Networking –

fundamentals

DNF

Introduction

(8 (2
) )
Networking Terminologies
What does the following mean?

• Ethernet – Fast-, Gigabit, and beyond

• ISO/OSI (Networking Layers 1-4)
• Switching (Layer 2) vs Routing (Layer 3)
• Wireless LAN (Controller vs. Standalone)
• Managed/Unmanaged Devices
• High Availability / Redundancy
• VLANs – Virtual LANs
• Spanning Tree
• QoS – Quality of Service
• Stacking
• Transceivers /Optics
• Network Management

2
La comunicación

• Establecimiento de reglas
– Identificación de emisor y
receptor
– Método de comunicación
común
– Mismo idioma
– Velocidad idéntica
– Acuses de recibo
 Calidad de las comunicaciones

• Muchos factores pueden

influir en el éxito o fracaso
de la comunicación
–Factores Externos
› Calidad de la ruta
› Cantidad de veces que el
mensaje cambia de forma
–Factores Internos
› Tamaño del mensaje
› Complejidad del mensaje
› Importancia del mensaje
Elementos de la comunicación

• Intercambio de
información de interés
entre un origen y un
destino
• Dicho intercambio se
realiza por un medio
definido
• El término red se usará
para referirnos a datos o
redes de información
capaces de transportar
diferentes tipos de
comunicación
 Protocolos

Reglas que definen las

comunicaciones
– Toda comunicación
está regida por reglas
– Una de las mejores
maneras de visualizar
de qué manera todos
los protocolos
interactúan en un host
en particular es verlo
como un stack o pila
El rol de los protocolos
Modelos de protocolo y referencia
The OSI Reference Model
IP? DECnet
IPX?
7

5
In 1982, the International Organization for
Standardization formed the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) initiative. 4
• A set of standards for computers to use when
communicating to each other.
• Creating an open standard would allow
3
computers made by different manufacturers to
more easily communicate with one another.
• The result of the initiative is referred to as The OSI 2
Reference Model.
• It is a “protocol stack” that consists of seven
layers: 1
How does OSI model work?

are you there? 7 are you there?

10
Encapsulation of the OSI Layers

11
Encapsulation and De-Encapsulation of Data from Layer to Layer

12
Layer 1 – Physical Layer
Binary code (ones and zeros) is turned into electrical, light or radio frequency signals and
prepared for communication across a media (air, cable)

Power over Ethernet PoE(+)

(802.3at/af)

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

• Copper
• Electrical signaling 7 APPLICATION
• Cat 5, Cat5e, Cat6, Cat6a, Cat7 6 PRESENTATION
5 SESSION
4 TRANSPORT
fibre Optic
• Glass (Tx, Rx) 3 NETWORK
• Light Signaling 2 DATALINK
• MMF, SMF
1 PHYSICAL

13
 Cabling and transceivers

14 14
 Networking Fundamentals
Ethernet transmission types

Copper Fibre
- 10 / 100 Mbit Ethernet - 10 / 100 Mbit Ethernet
- 1 / 10 Gbit Ethernet - 1 / 10 / 40 / 100 Gbit Ethernet
- …400Gbit (Future)
- 10/100/1000/10000 Base T
Common types
- Distance: up to 100 Metres - 100 BaseFX (100Mbit)
- 1000 BaseX (X=SX, LX, ZX…)
- 10000 BaseX (X=SR, LR, ER…)
- 40000 BaseX (X=SR, LR4,…)

- Transmission distance depend

on the cable type, and the
wavelength of the transceiver.

