUTION

0 1 2 3 4 5
The integral is the aggregate of all recorded
values, from the time counting begins until the The integral is the aggregate of all recorded values, from the time counting begins
time counting stops. The I component records all until the time counting stops.
errors above or below zero error (compared to the
setpoint) and continually strives to reduce it to
zero or near zero. Since the integral compiles errors
THE DERIVATIVE ALGORITHM CONTRIBUTION
over time, it removes any steady-state error in the
system. Whereas the P reacts instantaneously to If the proportional is the present-error correction
counterbalance for error at a specific point in time, and the integral is the past-error correction, then
the I compensates for all error across all known time. the derivative is the future-error correction. The D
The integral calculation is ‘accumulated-error’ x Ki component is the most complicated and is usually
(integral gain constant). unnecessary in most applications. In fact, most

As it relates to the quadcopter, the integral setting proportional controllers employ a PI control loop
is most consistent with the feel of stiffness. It is only. However, D action is beneficial in motion
responsible for maintaining drone altitude against control applications as it is concerned with the
external forces, such as wind or additional weight. instantaneous rate of change (derivative) in the

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 recorded error. If there is no change in error, the The derivative calculation is ‘derivative-of-error’ x Kd
derivative output is zero. If the rate of change (derivative gain constant).
increases or decreases, a derivative output occurs,
If a significant gust of wind hits the drone, the
one that corresponds to the magnitude of the
derivative action activates to compensate for the
instantaneous change in error. The D contribution
sudden rate change in error. The D output attempts
is most effective when the P and I contributions to dampen over-correction from the P component
are small. In this state, if the error spikes, the P and by softening and neutralizing excessive P output
I components may take too long to react. However, action. Most closed-loop industrial processes do not
the spike is what the D component is looking for, consistently experience situations requiring D action;
and thus, it reacts and compensates immediately. thus, a PI controller is most commonly employed.

KNOW YOUR PROCESS PRIORITIES

Four Behavioral Distinctions When discussing proportional controller applications

When Tuning PI Loops: and how EPRs perform, there are four behavioral
distinctions to be aware of when tuning PI loops for
4 Improved Speed optimal performance. Depending on the process,
4 Higher Accuracy an EPR may need improved speed, higher accuracy,
better resolution, or more stability. The question is:
4 Better Resolution what is the priority for a particular process?
4 More Stability
For example, traditional saturated steam
temperature control requires good accuracy with
stable temperatures. However, this cannot be
Simple PI achieved quickly for multiple reasons. A typical setup

Troubleshooting includes a thermocouple measuring downstream

temperature and a PI controller calculating
a setpoint to a process valve (proportional
The drone analogy above is relatable because
controller) based on temperature readings from the
it references feelings and sensations that everyone
thermocouple. Since the proportional controller is
understands. However, a controls engineer does
merely opening and closing a valve to allow more or
not “feel” the temperature rising or “sense” a
less steam downstream, temperature continuously
pressure drop; they use raw data and graphing
dithers up and down around the desired setpoint.
tools to map sensor readings and compare against
Eventually, the downstream temperature equals the
setpoints.
setpoint, but the process necessitates 45 minutes
When tuning PI control loops, much trial and to an hour. Sacrificing speed to achieve stable and
accurate temperatures remains a priority for many
error is necessary to dial in the settings. For this
steam temperature applications.
reason, tuning PI loops is as much an art form
as it is science. The graphs at right show typical
PI behaviors experienced with proportional How does knowing the priorities of a process
controllers and the recommended action to empower design engineers to specify optimal
tune them out. equipment?

4 Practical PID Process Dynamics

Speed is the parameter that influences the other However, a slow controlled speed is frequently
parameters the most. The faster a process needs preferred. EPRs are often employed to control
to be, the more challenging it is to maintain the pressure of various fluids, each with different
accuracy, resolution, and stability. By understanding viscosities, densities, and other dissimilar attributes.
the irrelevance (from a physics and technology If process variables like fluid, pressure, and volume
perspective) of speed in steam temperature change, PI settings require retuning for optimal
control, a smaller (Cv) process valve could be performance.
selected, leaving more budget for a higher quality
thermocouple.
Many EPRs work well when tuned correctly, but
is it easy to modify PI settings when parameters
What if speed wasn’t constant and predictable change? Both digital and analog proportional
adjustments would occur? controllers are available, should one technology
be preferred over the other?
For example, microfluidics is a process designed
to transport individual cells through microscopic The short answer is yes! Controls engineers do
channels for a diverse spectrum of analysis prefer one of these technologies, and soon design
objectives—delivering stable speeds is imperative. engineers will too.

