Syllabus content

Application of skills: Students should examine models or digital collections of skulls to infer diet from the
anatomical features. Examples may include Homo sapiens (humans), Homo floresiensis and Paranthropus
robustus.
NOS: Deductions can be made from theories. In this example, observation of living mammals led to
theories relating dentition to herbivorous or carnivorous diets. These theories allowed the diet of extinct
organisms to be deduced.

B4.2.9—Adaptations of herbivores for feeding on plants and of plants for resisting herbivory
For herbivore adaptations, include piercing and chewing mouthparts of leaf-eating insects. Plants resist
herbivory using thorns and other physical structures. Plants also produce toxic secondary compounds in
seeds and leaves. Some animals have metabolic adaptations for detoxifying these toxins.

B4.2.10—Adaptations of predators for finding, catching and killing prey and of prey animals for resisting
predation
Students should be aware of chemical, physical and behavioural adaptations in predators and prey.

B4.2.11—Adaptations of plant form for harvesting light

Include examples from forest ecosystems to illustrate how plants in forests use different strategies to reach
light sources, including trees that reach the canopy, lianas, epiphytes growing on branches of trees,
strangler epiphytes, shade-tolerant shrubs and herbs growing on the forest floor.

B4.2.12—Fundamental and realized niches

Students should appreciate that fundamental niche is the potential of a species based on adaptations and
tolerance limits and that realized niche is the actual extent of a species niche when in competition with
other species.

B4.2.13—Competitive exclusion and the uniqueness of ecological niches

Include elimination of one of the competing species or the restriction of both to a part of their
fundamental niche as possible outcomes of competition between two species.

Note: There is no additional higher level content in B4.2.

Linking questions
• What are the relative advantages of specificity and versatility?
• For each form of nutrition, what are the unique inputs, processes and outputs?

C1.1 Enzymes and metabolism

Interaction and interdependence—Molecules
Standard level and higher level: 3 hours
Additional higher level: 2 hours

Guiding questions
• In what ways do enzymes interact with other molecules?
• What are the interdependent components of metabolism?

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SL and HL
C1.1.1—Enzymes as catalysts
Students should understand the benefit of increasing rates of reaction in cells.

C1.1.2—Role of enzymes in metabolism

Students should understand that metabolism is the complex network of interdependent and interacting
chemical reactions occurring in living organisms. Because of enzyme specificity, many different enzymes
are required by living organisms, and control over metabolism can be exerted through these enzymes.

C1.1.3—Anabolic and catabolic reactions

Examples of anabolism should include the formation of macromolecules from monomers by condensation
reactions including protein synthesis, glycogen formation and photosynthesis. Examples of catabolism
should include hydrolysis of macromolecules into monomers in digestion and oxidation of substrates in
respiration.

C1.1.4—Enzymes as globular proteins with an active site for catalysis

Include that the active site is composed of a few amino acids only, but interactions between amino acids
within the overall three-dimensional structure of the enzyme ensure that the active site has the necessary
properties for catalysis.

C1.1.5—Interactions between substrate and active site to allow induced-fit binding

Students should recognize that both substrate and enzymes change shape when binding occurs.

C1.1.6—Role of molecular motion and substrate-active site collisions in enzyme catalysis

Movement is needed for a substrate molecule and an active site to come together. Sometimes large
substrate molecules are immobilized while sometimes enzymes can be immobilized by being embedded
in membranes.

C1.1.7—Relationships between the structure of the active site, enzyme–substrate specificity and
denaturation
Students should be able to explain these relationships.

C1.1.8—Effects of temperature, pH and substrate concentration on the rate of enzyme activity

The effects should be explained with reference to collision theory and denaturation.
Application of skills: Students should be able to interpret graphs showing the effects.
NOS: Students should be able to describe the relationship between variables as shown in graphs. They
should recognize that generalized sketches of relationships are examples of models in biology. Models in
the form of sketch graphs can be evaluated using results from enzyme experiments.

C1.1.9—Measurements in enzyme-catalysed reactions

Application of skills: Students should determine reaction rates through experimentation and using
secondary data.

C1.1.10—Effect of enzymes on activation energy

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Application of skills: Students should appreciate that energy is required to break bonds within the
substrate and that there is an energy yield when bonds are made to form the products of an enzyme-
catalysed reaction. Students should be able to interpret graphs showing this effect.

Additional higher level

C1.1.11—Intracellular and extracellular enzyme-catalysed reactions
Include glycolysis and the Krebs cycle as intracellular examples and chemical digestion in the gut as an
extracellular example.

C1.1.12—Generation of heat energy by the reactions of metabolism

Include the idea that heat generation is inevitable because metabolic reactions are not 100% efficient in
energy transfer. Mammals, birds and some other animals depend on this heat production for maintenance
of constant body temperature.

C1.1.13—Cyclical and linear pathways in metabolism

Use glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and the Calvin cycle as examples.

C1.1.14—Allosteric sites and non-competitive inhibition

Students should appreciate that only specific substances can bind to an allosteric site. Binding causes
interactions within an enzyme that lead to conformational changes, which alter the active site enough to
prevent catalysis. Binding is reversible.

C1.1.15—Competitive inhibition as a consequence of an inhibitor binding reversibly to an active site

Use statins as an example of competitive inhibitors. Include the difference between competitive and non-
competitive inhibition in the interactions between substrate and inhibitor and therefore in the effect of
substrate concentration.

C1.1.16—Regulation of metabolic pathways by feedback inhibition

Use the pathway that produces isoleucine as an example of an end product acting as an inhibitor.

C1.1.17—Mechanism-based inhibition as a consequence of chemical changes to the active site caused by

the irreversible binding of an inhibitor
Use penicillin as an example. Include the change to transpeptidases that confers resistance to penicillin.

