THE COMPUTER SYSTEM

ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER
SYSTEM
THE COMPUTER SYSTEM ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

A Computer System takes some input, processes it and

produces some desired results. It is composed of six parts:

1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Data/Information
4. Procedures
5. People
6. Communication
Hardware
...

The physical equipment is called the hardware. Hardware consists

of the following categories:
Hardware Diagram of computer system
a. Input hardware
b. Processing hardware Processing
View
c. Output hardware Enter Data CPU Information
d. Storage hardware Input Output
e. Communication hardware Main Memory

Store data on disk for later retrievals

Storage

Communication Hardware

To another group of Computers

a. Input Hardware:

The function of input hardware is to collect data and convert it into a form suitable
for computer processing. Examples are keyboard, mouse, trackball, microphone,
etc.
b. Processing Hardware:
Central Processing Unit (CPU):
CPU is the brain of the computer. It reads and interprets
software and coordinates the processing activities that must take
place. It is also called processor. The design of CPU affects the
processing power and speed of the computer.

The function of processing hardware is to retrieve

and execute (interpret) instructions provided to
the computer. Processing may consist of
performing calculations and other logical
activities. Its components are central processing
unit and main memory.
Main Memory:
It is also called primary storage. It includes RAM, ROM and
cache. All instruction and data ready for processing are
held in memory. The larger the memory the greater the
number of instructions it can hold. RAM and cache are
temporary storage devices as they are volatile by nature
(volatile memories are those in which the contents are lost
when power is turned off).
C. Output Hardware:
The function of output hardware is to provide the user with
the means to view information produced by the computer
system.

Information is output in either hardcopy or softcopy form.

Hardcopy can be held in hand (like paper with text or
graphics printed on it). Softcopy output is typically
displayed on a monitor. Audio output is another form of
softcopy output. Examples are printers, monitors, speakers
etc.

D. Storage Hardware:
It is also called secondary storage. The function of this storage
hardware is to provide a means of storing instructions and data
in a form that is relatively permanent i.e. nonvolatile and easy
to retrieve when needed for processing (nonvolatile memories
are those which retain their contents even after the power is
turned off). Hard Disk Floppy Disk
Examples are Hard disks, floppy disks, Compact Disks (CDs),
etc.
E .Communication Hardware:

The function of communication hardware is

to facilitate the connections between
computer and between networks (group of
computers). For example, modems, fax
modems and cables.
Software:

Computer hardware is useless without electronic instructions called software, which tells hardware
what to do. Software is composed of programs and programs are in turn composed of instructions.
Software generally comes on disks, purchased off-the-shelf (ready made from the market) or
custom written. There are two types of software:
Application software
System software

a.Application Software
Application software performs general-purpose tasks for users. Examples are word processing,
spread sheet programs, payroll processing, etc.

b. System Software
System software runs basic computer operations, manages computer resources and enables
application software to run on the computer. It does not solve problems related to business or a
profession. Examples are operating systems, device drivers and utility programs.
Data / Information

The purpose of computer system is to convert data into information. Data

consists of raw facts and figures. Information is processed data. For
example, the raw data of employees’ hours worked and wage rate is
processed by a computer into information of paychecks and payrolls.

Information produced by one program can be used as data for another

program. For example, the information of paychecks and payrolls may
become data that goes into someone’s yearly financial projections and
tax returns.
Procedures:
Procedures are description of how things are done,
steps for accomplishing a result. Procedures for
computer systems appear in documentation
manuals, also called reference manuals, or CD-
ROMs which contains instruction, rules and guidelines
to follow when using hardware and software

Documentation Manual and CD-ROM with Hardware

People / Personnel

They are the most important component of a system. They operate the hardware
and create the software. They can be generally categorized as:
 Computer operator
 Programmer
 System analyst
Computer Operator is a person who runs computer. They are capable of handling
computers when they malfunction.

Programmer is a person who writes software.

System Analyst is information specialist who performs system analysis, design and
implementation. He studies the information and communication needs of an
organization to determine how to deliver information that is more accurately, timely
and useful. He is responsible for the development of an information system.
(Information system is an organization’s framework of standards and procedures for
processing data into usable information. It can be manual or computer based).
Communication

The function of communication hardware and software is to

facilitate the connections between computer and between
networks (group of computers).

Network of Computers
INTERNAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE PROCESSING UNIT

Central Processing Unit Main Memory

000
ALU 001
(Arithmetic & Control Unit System Bus 002
Logic Unit) 003
004
005 Contents
006
Address
Internal
Registers
CPU Bus

IO Module

Expansion Buses
(Connecting IO module to different IO devices)

Internal Interconnections of a Computer System

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU performs the main function of processing. It is contained on

an IC (Integrated Circuit) chip. It is composed of the following
main parts:

a) Control Unit, CU

Control unit tells the rest of the computer how to carry out a
program’s instruction. It directs the movement of the electronic
signals between main memory and the arithmetic / logic unit. It
also directs the electronic signals between main memory and the
IO devices.
b) Arithmetic and Logic Unit, ALU
It performs arithmetic operations (like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division) and logical operations (like comparison
and gate operations).

c) Registers
These are special, temporary storage areas that enhance the
performance of the system. They store data during processing
and provide working area for computation. Memory is the area
that stores data to be processed a bit later whereas registers
hold material that is to be processed immediately. Control unit
loads data and instructions from main memory into these
registers, which helps the computer process faster.
Buses
Buses are electrical path ways through which bits are
transmitted within the CPU and between CPU and other
devices in the system unit. Typically a bus consists of
multiple communication pathways, or lines.
According to location, buses are classified as follows:

 Internal CPU Bus: These lines are internal to the CPU and used to
connect ALU, control unit and various registers.
 System Bus: It connects the CPU with the main memory and the
main IO module that serves as the interface to the slower IO
devices.
 Expansion Buses: It connects the CPU with peripheral devices via IO
module.
Bus lines are also classified into three functional groups as follows:

 Data lines provide a path for moving data between system

modules. These lines collectively are called data bus.