15
 100/1000 Mbit Transceivers

100Mbit/1000Mbit SFP Transceiver SFP = LC Connector

16
10 GbE Transceivers

Data Rate Port Type Standards support Reach and media type

10 Gb/s SFP+ optics 10GBASE-SR 33m OM1, 82m OM2,

module 300m OM3 MMF
10GBASE-LR 10km SMF
10GBASE-ER 40km SMF

10GBASE-LRM 220m OM1, OM2,

See note 1 OM3 & FDDI grade
10GBASE-ZR MMF
DWDM-40km 80km SMF
DWDM-80km 40km SMF
80km SMF

10 Gb/s SFP+ direct- SFF-8431 7m passive copper

attach copper cable (See note 2)

Note 1 - Not all transceivers are supported on all platforms

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 40 GbE Transceivers

Data Port Type Standards support Reach and media

Rate type
40 Gb/s QSFP+ optics module 40GBASE-SR4 100m OM3, (SR)
150m OM4 (SR)
300m (ESR OM3)
400m (ESR OM4)

40 Gb/s QSFP+ active optical “40GBASE-SR4” 10m or 50m

cable (AOC not specified lengths
by IEEE)

40 Gb/s QSFP+ direct attach 40GBASE-CR4 Up to 7m passive

copper (DAC) copper cable

40 Gb/s QSFP+ to SFP+ using 40GBASE-CR4 and 5m passive

SFF-8431 copper breakout
DAC (passive copper) cable
breakout cable
40 Gb/s QSFP+ to SFP+ 40GBASE-SR4 and 5m fibre breakout
connectivity using 10GBASE-SR cable +
optical MPO-LC 100M OM3 or
breakout cable 150m OM4

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 1/10GBASE-T Cable Distances
High-performance 1/10/40GbE top-of-rack & aggregation switch

Cable Type 1GBASE-T 10GBASE-T

Cat 6 UTP 100m (330ft) 55m (180ft)
Cat 6 STP 100m (330ft) 100m (330ft)
Cat 6A UTP 100m (330ft) 100m (330ft)
Cat 7 100m (330ft) 100m (330ft)

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 Examples of Cable Types, Optics and Uses

• Two major types of fibre, usally this requires different transcieves

• Multi Mode Fibre = normally within a building
• Single Mode Fibre = normally for long distance- but not exclusively

• SFP transceiver 1000BaseSX –commonly used for connecting from

access switch to distribution/core. 1GbE using Multi Mode fibre.

• SFP+ transceiver 10GBASE-SR / ESR– most commonly used for

datacenter, servers, storage and uplinks. 10GbE using Multi Mode fibre.

• SFP transceiver 1000BaseLX –commonly used for connecting from one

data centre to another. 1GbE using Single Mode fibre.

• SFP+ transceiver 10GBASE-LR–commonly used for connecting from one

data centre to another using high speed (WAN) interconnect. 10GbE using
Single Mode fibre.

• DAC Cable – used for low cost, high speed and limited distance
connectivity (<7m) usually in the Data Centre. 10GbE and 40GbE.

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Layer 2 Data Link (LAN Technologies)

The Data Link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between
network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical
Layer (sometimes called the MAC Layer)

• Works on OSI layer 2 (Data Link) Wired Network Interface

Card
MAC (Data Link) Address
• Unique MAC ”Media Access Control” Addresses resides here

• i.e. 58:94:6B:F2:95:94 (6 bytes) (58:94:6B=Intel) assigned to

each Network Interface from factory (IEEE)
• Addresses are hard-coded into Network Interface Cards (NICs)
7 APPLICATION
• 281 trillion unique addresses 6 PRESENTATION
• CSMA/CD 5 SESSION
Ethernet Frame Format 4 TRANSPORT
3 NETWORK
2 DATALINK
1 PHYSICAL
 Ethernet Frame
• An Ethernet Frame comprises Destination MAC Address and
Source MAC Address (along with length/type, data and FCS)
• Addresses are always 64 Bits or 6 Octets; each octet has 8 bits

Example of a Source or Destination MAC Address

5c:26:0a:7a:a8:bf would be translated to binary
Octet 1 Octet 2 Octet 3 Octet 4 Octet 5 Octet 6

0101 1100 0010 0110 0000 1010 0111 1010 1010 1000 1011 1111
5c 26 0a 7a a8 bf
Layer 2 Device: Switch
• Used to segment the network (collision domains) to
improve performance

• Makes forward/filtering decisions on Layer 2 MAC Source Address Table

address in the packet Switch Port MAC Address
1 A
• Self-learning device; creates different tables to help 2 B
make forwarding decisions 3
4 CD