Linking questions
• What are examples of structure–function relationships in biological macromolecules?
• What biological processes depend on differences or changes in concentration?

C1.2 Cell respiration

Interaction and interdependence—Molecules
Standard level and higher level: 2 hours
Additional higher level: 3 hours

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Guiding questions
• What are the roles of hydrogen and oxygen in the release of energy in cells?
• How is energy distributed and used inside cells?

SL and HL
C1.2.1—ATP as the molecule that distributes energy within cells
Include the full name of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and that it is a nucleotide. Students should
appreciate the properties of ATP that make it suitable for use as the energy currency within cells.

C1.2.2—Life processes within cells that ATP supplies with energy

Include active transport across membranes, synthesis of macromolecules (anabolism), movement of the
whole cell or cell components such as chromosomes.

C1.2.3—Energy transfers during interconversions between ATP and ADP

Students should know that energy is released by hydrolysis of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) to ADP
(adenosine diphosphate) and phosphate, but energy is required to synthesize ATP from ADP and
phosphate. Students are not required to know the quantity of energy in kilojoules, but students should
appreciate that it is sufficient for many tasks in the cell.

C1.2.4—Cell respiration as a system for producing ATP within the cell using energy released from carbon
compounds
Students should appreciate that glucose and fatty acids are the principal substrates for cell respiration but
that a wide range of carbon/organic compounds can be used. Students should be able to distinguish
between the processes of cell respiration and gas exchange.

C1.2.5—Differences between anaerobic and aerobic cell respiration in humans

Include which respiratory substrates can be used, whether oxygen is required, relative yields of ATP, types
of waste product and where the reactions occur in a cell. Students should be able to write simple word
equations for both types of respiration, with glucose as the substrate. Students should appreciate that
mitochondria are required for aerobic, but not anaerobic, respiration.

C1.2.6—Variables affecting the rate of cell respiration

Application of skills: Students should make measurements allowing for the determination of the rate of
cell respiration. Students should also be able to calculate the rate of cellular respiration from raw data that
they have generated experimentally or from secondary data.

Additional higher level

C1.2.7—Role of NAD as a carrier of hydrogen and oxidation by removal of hydrogen during cell respiration
Students should understand that oxidation is a process of electron loss, so when hydrogen with an
electron is removed from a substrate (dehydrogenation) the substrate has been oxidized. They should
appreciate that redox reactions involve both oxidation and reduction, and that NAD is reduced when it
accepts hydrogen.

C1.2.8—Conversion of glucose to pyruvate by stepwise reactions in glycolysis with a net yield of ATP and
reduced NAD

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Include phosphorylation, lysis, oxidation and ATP formation. Students are not required to know the names
of the intermediates, but students should know that each step in the pathway is catalysed by a different
enzyme.

C1.2.9—Conversion of pyruvate to lactate as a means of regenerating NAD in anaerobic cell respiration

Regeneration of NAD allows glycolysis to continue, with a net yield of two ATP molecules per molecule of
glucose.

C1.2.10—Anaerobic cell respiration in yeast and its use in brewing and baking
Students should understand that the pathways of anaerobic respiration are the same in humans and
yeasts apart from the regeneration of NAD using pyruvate and therefore the final products.

C1.2.11—Oxidation and decarboxylation of pyruvate as a link reaction in aerobic cell respiration

Students should understand that lipids and carbohydrates are metabolized to form acetyl groups (2C),
which are transferred by coenzyme A to the Krebs cycle.

C1.2.12—Oxidation and decarboxylation of acetyl groups in the Krebs cycle with a yield of ATP and
reduced NAD
Students are required to name only the intermediates citrate (6C) and oxaloacetate (4C). Students should
appreciate that citrate is produced by transfer of an acetyl group to oxaloacetate and that oxaloacetate is
regenerated by the reactions of the Krebs cycle, including four oxidations and two decarboxylations. They
should also appreciate that the oxidations are dehydrogenation reactions.

C1.2.13—Transfer of energy by reduced NAD to the electron transport chain in the mitochondrion
Energy is transferred when a pair of electrons is passed to the first carrier in the chain, converting reduced
NAD back to NAD. Students should understand that reduced NAD comes from glycolysis, the link reaction
and the Krebs cycle.

C1.2.14—Generation of a proton gradient by flow of electrons along the electron transport chain

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Students are not required to know the names of protein complexes.

C1.2.15—Chemiosmosis and the synthesis of ATP in the mitochondrion

Students should understand how ATP synthase couples release of energy from the proton gradient with
phosphorylation of ADP.

C1.2.16—Role of oxygen as terminal electron acceptor in aerobic cell respiration

Oxygen accepts electrons from the electron transport chain and protons from the matrix of the
mitochondrion, producing metabolic water and allowing continued flow of electrons along the chain.

C.1.2.17—Differences between lipids and carbohydrates as respiratory substrates

Include the higher yield of energy per gram of lipids, due to less oxygen and more oxidizable hydrogen
and carbon. Also include glycolysis and anaerobic respiration occurring only if carbohydrate is the
substrate, with 2C acetyl groups from the breakdown of fatty acids entering the pathway via acetyl-CoA
(acetyl coenzyme A).

Linking questions
• In what forms is energy stored in living organisms?
• What are the consequences of respiration for ecosystems?

C1.3 Photosynthesis
Interaction and interdependence—Molecules
Standard level and higher level: 3 hours
Additional higher level: 3 hours

Guiding questions
• How is energy from sunlight absorbed and used in photosynthesis?
• How do abiotic factors interact with photosynthesis?

SL and HL
C1.3.1—Transformation of light energy to chemical energy when carbon compounds are produced in
photosynthesis
This energy transformation supplies most of the chemical energy needed for life processes in ecosystems.

C1.3.2—Conversion of carbon dioxide to glucose in photosynthesis using hydrogen obtained by splitting

water
Students should be able to write a simple word equation for photosynthesis, with glucose as the product.

