CSC 221

Prof. A. S. Sodiya & Falana O. J.

Outlines
Computer hardware
1. History
2. Classifications
3. Configurations
4. Input devices and output devices
Computer Software
1. Operating systems( DOS, MS Windows, Linus)
2. Software Package ( Word processing, Spreadsheet, database SPSS etc.)
3. IT policy
Problem-Solving Strategies
1. Concept
2. Properties
3. Role of algorithms
Algorithmic tools
1. Pseudocode
2. Flowcharts
• Introduction to programming

CSC 301
Outlines contd…
Introduction to systems
1. Decision Support systems
2. Geographic Information systems
3. Precision farming and mapping
4. Agricultural dissemination tool
Hands-on Practical experience
• 1 hour per each group

CSC 301
What is a computer?

• The term computer is obtained from the word compute.

• A computer is an electronic device that inputs (takes in) fact
(known as data), and then processes (does something to or with)
it. Afterward, it outputs or displays the results for you to see.
• Data is all kinds of facts, including pictures, letters, numbers and
sounds.
• There are two main parts of computers, hardware and software
A complete Computer System
Operations performed by computer
• A computer accepts and then processes input data according to the
given instructions.
Computer operations

• Computer operations are performed according to programmed

logical and arithmetical rules.
• The arithmetical element might be as simple as x + y = z
• The logic will be: If x + y does not equal z then add 3 to x and try
again
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

• Speed: The computers have the ability to execute or carry out

instructions at very great speed.
• Accuracy: Computers do not make errors
• Storage: Computers can store large volume of data/information on
secondary storage, which can be retrieved at a latter time.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS CONTD..

➢Consistency: Computers have the ability to consistently follow

instructions without getting tired.
➢Repetitiveness: Computers have the ability to continue processing
over an extended period.
➢Complexity: Computers have the ability to carry out very complex
operations that beats the best human ability
BENEFITS OF COMPUTER TO THE SOCIETY.
➢VOLUME: Computer can process huge amount of information
within a second
➢SPEED: Computers can process data much more quickly than a
human..
➢WORKFORCE is freed up for more skillful and judgment work
➢There is greater ACCESS TO INFORMATION
➢ACCURACY of information is improved
BENEFITS OF PERSONAL COMPUTER TO THE
SOCIETY
• An individual user has direct access for input of data and receipt
of output information with the use of desktop computers.
• Individual Computer user can easily develop models or other
information systems for their own personal use.
• A manager can make quick decisions about managing cash flows
• Computers can improve the ability of managers to develop
Models to help with planning and decision making.

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BENEFITS OF PERSONAL COMPUTER TO
THE SOCIETY contd..
• It can be used for an intensive sensitivity analysis
• It gives more access to information
• Word processing systems include the facility for producing
standard letters and mail shots which can be of great assistance to
managers(users)
History of Computer Science

• The first computers were people!

History of Computer contd…

• The abacus was an early aid for mathematical computations.

• A skilled abacus operator can work on addition and subtraction
problems at the speed of a person equipped with a hand calculator
(multiplication and division are slower)
A more modern
abacus.
Note how the abacus is really just a
representation of the human fingers: the 5
lower rings on each rod represent the 5
fingers and the 2 upper rings represent the 2
hands
History of Computer (contd…)

• In 1617 an eccentric Scotsman named John Napier invented

logarithms
• The technology allows multiplication to be performed via addition
•
A more modern set of
Napier's Bones

Napier's invention led directly to the slide

rule,
 To multiply two numbers, arrange the bones as described
above. The above illustration shows this process for
• The computation proceeds from right to left,
• starting with the rightmost bone in the row determined by the multiplier. In
this case, the last digit in the 7s row of the 6-bone is 2, so write down 2.
• Now add the two adjacent numbers in the same row to the left 3+4 = 7
• so we now have 72.
• The next sum is 6 +6 =12, so write down the 2 two obtain 272 and carry the 1.
• Proceeding to the next digit 5+8 =14, it is (because of the carry), so write
down the 4 to obtain 4272 and carry the 1.
• The leftmost digit is then 2+ 1 = 3 (from the carry), giving the final answer
34272
• The first gear-driven calculating machine to actually be built was
probably the calculating clock, so named by its inventor, the
German professor Wilhelm Schickard in 1623.
• In 1642 Blaise Pascal, at age 19, invented the Pascaline as an aid
for his father who was a tax collector.
• The odometer portion of a car's speedometer used the very same
mechanism as the Pascaline to increment the next wheel after each
full revolution of the prior wheel
• Pascal went on to invent probability theory, the hydraulic press,
and the syringe
A Pascaline
A Pascaline opened up so you can observe
the gears and cylinders which rotated to
display the numerical result
• A more powerful and flexible computing devices were constructed
in the 1930s and 1940s
• The use of digital electronics were largely invented by Claude
Shannon in 1937
EDSAC was one of the first computers to implement the stored program (von Neumann) architecture

Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator

(EDSAC)
• It used mercury delay lines for memory, and derated vacuum
tubes for logic.
• Input was via five-hole punched tape and output was via a
Teleprinter (an electromechanical typewriter that can be used to
send and receive typed messages from point to point and point to
multipoint over various types of communications channels).
Types of Computer

• Supercomputers
➢Most power type of computer.
➢ High-capacity computers.
➢Fastest processing.
➢ Used by large organizations, usually research facilities
Super Computer
Types of Computer Contd..

• Mainframes
➢ Do not have as high of capacity or a fast processing as
supercomputers.
➢ Capable of storing large amounts of data.
➢Large corporations use them.
Mainframe
Computer
Types of Computer Contd..

• Minicomputers
➢Slower processing speed and less storage capacity than a
mainframe.
➢ Used by medium-sized companies or departments of large
corporations.
➢ Used for specialized purposes.
Minicomputer
Types of Computer Contd..

• Microcomputers
➢Least powerful
➢Most widely used
The different types of Microcomputer
❖Desktop
❖Notebook
❖Tablet PC
❖Handheld
Microcomputers
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
• The history of the computer can be divided into five generations:
❖First Generation Electronic Computers (1940--1959)
❖Second Generation Computers (1950--1963)
❖Third Generation Computers (1964--1971)
❖Fourth Generation – 1971 - Present: Microprocessors
❖Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence
• Each generation of computer is characterized by a major
technological development that fundamentally changed the way
computers operate, resulting in increasingly:
➢Smaller
➢Cheaper,
➢More powerful
➢More efficient
➢Reliable devices.
Generation of
Computers
Based on the characteristics of various
Computers developed from time to time, they
are categorized as generations of computer
First Generation of Electronic Computers

• The first general purpose programmable electronic computer was

the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), built
by J. Presper Eckert and John V. Mauchly at the University of
Pennsylvania
• The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic
drums for memory.
First Generation of Computers

characteristics of First generation of electronic computer

✓Very big, taking up entire rooms
✓Very expensive to operate
✓Using a great deal of electricity
✓Generate a lot of heat
✓Often malfunctions
✓Relied on machine language to perform operations
✓Able to solve only one problem at a time.
Second Generation Computers (1959--1963)

• Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second

generation of computers
• During this second generation many high level programming
languages were introduced, including FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL
(1958), and COBOL (1959).
• Important commercial machines of this era include the IBM 704
and its successors, the 709 and 7094.
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 Second Generation Computers

• Characteristics of the second generation:

➢The computers become smaller
➢They are faster, cheaper and are more energy-efficient
➢They are more reliable than the first-generation computers.
➢They used assembly language to perform operations
➢Generated lesser heat
➢Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and
printouts for output.
Third Generation Computers (1964-1971)
• The third generation brought huge gains in computational power
• The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the
third generation of computers.
• Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors.
Third Generation Computers

• Characteristics of computers in this generation are:

❑They are smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
❑Increase in speed
❑The computers are highly efficient
❑Keyboard is used as input device
❑Monitor and printouts are used for output
Fourth Generation – 1971 - 1988 Present:
Microprocessors
• The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers
• Thousands of integrated circuits were built into a single silicon
chip (1000 devices per chip and very large scale integration VLSI
-- 100,000 devices per chip).
• What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in
the palm of the hand.
Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial
Intelligence
• Fifth generation computing devices are based on artificial
intelligence.
• They are still in development
• Applications that have been developed so far in this generation
are:
✓Voice recognition that is being used today.
✓Parallel processing and superconductors which is helping to make
artificial intelligence a reality
✓Quantum computation, molecular and nanotechnology.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computer

Analog Digital
Hybrid

Super Computers Mainframe Computers Mini Computers

Micro Computers
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

• Computer can be classified or typed in many ways: :

❖Type of data processed
❖The size
❖The Purpose or specialization
❖The age of technology
❖Types of application
❖Usage
❖Function
Classification by type of data processed
• There are three basic aspects of Computers, which are digital,
analog and hybrid.
i. Digital Computer: This aspect of computer operates on numbers
directly. It handles numbers discretely and precisely rather than
approximately.
o Examples of digital computers are digital watch, digital phone and
digital radio.
ii. Analog Computer: This aspect of computer deals with
quantities that are continuously variable e.g. speedometer,
electric meter, water meter, thermometer.
iii. Hybrid Computer: This computer combines the features of
both analog and digital computers. They handle data in both
quantities and variable.
Classification by purpose or Specialization

