Institute of Engineering and

Technology
DAVV Indore (MP)

Batch-B2

Assignment 5

1. Explain different routing protocols of fixed networks. What are the consequences of and
problems of using IP together with routing protocols of fixed networks for mobile
communication? What could be quick solutions?
Ans.The purpose of routing protocols is to learn of available routes that exist on the enterprise network,
build routing tables and make routing decisions. Some of the most common routing protocols include
RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF, IS-IS and BGP.

There are two primary routing protocol types although many different routing protocols defined with
those two types. Link state and distance vector protocols comprise the primary types.

Distance vector protocols advertise their routing table to all directly connected neighbors at regular
frequent intervals using a lot of bandwidth and are slow to converge. When a route becomes
unavailable, all router tables must be updated with that new information. The problem is with each
router having to advertise that new information to its neighbors, it takes a long time for all routers to
have a current accurate view of the network. Distance vector protocols use fixed length subnet masks
which aren’t scalable.

Link state protocols advertise routing updates only when they occur which uses bandwidth more
effectively. Routers don’t advertise the routing table which makes convergence faster. The routing
protocol will flood the network with link state advertisements to all neighbor routers per area in an
attempt to converge the network with new route information. The incremental change is all that is
advertised to all routers as a multicast LSA update. They use variable length subnet masks, which are
scalable and use addressing more efficiently.

Problems with Mobile IP

Although growing rapidly, Mobile IP still has the following problems:
(1) "Triangle routing" Problem
 The Communication Host (CH) has to send packets to the Mobile Host (MH) via the Home Agent (HA),
while the MH sends packets directly to the CH. As the communication in the two directions follows
different routes, the problem of "triangle routing" arises, which leads to low efficiency especially when
the MH is far away from the HA and the CH is near to the MH.

(2) Handoff Problem

Handoff problem means that the HA sends the IP packets of the MH to the original foreign network via
the tunnel because it doesn’t know the latest Care of Address (CoA) of the MH during the period starting
when the MH leaves the original foreign network and ending when the HA receives the new registration
address of the MH. As a result, these dropped IP packets have an influence on the communication
between the MH and the CH especially when handoff occurs frequently or the MH is far away from the
HA.

(3) Problem of Intra-Domain Movement

The frequent intra-domain movement of the MH within a small area will lead to frequent handoff.
Consequently, a great amount of registered messages are generated in the network and the network
performance is greatly affected [5].

(4) QoS Problem

In the mobile environment, it is hard to provide QoS over Mobile IP due to dynamically varying
wireless network topologies, limited network resources, unpredictable effective bandwidth and high
error rate.

Solutions
1.) Solution to "Triangle Routing" Problem
For Mobile IP, routing optimization is necessary because all packets sent to the MH shall pass through
the HA but the route may not be the best. After receiving the packets sent by the CH to the MH, the HA
notifies the CH of the binding information about the MH, i.e., the current Foreign Agent (FA) address of
the MH, and the CH encapsulates the packets and establishes the tunnel to the FA for transparent
transmission. The binding information is transferred via a definite port number. If the MH moves again,
the new FA will transfer the updated binding information to the old FA to ensure that the packets are
transferred to the new FA. And meanwhile the HA gets the updated binding information so the
subsequent packets will be transferred directly from the CH to the new FA. The mobile IP with route
optimization sets high requirements on the CH. The CH shall have the ability to obtain the binding
information, encapsulate the packets and establish the tunnel. Therefore the CH protocol stack needs
lots of modifications.

2.) Solution to Handoff Problem

The handoff process falls into two stages:
(1) Mobile Test Stage
In this stage, a mobile test is conducted for the MH to determine whether it has changed the sub-
network for access.

(2) Re-Registration Stage

The re-registration stage refers to the period starting when the MH sends a registration request to the
HA and ending when the HA receives the request, after the MH confirms the move. The length of the
period depends on the distance from the MH to the HA.

