Module 3

CARRIER TRANSPORT MECHANISM

Charge Carriers in semi-conductors
Drift and Diffusion of carriers
Mobility
Generation
Recombination and Injection of Carriers
Carrier Transport Equations
Excess Carrier Lifetime
 Mobile Charge Carriers in Semiconductors
• Three primary types of carrier action occur inside a
semiconductor:

– Drift: charged particle motion under the influence of an

electric field.

– Diffusion: particle motion due to concentration gradient

or temperature gradient.

– Recombination-generation (R-G)
 Electrons as Moving Particles
In vacuum In semiconductor

F = (-q)E = moa F = (-q)E = mn*a

where mn* is the
conductivity effective mass
 Conductivity Effective Mass, m*
Under the influence of an electric field (E-field), an electron or a hole is accelerated:
 q
a electrons
mn*
q
a * holes
mp

Electron and hole conductivity effective masses

acceleration = ----
–mq
n

Si Ge GaAs
mn*/mo 0.26 0.12 0.068
mp*/mo 0.39 0.30 0.50
mo = 9.110-31 kg
 Carrier Scattering
• Mobile electrons and atoms in the Si lattice are always in random
thermal motion.
– Electrons make frequent collisions with the vibrating atoms
“lattice scattering” or “phonon scattering” – increases with increasing T

• Other scattering mechanisms:

– deflection by ionized impurity atoms
– deflection due to Coulombic force between carriers
“carrier-carrier scattering” – only significant at high carrier concentrations

• The net current in any direction is zero, 3 2

1
electron
if no E-field is applied. 4
5
 Thermal Velocity, vth

Average electron kinetic energy  3 kT  1 mn*vth2

2 2

3kT 3  0.026eV  (1.6  10 19 J/eV)

vth  
*
mn 0.26  9.1 10 31 kg
 2.3  10 m/s  2.3  10 cm/s
5 7
 Carrier Drift
• When an electric field (e.g. due to an externally applied voltage) exists
within a semiconductor, mobile charge carriers will be accelerated by the
electrostatic force:
2
3 1
4 electron
5

E
Electrons drift in the direction opposite to the E-field  net current
Because of scattering, electrons in a semiconductor do not undergo constant acceleration.
However, they can be viewed as quasi-classical particles moving at a constant average drift
velocity vdn
Carrier Drift (Band Model)

Ec

Ev
 Electron Momentum
• With every collision, the electron loses momentum
*
mv n dn

• Between collisions, the electron gains momentum

–q E tmn

tmn ≡ average time between electron scattering events

Conservation of momentum  |mn*vdn | = | q E mn|

 Carrier Mobility m
For electrons: |vdn| = qEmn / mn* ≡ mnE
mn  [qmn / mn*] is the electron mobility

Similarly, for holes: |vdp|= qEmp / mp*  mpE

mp  [qmp / mp*] is the hole mobility

Electron and hole mobilities for intrinsic semiconductors @ 300K

Si Ge GaAs InAs
mn (cm2/Vs) 1400 3900 8500 30,000
mp (cm2/Vs) 470 1900 400 500
 Example: Drift Velocity Calculation
a) Find the hole drift velocity in an intrinsic Si sample for E = 103 V/cm.
b) What is the average hole scattering time?
Solution:
a) vdp = mpE

q mp m*p m p
b) mp  *
  mp 
m p q
 Mean Free Path
• Average distance traveled between collisions
l  vth mp
 Mechanisms of Carrier Scattering
Dominant scattering mechanisms:
1. Phonon scattering (lattice scattering)
2. Impurity (dopant) ion scattering

Phonon scattering limited mobility decreases with increasing T:

1 1
m phonon   phonon    T 3 / 2

phonon density  carrier thermal velocity T  T 1/ 2

m = q / m vth  T
 Impurity Ion Scattering

There is less change in the electron’s direction if the electron travels by

the ion at a higher speed.
Ion scattering limited mobility increases with increasing T:
vth3 T 3/ 2
mimpurity  
N A  ND N A  ND
 Matthiessen's Rule
• The probability that a carrier will be scattered by mechanism i within a
time period dt is dt
i
i ≡ mean time between scattering events due to mechanism i
 Probability that a carrier will be scattered by any mechanism within a time period
dt is 
i
dt
i