C1.3.3—Oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis in plants, algae and cyanobacteria

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Students should know the simple word equation for photosynthesis. They should know that the oxygen
produced by photosynthesis comes from the splitting of water.

C1.3.4—Separation and identification of photosynthetic pigments by chromatography

Application of skills: Students should be able to calculate Rf values from the results of chromatographic
separation of photosynthetic pigments and identify them by colour and by values. Thin-layer
chromatography or paper chromatography can be used.

C1.3.5—Absorption of specific wavelengths of light by photosynthetic pigments

Include excitation of electrons within a pigment molecule, transformation of light energy to chemical
energy and the reason that only some wavelengths are absorbed. Students should be familiar with
absorption spectra. Include both wavelengths and colours of light in the horizontal axis of absorption
spectra.

C1.3.6—Similarities and differences of absorption and action spectra

Application of skills: Students should be able to determine rates of photosynthesis from data for oxygen
production and carbon dioxide consumption for varying wavelengths. They should also be able to plot
this data to make an action spectrum.

C1.3.7—Techniques for varying concentrations of carbon dioxide, light intensity or temperature

experimentally to investigate the effects of limiting factors on the rate of photosynthesis
Application of skills: Students should be able to suggest hypotheses for the effects of these limiting
factors and to test these through experimentation.
NOS: Hypotheses are provisional explanations that require repeated testing. During scientific research,
hypotheses can either be based on theories and then tested in an experiment or be based on evidence
from an experiment already carried out. Students can decide in this case whether to suggest hypotheses
for the effects of limiting factors on photosynthesis before or after performing their experiments. Students
should be able to identify the dependent and independent variable in an experiment.

C1.3.8—Carbon dioxide enrichment experiments as a means of predicting future rates of photosynthesis

and plant growth
Include enclosed greenhouse experiments and free-air carbon dioxide enrichment experiments (FACE).
NOS: Finding methods for careful control of variables is part of experimental design. This may be easier in
the laboratory but some experiments can only be done in the field. Field experiments include those
performed in natural ecosystems. Students should be able to identify a controlled variable in an
experiment.

Additional higher level

C1.3.9—Photosystems as arrays of pigment molecules that can generate and emit excited electrons
Students should know that photosystems are always located in membranes and that they occur in
cyanobacteria and in the chloroplasts of photosynthetic eukaryotes. Photosystems should be described as
molecular arrays of chlorophyll and accessory pigments with a special chlorophyll as the reaction centre
from which an excited electron is emitted.

C1.3.10—Advantages of the structured array of different types of pigment molecules in a photosystem

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Students should appreciate that a single molecule of chlorophyll or any other pigment would not be able
to perform any part of photosynthesis.

C1.3.11—Generation of oxygen by the photolysis of water in photosystem II

Emphasize that the protons and electrons generated by photolysis are used in photosynthesis but oxygen
is a waste product. The advent of oxygen generation by photolysis had immense consequences for living
organisms and geological processes on Earth.

C1.3.12—ATP production by chemiosmosis in thylakoids

Include the proton gradient, ATP synthase, and proton pumping by the chain of electron carriers. Students
should know that electrons are sourced, either from photosystem I in cyclic photophosphorylation or from
photosystem II in non-cyclic photophosphorylation, and then used in ATP production.

C1.3.13—Reduction of NADP by photosystem I

Students should appreciate that NADP is reduced by accepting two electrons that have come from
photosystem I. It also accepts a hydrogen ion that has come from the stroma. The paired terms “NADP and
reduced NADP” or “NADP+ and NADPH” should be paired consistently.

C1.3.14—Thylakoids as systems for performing the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis

Students should appreciate where photolysis of water, synthesis of ATP by chemiosmosis and reduction of
NADP occur in a thylakoid.

C1.3.15—Carbon fixation by Rubisco

Students should know the names of the substrates RuBP and CO2 and the product glycerate 3-phosphate.
They should also know that Rubisco is the most abundant enzyme on Earth and that high concentrations
of it are needed in the stroma of chloroplasts because it works relatively slowly and is not effective in low
carbon dioxide concentrations.

C1.3.16—Synthesis of triose phosphate using reduced NADP and ATP

Students should know that glycerate-3-phosphate (GP) is converted into triose phosphate (TP) using
NADPH and ATP.

C1.3.17—Regeneration of RuBP in the Calvin cycle using ATP

Students are not required to know details of the individual reactions, but students should understand that
five molecules of triose phosphate are converted to three molecules of RuBP, allowing the Calvin cycle to
continue. If glucose is the product of photosynthesis, five-sixths of all the triose phosphate produced must
be converted back to RuBP.

C1.3.18—Synthesis of carbohydrates, amino acids and other carbon compounds using the products of the
Calvin cycle and mineral nutrients
Students are not required to know details of metabolic pathways, but students should understand that all
of the carbon in compounds in photosynthesizing organisms is fixed in the Calvin cycle and that carbon
compounds other than glucose are made by metabolic pathways that can be traced back to an
intermediate in the cycle.

C1.3.19—Interdependence of the light-dependent and light-independent reactions

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Students should understand how a lack of light stops light-dependent reactions and how a lack of CO2
prevents photosystem II from functioning.

Linking questions
• What are the consequences of photosynthesis for ecosystems?
• What are the functions of pigments in living organisms?

C2.1 Chemical signalling

Interaction and interdependence—Cells
Additional higher level: 4 hours

Guiding questions
• How do cells distinguish between the many different signals that they receive?
• What interactions occur inside animal cells in response to chemical signals?

Additional higher level

Note: There is no SL content in C2.1.

C2.1.1—Receptors as proteins with binding sites for specific signalling chemicals

Students should use the term “ligand” for the signalling chemical.

