Hardware

Computer architecture
The central processing unit (CPU)
The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a
microprocessor or processor)
is central to all modern computer systems (including tablets and
smartphones). The CPU is very often installed as an integrated
circuit on a single microchip. The CPU has the responsibility for
the execution or processing of all the instructions and data in a
computer application.

Von Neumann architecture

Von Neumann architecture was first published by John von Neumann in 1945.

His computer architecture design consists of a Control Unit, Arithmetic and Logic
Unit (ALU), Memory Unit, Registers and Inputs/Outputs.

Von Neumann architecture is based on the stored-program computer concept,

where instruction data and program data are stored in the same memory. This
design is still used in most computers produced today.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

The ALU allows arithmetic (add, subtract etc) and logic (AND, OR, NOT etc)
operations to be carried out.

Control Unit (CU)

The control unit controls the operation of the computer’s ALU, memory and
input/output devices, telling them how to respond to the program instructions it
has just read and interpreted from the memory unit.

The control unit also provides the timing and control signals required by other
computer components.

system clock is used to produce timing signals on the control bus to ensure this
vital synchronisation takes place – without the clock the computer would simply
crash!
The functions of CU are given below:

 Interprets and carries out instruction of program.

 Selects program statements from memory.
 Moves these instructions to instruction registers
 Carries out instructions
 Directs flow of data between components of CPU and to and from other
devices

Memory Unit
The memory unit consists of RAM, sometimes referred to as primary or main
memory. RAM is split into partitions. Each partition consists of an address and its
contents (both in binary form).
The RAM is often referred to as the Immediate Access Store (IAS). The CPU takes
data and programs held in backing store (e.g. a hard disk drive) and puts them
into RAM temporarily. This is done because read/write operations carried out
using the RAM are considerably faster than read/write operations to backing
store; consequently,
any key data needed by an application will be stored temporarily in RAM to
considerably speed up operations.

Registers

Registers are high speed storage areas in the CPU. All data must be stored in
a register before it can be processed.

One of the most fundamental components of the von Neumann system are the
registers. Registers can be general or special purpose. We will only consider the
special purpose registers.
Buses

Buses are the means by which data is transmitted from one part of a computer to
another, connecting all major internal components to the CPU and memory.
 Fetch-Execute Cycle
1. Fetch the instruction (transfer the instruction from
main memory to the decoder)

2. Decode the instruction (from machine language)

3. Execute the instruction (e.g., add, divide, load,

store...)

4.Store the result (for instructions like ADD, place

the 'answer' in the specified register.)
St Simplified
Fetch execute cycle steps
ep description
The PC contains the address of
PC has address of
1 the memory location that
next instruction
has the next instruction which
 has to be fetched
This address is then copied
PC copied to the
2 from the PC to the MAR via
MAR
the address bus
The contents (instruction) at Lookup MAR and
the memory location (address) get contents.
3
contained in MAR are then Copy contents
copied into the MDR into the MDR
The contents (instruction) in the Copy MDR
4 MDR is then copied and placed contents into the
into the CIR CIR
The value in the PC is then
incremented by 1 so that it now PC is then
5
points to the next instruction incremented by 1
which has to be fetched
The instruction is finally
decoded and then executed by The instruction is
6 sending out signals (via control decoded and
bus) to the various components then executed
of the computer
7 Repeat
Digital Cameras

Digital cameras have essentially replaced the more traditional camera that
used film to record the photos. The film required developing and then printing
before the photographer could see the result of their work. This made these
cameras expensive to operate since it wasn’t possible to delete unwanted
photographs.
These cameras are controlled by a microprocessor which can automatically carry
out the following tasks:

* adjust the shutter speed

* focus the image automatically
* operate the flash automatically
* adjust the size of the image
* remove ‘red eye’ when the flash has been used.
Keyboards

keyboards are by far the most common method used for data entry.
They are used as the input device on computers, tablets,
mobile phones and many other electronic items.

The keyboard is connected to the computer either by using a USB connection

or by wireless connection. In the case of tablets and mobile phones,
the keyboard is often VIRTUAL or a type of TOUCHSCREEN technology.
Inkjet Printers
INKJET PRINTERS are essentially made up of:

* a print head which consists of nozzles which spray droplets of ink on

to the paper to form characters
* an ink cartridge; either a group of cartridges for each colour
(blue, yellow and magenta) and a black cartridge or one single
cartridge containing all three colours + black (Note: some systems
use six colours.)
* a stepper motor and belt which moves the print head assembly
across the page from side to side
* a paper feed which automatically feeds the printer with pages as
they are required.