1 1 1 1 1 1
    
  phonon  impurity m m phonon mimpurity
Mobility Dependence on Doping
Carrier mobilities in Si at 300K
Mobility Dependence on Temperature
1 1 1
 
m m phonon mimpurity
 Hole Drift Current Density Jp,drift

vdp Dt A = volume from which all holes cross plane in time Dt

p vdp Dt A = number of holes crossing plane in time Dt
q p vdp Dt A = hole charge crossing plane in time Dt
q p vdp A = hole charge crossing plane per unit time = hole current
 Hole drift current per unit area Jp,drift = q p vdp
 Conductivity and Resistivity
• In a semiconductor, both electrons and holes conduct current:
J p ,drift  qpm p E J n ,drift  qn( m n E )
J drift  J p ,drift  J n ,drift  qpm p E  qnm n E
J drift  (qpm p  qnm n ) E  E

• The conductivity of a semiconductor is   qpm p  qnm n

– Unit: mho/cm

1
• The resistivity of a semiconductor is 
– Unit: ohm-cm 
Resistivity Dependence on Doping
For n-type material:
1

qnm n

For p-type material:

1
p-type 
qpm p
n-type
Note: This plot (for Si) does
not apply to compensated
material (doped with both
acceptors and donors).

Lecture 4, Slide 20
 Electrical Resistance
I V
+ _

W
t
uniformly doped semiconductor

V L
Resistance R  [Unit: ohms]
I Wt
where  is the resistivity
 Example: Resistance Calculation
What is the resistivity of a Si sample doped with 1016/cm3 Boron?
Answer:

1 1
 
qnm n  qpm p qpm p

 (1.6 10 19 16
)(10 )(450) 1
 1.4   cm
 Example: Dopant Compensation
Consider the same Si sample doped with 1016/cm3 Boron, and additionally
doped with 1017/cm3 Arsenic. What is its resistivity?
Answer:

1 1
 
qnm n  qpm p qnm n

 (1.6 10 19
)(9 10 )(600)
16
1
 0.12   cm

(1017-1016)
 Example: T Dependence of 
Consider a Si sample doped with 1017cm-3 As. How will its resistivity change
when the temperature is increased from T=300K to T=400K?
Answer:
The temperature dependent factor in  (and therefore ) is mn.
From the mobility vs. temperature curve for 1017 cm-3, we find that mn decreases from 770
at 300K to 400 at 400K.

Thus,  increases by 770

 1.93
400
Summary of Charge carriers in Semiconductors
• Electrons and holes can be considered as quasi-classical particles with
effective mass m*
• In the presence of an electric field E, carriers move with average drift
velocity vd = mE , m is the carrier mobility
– Mobility decreases with the increasing total concentration of ionized dopants
– Mobility is dependent on temperature
• decreases with increasing T if lattice scattering is dominant
• decreases with decreasing T if impurity scattering is dominant

• The conductivity and the resistivity of a semiconductor is dependent on its

mobile charge carrier concentrations and mobilities

  qpm p  qnm n
 Diffusion
Particles diffuse from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower
concentration region, due to random thermal motion.

26
 1-D Diffusion Example
• Thermal motion causes particles to move
into an adjacent compartment every t
seconds
– Each particle has an equal probability
of jumping to the left or jumping to the
right.

27
 Diffusion current
• Diffusion is a natural phenomenon
• Migration of charge carriers from higher concentration to
lower concentration or from higher density to lower density is
diffusion
• Diffusion is mainly due to concentration gradient and is
always negative
• dp/dx for holes and dn / dx for electrons
 Diffusion Current
dn dp
J n,diff  qDn J p,diff  qD p
dx dx

D is the diffusion constant, or diffusivity.