C.2.1.2—Cell signalling by bacteria in quorum sensing

Include the example of bioluminescence in the marine bacterium Vibrio fischeri.

C2.1.3—Hormones, neurotransmitters, cytokines and calcium ions as examples of functional categories of

signalling chemicals in animals
Students should appreciate the differences between these categories.

C2.1.4—Chemical diversity of hormones and neurotransmitters

Consider reasons for a wide range of chemical substances being used as signalling chemicals. Include
amines, proteins and steroids as chemical groups of hormones. A range of substances can serve as
neurotransmitters including amino acids, peptides, amines and nitrous oxide.

C2.1.5—Localized and distant effects of signalling molecules

Contrasts can be drawn between hormones transported by the blood system and neurotransmitters that
diffuse across a synaptic gap.

C2.1.6—Differences between transmembrane receptors in a plasma membrane and intracellular receptors

in the cytoplasm or nucleus
Include distribution of hydrophilic or hydrophobic amino acids in the receptor and whether the signalling
chemical penetrates the cell or remains outside.

C2.1.7—Initiation of signal transduction pathways by receptors

Students should understand that the binding of a signalling chemical to a receptor sets off a sequence of
responses within the cell.

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C2.1.8—Transmembrane receptors for neurotransmitters and changes to membrane potential

Use the acetylcholine receptor as an example. Binding to a receptor causes the opening of an ion channel
in the receptor that allows positively charged ions to diffuse into the cell. This changes the voltage across
the plasma membrane, which may cause other changes.

C2.1.9—Transmembrane receptors that activate G proteins

Students should understand how G protein-coupled receptors convey a signal into cells. They should
appreciate that there are many such receptors in humans.

C2.1.10—Mechanism of action of epinephrine (adrenaline) receptors

Include the roles of a G protein and cyclic AMP (cAMP) as the second messenger.
NOS: Students should be aware that naming conventions are an example of international cooperation in
science for mutual benefit. Both “adrenaline” and “epinephrine” were coined by researchers and are based
on production of the hormone by the adrenal gland; “adrenaline” comes from Latin ad = at and ren =
kidney and “epinephrine” comes from old Greek epi = above and nephros = kidney, respectively. Unusually,
these two terms persist in common use in different parts of the world.

C2.1.11—Transmembrane receptors with tyrosine kinase activity

Use the protein hormone insulin as an example. Limit this to binding of insulin to a receptor in the plasma
membrane, causing phosphorylation of tyrosine inside a cell. This leads to a sequence of reactions ending
with movement of vesicles containing glucose transporters to the plasma membrane.

C2.1.12—Intracellular receptors that affect gene expression

Use the steroid hormones oestradiol, progesterone and testosterone as examples. Students should
understand that the signalling chemical binds to a site on a receptor, activating it. The activated receptor
binds to specific DNA sequences to promote gene transcription.

C2.1.13—Effects of the hormones oestradiol and progesterone on target cells

For oestradiol, limit to cells in the hypothalamus that secrete gonadotropin-releasing hormone. For
progesterone, limit to cells in the endometrium.

C2.1.14—Regulation of cell signalling pathways by positive and negative feedback

Limit to an understanding of the difference between these two forms of regulation and a brief outline of
one example of each.

Linking questions
• What patterns exist in communication in biological systems?
• In what ways is negative feedback evident at all levels of biological organization?

C2.2 Neural signalling

Interaction and interdependence—Cells
Standard level and higher level: 3 hours
Additional higher level: 3 hours

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Guiding questions
• How are electrical signals generated and moved within neurons?
• How can neurons interact with other cells?

SL and HL
C2.2.1—Neurons as cells within the nervous system that carry electrical impulses
Students should understand that cytoplasm and a nucleus form the cell body of a neuron, with elongated
nerve fibres of varying length projecting from it. An axon is a long single fibre. Dendrites are multiple
shorter fibres. Electrical impulses are conducted along these fibres.

C2.2.2—Generation of the resting potential by pumping to establish and maintain concentration

gradients of sodium and potassium ions
Students should understand how energy from ATP drives the pumping of sodium and potassium ions in
opposite directions across the plasma membrane of neurons. They should understand the concept of a
membrane polarization and a membrane potential and also reasons that the resting potential is negative.

C2.2.3—Nerve impulses as action potentials that are propagated along nerve fibres
Students should appreciate that a nerve impulse is electrical because it involves movement of positively
charged ions.

C2.2.4—Variation in the speed of nerve impulses

Compare the speed of transmission in giant axons of squid and smaller non-myelinated nerve fibres. Also
compare the speed in myelinated and non-myelinated fibres.
Application of skills: Students should be able to describe negative and positive correlations and apply
correlation coefficients as a mathematical tool to determine the strength of these correlations. Students
should also be able to apply the coefficient of determination (R2) to evaluate the degree to which variation
in the independent variable explains the variation in the dependent variable. For example, conduction
speed of nerve impulses is negatively correlated with animal size, but positively correlated with axon
diameter.

C2.2.5—Synapses as junctions between neurons and between neurons and effector cells
Limit to chemical synapses, not electrical, and these can simply be referred to as synapses. Students
should understand that a signal can only pass in one direction across a typical synapse.

C2.2.6—Release of neurotransmitters from a presynaptic membrane

Include uptake of calcium in response to depolarization of a presynaptic membrane and its action as a
signalling chemical inside a neuron.

C2.2.7—Generation of an excitatory postsynaptic potential

Include diffusion of neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft and binding to transmembrane receptors.
Use acetylcholine as an example. Students should appreciate that this neurotransmitter exists in many
types of synapse including neuromuscular junctions.

Additional higher level

C2.2.8—Depolarization and repolarization during action potentials

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Include the action of voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels and the need for a threshold
potential to be reached for sodium channels to open.

C2.2.9—Propagation of an action potential along a nerve fibre/axon as a result of local currents

Students should understand how diffusion of sodium ions both inside and outside an axon can cause the
threshold potential to be reached.

