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2 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

2.1 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems


The Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) of a point P in space are the numbers at
which the planes through P perpendicular to the axes cut the axes (Figure 1.1).
Cartesian coordinates for space are also called rectangular coordinates because the
axes that define them meet at right angles. Points on the x-axis have y- and z-
coordinates equal to zero. That is, they have coordinates of the form (x, 0, 0).
Similarly, points on the y-axis have coordinates of the form (0, y, 0), and points on
the z-axis have coordinates of the form (0, 0, z).

Figure 1.1: The Cartesian coordinate system is right-handed

Distance in Space
The formula for the distance between two points in the xy-plane extends to
points in space.

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The Distance Between P1(x1, y1, z1) and P2(x2, y2, z2) is

Example 1: Finding the Distance Between Two Points The distance between P1(2,
1, 5) and P2(-2, 3, 0) is

Vectors
A Vector is an object with length (magnitude) and direction. The direction of a
vector is determined by the vector’s start (initial) point and end (terminal) point.
Two vectors are equal if they have the same length and direction. Changing the
position of the vector’s start point does not change the vector, therefore, vectors are
typically drown with their start point at origin. Vectors with start points at origin
are called Position Vectors.

We can specify v by writing the coordinates of its terminal point (v1, v2, v3)
when v is in the standard position. If v is a vector in the plane its terminal point (v1,
v2) has two coordinates.

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Component Form and Length of a Vector
The Component Form of the vector in a three-dimensional equal to the vector with
the initial point at the origin and terminal point (v1, v2, v3), then the component form
of v is

v= v1, v2, v3

Given the points P (x1, y1, z1) and Q (x2, y2, z2) the standard position vector v = (v1,
v2, v3 equal to PQ is

v = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1, 𝑦2 − 𝑦1, 𝑧2 − 𝑧1)

If v is two-dimensional with P (x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) as points in the plane, then
v= (𝑥2 − 𝑥1, 𝑦2 − 𝑦1). There is no third component for planar vectors.

Two vectors are equal if and only if their standard position vectors are identical.
Thus u1, u2, u3 and (v1, v2, v3 are equal if and only if u1 = v1, u2 = v2, and u3 = v3.
The magnitude or length of the vector PQ is the length of any of its equivalent
directed line segment representations. In particular, if v= (𝑥2 − 𝑥1, 𝑦2 − 𝑦1, 𝑧2 − 𝑧1

is the standard position vector for 𝑃𝑄⃗ then the distance formula gives the magnitude
or length of v, denoted by the symbol |v| or ||v||.

The only vector with length 0 is the zero vector 0 = (0,0,0). This vector is also the
only vector with no specific direction.

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Example 2: Find the (a) component form and (b) length of the vector with initial
point P (-3, 4, 1) and terminal point Q (-5, 2, 2).

Solution:

(a) The standard position vector v represents PQ has components v1


= x2 - x1 = -5 – (-3) = -2, v2 = y2 - y1 = 2 – 4 = -2, and
v3 = z2 - z1 = 2 – 1 = 1.
The component form PQ is v = (−2, −2, 1

(b) The length or magnitude of v =𝑃𝑄⃗ is

Vector Algebra Operation


Two principal operations involving vectors are vector addition and scalar
multiplication.

The definition of vector addition is illustrated geometrically for planar vectors in the
following Figures, where the initial point of one vector is placed at the terminal point
of the other in the first, while the parallelogram law of addition in the second.

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A geometric interpretation of the scalar multiplication ku of the scalar k and vector
u is illustrated in the following Figure. If k > 0, then ku has the same direction as u;
if k < 0, then the direction of ku is opposite to that of u. Comparing the lengths of u
and ku, we see that

The length of ku is the absolute value of the scalar k times the length of u.
The vector (-1) u = - u has the same length as u but points in the opposite direction.

By the difference u – v of two vectors, we mean u – v = u + (– v). Note that (u – v)


+ v = u, so adding the vector (u – v) to v gives u (Figure 1.6).

Example :

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Properties of Vector Operations

2.2 Unit Vectors


A vector v of length 1 is called a unit vector. The standard unit vectors are i = (1, 0,
0), j = (0, 1, 0), and k = (0, 0,1 .

Any vector can be written as follows: v = (v1, v2, v3 = v1i+ v2j + 3k.

We call the scalar (or number) v1 the i-component of the vector v, v2 the j-
component, and v3 the k-component.

In component form, the vector from P1(x1, y1, z1) to P2(x2, y2, z2)

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Whenever v ≠ 0, its length v is not zero and

That is, v/|v| is a unit vector in the direction of v, called the direction of the nonzero

vector v.

In summary:

Example 4: Find a unit vector u in the direction of the vector from P1(1, 0, 1) to
P2(3, 2, 0).

Example
A force of 6 newtons is applied in the direction of the vector v = 2i + 2j - k. Express
the force F as a product of its magnitude and direction.

Sol

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2.3 Midpoint of a Line Segment
Vectors are often useful in geometry. For example, the coordinates of the midpoint
of a line segment are found by averaging. The midpoint M of the line segment
joining points P1(x1, y1, z1) and P2(x2, y2, z2) is the point

Example

The midpoint of the segment joining P1(3, -2, 0) and P2(7, 4, 4) is

2.4 The Dot Product

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Dot products are also called inner or scalar products because the product results in
a scalar, not a vector. It is used to calculate the angle between two vectors directly
from their components; show whether two vectors are orthogonal or not; find the
projection vector.

The dot product u ● v (u dot v) of vectors u = (u1, u2, u3〉 and v = (v1, v2, v3〉 is

Example : Finding Dot Product

Properties of the Dot Product


If u, v, and w are any vectors and c is a scalar, then

Angle Between Vectors


As seen in this Figure

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Example
Find the angle between u = i - 2j - 2k and v = 6i + 3j + 2k.

Solution We use the formula above:

Example
Find the angle u in the triangle ABC determined by the vertices A = (0, 0), B = (3,
5), and C = (5, 2)

Solution
The angle u is the angle between the vectors 𝐶𝐴⃗ and 𝐶𝐵⃗ . The component forms of
these two vectors are:

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2.5 Perpendicular (Orthogonal) Vectors
Vectors u and v are orthogonal (or perpendicular) if and only if u ● v = 0.

If we have two vectors u and v, from dot product, we can know:

1. u ● v = (+), acute angle;


2. u ● v = (–), obtuse angle;
3. u ● v = (0), right angle.
Example

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2.6 Vector Projections
The vector projection of u onto a nonzero vector v is

The number |u|cos θ is called the scalar component of u in the direction of v .

Example

Find the vector projection of u = 6i + 3j + 2k onto v = i – 2j – 2k and the scalar


component of u in the direction of v.

Solution:

We find the scalar component

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