Setpoint Setpoint

Proportional too low Proportional too high

Setpoint Setpoint

Integral too high Integral too low

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 ANALOG PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER
Comparing ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

Digital vs. Analog Analog proportional controllers possess two

potential advantages over digital (microcontroller)
PID Control based devices. First, the speed of analog circuits is
faster than digital circuits. However, this is irrelevant
to proportional controllers because no matter how
fast an electrical signal opens or closes a valve, the
fluid traversing the valve is always slower to react,
Advantages of nullifying the perceived advantage. Second, analog

Analog Controllers: technology is prevalent in the market and requires

less of a learning curve to implement and operate.
4 Speed (nullified by reaction time) While potentially a current advantage, the trend is
clearly towards digital. Both advantages mentioned
4 Prevalence in market
only highlight the vacuum of a single analog
advantage relevant to this paper: PID control.
Advantages of
Digital Controllers: DIGITAL PID CONTROL ADVANTAGES
Understanding the digital versus analog preference
4 PID adjustment simplicity comes down to understanding the particular
4 Security, traceability, and accountability control technology a device employs. Is the circuitry
4 Dynamic process reaction analog, or is a microcontroller onboard governing
the operation of the device? While the market
prevalence of analog devices can make selecting
analog equipment a default decision, digital

General PID-Loop Schematic Structure

6 Practical PID Process Dynamics

 Traditional
PID Loop Control
PLC & PID Loop Onboard Digital
Controller
Pressure PID Control
Transducer
I/P
Converter
Process Comparison of traditional PID loop control vs. onboard digital PID control

proportional microcontrollers offer numerous DYNAMIC PROCESS REACTION

improvements over their analog counterparts, In the world of electronic pressure regulators, some
particularly in the context of enhanced PID applications are static, demanding only simple
functionality. pressure control in a closed volume. However,
numerous applications are dynamic with varying
PID ADJUSTMENT SIMPLICITY setpoints, inlet pressures, volumes, back pressures,
and leaks. Discovering PID values that keep an
Tuning PID settings on some analog EPRs is a
analog EPR well-behaved during dynamic conditions
tedious and time-consuming process requiring an
is difficult, if not impossible. A proportional
operator to rotate tiny potentiometers manually.
microcontroller can change PID values any time
However, modifying digital PID parameters is
through a technique called gain scheduling where
accomplished through a simple software interface
the microcontroller selects new values based on real-
allowing the operator to directly manipulate
time variations (triggers) in operating conditions. In
settings via keyboard until the device reaches
this way, the digital microcontroller achieves better
the desired performance characteristics. This one
stability and repeatability over a broader array of
difference is enough to excite any controls engineer
operating conditions than an analog controller.
and curtail hours of labor.
The basic PID loop theory explained above is not
SECURITY, TRACEABILITY, AND ACCOUNTABILITY intended to provide design engineers with adequate
knowledge to tune PID control loops. However, it
PID security is an added benefit of microcontroller
is intended to provide insight into the art form and
managed devices. When the factory-tuned PID
process of PID tuning, as it relates to proportional
settings produce undesired process performance,
controllers. The noted differences between tuning
operators may tamper with the analog controller’s
the PID of an analog or digital proportional
PID potentiometers, creating additional issues.
controller are broad and eye-opening. The digital
Once the PID settings are modified, it is challenging
microcontroller saves controls engineers vast
to return the device to initial calibration. However,
amounts of time and allows for greater adaptability
Microcontroller PID changes require a software
and future developmental flexibility without having
interface that retains all the revisions to the PID
to procure additional products.
settings, producing accountability, and making
it simple to return to factory settings if the new If you have questions about digital proportional
values perform poorly. control, contact Clippard today.

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Clippard Instrument Laboratory

www.clippard.com

© Copyright 2019, Clippard Instrument Laboratory, Inc.