• There are two basic types – special and general-purpose

computers.
i. Special Purpose Computer: This aspect of the computer is
designed to perform one or specific task e.g. Automated Teller
Machine, system to control military planes, boats, surveillance
equipment etc.
ii. General Purpose Computer: These computers have the ability
to handle a wide variety of different programs and to solve many
different problems
Classification by size

• Using physical size as a factor, the following types of computers

can be identified:
i. Micro-Computers: These are computers that are small in size
which can be placed on the desk or lap or palm.
ii. Mini Computers: These are large computers that support multi
users. Their speed of operations is high compared to micros.
iii. Mainframe Computers: These are very large computers that
support multi users.
Classification by function

• CLASSES BY FUNCTION
• Server
• Workstation
• Information appliances
• Embedded Computers
• SERVER
▪ Server usually refers to a computer that is dedicated to providing a
service. For example, a computer dedicated to a database may be
called a "database server.”
▪ "File servers" manage an extensive collection of computer files.
▪ "Web servers" process web pages and web applications. Many
smaller servers are actually personal computers
that has been dedicated to providing services for other computers
• Workstations
• Workstations are computers that are intended to serve one user and may
contain special hardware enhancements not found on a personal computer.
• Information appliances

• Information appliances
• Information appliances are computers specially designed to perform a specific
"user-friendly" function—such as playing music, photography, or editing text.
The term is most commonly applied to mobile devices, though this class also
has portable and desktop devices
• Embedded computers

• Embedded computers are computers that are a part of a machine or device.

• Embedded computers generally execute a program stored in non-volatile
memory and only intended to operate a specific machine or device. Embedded
computers are very common.

• Embedded computers are typically required to operate continuously without

being reset or rebooted, and once employed in their task, the software usually
cannot be modified.
Classification by usage

❖Public Computer
❖Personal Computer
❖Display Computer

• Public computer
• Computers that are open for public uses. They are normally firewalled
to prevent abuse. Most are restricted to install software. There are
many places one can use them such as Cybercafé, Schools, Libraries.
etc.
• Personal computer
• Computers that are solely for one user. The user has complete
access to any part of the computer.
• Display computer
• Computers that are displayed in a shop. These computers are
mainly for preview. These computers are rarely firewalled but are
monitored. They are likely to have internet access.
 INTERNAL COMPONENTS
Identify the names, purposes, and characteristics of:
❖Motherboards
❖CPUs
❖Cooling systems
❖ROM and RAM
❖Adapter cards
❖Storage drives
❖Internal cables
Motherboards

➢ The motherboard is the

main printed circuit board.
➢ Contains the buses, or electrical
pathways found in a computer.
Buses allow data to travel
among the various components.
➢ Accommodates CPU, RAM, expansion slots, heat sink/fan assembly,
BIOS chip, chip set, sockets, internal and external connectors, various
ports, and the embedded wires that interconnect the motherboard
components.
Motherboard Printed Circuit Board(PCB) &
Connections
Motherboard Form factors
• The form factor of motherboards pertains to the size and shape of
the board.
• It also describes the physical layout of the different components
and devices on the motherboard.
• Various form factors exist for motherboards
Input / Output

• Input/Output (I/O) devices – These allow you to send

information to the computer or get information from the computer.
Central Processing Unit

ii. Central Processing Unit – CPU or Processor for short. The

brain of a computer. Approximately 1.5 in X 1.5 in. Does
all the computation/work for the computer.
Central Processing Unit (continued)

• The CPU executes a program, which is a sequence of stored instructions.

• Two major CPU architectures related to instruction sets:
•Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
•Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC
• Some CPUs incorporate hyperthreading or hypertransport to enhance the
performance of the CPU.
• The amount of data that a CPU can process at one time depends on the size of the
processor data bus.
• Speed of the CPU is measured in cycles per second-megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz
(GHz).
• Overclocking is a technique used to make a processor work at a faster speed than its
original specification.
Enhancing CPU Operations

• Various CPU manufacturers complement their CPU with

performance enhancing features
• Intel incorporates Hyper-Threading to enhance the performance of
some of their CPUs. With Hyper-Threading, multiple pieces of
code (threads) are executed simultaneously in the CPU.
• AMD processors use HyperTransport to enhance CPU
performance. HyperTransport is a high-speed connection between
the CPU and the Northbridge chip.
Enhancing CPU Operations