C2.2.10—Oscilloscope traces showing resting potentials and action potentials

Application of skills: Students should interpret the oscilloscope trace in relation to cellular events. The
number of impulses per second can be measured.

C2.2.11—Saltatory conduction in myelinated fibres to achieve faster impulses

Students should understand that ion pumps and channels are clustered at nodes of Ranvier and that an
action potential is propagated from node to node.

C2.2.12—Effects of exogenous chemicals on synaptic transmission

Use neonicotinoids as an example of a pesticide that blocks synaptic transmission, and cocaine as an
example of a drug that blocks reuptake of the neurotransmitter.

C2.2.13—Inhibitory neurotransmitters and generation of inhibitory postsynaptic potentials

Students should know that the postsynaptic membrane becomes hyperpolarized.

C2.2.14—Summation of the effects of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters in a postsynaptic neuron

Multiple presynaptic neurons interact with all-or-nothing consequences in terms of postsynaptic
depolarization.

C2.2.15—Perception of pain by neurons with free nerve endings in the skin

Students should know that these nerve endings have channels for positively charged ions, which open in
response to a stimulus such as high temperature, acid, or certain chemicals such as capsaicin in chilli
peppers. Entry of positively charged ions causes the threshold potential to be reached and nerve impulses
then pass through the neurons to the brain, where pain is perceived.

C2.2.16—Consciousness as a property that emerges from the interaction of individual neurons in the brain
Emergent properties such as consciousness are another example of the consequences of interaction.

Linking questions
• In what ways are biological systems regulated?
• How is the structure of specialized cells related to function?

C3.1 Integration of body systems

Interaction and interdependence—Organisms
Standard level and higher level: 5 hours
Additional higher level: 2 hours

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Guiding questions
• What are the roles of nerves and hormones in integration of body systems?
• What are the roles of feedback mechanisms in regulation of body systems?

SL and HL
C3.1.1—System integration
This is a necessary process in living systems. Coordination is needed for component parts of a system to
collectively perform an overall function.

C3.1.2—Cells, tissues, organs and body systems as a hierarchy of subsystems that are integrated in a
multicellular living organism
Students should appreciate that this integration is responsible for emergent properties. For example, a
cheetah becomes an effective predator by integration of its body systems.

C3.1.3—Integration of organs in animal bodies by hormonal and nervous signalling and by transport of
materials and energy
Distinguish between the roles of the nervous system and endocrine system in sending messages. Using
examples, emphasize the role of the blood system in transporting materials between organs.

C3.1.4—The brain as a central information integration organ

Limit to the role of the brain in processing information combined from several inputs and in learning and
memory. Students are not required to know details such as the role of slow-acting neurotransmitters.

C3.1.5—The spinal cord as an integrating centre for unconscious processes

Students should understand the difference between conscious and unconscious processes.

C3.1.6—Input to the spinal cord and cerebral hemispheres through sensory neurons
Students should understand that sensory neurons convey messages from receptor cells to the central
nervous system.

C3.1.7—Output from the cerebral hemispheres to muscles through motor neurons

Students should understand that muscles are stimulated to contract.

C3.1.8—Nerves as bundles of nerve fibres of both sensory and motor neurons

Use a transverse section of a nerve to show the protective sheath, and myelinated and unmyelinated
nerve fibres.

C3.1.9—Pain reflex arcs as an example of involuntary responses with skeletal muscle as the effector
Use the example of a reflex arc with a single interneuron in the grey matter of the spinal cord and a free
sensory nerve ending in a sensory neuron as a pain receptor in the hand.

C3.1.10—Role of the cerebellum in coordinating skeletal muscle contraction and balance

Limit to a general understanding of the role of the cerebellum in the overall control of movements of the
body.

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C3.1.11—Modulation of sleep patterns by melatonin secretion as a part of circadian rhythms

Students should understand the diurnal pattern of melatonin secretion by the pineal gland and how it
helps to establish a cycle of sleeping and waking.

C3.1.12—Epinephrine (adrenaline) secretion by the adrenal glands to prepare the body for vigorous
activity
Consider the widespread effects of epinephrine in the body and how these effects facilitate intense muscle
contraction.

C3.1.13—Control of the endocrine system by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland

Students should have a general understanding, but are not required to know differences between
mechanisms used in the anterior and posterior pituitary.

C3.1.14—Feedback control of heart rate following sensory input from baroreceptors and chemoreceptors
Include the location of baroreceptors and chemoreceptors.
Baroreceptors monitor blood pressure. Chemoreceptors monitor blood pH and concentrations of oxygen
and carbon dioxide. Students should understand the role of the medulla in coordinating responses and
sending nerve impulses to the heart to change the heart’s stroke volume and heart rate.

C3.1.15—Feedback control of ventilation rate following sensory input from chemoreceptors

Students should understand the causes of pH changes in the blood. These changes are monitored by
chemoreceptors in the brainstem and lead to the control of ventilation rate using signals to the diaphragm
and intercostal muscles.

C3.1.16—Control of peristalsis in the digestive system by the central nervous system and enteric nervous
system
Limit to initiation of swallowing of food and egestion of faeces being under voluntary control by the
central nervous system (CNS) but peristalsis between these points in the digestive system being under
involuntary control by the enteric nervous system (ENS). The action of the ENS ensures passage of material
through the gut is coordinated.

Additional higher level

C3.1.17—Observations of tropic responses in seedlings
Application of skills: Students should gather qualitative data, using diagrams to record their observations
of seedlings illustrating tropic responses. They could also collect quantitative data by measuring the angle
of curvature of seedlings.
NOS: Students should be able to distinguish between qualitative and quantitative observations and
understand factors that limit the precision of measurements and their accuracy. Strategies for increasing
the precision, accuracy and reliability of measurements in tropism experiments could be considered.