 Address lines carry addresses generated by the CPU to access a

memory location or an IO device.

 Control lines are used to control the access and the use of the
data and address lines.

In addition, there may be power distribution lines that supply power

to the attached module.
Main Memory

Main Memory is the primary storage medium. It holds:

Data to be processed
Instructions to process data
Processed data

Main memory is contained on an IC chip. Memory is divided

into locations. Each location is uniquely identified by an
address. The contents of a memory location can change but
the addresses always remain constant.
IO (Input / Output) Module

The purpose of an IO system is to enable user to

communicate with the computer. IO devices are attached
to the computer by means of an IO module, whose
function is to control data transfers between IO devices
and the rest of the system. The reason for using the IO
module is that IO devices are extremely slow as compared
to the CPU therefore it is a sheer wastage of CPU’s time to
connect it directly with the IO devices. The CPU accesses
both main memory and IO module in the same way,
however, it usually takes much longer by the CPU to access
data from IO module than to access data from memory
because most IO operation are quite slow.
MEMORY CAPACITY
The following terms are used to express memory capacity:

Bit: Each 0 or 1 is called a bit. It is denoted by ‘b’.

Byte: A group of 8 bits is called a byte. It is denoted by ‘B’.
KB (Kilo byte): 1024 B = 210 B = 1 KB.

MB (Mega byte): 1024 KB = 220 B = 1 MB.

GB (Giga byte): 1024 MB = 230 B = 1 GB.

TB (Tera byte): 1024 GB = 240 B = 1 TB.

PB (Peta byte): 1024 TB = 250 B = 1 PB.

EB (Exa byte): 1024 PB = 260 B = 1 EB.

REPRESENTATION OF DATA AND PROGRAMS

Computers use binary system to represent

data. The binary system has only two digits: 0
and 1, representing the two states on and off.
In the computers these two numbers are
represented by electrical voltages. Thus, in the
computer the binary 0 can be represented by
a low voltage and 1 by a high voltage. All data
and programs that go into the computer are
represented by these two numbers.
Binary Coding Schemes

Letters, numbers and special characters are represented within a computer system
by means of binary coding schemes. That is, the on/off 0s and 1s are arranged in
such a manner that they can be made to represent the characters, digits, or other
values. Following are the coding schemes most commonly used:

A. ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

It is an 8-bit code that means it uses different combinations of 8 bits to represent

each character. These 8 bits can represent at most 256 (=28) characters. This is the
most widely used coding system with microcomputers. Windows 95 uses ASCII
coding system.

B. EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)

This is another 8-bit code. Here also, the maximum number of characters that can
be represented is 256 (=28) characters. This system is used in large computers like
mainframes.
C. UNICODE (Universal Code, Universal Character Set)

This is a 16-bit code, that is, it can represent 65536 (=216)

characters. Thus it allows almost all the written languages of the
world to be represented using a single character set. Windows
NT used this coding system.
THE POWER OF PERSONAL COMPUTER
The power of the personal computer is measured according to
three main units of measurement:
 RAM Capacity
 Word Size Capability
 Processor Speed

RAM Capacity

The main memory capacity of most microcomputers is stated in megabytes

(MB). If a microcomputer has less than 1GB RAM, it will not be able to handle
some of today’s sophisticated software programs. Many software
manufacturers recommend 512 MB RAM or more of RAM for microcomputers.

The RAM capacity of many mainframes and some supercomputers is

measured in gigabytes (GB). Other supercomputers’ RAM capacity is
measured in terabytes (TB).
Word Size

Processor capacity is expressed in terms of word size, which refers to the number of
bits it can hold in its registers, process at one time, and send through its internal (local)
bus, the electronic pathway between the CPU, memory, and registers. Often the
more bits in a word, the faster the computer. A 32-bit processor will work with data
and instructions in 32-bit chunks. A 64-bit word processor is faster, working with data
and instructions in 64-bit chunks. Other things being equal, a 64 bit computer
processes 8 bytes in the time it takes a 32-bit machine to process 4 bytes.

Expansion bus capacity is also measured by word size, Expansion buses connect the
processor, RAM, and registers to the computer’s peripheral devices. In other words, a
processor can be characterized by the number of bits it can work with at a time and
the number of bits it can send or receive at a time. The microcomputer with a 32-bit
local bus but a 16-bit expansion bus, in this case, certain input/output operations
would slow down to the speed of 16 bit word size.
Processing Speeds

For Microcomputers: Microcomputer speeds are commonly measured in

Megahertz (MHz), with 1 MHz equal to 1 million beats (machine cycles) per
second. Microcomputers purchased today commonly run at 3 GHz or more.
Assuming that all the computer’s other specifications are the same, the
faster the gigahertz rating, the faster the computer.

For Workstations, Minis and Mainframes: The unit used is MIPS (millions of
instructions per second). Here the processing speed is measured according
to the number of instructions per second that a computer can process.

For Supercomputers: The unit used is FLOPS (floating point operations per
second). The floating point operation is a special kind of mathematical
calculation. This measure, usually used with supercomputers, and is
expressed as megaflops (MFLOPS), gigaflops (GFLOPS), teraflops (TFLOPS)
and even in petaflops (PFLOPS).