• The power of a CPU is measured by the speed and the amount of data
that it can process. The speed of a CPU is rated in cycles per second,
such as millions of cycles per second, called megahertz (MHz), or
billions of cycles per second, called gigahertz (GHz)
• Overclocking is a technique used to make a processor work at a faster
speed than its original specification. Overclocking is not a
recommended way to improve computer performance and can result in
damage to the CPU.
• CPU throttling is a technique used when the processor runs at less than
the rated speed to conserve power or produce less heat. Throttling is
commonly used on laptops and other mobile devices.
Central Processing Unit (continued)

• The latest processor technology has resulted in CPU

manufacturers finding ways to incorporate more than one CPU
core onto a single chip.
Dual Core CPU - Two cores inside a single CPU
Triple Core CPU - Three cores inside a single CPU
Quad Core CPU - Four cores inside a single CPU
Hexa-Core CPU - Six cores inside a single CPU
Octa-Core CPU - Eight cores inside a single CPU
Memory

iii. Memory – Although memory is technically any form of

electronic storage, it is used most often to identify fast,
temporary forms of storage. There are two types of memory
namely:
a. Random Access Memory – RAM. Where information is stored temporarily
when a program is run
Memory

▪ RAM is temporary storage for data and programs that are being
accessed by the CPU.
▪ RAM is volatile memory, which means that the contents are erased
when the computer is powered
▪ Adding more RAM in a computer enhances the system
performance. For instance, more RAM increases the memory
capacity of the computer to hold and process programs and files.
With less RAM, a computer must swap data between RAM and the
much slower hard drive.
RAM TYPES

• DRAM: Dynamic Ram is a memory chip that is used as main memory. DRAM
must be constantly refreshed with pulses of electricity in order to maintain the
data stored within the chip
• SRAM: Static RAM is a memory chip that is used as cache memory. SRAM is
much faster than DRAM and does not have to be refreshed as often. SRAM is
much more expensive than DRAM
• SDRAM: Synchronous DRAM is DRAM that operates in synchronization with
the memory bus. The memory bus is the data between the CPU and the main
memory. Control signals are used to coordinate the exchange of data between
SDRAM and the CPU
• DDR: Double Data Rate SDRAM is memory that transfers data twice as fast as
SDRAM. DDR SDRAM increases performance by transferring data twice per
clock cycle
• DDR2: Double Date Rate 2 SDRAM is faster than DDR-SDRAM memory.
DDR2 SDRAM improves performance over DDR SDRAM by decreasing noise
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and crosstalk between the signal wires
Memory

b. Read Only Memory (ROM). More permanent than RAM. Data stored in these chips are nonvolatile
▪ Basic instructions for booting the computer and loading the operating system are stored in ROM.
▪ ROM chips retain their contents even when the computer is powered down.
ROM Types

• ROM:
▪ Read-only memory information is written to a ROM chip when it is
manufactured. A ROM chip cannot be erased or re-written and is obsolete
• PROM
▪ This is an acronym for programmable read-only memory. These are blank
chips on which the buyer, using special equipment, writes the programs
▪ Once the program is written, it cannot be erased
• EPROM
▪ EPROM stands for electronically programmable read-only memory. They are
like PROM chips except that the contents can be erased by exposing it to ultra-
violet light or using special equipment and new materials can be written

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ROM Types

• EEPROM
• This is an acronym for electronically erasable programmable read-
only-memory. The memory chips can be reprogrammed can be
erased by exposing it to an electrical charge.
• EEPROM chips are also called Flash ROMs. EPROM chip can be
erased and re-written without having to remove the chip from the
computer
Memory modules
❑Memory modules are memory chips that
have been soldered on to a special circuit
board for easy installation and removal.
❑Dual Inline Package (DIP) is an individual
memory chip.
❑Single Inline Memory Module (SIMM) is a
small circuit board that holds several
memory chips.
❑Dual Inline Memory Module (DIMM) is a
circuit board that holds SDRAM, DDR
SDRAM, and DDR2 SDRAM chips.
Memory modules (Continued)

➢The speed of memory has a direct impact on how much data a

processor can process
➢Faster memory improves the performance of the processor. As
processor speed increases, memory speed must also increase.
Cache Memory
• SRAM is used as cache memory to store the most frequently used
data.
• SRAM provides the processor with faster access to the data than
retrieving it from the slower DRAM, or main memory.
Ports

v. Ports – Means of connecting peripheral devices to your

computer.
a. Serial Port – Often used to connect mouse, older external
modems, older digital cameras
Ports

b. Monitor Ports – Used to connect a monitor to the computer. PCs

usually use a VGA (Video Graphics Array) analog connector
Ports

c. Parallel Port – Most often used to connect a printer to the

computer.
Ports

• USB Port – Universal Serial Bus. Now used to connect almost all
peripheral devices to the computer. USB 2.0 transmits data at
480Mb/s while 3.0 and 3.1 transmit data at 5Gb/s and 10Gb/s
respectively
Ports

• Firewire/ IEEE 1394 Port – Often found on Apple Computers.