C3.1.18—Positive phototropism as a directional growth response to lateral light in plant shoots

Students are not required to know specific examples of other tropisms.

C3.1.19—Phytohormones as signalling chemicals controlling growth, development and response to

stimuli in plants

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Students should appreciate that a variety of chemicals are used as phytohormones in plants.

C3.1.20—Auxin efflux carriers as an example of maintaining concentration gradients of phytohormones

Auxin can diffuse freely into plant cells but not out of them. Auxin efflux carriers can be positioned in a cell
membrane on one side of the cell. If all cells coordinate to concentrate these carriers on the same side,
auxin is actively transported from cell to cell through the plant tissue and becomes concentrated in part of
the plant.

C3.1.21—Promotion of cell growth by auxin

Include auxin’s promotion of hydrogen ion secretion into the apoplast, acidifying the cell wall and thus
loosening cross links between cellulose molecules and facilitating cell elongation. Concentration gradients
of auxin cause the differences in growth rate needed for phototropism.

C3.1.22—Interactions between auxin and cytokinin as a means of regulating root and shoot growth
Students should understand that root tips produce cytokinin, which is transported to shoots, and shoot
tips produce auxin, which is transported to roots. Interactions between these phytohormones help to
ensure that root and shoot growth are integrated.

C3.1.23—Positive feedback in fruit ripening and ethylene production

Ethylene (IUPAC name: ethene) stimulates the changes in fruits that occur during ripening, and ripening
also stimulates increased production of ethylene. Students should understand the benefit of this positive
feedback mechanism in ensuring that fruit ripening is rapid and synchronized.

Linking questions
• What are examples of branching (dendritic) and net-like (reticulate) patterns of organization?
• What are the consequences of positive feedback in biological systems?

C3.2 Defence against disease

Interaction and interdependence—Organisms
Standard level and higher level: 5 hours

Guiding questions
• How do body systems recognize pathogens and fight infections?
• What factors influence the incidence of disease in populations?

SL and HL
C3.2.1—Pathogens as the cause of infectious diseases
Students should understand that a broad range of disease-causing organisms can infect humans. A
disease-causing organism is known as a pathogen, although typically the term is reserved for viruses,
bacteria, fungi and protists. Archaea are not known to cause any diseases in humans.
NOS: Students should be aware that careful observation can lead to important progress. For example,
careful observations during 19th-century epidemics of childbed fever (due to an infection after childbirth)
in Vienna and cholera in London led to breakthroughs in the control of infectious disease.

C3.2.2—Skin and mucous membranes as a primary defence

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The skin acts as both a physical and chemical barrier to pathogens. Students are not required to draw or
label diagrams of skin.

C3.2.3—Sealing of cuts in skin by blood clotting

Include release of clotting factors from platelets and the subsequent cascade pathway that results in rapid
conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin by thrombin and trapping of erythrocytes to form a clot. No further
details are required.

C3.2.4—Differences between the innate immune system and the adaptive immune system
Include the idea that the innate system responds to broad categories of pathogen and does not change
during an organism’s life whereas the adaptive system responds in a specific way to particular pathogens
and builds up a memory of pathogens encountered, so the immune response becomes more effective.
Students are not required to know any components of the innate immune system other than phagocytes.

C3.2.5—Infection control by phagocytes

Include amoeboid movement from blood to sites of infection, where phagocytes recognize pathogens,
engulf them by endocytosis and digest them using enzymes from lysosomes.

C3.2.6—Lymphocytes as cells in the adaptive immune system that cooperate to produce antibodies
Students should understand that lymphocytes both circulate in the blood and are contained in lymph
nodes. They should appreciate that an individual has a very large number of B-lymphocytes that each
make a specific type of antibody.

C3.2.7—Antigens as recognition molecules that trigger antibody production

Students should appreciate that most antigens are glycoproteins or other proteins and that they are
usually located on the outer surfaces of pathogens. Antigens on the surface of erythrocytes may stimulate
antibody production if transfused into a person with a different blood group.

C3.2.8—Activation of B-lymphocytes by helper T-lymphocytes

Students should understand that there are antigen-specific B-cells and helper T-cells. B-cells produce
antibodies and become memory cells only when they have been activated. Activation requires both direct
interaction with the specific antigen and contact with a helper T-cell that has also become activated by the
same type of antigen.

C3.2.9—Multiplication of activated B-lymphocytes to form clones of antibody-secreting plasma cells

There are relatively small numbers of B-cells that respond to a specific antigen. To produce sufficient
quantities of antibody, activated B-cells first divide by mitosis to produce large numbers of plasma B-cells
that are capable of producing the same type of antibody.

C3.2.10—Immunity as a consequence of retaining memory cells

Students should understand that immunity is the ability to eliminate an infectious disease from the body.
It is due to the long-term survival of lymphocytes that are capable of making the specific antibodies
needed to fight the infection. These are memory cells.

C3.2.11—Transmission of HIV in body fluids

Include examples of the mechanisms of HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) transmission.

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C3.2.12—Infection of lymphocytes by HIV with AIDS as a consequence

Students should understand that only certain types of lymphocyte are infected and killed, but that a
reduction in these lymphocytes limits the ability to produce antibodies and fight opportunistic infections.

C3.2.13—Antibiotics as chemicals that block processes occurring in bacteria but not in eukaryotic cells
Include reasons that antibiotics fail to control infection with viruses.

C3.2.14—Evolution of resistance to several antibiotics in strains of pathogenic bacteria

Students should understand that careful use of antibiotics is necessary to slow the emergence of
multiresistant bacteria.
NOS: Students should recognize that the development of new techniques can lead to new avenues of
research; for example, the recent technique of searching chemical libraries is yielding new antibiotics.