The ink droplets are produced currently using two different technologies. Inkjet printer

* Thermal bubble: tiny resistors create localized heat which makes the ink vaporize. This causes
the ink to form a tiny bubble; as the bubble expands, some of the ink is ejected from the print
head onto the paper. When the bubble collapses, a small vacuum is created which allows fresh
ink to be drawn into the print head. This continues until the printing cycle is completed.
* Piezoelectric: a crystal is located at the back of the ink reservoir for each nozzle. The crystal is
given a tiny electric charge which makes it vibrate. This vibration forces ink to be ejected onto
the paper; at the same time more ink is drawn in for further printing.
Stage in process Description of what happens
1 The data from the document is sent to a printer driver
2 The printer driver ensures that the data is in a format that the chosen printer can understand
3 A check is made by the printer driver to ensure that the chosen printer is available to print (e.g. is it busy,
is it off line, is it out of ink, and so on)
4 The data is then sent to the printer and it is stored in a temporary memory known as a printer buffer
5 A sheet of paper is then fed into the main body of the printer; a sensor detects whether paper is
available in the paper feed tray – if it is out of paper (or the paper is jammed) then an error message is
sent back to the computer
6 As the sheet of paper is fed through the printer, the print head moves from side to side across the paper
printing the text or image; the four ink colours are sprayed in their exact amounts to produce the desired
final colour
7 At the end of each full pass of the print head, the paper is advanced very slightly to allow the next line to
be printed; this continues until the whole page has been printed
8 If there is more data in the printer buffer, then the whole process from stage 5 is repeated until the
buffer is finally empty
9 Once the printer buffer is empty, the sprinter sends an interrupt to the processor in the computer; this is
a request for more data to be sent to the printer; the whole process continues until the whole of the
document has been printed
Laser Printers

LASER PRINTERS differ greatly from inkjet printers in the way they print pages.
The use dry powder ink rather than liquid ink and make use of the
properties of static electricity to produce the text and images.
Unlike inkjet printers, laser printers print the whole page in one go
(inkjet printers print the page line by line).

Laser printer

Stage in process Description of what happens

1 The data from the document is sent to a printer driver
2 The printer driver ensures that the data is in a format that the chosen printer can understand
3 A check is made by the printer driver to ensure that the chosen printer is available to print (e.g. is it busy,
is it off line, is it out of ink, and so on)
4 The data is then sent to the printer and it is stored in a temporary memory known as a printer buffer
5 The start of the printing process involves a printing drum being given a positive charge; as this drum
rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it removing the positive charge in certain areas; this leaves
negatively charged areas which exactly match the text/images of the page to be printed
6 The drum is then coated with positively charged TONER (powdered ink); since the toner is positively
charged, it only sticks to the negatively charged parts of the drum
7 A negatively charged sheet of paper is then rolled over the drum
8 The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to produce an exact copy of the page sent to the printer
9 To prevent the paper sticking to the drum, the electric charge on the paper is removed after one rotation
of the drum
10 The paper finally goes through a fuser which is a set of heated rollers; the heat melts the ink so that it
fixes permanently to the paper
11 At the very end, a discharge lamp removes all the electric charge from the drum making it ready to print
the next page

Applications of Inkjet and Laser Printer

The choice of whether to use an inkjet printer or laser printer depends on which features make it the
most appropriate output device for the given application.
INKJET PRINTERS are best for one-off photos or where only a few pages of good quality, colour
printing are needed; the small ink cartridges or small paper trays would not be an issue with such
applications.
LASER PRINTERS produce high quality printouts and are very fast when making multiple copies
of a document; any application that needs high-volume printing (in colour or monochrome) would
choose the laser printer (for example, producing a large number of high quality flyers or posters for
advertising) – they have two advantages: they have large toner cartridges and large paper trays (often
holding more than a ream of paper).

3D Printers
3D PRINTERS are primarily used in COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN (CAD) applications.
They can produce solid objects which actually work.
The solid object is built up layer by layer using materials such
as powdered resin, powdered metal, paper or ceramic powder.
The motorcycle was made using an industrial 3D printer.
It was made from many layers (0.1 mm thick) of powdered metal
using a technology known as BINDER 3D PRINTING.
The following describes some of the features of 3D printing:

* Various types of 3D printers exist; they range from the size of a microwave oven up to the size of

a small car.
* 3D printers use ADDITIVE manufacturing (i.e. the object is built up layer by layer); this is in
sharp contrast to the more traditional method of SUBTRACTIVE manufacturing (i.e. removal of
material to make the object).