Firewire transmits data at 400 Mb/s. Firewire 1394B (the new
firewire) transmits data at 3.2 Gb/s

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• Ethernet Port – This port is used for networking and fast internet
connections
Power Supply

vi. Power Supply – Gives your computer power by converting

alternating current (AC) supplied by the wall connection to direct
current (DC)
Expansion Cards

• Expansion Cards – Used to add/improve functionality to the

computer.
a. Sound Card – Used to input and output sound under program
control.
– Sound cards provide better sound quality than the built-in sound
control provided with most computers.
Expansion Cards

b. Graphics Card – Used to convert the logical representation of an

image to a signal that can be used as input for a monitor.
Expansion Cards

c. Network Card – Used to provide a computer connection over a

network. Transmit data at 10/100/1000 Mb/s.
CD ROM

viii.CD ROM – A device used to read CD-ROMs. It is capable of

writing to the CD-ROM, then they are usually referred to as a
‘burner’ or CD-RW.
DVD ROM

ix. DVD ROM – A device that is used to read DVDs/CDs. If

capable of writing to the DVD, then it is often referred to as a
DVD-burner or a DVD-RW.
Fan

x. Fan – Keeps your computer cool. If the inside of your computer

becomes too hot, then the computer can overheat and damage
parts.
Heat sink

• Heat sink – Used to disperse the heat that is produced inside the
computer by the CPU and other parts by increasing surface area.
Input Device
• An input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware
equipment) used to provide data and control signals to an
information processing system (such as a computer).
• The most common input devices used by the computer are the
keyboard and mouse.
 Classification of Input Devices
Many input devices can be classified according to:
• The modality of input (e.g. mechanical, motion, audio, visual,
etc.)
• Whether the input is discrete (e.g. key presses) or continuous (e.g.
a mouse's position,
• The number of degrees of freedom involved (e.g. two-dimensional
traditional mice, or three-dimensional navigators designed for
CAD applications)
Keyboards
• A keyboard is a human interface device which is represented as a
layout of buttons. Each button, or key, can be used to either input
a linguistic character to a computer, or to call upon a particular
function of the computer.
Pointing devices
• Pointing devices
• A pointing device is any human interface device that allows a
user to input spatial data to a computer.
• In the case of mouse and touch screen, this is usually achieved by
detecting movement across a physical surface
Pointing devices

• Touch Screens –These input devices have touch or pressure

sensitive screens. The computer receives instructions specific to
the place on the screen that the user touches.

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Pointing devices
• Joysticks and Gamepads –These are input
devices for playing games. Gamepads allow the
player to control movement and views with small
sticks and multiple buttons. Many gamepads also
have triggers that register the amount of pressure
the player puts on them. Joysticks are often used
to play flight simulation-style games.
Audio input devices
• Audio input devices
▪ In the fashion of video devices, audio devices are used to either
capture or create sound. In some cases, an audio output device can
be used as an input device, in order to capture produced sound.
▪ Microphone
▪ MIDI keyboard or other digital musical instrument
Audio input devices

• MIDI keyboard
• A MIDI keyboard is typically a piano-style user interface
keyboard device used for sending MIDI signals or commands over
a USB or MIDI cable to other devices connected and operating on
the same MIDI protocol interface.

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Imaging and Video input devices
• Imaging and Video input devices
• Video input devices are used to digitize images or video from the
outside world into the computer. The information can be stored in a
multitude of formats depending on the user's requirement.
▪ Webcam Image
▪ scanner Fingerprint
▪ scanner Barcode reader
▪ 3D scanner
▪ Laser rangefinder
Imaging Devices

• Scanners –These devices digitize an image or document. The

digitization of the image is stored as a file that can be displayed,
printed, or altered. A bar code reader is a type of scanner that
reads Universal Product Code (UPC) bar codes. It is widely used
for pricing and inventory information.

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Imaging Devices

• Digitizer –This device allows a designer or artist to create

blueprints, images, or other artwork by using a pen-like tool called
a stylus on a surface that senses where the stylus tip is touching it.
Some digitizers have more than one surface, or sensor, and allow
the user to create 3D models by performing actions with the stylus
in mid-air.
Video input devices

• Voice Input Device

• This consists of equipment that is designed to recognize the
human voice and converts the human voice into input which the
computer can understand.