C3.2.15—Zoonoses as infectious diseases that can transfer from other species to humans
Illustrate the prevalence of zoonoses as infectious diseases in humans and their varied modes of infection
with several examples including tuberculosis, rabies and Japanese encephalitis. Include COVID-19 as an
infectious disease that has recently transferred from another species, with profound consequences for
humans.

C3.2.16—Vaccines and immunization

Students should understand that vaccines contain antigens, or nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) with sequences
that code for antigens, and that they stimulate the development of immunity to a specific pathogen
without causing the disease.

C3.2.17—Herd immunity and the prevention of epidemics

Students should understand how members of a population are interdependent in building herd
immunity. If a sufficient percentage of a population is immune to a disease, transmission is greatly
impeded.
NOS: Scientists publish their research so that other scientists can evaluate it. The media often report on
the research while evaluation is still happening, and consumers need to be aware of this. Vaccines are
tested rigorously and the risks of side effects are minimal but not nil. The distinction between pragmatic
truths and certainty is poorly understood.

C3.2.18—Evaluation of data related to the COVID-19 pandemic

Application of skills: Students should have the opportunity to calculate both percentage difference and
percentage change.

Note: There is no additional higher level content in C3.2.

Linking questions
• How do animals protect themselves from threats?
• How can false-positive and false-negative results be avoided in diagnostic tests?

C4.1 Populations and communities

Interaction and interdependence—Ecosystems
Standard level and higher level: 5 hours

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Guiding questions
• How do interactions between organisms regulate sizes of populations in a community?
• What interactions within a community make its populations interdependent?

SL and HL
C4.1.1—Populations as interacting groups of organisms of the same species living in an area
Students should understand that members of a population normally breed and that reproductive isolation
is used to distinguish one population of a species from another.

C4.1.2—Estimation of population size by random sampling

Students should understand reasons for estimating population size, rather than counting every individual,
and the need for randomness in sampling procedures.
NOS: Students should be aware that random sampling, instead of measuring an entire population,
inevitably results in sampling error. In this case the difference between the estimate of population size and
the true size of the whole population is the sampling error.

C4.1.3—Random quadrat sampling to estimate population size for sessile organisms

Both sessile animals and plants, where the numbers of individuals can be counted, are suitable.
Application of skills: Students should understand what is indicated by the standard deviation of a mean.
Students do not need to memorize the formula used to calculate this. In this example, the standard
deviation of the mean number of individuals per quadrat could be determined using a calculator to give a
measure of the variation and how evenly the population is spread.

C4.1.4—Capture–mark–release–recapture and the Lincoln index to estimate population size for motile
organisms
Application of skills: Students should use the Lincoln index to estimate population size.
N
Population size estimate = M × , where M is the number of individuals caught and marked initially, N is
R
the total number of individuals recaptured and R is the number of marked individuals recaptured.
Students should understand the assumptions made when using this method.

C4.1.5—Carrying capacity and competition for limited resources

A simple definition of carrying capacity is sufficient, with some examples of resources that may limit
carrying capacity.

C4.1.6—Negative feedback control of population size by density-dependent factors

Numbers of individuals in a population may fluctuate due to density-independent factors, but density-
dependent factors tend to push the population back towards the carrying capacity. In addition to
competition for limited resources, include the increased risk of predation and the transfer of pathogens or
pests in dense populations.

C4.1.7—Population growth curves

Students should study at least one case study in an ecosystem. Students should understand reasons for
exponential growth in the initial phases. A lag phase is not expected as a part of sigmoid population
growth.
NOS: The curve represents an idealized graphical model. Students should recognize that models are often
simplifications of complex systems.

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Application of skills: Students should test the growth of a population against the model of exponential
growth using a graph with a logarithmic scale for size of population on the vertical axis and a non-
logarithmic scale for time on the horizontal axis.

C4.1.8—Modelling of the sigmoid population growth curve

Application of skills: Students should collect data regarding population growth. Yeast and duckweed are
recommended but other organisms that proliferate under experimental conditions could be used.

C4.1.9—Competition versus cooperation in intraspecific relationships

Include reasons for intraspecific competition within a population. Also include a range of real examples of
competition and cooperation.

C4.1.10—A community as all of the interacting organisms in an ecosystem

Communities comprise all the populations in an area including plants, animals, fungi and bacteria.

C4.1.11—Herbivory, predation, interspecific competition, mutualism, parasitism and pathogenicity as

categories of interspecific relationship within communities
Include each type of ecological interaction using at least one example.

C4.1.12—Mutualism as an interspecific relationship that benefits both species

Include these examples: root nodules in Fabaceae (legume family), mycorrhizae in Orchidaceae (orchid
family) and zooxanthellae in hard corals. In each case include the benefits to both organisms.
Note: When students are referring to organisms in an examination, either the common name or the scientific
name is acceptable.

C4.1.13—Resource competition between endemic and invasive species

Choose one local example to illustrate competitive advantage over endemic species in resource
acquisition as the basis for an introduced species becoming invasive.

C4.1.14—Tests for interspecific competition

Interspecific competition is indicated but not proven if one species is more successful in the absence of
another. Students should appreciate the range of possible approaches to research: laboratory
experiments, field observations by random sampling and field manipulation by removal of one species.
NOS: Students should recognize that hypotheses can be tested by both experiments and observations
and should understand the difference between them.

C4.1.15—Use of the chi-squared test for association between two species

Application of skills: Students should be able to apply chi-squared tests on the presence/absence of two
species in several sampling sites, exploring the differences or similarities in distribution. This may provide
evidence for interspecific competition.

C4.1.16—Predator–prey relationships as an example of density-dependent control of animal populations

Include a real case study.

C4.1.17—Top-down and bottom-up control of populations in communities

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Students should understand that both of these types of control are possible, but one or the other is likely
to be dominant in a community.