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 Total Current

J  Jn  J p

dn
J n  J n ,drift  J n ,diff  qnm n ε  qDn
dx

dp
J p  J p ,drift  J p ,diff  qpm p ε  qD p
dx
When there is an electric field and also a concentration gradient,
charge carriers move both by diffusion and drift.

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 Diffusion coefficient is a measure of the ease with which the diffusing
charge carriers move in the medium.

 But drift mobility is also a measure of the ease with which the charge
carriers move in the medium.

Einstein relation

 The diffusion coefficient is proportional to the temperature and

mobility.
 increasing the temperature will increase the mean speed and thus
accelerate diffusion.

 The randomizing effect against diffusion in one particular direction

is the scattering of the carriers from lattice vibrations, impurities,
and so forth, so that the longer the mean free path between
scattering events, the larger the diffusion coefficient.
Calculate the diffusion coefficient
of electrons at 27 °C in n-type Si
16
doped with 10 As atoms cm . −3
 Non-Uniformly-Doped Semiconductor
• The position of EF relative to the band edges is determined by the carrier
concentrations, which is determined by the net dopant concentration.
• In equilibrium EF is constant; therefore, the band-edge energies vary with
position in a non-uniformly doped semiconductor:

Ec(x)

EF

Ev(x)

33
 Potential Difference due to n(x), p(x)
• The ratio of carrier densities at two points depends exponentially on the potential
difference between these points:
 n1   n1 
EF  Ei1  kT ln   Ei1  EF  kT ln 
 ni   ni 
 n2 
Similarly, Ei2  EF  kT ln 
 ni 
  n2   n1   n2 
Therefore Ei1  Ei2  kT ln   ln   kT ln 
  ni   ni   n1 
kT  n2 
V2  V1  Ei1  Ei2  
1
ln 
q q  n1 
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 Ev(x)

Built-In Electric Field due to n(x), p(x)

Ef

Ec(x)
Consider a piece of a non-uniformly doped semiconductor:
 ( Ec  E F ) / kT
n  Nce
n-type semiconductor
dn N dE
  c e ( Ec  EF ) / kT c
Decreasing donor concentration dx kT dx
Ec(x)
n dEc

EF kT dx
n
 qε
Ev(x) kT

35
 Einstein Relationship between D, m
• In equilibrium there is no net flow of electrons or holes
Jn = 0 and Jp = 0

 The drift and diffusion current components must balance each other
exactly. (A built-in electric field exists, such that the drift current
exactly cancels out the diffusion current due to the concentration
gradient.)
dn dp
J n  qnm n ε  qDn 0 J p  qpm p ε  qD p 0
dx dx

The Einstein relationship is valid for a non-degenerate semiconductor, even under non-equilibrium conditions.
36
 Example: Diffusion Constant
What is the hole diffusion constant in a sample of silicon with
mp = 410 cm2 / V s ?
Answer:

Remember: kT/q = 26 mV at room temperature.

37
Reference:
 Quasi-Neutrality Approximation
• If the dopant concentration profile varies gradually with position, then the majority-
carrier concentration distribution does not differ much from the dopant concentration
distribution.
N D ( x )  p ( x )  N A ( x )  n( x )

– n-type material: n( x )  N D ( x )  N A ( x )
– p-type material: p( x)  N A ( x)  N D ( x)

kT  1  dN D
 
kT  1  dn
 
q  n  dx
  
q  N D  dx
in n-type material

39
 Generation and Recombination
• Generation:

• Recombination:

• Generation and recombination processes act to change the carrier

concentrations, and thereby indirectly affect current flow
41
 Generation Processes

Band-to-Band R-G Center Impact Ionization

The phenomenon by which a drifting

electron gains sufficient energy from the
field to ionize a host crystal atom by
bombardment is termed impact ionization42
 Recombination Processes