After the above two stages are completed, the MH continues to communicate with the CH. But any
dropped packets caused in this period may interact with high-layer protocols, and consequently worsen
the communication performance. The interaction with TCP is a typical example. In the mobile IP
environment, the dropped packets caused by the handoff will make the interruption duration for TCP
connection longer, and thus degrade the TCP performance. The most serious interruption is up to 12 s or
so, and meanwhile there are several overtime retransmissions. In a word, the communication
performance during the MH handoff depends on three factors: mobile test, re-registration and
interaction with the high-layer protocol [6].

In view of these problems, the concept of achieving local registration through the layered Mobile IP is
put forward in the reference document [7], i.e., only when moving out of the area does the MH need re-
registration to the HA. This method helps reduce the time delay for re-registration and improve the
handoff performance of Mobile IP.

In the reference document [6], a solution of "original FA notification" is proposed. It can effectively
reduce the dropped data packets through the buffer memory. However, how to set the capacity of the
buffer memory in the FA is a knotty problem. Also, it is necessary to define a new protocol to support the
communication between the old FA and the new one.

3.)Solution to Problem of Intra-Domain Movement

For the intra-domain micro-movement, improved protocols such as Cellular IP, HAWAII and TeleMIP can
be adopted to solve the problem of frequent handoffs, and reduce handoff delay, packet loss ratio and
registration information to the HA. For details please refer to reference document [8].

4.)Solution to QoS Problem

Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) and Differentiate Service (DiffServ) have their respective strengths
and weaknesses in providing QoS over Mobile IP. But they can be combined to solve the end-to-end QoS
problem as shown in Figure 1. The Diffserv is employed in the backbone router, and the RSVP in the
access part. When the host originates RSVP requests to the border router of the backbone access point,
the border router will divide the requests into certain QoS levels and map them onto the DS field based
on the content such as bandwidth and time delay carried by the RSVP requests and the preliminary
definition. In the backbone DiffServ domain, the DS field can guarantee the QoS of transmission, and the
border router at the backbone output restores the original RSVP requests and sends them to the
destination [9].

2. How does the symmetry of wireless links influence the routing algorithms
Ans. Most algorithms fail if the links are asymmetric (up to the extreme case of unidirectional links).
Think of DSR – the algorithm states that the receiver simples ends the packet collecting routers on the
way between source and destination back to the source by choosing the routers in the reverse order. But
what is some reverse links do not exist? Then DSR has to find a way the other way round, too. Now
source and destination both got a way – but in the wrong direction! Somehow this information must
reach the other side – without a route quite difficult (broadcast is always a solution).

3. What is DHCP? What is its basic purpose? Name the entities of DHCP. How can DHCP
be used for mobility and support of mobile IP?
Ans. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a protocol for assigning dynamic IP addresses to
devices on a network. With dynamic addressing, a device can have a different IP address every time it
connects to the network. In some systems, the device's IP address can even change while it is still
connected. DHCP also supports a mix of static and dynamic IP addresses.
Basic Purpose: Dynamic addressing simplifies network administration because the software keeps track
of IP addresses rather than requiring an administrator to manage the task. This means that a new
computer can be added to a network without the hassle of manually assigning it a unique IP address.
Many ISPs use dynamic IP addressing for Internet subscribers.
Entities of DHCP: The entities acquired via DHCP are, e.g., DHCP relay, DHCP server etc.
Mobility and support of IP: DHCP is a good candidate for support the acquisition of COA for mobile
nodes. The same holds for all other parameters needed, such as address of the default router, DNS
servers etc. A DHCP server should be located in the subnet of the access point of the mobile node, or at
least a DHCP relay should provide forwarding of the messages.

4. Name the main differences between multi-hop ad-hoc networks and other networks. What
advantages do these ad-hoc networks offer? Why is routing in multi-hop ad-hoc networks
complicated, what are the special challenges?
Ans.
Challenges : In wireless multi-hop routing, there are several causes of reducing communication
performance other than packet looping, and they are deeply related with one another. Not only packet
loops, but also congestions due to interference, and further link failures due to wireless instability or
mobility are also regarded as the essential elements that should be considered in MANET routing
schemes. Especially, interference would be the most focused element in the current state of the art.
However, in wireless networks, packet looping and interference are deeply related with each other so
that improving performance from the viewpoint of looping would also be an important part of the
contribution.

