BS and MSc

Course Code: PHY-100

Course Title: Introduction to Science
Credit Hours: 3(2-1)
Introduction to Science and it’s
Daily life Applications &
Scientific Methods
Contents
• What Science?
• Importance of Science
• Uses of Science across Multiple Fields and
Industries
• Scientific Methods
• How to Solve Biological problem?
• Flow Chart
• Difference in Fact hypothesis, theory, and law
• Scientific Hypothesis, Theories and Laws
 What Science?

The word “science” has been derived from a Latin word

“Scientia” which means knowledge.
OR
Science is the system of observations and experiments used
to gain knowledge about “How universe works”.
Important of Science?
• Science is important in our daily lives because it allows
us to understand the world around us and to make
improvements to our lives.
• Science has led to many technological advances that
have made our lives easier, including the development
of antibiotics, vaccines, and treatments for diseases.
• It also helps us to understand the natural world and to
protect our environment.
• For example, science has led to the development of
technologies that allow us to recycle and conserve
resources, and it has taught us about the dangers of
pollution and climate change.
Uses of Science across Multiple
Fields and Industries
• Science used in many fields and industries,
including agriculture, health care, manufacturing,
and environmental protection.
• In agriculture, science used to develop new crops
and to improve farming techniques.
• Science also used to create pesticides and
herbicides, to develop new methods of irrigation.
Uses of Science across Multiple
Fields and Industries
• In health care, science used to develop new
drugs and therapies, to study the human body,
and to diagnose and treat diseases.
• Science also used to create medical devices and
to develop new methods of surgery.
• In manufacturing, science used to design new
products
Uses of Science across Multiple Fields
and Industries
• To improve the efficiency of production
processes.
• To study impact of manufacturing on
environment.
• In environmental protection, science used to
study the impact of human activity on
environment, to develop new methods of
cleaning up polluted areas.
• To develop strategies for sustainable
development.
Scientific Methods

• The scientific method is a systematic

and logical approach used by scientists
and researchers to investigate and
understand natural phenomena.
• It involves a series of steps or processes
designed to ensure that scientific
inquiries are conducted in a rigorous
and reliable manner
How to Solve Biological problem?
Flow Chart
• Recognition of problem
• Observations
• Hypothesis formulation
• Deductions
• Experimentation
• Summarization of results (create tables, graphics
etc.)
• Reporting the results
Recognition Of Problem
• The first step in solving a problem is to know
what is the problem. Recognition of problem is
the most basic step.
• Scientist go for adopting biological method when
they encounter some scientific problem.
• A scientific problem is a question related to every
day problem that is either asked by some one or
comes in scientist’s mind by himself.
 Observations
• The process begins with the observation of a
phenomenon or the identification of a question
or problem that requires investigation.
• Observations can be made through sensory
perception or the use of instruments and tools.
• For example, watching an apple fall from a
tree could be an observation.
• Smelling garbage decomposing is another
example of observation.
 Types of Observations
Qualitative observations Quantitative observations

✓ The freezing point of water ✓ The freezing point of water

is colder than the boiling 0° C and the boiling point is
point. 100° C.
✓ A liter of water is heavier ✓ A liter of water weighs 1000
than a liter of ethanol. grams and a liter of ethanol
weighs 789 grams.
Hypothesis formulation
• Observations do not become scientific observations
until they are organized and related to a question.
• Scientist organizes his/her and others’ observations
into data form and constructs a statement that may
prove to be the answer of the scientific problem
under study.
• This tentative explanation of observations is called a
hypothesis.
• It may be defined as a proposition that might be true.
Hypothesis formulation
A hypothesis should have the following
characteristics:
• It should be a general statement.
• It should be a tentative idea.
• It should agree with available observations.
• It should be kept as simple as possible.
• It should be testable and potentially falsifiable.
Hypothesis formulation
• In other words, there should be a way to show
the hypothesis is false; a way to disprove the
hypothesis.
• A great deal of careful and creative thinking is
necessary for the formulation of a hypothesis.
• Biologists use reasoning to formulate a
hypothesis.
Deductions
• In the next step, scientist draws deductions from
hypotheses.
• Deductions are the logical consequences of
hypotheses.
• For this purpose, a hypothesis is taken as true and
expected results (deductions) are drawn from it.
• Generally in scientific method, if a particular
hypothesis is true then one should expect
(deduction) a certain result.
• This involves the use of “if-then” logic.
Experimentation
• The most basic step of scientific method is
experimentation.
• Scientist performs experiments to see if hypotheses
are true or not.
• The deductions, which are drawn from hypotheses,
are subjected to rigorous testing.
• Through experimentations, Scientist learns which
hypothesis is correct.
• The incorrect hypotheses are rejected and the one
which proves correct is accepted.
• An accepted hypothesis makes further predictions
that provide an important way to further test its
validity.
Summarization of results
• Scientist gathers actual, quantitative data from
experiments.
• Data for each of the groups are then averaged
and compared statistically.
• To draw conclusions, scientist also uses
statistical analysis.
Reporting the results