C4.1.18—Allelopathy and secretion of antibiotics

These two processes are similar in that a chemical substance is released into the environment to deter
potential competitors. Include one specific example of each—where possible, choose a local example.

Note: There is no additional higher level content in C4.1.

Linking questions
• What are the benefits of models in studying biology?
• What factors can limit capacity in biological systems?

C4.2 Transfers of energy and matter

Interaction and interdependence—Ecosystems
Standard level and higher level: 5 hours

Guiding questions
• What is the reason matter can be recycled in ecosystems but energy cannot?
• How is the energy that is lost by each group of organisms in an ecosystem replaced?

SL and HL
C4.2.1—Ecosystems as open systems in which both energy and matter can enter and exit
Students should know that in closed systems only energy is able to pass in and out.

C4.2.2—Sunlight as the principal source of energy that sustains most ecosystems

Include exceptions such as ecosystems in caves and below the levels of light penetration in oceans.
NOS: Laws in science are generalized principles, or rules of thumb, formulated to describe patterns
observed in nature. Unlike theories, they do not offer explanations, but describe phenomena. Like
theories, they can be used to make predictions. Students should be able to outline the features of useful
generalizations.

C4.2.3—Flow of chemical energy through food chains

Students should appreciate that chemical energy passes to a consumer as it feeds on an organism that is
the previous stage in a food chain.

C4.2.4—Construction of food chains and food webs to represent feeding relationships in a community
Represent relationships in a local community if possible. Arrows indicate the direction of transfer of energy
and biomass.

C4.2.5—Supply of energy to decomposers as carbon compounds in organic matter coming from dead
organisms
Include faeces, dead parts of organisms and dead whole organisms.

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C4.2.6—Autotrophs as organisms that use external energy sources to synthesize carbon compounds from
simple inorganic substances
Students should understand that energy is required for carbon fixation and for the anabolic reactions that
build macromolecules.

C4.2.7—Use of light as the external energy source in photoautotrophs and oxidation reactions as the
energy source in chemoautotrophs
Students should understand that oxidation reactions release energy, so they are useful in living organisms.
Include iron-oxidizing bacteria as an example of a chemoautotroph.

C4.2.8—Heterotrophs as organisms that use carbon compounds obtained from other organisms to
synthesize the carbon compounds that they require
Students should appreciate that complex carbon compounds such as proteins and nucleic acids are
digested either externally or internally and are then assimilated by constructing the carbon compounds
that are required.

C4.2.9—Release of energy in both autotrophs and heterotrophs by oxidation of carbon compounds in cell
respiration
Students are not required to be familiar with photoheterotrophs.

C4.2.10—Classification of organisms into trophic levels

Use the terms “producer”, “primary consumer”, “secondary consumer” and “tertiary consumer”. Students
should appreciate that many organisms have a varied diet and occupy different trophic levels in different
food chains.

C4.2.11—Construction of energy pyramids

Application of skills: Students should use research data from specific ecosystems to represent energy
transfer and energy losses between trophic levels in food chains.

C4.2.12—Reductions in energy availability at each successive stage in food chains due to large energy
losses between trophic levels
Decomposers and detritus feeders are not usually considered to be part of food chains. However, students
should understand the role of these organisms in energy transformations in food chains. Consider the
causes of energy loss.

C4.2.13—Heat loss to the environment in both autotrophs and heterotrophs due to conversion of
chemical energy to heat in cell respiration
Include the idea that energy transfers are not 100% efficient so heat is produced both when ATP is
produced in cell respiration and when it is used in cells.

C4.2.14—Restrictions on the number of trophic levels in ecosystems due to energy losses

At each successive stage in food chains there are fewer organisms or smaller organisms. There is therefore
less biomass, but the energy content per unit mass is not reduced.

C4.2.15—Primary production as accumulation of carbon compounds in biomass by autotrophs

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The units should be mass (of carbon) per unit area per unit time and are usually g m−2 yr−1. Students should
understand that biomes vary in their capacity to accumulate biomass. Biomass accumulates when
autotrophs and heterotrophs grow or reproduce.

C4.2.16—Secondary production as accumulation of carbon compounds in biomass by heterotrophs

Students should understand that, due to loss of biomass when carbon compounds are converted to
carbon dioxide and water in cell respiration, secondary production is lower than primary production in an
ecosystem.

C4.2.17—Constructing carbon cycle diagrams

Students should illustrate with a diagram how carbon is recycled in ecosystems by photosynthesis,
feeding and respiration.

C4.2.18—Ecosystems as carbon sinks and carbon sources

If photosynthesis exceeds respiration there is a net uptake of carbon dioxide and if respiration exceeds
photosynthesis there is a net release of carbon dioxide.

C4.2.19—Release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere during combustion of biomass, peat, coal, oil and
natural gas
Students should appreciate that these carbon sinks vary in date of formation and that combustion
following lightning strikes sometimes happens naturally but that human activities have greatly increased
combustion rates.

C4.2.20—Analysis of the Keeling Curve in terms of photosynthesis, respiration and combustion

Include analysis of both the annual fluctuations and the long-term trend.

C4.2.21—Dependence of aerobic respiration on atmospheric oxygen produced by photosynthesis, and of

photosynthesis on atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by respiration
The fluxes involved per year are huge, so this is a major interaction between autotrophs and heterotrophs.

C4.2.22—Recycling of all chemical elements required by living organisms in ecosystems

Students should appreciate that all elements used by living organisms, not just carbon, are recycled and
that decomposers play a key role. Students are not required to know details of the nitrogen cycle and
other nutrient cycles.

Note: There is no additional higher level content in C4.2.

Linking questions
• What are the direct and indirect consequences of rising carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere?
• How does the transformation of energy from one form to another make biological processes possible?

D1.1 DNA replication

Continuity and change—Molecules
Standard level and higher level: 2 hours
Additional higher level: 2 hours

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