Direct R-G Center Auger

Recombination in Si is primarily via R-G centers

43
 Direct vs. Indirect Band Gap Materials
Energy (E) vs. momentum (k) Diagrams
Direct: Indirect:

Little change in momentum Large change in momentum

is required for recombination is required for recombination
 momentum is conserved by  momentum is conserved by
photon emission phonon + photon emission
46
 Excess Carrier Concentrations
equilibrium values
Dn  n  n0
Dp  p  p0

Charge neutrality condition:

Dn  Dp

49
 Low-Level Injection
• Often the disturbance from equilibrium is small, such that the
majority-carrier concentration is not affected significantly:

– For an n-type material:

| Dn || Dp | n0 so n  n0
– For a p-type material:
| Dn || Dp | p0 so p  p0

However, the minority carrier concentration can be significantly

affected.
51
 Indirect Recombination Rate
Suppose excess carriers are introduced into an n-type Si sample (e.g. by
temporarily shining light onto it) at time t = 0.
How does p vary with time t > 0?
1.Consider the rate of hole recombination via traps:

p
t R  c p N T p
2.Under low-level injection conditions, the hole generation rate is not
significantly affected:
p p p
t G  t G  equilibrium  t R  equilibrium  c p N T p0

52
3. The net rate of change in p is therefore

p p p
t R G  t R  t G   c p N T p  c p N T p0

p Dp
t R G  c p NT ( p  p0 )    p
where  p  1
c p NT

53
 Minority Carrier (Recombination) Lifetime

 p  c 1Np T
 n  c 1Nn T

The minority carrier lifetime  is the average time an excess minority

carrier “survives” in a sea of majority carriers
 ranges from 1 ns to 1 ms in Si and depends on the density of metallic
impurities (contaminants) such as Au and Pt, and the density of
crystalline defects. These impurities/defects give rise to localized energy
states deep within the band gap. Such deep traps capture electrons or
holes to facilitate recombination and are called recombination-
generation centers.
54
 Relaxation to Equilibrium State
Consider a semiconductor with no current flow in which thermal equilibrium is
disturbed by the sudden creation of excess holes and electrons. The system will
relax back to the equilibrium state via the R-G mechanism:

n Dn
 for electrons in p-type material
t n

p Dp

p
for holes in n-type material
t

55
 Example: Photoconductor
Consider a sample of Si doped with 1016 cm-3 boron,
with recombination lifetime 1 ms. It is exposed continuously to light, such that
electron-hole pairs are generated throughout the sample at the rate of 1020 per cm3
per second, i.e. the generation rate GL = 1020/cm3/s

What are p0 and n0 ?

What are Dn and Dp ?

(Hint: In steady-state, generation rate equals recombination rate.)

58
What are p and n ?

What is the np product ?

Note: The np product can be very different from ni2.

59
 Net Recombination Rate (General Case)
For arbitrary injection levels, the net rate of carrier recombination is:

Dn Dp pn  ni2

  
t t  p (n  n1 )   n ( p  p1 )
( ET  Ei ) / kT ( Ei  ET ) / kT
where n1  ni e and p1  ni e

61
 Summary
• Electron/hole concentration gradient  diffusion
dn dp
J n,diff  qDn J p,diff  qD p
dx dx
• Current flowing in a semiconductor is comprised of drift and diffusion components for
electrons and holes
J = Jn,drift + Jn,diff + Jp,drift + Jp,diff
In equilibrium Jn = Jn,drift + Jn,diff = 0 and Jp = Jp,drift + Jp,diff = 0

• The characteristic constants of drift and diffusion are related:

D kT

m q
62
 Summary (cont’d)
• Generation and recombination (R-G) processes affect carrier concentrations as a
function of time, and thereby current flow
– Generation rate is enhanced by deep (near midgap) states due to defects or
impurities, and also by high electric field
– Recombination in Si is primarily via R-G centers

• The characteristic constant for (indirect) R-G is the minority carrier lifetime:

 p  c 1N p T
(np - type material)  n  c 1Nn T
(pn - type material)
• Generally, the net recombination rate is proportional to
np  n 2
i

63
Problem on Electron Mobility