Common Switching
Standards 4 3
Purpose
802.1d Bridging (switching) standard 1 2
- Self-learning SAT Table C
- Spanning Tree Protocol (redundancy without loops) D
802.1q Virtual LANs (dot1q trunking and more)
802.1p Layer 2 Prioritization B
802.1x Access Control
802.1s Multiple Spanning Trees (MST)
802.1w Rapid Spaning Tree (RSTP) A
Layer 2: Switch
 Switches are the most common access device used today to connect users and devices to
the network
 Switches come in different form factors from standalone, to stackable, to chassis-based
 Most (enterprise-class) switches today support routing protocols as well

Dell Cisco HP Networking

Networking
N1500/N2000 Catalyst 2960, 3560 2810, 2820
Chassis N3000, N4000 Catalyst 3750, 3560 3500
C-Series Catalyst 4509 (R), HP54xx, HP82xx
Chassis 6509, 68xx
Layer 2: Wireless – Access Points (APs) & Controllers

 Access Point used to provide wireless RF Common Wireless Purpose

Standards
network access
 Makes forward/filtering decisions on Layer 2 802.11a 5 GHz, 54 Mbps
MAC address in the packet
802.11b 2.4 GHz, 11Mbps
 Bridging and shared media technology
 Self-learning device; creates a Source Address 802.11g 2.4 GHz, 54 Mbps

Table (SAT) to help make forwarding decisions 802.11n 2.4 & 5 GHz, up to 450 Mbps
 Floods broadcast/multicast packets
802.11ac 5 GHz, up to 6.9 Gbps

802.1x Access Control

802.11i WPA2 (Wi-Fi Protected Access 2)

Station Table
AP Port MAC Address

Ethernet 1, 2, 3
Radio Card A 4, 5, 6
Radio Card B 11, 12, 13
Redundant Switched Topologies

• Switches learn the MAC addresses of devices on their ports so that data can
be properly forwarded to the destination.
• Switches will flood frames for unknown destinations until they learn the
MAC addresses of the devices.
• Broadcasts and multicasts are also flooded. (Unless switch is doing Multicast
Snooping or IGMP)
• A redundant switched topology without spanning tree may (STP disabled)
26

cause broadcast storms, multiple frame copies, and MAC address table
instability problems.
Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP)
Switch

Switch Switch

• Shortest path is based on cumulative link costs.

• Link costs are based on the speed of the link.
• The Spanning-Tree Protocol establishes a root node, called the root bridge.
• The Spanning-Tree Protocol constructs a topology that has one path for
reaching every network node.
• The resulting tree originates from the root bridge.
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• Redundant links that are not part of the shortest path tree are blocked.
Spanning-Tree Communication
BPDU
Switch

Switch Switch

• It is because certain paths are blocked that a loop free topology is possible.
• Data frames received on blocked links are dropped.
• The Spanning-Tree Protocol requires network devices to exchange
messages to detect bridging loops - Bridge Protocol Data Units (BPDU).
• Links that will cause a loop are put into a blocking state.
• BPDUs continue to be received on blocked ports.
• This ensures that if an active path or device fails, a new spanning tree28can be
calculated.
Per VLAN Spanning Tree

• Allows simple interaction at Layer 2 with Cisco switches

• STP will only block links on a switch for a specific VLAN
• Allows all links to be used concurrently
• More flexible than a Common Spanning Tree architecture
 Example of Per VLAN Spanning Tree

Root Bridge for VLAN 10

VLAN 10,20,30
Root Port VLAN 20 Root Port VLAN 30
Designated Port VLAN 10 Designated Port VLAN 10
Designated Port VLAN 30 Non-Designated Port
VLAN 20 - BLOCKED

Root Port VLAN 10

Non-Designated Port Root Port VLAN 10
VLAN 30 - BLOCKED Designated Port VLAN 20
Designated Port VLAN 20 Designated Port VLAN 30

