CHAPTER

SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE

AND TEMPERATURE

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o you feel air around you? Do you The solar output received at the top of the
know that we live at the bottom of a atmosphere varies slightly in a year due to the

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huge pile of air? We inhale and exhale variations in the distance between the earth and
but we feel the air when it is in motion. It means the sun. During its revolution around the sun,
air in motion is wind. You have already learnt the earth is farthest from the sun (152 million

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about the fact that earth is surrounded by air km) on 4th July. This position of the earth is
all around. This envelop of air is atmosphere called aphelion. On 3rd January, the earth is
which is composed of numerous gases. These
pu the nearest to the sun (147 million km). This
gases support life over the earth’s surface. position is called perihelion. Therefore, the
The earth receives almost all of its energy annual insolation received by the earth on 3rd
from the sun. The earth in turn radiates back January is slightly more than the amount
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to space the energy received from the sun. As received on 4th July. However, the effect of this
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a result, the earth neither warms up nor does variation in the solar output is masked by
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it get cooled over a period of time. Thus, the other factors like the distribution of land and
amount of heat received by different parts of sea and the atmospheric circulation. Hence, this
the earth is not the same. This variation causes variation in the solar output does not have
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pressure differences in the atmosphere. This great effect on daily weather changes on the
leads to transfer of heat from one region to the surface of the earth.
other by winds. This chapter explains the
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Variability of Insolation at
process of heating and cooling of the
the Surface of the Earth
atmosphere and the resultant temperature
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distribution over the earth’s surface. The amount and the intensity of insolation vary
during a day, in a season and in a year. The factors
SOLAR RADIATION that cause these variations in insolation are : (i)
the rotation of earth on its axis; (ii) the angle of
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The earth’s surface receives most of its energy inclination of the sun’s rays; (iii) the length of the
in short wavelengths. The energy received by day; (iv) the transparency of the atmosphere; (v)
the earth is known as incoming solar radiation the configuration of land in terms of its aspect.
which in short is termed as insolation. The last two however, have less influence.
As the earth is a geoid resembling a sphere, The fact that the earth’s axis makes an angle
the sun’s rays fall obliquely at the top of the of 66 with the plane of its orbit round the sun
atmosphere and the earth intercepts a very has a greater influence on the amount of
small portion of the sun’s energy. On an insolation received at different latitudes. Note the
average the earth receives 1.94 calories per sq. variations in the duration of the day at different
cm per minute at the top of its atmosphere. latitudes on solstices given in Table 9.1.
 80 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

The second factor that determines the colour of the sky are the result of scattering of
amount of insolation received is the angle of light within the atmosphere.
Table 9.1 : Length of the Day in Hours and Minutes on Winter and Summer Solstices in the Northern Hemisphere

Latitude 0° 20° 40° 60° 90°

December 22 12h 00m 10h 48m 9h 8m 5h 33m 0
June 21 12 h 13h 12m 14h 52m 18h 27m 6 months

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inclination of the rays. This depends on the Spatial Distribution of Insolation
latitude of a place. The higher the latitude the at the Earth’s Surface
less is the angle they make with the surface of

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the earth resulting in slant sun rays. The area The insolation received at the surface varies
covered by vertical rays is always less than the from about 320 Watt/m2 in the tropics to about
slant rays. If more area is covered, the energy 70 Watt/m2 in the poles. Maximum insolation
gets distributed and the net energy received is received over the subtropical deserts, where

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per unit area decreases. Moreover, the slant rays the cloudiness is the least. Equator receives
are required to pass through greater depth of comparatively less insolation than the tropics.
the atmosphere resulting in more absorption, Generally, at the same latitude the insolation

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scattering and diffusion. is more over the continent than over the oceans.
In winter, the middle and higher latitudes
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HEATING AND COOLING OF ATMOSPHERE

There are different ways of heating and cooling
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of the atmosphere.
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The earth after being heated by insolation
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transmits the heat to the atmospheric layers near

to the earth in long wave form. The air in contact
with the land gets heated slowly and the upper
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layers in contact with the lower layers also get

heated. This process is called conduction.
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Conduction takes place when two bodies of

unequal temperature are in contact with one
Figure 9.1 : Summer Solstice
another, there is a flow of energy from the warmer
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The Passage of Solar Radiation to cooler body. The transfer of heat continues until
through the Atmosphere both the bodies attain the same temperature or
the contact is broken. Conduction is important
The atmosphere is largely transparent to short in heating the lower layers of the atmosphere.
wave solar radiation. The incoming solar
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The air in contact with the earth rises

radiation passes through the atmosphere
before striking the earth’s surface. Within the vertically on heating in the form of currents
troposphere water vapour, ozone and other and further transmits the heat of the
gases absorb much of the near infrared atmsphere. This process of vertical heating of
radiation. the atmosphere is known as convection. The
Very small-suspended particles in the convective transfer of energy is confined only
troposphere scatter visible spectrum both to to the troposphere.
the space and towards the earth surface. This The transfer of heat through horizontal
process adds colour to the sky. The red colour movement of air is called advection. Horizontal
of the rising and the setting sun and the blue movement of the air is relatively more important
 SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE 81

than the vertical movement. In middle latitudes, accumulate or loose heat. It maintains its
most of dirunal (day and night) variation in temperature. This can happen only if the
daily weather are caused by advection alone. amount of heat received in the form of insolation
In tropical regions particularly in northern equals the amount lost by the earth through
India during summer season local winds called terrestrial radiation.
‘loo’ is the outcome of advection process. Consider that the insolation received at the
top of the atmosphere is 100 per cent. While
Terrestrial Radiation passing through the atmosphere some amount
The insolation received by the earth is in short of energy is reflected, scattered and absorbed.