* Direct 3D Printing uses inkjet technology; a print head can move

left to right as in a normal printer. However, the print head can
also move up and down to build up the layers of an object.

* Binder 3D Printing is similar to direct 3D printing. However,

this method uses two passes for each of the layers; the first
pass sprays dry powder and then on the second pass a binder
(a type of glue) is sprayed to form a solid layer.

Uses of 3D Printing
3D printing is regarded as being possibly the next ‘industrial revolution’ since it will change the
manufacturing methods in many industries. The following list is just a glimpse into what we know can be
made using these printers; in the years to come, this list will probably fill an entire book:

* prosthetic limbs made to exactly fit the recipient

* items to allow precision reconstructive surgery (e.g. facial reconstruction following an accident);
the parts made by this technique are more precise in their design since they are made from
exact scanning of the skull
* in aerospace, manufacturers are looking at making wings and other parts using 3D technology;
the bonus will be lightweight precision parts
* in fashion and art – 3D printing allows new creative ideas to be developed
* making parts for items no longer in production, e.g. suspension parts for a vintage car.
LCD and LED Monitors

The days of the old cathode-ray monitors are almost gone. Most monitors and television sets these days
are made using LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY/DIODE (LCD) technology.
LEDs have become increasingly more popular because of a number of advantages over older CCFL
technology:
* LEDs reach their maximum brightness almost immediately (there is no need to ‘warm up’ before

reaching full efficiency)

* LEDs give a whiter light which sharpens the image and make the colours appears more vivid;
CCFL had a slightly yellowish tint
* LEDs produce a brighter light which improves the colour definition
* monitors using LED technology are much thinner than monitors using CCFL technology
* LEDs last almost indefinitely; this makes the technology more reliable and means a more
consistent product
* LEDs consume very little power which means they produce less heat as well as using less energy.
Future Led technology is making use of
ORGANIC LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (OLEDS). These use
organic materials (made up of carbon compounds)
to create semi-conductors which are very flexible.
Organic films are sandwiched between two charged
electrodes (one is a metallic CATHODE and the other a
glass ANODE).

Advantages of using OLED compared with existing LEDs and LCDs include:

* the plastic, organic layers of an OLED are thinner, lighter and more flexible than the crystal
structures used in LEDs or LCDs
* the light-emitting layers of an OLED are lighter; OLED layers can be made from plastic rather
than the glass used in LED and LCD screens
* OLEDs give a brighter light than LEDs
* OLEDs do not require backlighting like LCD screens – OLEDs generate their own light
* since OLEDs require no backlighting, they use much less power than LCD screens (most of the
LCD) power is used to do the backlighting); this is very important in battery-operated devices
such as mobile phones
* since OLEDs are essentially plastics, they can be made into large, thin sheets (this means they
could be used on large advertising boards in airports, subways, and so on)
* OLEDs have a very large field of view, about 170 degrees, which makes them ideal for use in
television sets and for advertising screens.
Sensors
SENSORS are devices which read or measure physical properties. These can include temperature,
pressure, acidity and so on. Real data is ANALOGUE in nature – this means it is constantly changing and
doesn’t have a discrete value.

Sensor Application
Temperature * control a central heating system
* control/monitor a chemical process
* control/monitor the temperature in a greenhouse
Moisture/humidity * control/monitor the moisture levels in soil in a greenhouse
* control/monitor the humidity levels in the air in a greenhouse
* monitor dampness levels in an industrial application (e.g., monitor moisture in a part

spray booth in a car factory)

light * switch street lighting on at night and off during the day
* monitor/control light levels in a greenhouse
* automatically switch a cars headlights when it gets dark
Infra-red/motion * turn on the windscreen wipers on a car automatically
* detect intruders in a burglar alarm system
* count people entering/leaving a building
Pressure * detect intruders in a burglar alarm system
* weight things (e.g. check the weight of a vehicle)
* monitor/control a process where gas pressure is important
Acoustic/sound * pick up noise levels (e.g. footsteps) in a burglar alarm system
* detect the noise of liquid dripping in a pipe
Gas (e.g. O2 or CO2) * monitor pollution levels in a river or in the air
* measure O2 and CO2 levels in a greenhouse
* check for CO2 leaks in a power station
pH * monitor/control acidity/alkalinity levels in the soil in a greenhouse
* pollution/environmental monitoring in rivers
Magnetic filed * any application where detection of changes in a magnetic field is required (e.g.
in cell phones, CD players, etc.)
* used in anti-lock braking systems in motor vehicles
Sensors are used in both monitoring and control applications. There is a subtle difference between how
these two methods work:
Sensors send signals to the
microprocessor/computer