VLAN 10,20,30 VLAN 10,20,30

Root Bridge for VLAN 20 Root Bridge for VLAN 30
Designated Port VLAN 10 Root Port VLAN 20
Designated Port VLAN 20 Non-Designated Port VLAN 10 - BLOCKED
Root Port VLAN 30 Designated Port VLAN 30
Layer 3: Network Protocols

Most common:
IPv4: The basis for almost all communications within the
Internet and most LANs/WANs: 2³² possible addresses which
means that we have a strong limitation regarding available
public addresses around the globe (Approx 4 Billion Addresses)

IPv6 (emerging): Developed to overcome limitations regarding

the IPv4 Protocol. 2128 possible addresses – 3.4 x 1038 (340
undecillion)
Network Layer Header 7 APPLICATION
6 PRESENTATION
5 SESSION
4 TRANSPORT
3 NETWORK
2 DATALINK
1 PHYSICAL
Layer3: IP Protocol Version 4

IP is a routed protocol, meaning we use routers to forward packet.

Host IP-address consists of network and host part. Network mask

decides size of each part.

192.168.100.1/24 => 192.168.100.0 = network, .1 = host

Special addresses:
224.0.0.0 -> 239.255.255.255 (multicast)

10.0.0.0/8
172.16.0.0/12 RFC 1918 Addresses
192.168.0.0/16

RFC 1918 Addresses are never sent out to the Internet

Do We Need to Know Every Address

• What happens when we need to send data to a system

• Remember the 7 layer model
• We need to know the following:
– IP Address (Layer 3)
– Data Link Address (Layer 2)

• Use the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

• If we didn’t have ARP then we’d need to know the MAC addresses of
all systems.

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Address Resolution Protocol

• Address Resolution Protocol – known as ARP

• Used to translate IP addresses to MAC addresses
• Local system – a system that is on the same network or subnet
• Remote system – a system that is on a different network or
subnet
• Default Gateway – a router or L3 switch on the network that is
the first node contacted if a packet is required to go to a remote
network.

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How do find the target IP address - ARP

• Is the user I want to talk to local or remote

• If remote, I ARP for my default gateway. If local, I ARP for the
user directly
• Target system or Gateway responds with their MAC address
• Update the ARP cache on the end-station
• Transmit data

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Subnet Masks – Why Do We Need Them ?

• An IP address has 2 parts – Network ID and Host ID

• IPv4 has a relatively small address range and internet usage was
increasing - therefore addresses needed to be preserved
• IPv6 was designed to have a much larger address space
• Take bits from the host section and add them to the network section
therefore allowing more networks
• This is called Subnetting; and uses a Subnet Mask (or Mask)
• The mask will extract the network and host elements of an address
by doing a logical AND on the mask and the address
• Two addresses need to be on the same network to communicate

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Subnetting and Addressing

10.1.1.1/8 10.1.1.2/8

11.1.1.1/8 172.16.1.1/12

11.1.1.2/8 172.16.1.2/12

192.168.1.1/24 192.168.1.2/24

There are 4 networks on this diagram

10.1.1.0
11.1.1.0
172.16.0.0
192.168.1.0

How do we get these …..

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Example of Masking (1)

10.1.1.1 / 8

This states that the network mask is 8 bits.

First break out the address into binary

10 = 0000 1010
1 = 0000 0001

Therefore the address is:

000 1010 0000 0001 000 0001 000 0001

/8 means that the first 8 bits of the mask are used (starting from the left)

Address - 000 1010 0000 0001 0000 0001 0000 0001

Mask - 1111 1111 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 – Perform logical AND

Network – 000 1010 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000

Hosts can use the next 24 bits.

Full Address - 000 1010 0000 0001 0000 0001 0000 0001

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Example of Masking (2)

172.16.1.2/12

This states that the network mask is 12 bits

First break out the address into binary:

172 = 1010 1100

16 = 0001 0000
1 = 0000 0001
2 = 0000 0010

Therefore the full address is:

1010 1100.0001 0000.0000 0000.0000 0000

/12 means that the first 12 bits are used for masking (starting from the left)
Address - 1010 1100.0001 0000.0000 0000.0000 0000
Mask - 1111 1111. 1111 0000.0000 0000.0000 0000 – Perform logical AND

Network – 1010 1100 0001 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 = 172.16.0.0

Hosts can use the next 20 bits.