5. Why one cannot use distance vector and link state routing algorithms of fixed network in
multi Hop Adhoc networks?
Ans. Distance-vector routing scheme is driven with a simple mechanism: each node maintains a distance-
table in which the distance for each destination is held, and advertises the distance-table to every
neighbor periodically. Each node has only to choose the neighbor that has the shortest distance for each
destination to construct its routing table. Unfortunately, this simple scheme has a serious problem so
called the count-to-infinity problem . The count-to-infinity problem occurs in case of topology change
such as link failure, where the distance for a destination increases repeatedly among involved nodes until
reaching the maximum distance defined in the protocol. In this period of time, packets are forwarded
among those involved nodes and loop among them.

6. What are the benefits of location information for routing in ad-hoc networks?
Ans. Using location information to help routing is often proposed as a means to achieve scalability in
large mobile ad hoc networks. However, location-based routing is difficult when there are holes in the
network topology and nodes are mobile or frequently disconnected to save battery. Terminode routing,
presented here, addresses these issues. It uses a combination of location-based routing (terminode
remote routing, TRR), used when the destination is far, and link state-routing (terminode local routing,
TLR), used when the destination is close. TRR uses anchored paths, a list of geographic points (not
nodes) used as loose source routing information. Anchored paths are discovered and managed by
sources, using one of two low overhead protocols: friend assisted path discovery and geographical map-
based path discovery. Our simulation results show that terminode routing performs well in networks of
various sizes. In smaller networks; the performance is comparable to MANET routing protocols. In larger
networks that are not uniformly populated with nodes, terminode routing outperforms, existing
location-based or MANET routing protocols.

7. What are the differences between AODV and the standard distance vector algorithm?
• Ans. Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) and AdHoc On Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) are
both routing protocols for wireless mesh/ad hoc networks. Both the protocols employ different
mechanisms that result in varied performance levels. DSR and AODV can be compared and
evaluated based on the packet delivery ratio, normalized MAC load, normalized routing load,
and average end-to-end delay by altering the number of sources, speed, and pause time.
• Both DSR and AODV are demand-driven protocols which form a route on demand when a
transmitting computer desires a route. The main difference between DSR and AODV is the
 source routing feature. The DSR is based on source routing in which all the
routing information such as is maintained at the mobile nodes. The DSR computes the routes
and also updates them. The source routing is a technique in which the packet sender identifies
the entire sequence of the node into which the packet has to pass through. The packet sender
lists the route in the packet’s header so that the next node to which the packet has to be
transmitted can be identified by the address on the way to the destination host. The AODV uses
a combination of a DSR and DSDV mechanism. It uses the route discovery and route
maintenance from a DSR and hop-by-hop routing, periodic advertisements, sequence numbers
from DSDV. The AODV easily overcomes the counting to infinity and Bellman Ford problems, and
it also provides quick convergence whenever the ad hoc network topology is altered.
• When DSR and AODV are analyzed using a packet delivery ratio parameter by varying the
paused time in the intervals of 0, 10, 20, 40, 100, the results obtained for both on demand
routing protocols look similar.
• The normalized routing load is analyzed for both protocols by varying paused times.
The values for the DSR protocol were less as compared to the AODV which show fairly stable
results even after increasing the number of sources. If normalized routing load is stable, the
protocol is considered to be scalable. The routing overhead for AODV is mainly from the route
requests. DSR finds the route in the cache as a result of aggressive caching. This helps to avoid a
frequent route discovery process in DSR thereby decreasing the routing overhead for DSR when
compared to AODV.
• The normalized MAC load is analyzed by varying different paused times. The values for AODV is
less when compared to DSR when analyzed for lower paused times.
• When it comes to performance comparison between the two protocols, the cache staleness and
high MAC overhead degrade the performance of DSR in high mobility scenarios. In lower-
mobility scenarios, the performance of DSR is better than AODV as the route is always found
quickly in cache avoiding the route discovery process.

8. How does dynamic source routing handle routing? What is the motivation behind it dynamic source
routing compared to other routing algorithms from fixed networks? How does the symmetry of wireless
links influence the routing algorithms proposed.
Ans. In Dynamic Source Routing, each source determines the route to be used in transmitting its packets
to selected destinations. There are two main components, called Route Discovery and Route
Maintenance. Route Discovery determines the optimum path for a transmission between a given source
and destination. Route Maintenance ensures that the transmission path remains optimum and loop-free
as network conditions change, even if this requires changing the route during a transmission.