The signals are converted to digital (if

necessary) using an analogue to
digital converter (ADC)

The computer/microprocessor
analyses the data received by
checking it against stored values

If new data is outside the acceptable If the new data is outside the
range, a warning message is sent to a acceptable range, the
screen or an alarm is activated computer/microprocessor sends
signals to control valves, motors, etc.

The microprocessor/computer has no

effect on what is being monitored – it The output from the system affects
is simply ‘watching’ the process the next set of inputs
Memory and Storage
Computer memory / storage can be classified in three ways;
primary, secondary and off-line.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
The features of RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM) are:
* it is volatile/temporary memory (the contents of the
memory are lost when the power to the RAM is turned off)
* it is used to store:
* data,
* files, or
* part of the operating system that are currently
in use
There are currently two types of RAM technology:

* Dynamic ram (DRAM)

* Static RAM (SRAM).

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Each DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM) chip consists of a number of
transistors and capacitors. Each of these parts is tiny
since a single RAM chip will contain millions of transistors
and capacitors. The function of each part is:

* capacitor – this holds the bits of information (o or 1)

* transistor - this acts like a switch; it allows the chip
control circuitry to read the capacitor or
change the capacitor’s value
This type of RAM needs to be constantly REFRESHED
(that is, the capacitor needs to be recharged every 15
microseconds otherwise it would lose its value
DRAMs have a number of advantages over SRAM

* They are much less expensive to manufacture than

SRAM
* They consume less power than SRAM
* They have a higher storage capacity than SRAM.
Static RAM (SRAM)
A big difference between SRAM and DRAM is that this
type of memory doesn’t need to be constantly refreshed.
It makes use of ‘flip flops’ which hold each bit of memory

SRAM is much faster than DRAM when it comes to data

access (typically,access time for SRAM is 25 nanoseconds
and for DRAM is 60 nanoseconds)

Data on SRAM does not require refreshing.

However, the technology is bulkier meaning less memory

per chip.

 More expensive than DRAM

 Much faster than DRAM
 Consumes less power
 Commonly used in cache memory
Read Only Memory (ROM)
The main features of READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM) can
be summarized as follows:
* they are non-volatile/permanent memories (the
contents of the memory remain even when the power to
the ROM is turned off)
* they are often used to store the start-up instructions
when the computer is first switched on (for example ,
ROM might store the basic input/output system (BIOS)).
* the data or contents of a ROM chip can only be read;
they cannot be changed.
Secondary storage devices
There are three types of secondary storage that you need
to be familiar with:

 Magnetic (hard) disk

 Solid-state disk
 Optical disc

Hard disk drive:

A hard disk drive (sometimes abbreviated as a hard
drive, HD, or HDD) is a non-volatile data storage device.
It contains one or more platters, housed inside of an air-
sealed casing. Data is written to the platters using a
magnetic head, which moves rapidly over them as they
spin. which can spin at about 7000 times a second .
Solid-State Drives (SSD)

Latency is an issue in HDDs . SOLID-STATE DRIVES

(SSD)
remove this issue considerably. They have no moving
parts and all data is retrieved at the same rate. They
don’t rely on magnetic properties; the most common type
of solid-state storage devices store data by controlling
the movement of electrons within NAND chips.
The main benefits of SSDs are summarized below:
* they are more reliable (no moving parts to go wrong)
* they are considerably lighter (which makes them
suitable for laptops)
* they don’t have to ‘get up to speed’ before they work
properly
* they have a lower power consumption
* they run much cooler than HDDs (these last two
points again make them very suitable for laptop
computers)
What are optical storage discs?

CD, DVD and Blu-Ray drives are optical storage devices.

Binary data is stored as changes to the texture of the

disc’s surface, sometimes thought of as microscopic pits
and bumps.

These ‘bumps’ are located on a continuous spiral track,

starting at the centre of the disc.