Full Address - 1010 1100 0001 0000 0000 0001 0000 0010

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Online Subnet Calculators – Much Quicker!

Address: 172.16.0.0 10101100.0001 0000.00000000.00000000

Netmask: 255.240.0.0 = 12 11111111.1111 0000.00000000.00000000
Wildcard: 0.15.255.255 00000000.0000 1111.11111111.11111111
=>
Network: 172.16.0.0/12 10101100.0001 0000.00000000.00000000
Broadcast: 172.31.255.255 10101100.0001 1111.11111111.11111111
HostMin: 172.16.0.1 10101100.0001 0000.00000000.00000001
HostMax: 172.31.255.254 10101100.0001 1111.11111111.11111110
Hosts/Net: 1048574 (Private Internet)

Available at: http://jodies.de/ipcalc (Many others are available online)

4
0
What IP Address Should I use

• RIPE allocate addresses to companies in EMEA (One of 5 Regional

Internet Registries)
• Many customers use RFC 1918 addresses for internal use
– Deploy a Firewall/Router using Network Address Translation to allow
access to the Internet (Since RFC 1918 addresses do not get passed to
the Internet)

• IP Addresses can be applied in the following ways:

– Static assignment
– Dynamically assigned using DHCP Protocol – Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol
› Very flexible
› Allows scalable address usage
› No Address Wastage

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Layer3: IP Protocol Version 6
IP version 4 addresses are becoming scare
resources

IP version 6 gives a much larger address

space (16 bytes vs. 4 bytes)
i.e. 2001:470:28:215:74e8:101d:47a:29c6

Dual stack => both protocols active at the

same time on a host, side by side.

Auto Configuration – simplifies

management
Layer 4 – Transport Layer
• The purpose of the Transport Layer is to provide transparent transfer
of data between end users.
• The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link.
• Protocols can be connection oriented or connectionless.
•TCP – Transmission Control Protocol - Connection-oriented means
that the transport layer can keep track of the packets and retransmit
those that fail
•UDP – User Datagram Protocol – Connectionless – means that the
data stream is not tracked. Fire and Forget. 7 APPLICATION
•Many protocols have well known ports eg:- 6 PRESENTATION
5 SESSION
4 TRANSPORT
3 NETWORK
2 DATALINK
1 PHYSICAL
Layer 4 Transport Layer – Frame Formats
7 APPLICATION
Transport Layer Header (UDP)
6 PRESENTATION
5 SESSION
4 TRANSPORT
3 NETWORK
2 DATALINK
1 PHYSICAL

Transport Layer Header (TCP)

Well Known Ports - Examples

TCP UDP

• FTP 20,21 • 69 - TFTP

• Telnet – 23 • 123 - NTP
• SMTP – 25
• 514 – Syslog
• HTTP – 80
• 520 - RIP
• HTTPS - 443
Layers 5-7

Session Layer (Layer 5): The Session layer provides the mechanism for
managing the dialogue between end-user application processes.
Presentation Layer (Layer 6): The Presentation layer relieves the Application
layer of concern regarding syntactical differences in data representation
within the end-user systems. MIME encoding, encryption and similar
manipulation of the presentation of data is done at this layer. An example of
a presentation service would be the conversion of an EBCDIC-coded text
file to an ASCII-coded file.
Application Layer (Layer 7): This layer interfaces 7 APPLICATION
directly to and performs common application 6 PRESENTATION
services for the application processes. An examples 5 SESSION
of common application services is Telnet. 4 TRANSPORT
3 NETWORK
2 DATALINK
1 PHYSICAL
 Types of networks and
topologies

47
Types of networks and topologies

A computer network can be two devices connected together

A computer network will usually consist of much more than two devices:

48
What is a LAN?

”Local Area Network”

A LAN is a computer
network covering a
small area like an
office, home, group
of buildings.
Normally relatively
high speed.