• Scientifics publish their findings in scientific

journals and books, in talks at national and
international meetings and in seminars at
colleges and universities.
• Publishing of results is an essential part of
scientific method.
• It allows other people to verify the results or
apply the knowledge to solve other problems.
 Difference in Fact hypothesis, theory,
and law
Scientific Hypothesis, Theories and
Laws
• The principles and theories of science have been established
through repeated experimentation and observation and have
been refereed through peer review before general acceptance by
the scientific community.
• Acceptance does not imply rigidity or constraint, or
denote dogma.
• Instead, as new data become available, previous scientific
explanations are revised and improved, or rejected and replaced.
• Science is a way of making sense of the world, with internally-
consistent methods and principles that are well described.
• There is a progression from a hypothesis to a theory using
testable, scientific laws.
• Only a few scientific facts are natural laws and many hypotheses
are tested to generate a theory.
• Find out how scientific hypotheses, theories and laws describe
the natural world.
What is a hypothesis?
• A hypothesis is an idea or proposition that can be
tested by observations or experiments, about the
natural world.
• In order to be considered scientific, hypotheses
are subject to scientific evaluation and must be
falsifiable, which means that they are worded in
such a way that they can be proven to be incorrect.
• Example: When Gregor Mendel in 1865 studied
the pattern of single trait inheritance of garden
peas he formed a hypothesis on the manner of
how these traits were inherited.
What is a hypothesis?
The hypothesis he formed based on his observations included
the following:
• In the organism there is a pair of factors that controls the
appearance of a given characteristic.
• The organism inherits these factors from its parents, one
from each.
• Each is transmitted from generation to generation as a
discrete, unchanging unit.
• When the gametes are formed, the factors separate and are
distributed as units to each gamete. (This statement is also
known as Mendel's rule of segregation.)
• If an organism has two unlike factors for a characteristic,
one may be expressed to the total exclusion of the other.
What is a scientific theory?
To scientists, a theory is a coherent explanation for
a large number of facts and observations about the
natural world.
• A theory is:
• Internally consistent and compatible with the
evidence
• Firmly grounded in and based upon evidence
• Tested against a wide range of phenomena
• Demonstrably effective in problem-solving
What is a scientific theory?
• In popular use, a theory is often assumed to imply mere speculation,
but in science, something is not called a theory until it has been
confirmed over many independent experiments.
• Theories are more certain than hypotheses, but less certain than laws.
• The procedures and processes for testing a theory are well-defined
within each scientific discipline.
• Example: Between 1856 and 1863 Mendel cultivated and tested some
28,000 pea plants which brought forth two theories of how character
traits are inherited. Ironically, when Mendel's paper was published on
1866, it had little impact.
• It wasn't until the early 20th century that the enormity of his ideas
was realized
What is a scientific law?
A scientific law is a description of a natural phenomenon or
principle that invariably holds true under specific
conditions and will occur under certain circumstances.
• Example: In the early 20th century, after repeated tests
and rejection of all competing theories Mendel's Laws of
Heredity were accepted by the general scientific
community.
• The law of segregation, which states that the alleles
governing a trait are separated during the creation of
gametes (meiosis).
• The law of independent assortment, which states that the
genes controlling different traits are distributed
separately from each other during meiosis.
What is a scientific law?
• Example 2: In the late 17th Century, Nicholas Steno
established some natural laws relating to geology.
• The law of original horizontality - this states that when
sediments are deposited in water, they will sink
through it and deposit as horizontal layers as the
result of gravity (unless acted on by other forces).
• The law of stratigraphic succession - this states that in
a given sequence of sediments, the oldest will be at the
bottom and the youngest at the top.
• It does not provide ages for those sediments, simply
the sequence of their deposition.
References