Whilst the disc is rotating at a constant speed, a laser is

pointed at the spiral track of ‘bumps

use a single, spiral track which runs from the centre of

the disk to the edge.
The data is stored in ‘pits’ and ‘bumps’ on the spiral
track. A red laser is used to read and write the data. CDs
and DVDs can be designated R (write once only) or RW
(can be written to or read from many times).

CD DVD Blu-Ray

700 MB 4.7 GB 25 GB – 128 GB

DVD

Despite being the same physical size, a DVD can hold

more data than a CD.

To achieve this, a more tightly packed spiral track is used

to store the data on the disc.

To accurately access the smaller ‘bumps’, a finer red

laser is used in a DVD drive than that found in a standard
CD drive.

To increase capacity further, DVDs are also capable of

dual layering.

Blu-Ray

Blu-Ray technology squashes even more data into the

same size disc as a CD or DVD.

The spiral data tracks on a Blu-Ray disc are so small a

special blue (violet) laser has to be used to read the
‘bumps’.

Like a DVD, Blu-Ray discs are capable of storing data on

multiple layers.

Blu-ray disks automatically come with a secure

encryption system which helps to prevent piracy and
copyright infringemen.
CD-R, DVD-R, BD-R

Recordable – blank discs that can be burnt (written

to) once.
CD-RW, DVD-RW, BD-RE

Re-writable – blank discs that can be burnt (written

to) over and over again (can be erased and reused
many times).

What is DVD-RAM?

DVD-RAM is an optical media storage device.

It differs from a traditional DVD in that data is stored in

concentric tracks (like a HDD) which allows read and
write operations to be carried out at the same time.

Typical applications for DVD-RAM

 Personal and digital video recorders

 High-end CCTV

Benefits of DVD-RAM

 Read and write at the same time

 Can be rewritten to many more times than a
traditional DVD-RW
 Has write-protect tabs to prevent accidental deletion
when used in an optional cartridge
  Data is retained for an estimated 30 years. This long
life is great for archiving data
 Reliable writing of discs because
the verification done by the hardware, not by
software

Drawbacks of DVD-RAM

 Disc speeds higher than 5x are less common

 Less compatibility than DVD-RW
 Network hardware
Network interface card (NIC)
A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to connect to
a network (such as the internet).

Wireless network interface cards/controllers (WNICs) are the same as NICs in

that
they are used to connect devices to the internet or other networks. However,
they use wireless connectivity utilising an antenna to communicate with
networks via microwaves. They would normally plug into the USB port or be part
of an internal integrated circuit.

Media Access Control

What is a MAC address?
A MAC address (Media Access Control address) is a unique number that identifies
the actual device that is connected to the internet or network.
A MAC address does not change when you connect to the internet from different
locations, it is part of the network interface card (NIC) inside your device.
A MAC address is made up of 48 bits, shown as 6 groups of hexadecimal digits.

A MAC address may look like: 00 12 0E A6 B0 68

The first half of a MAC address will identify the manufacturer of the device (or
NIC). The second half is the serial number of the device.
IP ADDRESS

What is an IP address?

An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is the unique identification number

given to every device that is connected to the internet.

It represents the unique location on which you are connected to the internet,
allowing devices all over the world to communicate with each other.

Without these unique location addresses, data could not be transmitted between
devices accurately.

Types of IP address

Dynamic IP address:

Dynamic IP addresses always keep changing. It is temporary and are allocated to a

device every time it connects to the web. Dynamic IPs can trace their origin to a
collection of IP addresses that are shared across many computers.
Static IP Addresses

A static IP address is an IP address that cannot be changed. In contrast, a dynamic

IP address will be assigned by a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
server, which is subject to change. Static IP address never changes, but it can be
altered as part of routine network administration.

There are two versions of IP: IPv4 and IPv6

IPv4 is based on 32 bits and the

address is written as four groups of eight bits (shown in denary format); for
example,

254.25.28.77
Because the use of only 32 bits considerably reduces the potential number of
devices and routers used on the internet at any one time, a newer version called
IPv6 is now used. This uses 128-bit addresses that take the form of eight groups
of hex digits; for example,

A8FB:7A88:FFF0:0FFF:3D21:2085:66FB:F0FA
hexadecimal numbering. IPv6 has been designed to
allow the internet to grow in terms of the number of hosts and potential increase
in the amount of data traffic. The main advantages of IPv6 compared to IPv4 are:
» removes the risk of IP address collisions
» has built-in authentication checks
» allows for more efficient packet routes.

Differences between IP and MAC address