Consists of i.e.
switches, routers,
computers
What is a WAN?

”Wide Area Network”

Stockholm
Connects two or
more LAN over
distance – normally
today based on Layer
3 (IP)
Berlin
Not limited by
distance
Paris
Leased lines, fibre,
satelite

Normally lower Rome

speeds than LAN
What is a SAN?

”Storage Area Network”

A network for storage

devices

Storage can easily be

shared between
different hosts = Fabric A Fabric B
application and cost
advantage

Common protocols:
iSCSI, FibreChannel

Normally two ”fabrics”

for redundancy reasons
Nework design - topologies

Core

Aggregation/distribution

Edge/access

Star network

Spine Leaf Ring network

Different type of transmission

UNICAST BROADCAST

Unicast= One to One

Broadcast = One to All
Multicast = One to a group

MULTICAST
 Network devices

54
Networking fundamentals – Managed Switches

• Managed Switch
A "managed switch" can be configured via CLI (Command Line), Telnet/SSH (Remote via IP) or
the Web interface. Different parameters like VLANs, Routing, Security can be enabled or
disabled. Also supports protocols like SNMPv2/SNMPv3 for integration into a management
platform.

• Unmanaged Switch
"Plug and Play" Switches with no configuration possibilities and used for small offices or home –
normally for simple tasks.

• Smart/Web Managed Switch

A managed Switch which cannot be configured via CLI. It uses a WebGui instead of a CLI
and has limitations regarding to the configuration. The Dell X-Series is a smart managed
switch.
Switches – Different Learning Mechanisms

• Cut-though switch
Fast and efficent. Only copies destination MAC-address which speeds
up and does not CRC check before start sending. Large frames starts
to leave the switch before it is fully received.

• Store-and-forward switch
Stores the complete frame in memory and does a CRC check before
forwarding the frame on.

• Most switches offer both of the above

 Network design concepts

57
Networking Fundamentals: Virtual LAN (VLAN)

• Layer 2 Networks can be partitioned to create multiple distinct Broadcast Domains

• A VLAN has the same attributes as a physical local area network (LAN), but it allows for
end stations to be grouped together more easily even if they are not on the same
network switch.

• Domains are mutually isolated , i.e. packets can only pass between them via one or
more Routers

• Simpler devices only support partitioning on a port level (if at all), so sharing VLANs
across devices requires running dedicated cabling for each VLAN.

• More sophisticated devices can mark packets through tagging, so that a single
interconnect (trunk) may be used to transport data for various VLANs

VLAN 1 VLAN 2 VLAN 3

Networking Fundamentals: Redundancy

Build a network that can survive hardware outages

• The goal is to prevent or recover from the failure of a specific component

or system.

• There are many types of redundant devices: backup storage devices. a

RAID, a secondary Power Supply

• In Networking it is common to have redundant data paths. This means if

one system goes down, the connection between other systems will not
be broken

• Network redundancy can be accomplished by either adding extra physical

connections or using networking software that automatically reroutes
data when needed.

• Build in Redundancy- e.g. Management Modules in Chassis devices

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Networking Fundamentals: Stacking

A stackable switch is a switch that is fully

functional operating standalone but which
can also be set up to operate together
with one or more other network switches.

A stack is a group of switches showing the

characteristics of a single switch but
having the port capacity of the sum of the
combined switches

A stack is accessible using a single IP

address

Stacking can use front end ports or

special stacking cables to connect the
switches together

Two main advantages of stacks versus a

traditional chassis design is flexibility and
price

6
0
Networking Fundamentals: Quality of Service (QoS)

• The Quality of Service (QoS) refers to several related aspects of networks

• The Traffic Engineering term refers to resource reservation control

mechanisms rather than the achieved service quality.

• Quality of service is the ability to provide different priority to different

applications, users, or data flows, or to guarantee a certain level of
performance to a data flow.

• QoS guarantees are important if the network capacity is insufficient,

especially for real-time Streaming Multimedia applications such as VOIP
(Voice over IP) , online games and IP-TV

• Needs to be end-to-end