The motivation behind the on-demand protocols is to reduce large amount of overhead for maintaining
the routing table in the table-driven protocols in the dynamic MANET. They are source-initiated schemes
which do not maintain or constantly update their route tables with the latest route topology. This type of
routing creates routes only when desired by the source node. When a node requires a route to a
destination, it initiates a route discovery process within the network. This process is completed once one
or more routes are found or all possible route permutations have been examined. However, routing
overhead for on-demand protocols may be still large mainly because the flooding process used in
discovering routes, where the source (i.e., the host seeking a route) floods the entire network with a
query packet in searching a route to the destination.
Most algorithms fail if the links are asymmetric (up to the extreme case of unidirectional links). Think of
DSR – the algorithm states that the receiver simple sends the packet collecting routers on the way
between source and destination back to the source by choosing the routers in the reverse order. But
what is some reverse links do not exist? Then DSR has to find a way the other way round, too. Now
source and destination both got a way – but in the wrong direction! Somehow this information must
reach the other side – without a route quite difficult (broadcast is always a solution).

9. What are Wireless sensor networks? Explain.

Ans. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) can be defined as a self-configured and infrastructure-less
wireless networks to monitor physical or environmental conditions, such as temperature, sound,
vibration, pressure, motion or pollutants and to cooperatively pass their data through the network to a
main location or sink where the data can be observed and analysed. A sink or base station acts like an
interface between users and the network. One can retrieve required information from the network by
injecting queries and gathering results from the sink. Typically a wireless sensor network contains
hundreds of thousands of sensor nodes. The sensor nodes can communicate among themselves using
radio signals. A wireless sensor node is equipped with sensing and computing devices, radio transceivers
and power components. The individual nodes in a wireless sensor network (WSN) are inherently
resource constrained: they have limited processing speed, storage capacity, and communication
bandwidth. After the sensor nodes are deployed, they are responsible for self-organizing an appropriate
network infrastructure often with multi-hop communication with them. Then the onboard sensors start
collecting information of interest. Wireless sensor devices also respond to queries sent from a “control
site” to perform specific instructions or provide sensing samples. The working mode of the sensor nodes
may be either continuous or event driven. Global Positioning System (GPS) and local positioning
algorithms can be used to obtain location and positioning information. Wireless sensor devices can be
equipped with actuators to “act” upon certain conditions. These networks are sometimes more
specifically referred as Wireless Sensor and actual networks .

10. Explain IoT and IoE.

Ans. IoT: The definition of the Internet of things has evolved due to the convergence of multiple
technologies, real-time analytics, machine learning, commodity sensors, and embedded systems.
[1]
Traditional fields of embedded systems, wireless sensor networks, control
systems, automation (including home and building automation), and others all contribute to enabling
the Internet of things. In the consumer market, IoT technology is most synonymous with products
pertaining to the concept of the "smart home", covering devices and appliances (such as lighting
fixtures, thermostats, home security systems and cameras, and other home appliances) that support one
or more common ecosystems, and can be controlled via devices associated with that ecosystem, such
as smartphones and smart speakers.

IoE: The Internet of Everything (IoE) “is bringing together people, process, data, and things to make
networked connections more relevant and valuable than ever before-turning information into actions
that create new capabilities, richer experiences, and unprecedented economic opportunity for
businesses, individuals, and countries.”, (Cisco, 2013) .
In simple terms: IoE is the intelligent connection of people, process, data and things. The Internet of
Everything (IoE) describes a world where billions of objects have sensors to detect measure and assess
their status; all connected over public or private networks using standard and proprietary protocols.
Pillars of The Internet of Everything (IoE)
People: Connecting people in more relevant, valuable ways.
Data: Converting data into intelligence to make better decisions.
Process: Delivering the right information to the right person (or machine) at the right time.
Things: Physical devices and objects connected to the Internet and each other for intelligent decision
making; often called Internet of Things (IoT).