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waves forms and heats up its surface. The earth Only the remaining part reaches the earth
after being heated itself becomes a radiating surface. Roughly 35 units are reflected back

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body and it radiates energy to the atmosphere to space even before reaching the earth’s
in long wave form. This energy heats up the surface. Of these, 27 units are reflected back
atmosphere from below. This process is known from the top of the clouds and 2 units from the
as terrestrial radiation. snow and ice-covered areas of the earth. The

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The long wave radiation is absorbed by the reflected amount of radiation is called the
atmospheric gases particularly by carbon albedo of the earth.
dioxide and the other green house gases. Thus, The remaining 65 units are absorbed, 14

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the atmosphere is indirectly heated by the units within the atmosphere and 51 units by
earth’s radiation. the earth’s surface. The earth radiates back
The atmosphere in turn radiates and 51 units in the form of terrestrial radiation.
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transmits heat to the space. Finally the amount
of heat received from the sun is returned to
Of these, 17 units are radiated to space
directly and the remaining 34 units are
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space, thereby maintaining constant temperature absorbed by the atmosphere (6 units

at the earth’s surface and in the atmosphere. absorbed directly by the atmosphere, 9 units
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through convection and turbulence and 19
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Heat Budget of the Planet Earth

units through latent heat of condensation).
Figure 9.2 depicts the heat budget of the planet 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere
earth. The earth as a whole does not
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(14 units from insolation +34 units from

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Figure 9.2 : Heat budget of the earth

 82 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

terrestrial radiation) are also radiated back heat which is measured in terms of
into space. Thus, the total radiation temperature. While heat represents the
returning from the earth and the atmosphere molecular movement of particles comprising a
respectively is 17+48=65 units which substance, the temperature is the measurement
balance the total of 65 units received from in degrees of how hot (or cold) a thing (or a
the sun. This is termed the heat budget or place) is.
heat balance of the earth.
This explains, why the earth neither warms Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution

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up nor cools down despite the huge transfer of The temperature of air at any place is influenced
heat that takes place. by (i) the latitude of the place; (ii) the altitude

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of the place; (iii) distance from the sea, the air-
Variation in the Net Heat Budget at the mass circulation; (iv) the presence of warm and
Earth’s Surface cold ocean currents; (v) local aspects.
As explained earlier, there are variations in the
amount of radiation received at the earth’s The latitude : The temperature of a place

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surface. Some part of the earth has surplus depends on the insolation received. It has been
radiation balance while the other part has explained earlier that the insolation varies
according to the latitude hence the

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deficit.
Figure 9.3 depicts the latitudinal variation temperature also varies accordingly.
in the net radiation balance of the earth — the
pu The altitude : The atmosphere is indirectly
atmosphere system. The figure shows that heated by terrestrial radiation from below.
there is a surplus of net radiation balance Therefore, the places near the sea-level record
between 40 degrees north and south and the higher temperature than the places situated
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regions near the poles have a deficit. The at higher elevations. In other words, the
surplus heat energy from the tropics is
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temperature generally decreases with
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redistributed pole wards and as a result the increasing height. The rate of decrease of
tropics do not get progressively heated up due temperature with height is termed as the
to the accumulation of excess heat or the high normal lapse rate. It is 6.5°C per 1,000 m.
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latitudes get permanently frozen due to excess

deficit. Distance from the sea : Another factor that
influences the temperature is the location of a
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place with respect to the sea. Compared to land,

the sea gets heated slowly and loses heat
slowly. Land heats up and cools down quickly.
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Therefore, the variation in temperature over the

sea is less compared to land. The places
situated near the sea come under the
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moderating influence of the sea and land

breezes which moderate the temperature.

Air-mass and Ocean currents : Like the land

Figure 9.3 : Latitudinal variation in net and sea breezes, the passage of air masses also
radiation balance affects the temperature. The places, which
come under the influence of warm air-masses
Temperature
experience higher temperature and the places
The interaction of insolation with the that come under the influence of cold air-
atmosphere and the earth’s surface creates masses experience low temperature. Similarly,
 SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE 83

the places located on the coast where the warm northern hemisphere the land surface area is
ocean currents flow record higher temperature much larger than in the southern hemisphere.
than the places located on the coast where the Hence, the effects of land mass and the ocean
cold currents flow. currents are well pronounced. In January the
isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean
Distribution of Temperature and to the south over the continent. This can
be seen on the North Atlantic Ocean. The
The global distribution of temperature can well presence of warm ocean currents, Gulf Stream
be understood by studying the temperature and North Atlantic drift, make the Northern

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distribution in January and July. The Atlantic Ocean warmer and the isotherms bend
temperature distribution is generally shown towards the north. Over the land the

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on the map with the help of isotherms. The temperature decreases sharply and the
Isotherms are lines joining places having equal isotherms bend towards south in Europe.
temperature. Figure 9.4 (a) and (b) show the It is much pronounced in the Siberian
distribution of surface air temperature in the plain. The mean January temperature along

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month of January and July. 60° E longitude is minus 20° C both at 80° N
In general the effect of the latitude on and 50° N latitudes. The mean monthly
temperature is well pronounced on the map, temperature for January is over 27° C, in

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as the isotherms are generally parallel to the equatorial oceans over 24° C in the tropics
latitude. The deviation from this general trend and 2° C - 0° C in the middle latitudes
is more pronounced in January than in July,
pu and –18° C to –48° C in the Eurasian
especially in the northern hemisphere. In the continental interior.
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Figure 9.4 (a) : The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of January
 84 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

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Figure 9.4 (b) : The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of July
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Figure 9.5 : The range of temperature between January and July

 SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE 85

The effect of the ocean is well pronounced inversion. The heat of the day is radiated off
in the southern hemisphere. Here the isotherms during the night, and by early morning hours,
are more or less parallel to the latitudes and the earth is cooler than the air above. Over polar
the variation in temperature is more gradual areas, temperature inversion is normal
than in the northern hemisphere. The isotherm throughout the year.
of 20° C, 10° C, and 0° C runs parallel to 35° S, Surface inversion promotes stability in the
45° S and 60° S latitudes respectively. lower layers of the atmosphere. Smoke and
In July the isotherms generally run dust particles get collected beneath the
parallel to the latitude. The equatorial oceans inversion layer and spread horizontally to fill

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record warmer temperature, more than 27°C. the lower strata of the atmosphere. Dense fogs
Over the land more than 30°C is noticed in in mornings are common occurrences

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the subtropical continental region of Asia, especially during winter season. This inversion
along the 30° N latitude. Along the 40° N runs commonly lasts for few hours until the sun
the isotherm of 10° C and along the 40° S the comes up and beings to warm the earth.
temperature is 10° C. The inversion takes place in hills and

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Figure 9.5 shows the range of mountains due to air drainage. Cold air at the
temperature between January and July. The hills and mountains, produced during night,
highest range of temperature is more than 60° flows under the influence of gravity. Being

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C over the north-eastern part of Eurasian heavy and dense, the cold air acts almost like
continent. This is due to continentality. The water and moves down the slope to pile up
least range of temperature, 3°C, is found
pu deeply in pockets and valley bottoms with
between 20° S and 15° N. warm air above. This is called air drainage. It
protects plants from frost damages.
INVERSION TEMPERATURE
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Normally, temperature decreases with increase Plank’s law states that hotter a body,
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in elevation. It is called normal lapse rate. At the more energy it will radiate and
times, the situations is reversed and the shorter the wavelength of that
normal lapse rate is inverted. It is called radiation.
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Inversion of temperature. Inversion is usually Specific heat is the energy needed to

of short duration but quite common raise the temperature of one gram of
nonetheless. A long winter night with clear substance by one Celsius.
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skies and still air is ideal situation for

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EXERCISES
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1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) The sun is directly overhead at noon on 21st June at:
(a) The equator (c) 23.5° N
(b) 23.5° S (d) 66.5° N
(ii) In which one of the following cities, are the days the longest?
(a) Tiruvanantpuram (c) Hyderabad
(b) Chandigarh (d) Nagpur
 86 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

(iii) The atmosphere is mainly heated by the:

(a) Short wave solar radiation (c) Long wave terrestrial radiation
(b) Reflected solar radiation (d) Scattered solar radiation
(iv) Make correct pairs from the following two columns.
(i) Insolation (a) The difference between the mean
temperature of the warmest and the coldest
months

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(ii) Albedo (b) The lines joining the places of equal
temperature

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(iii) Isotherm (c) The incoming solar radiation
(iv) Annual range (d) The percentage of visible light reflected by
an object

(v) The main reason that the earth experiences highest temperatures in the

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subtropics in the northern hemisphere rather than at the equator is :
(a) Subtropical areas tend to have less cloud cover than equatorial areas.

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(b) Subtropical areas have longer day hours in the summer than the
equatorial.
pu (c) Subtropical areas have an enhanced “green house effect” compared
to equatorial areas.
(d) Subtropical areas are nearer to the oceanic areas than the equatorial
locations.
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2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

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(i) How does the unequal distribution of heat over the planet earth in space
and time cause variations in weather and climate?
(ii) What are the factors that control temperature distribution on the surface
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of the earth?
(iii) In India, why is the day temperature maximum in May and why not after
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the summer solstice?

(iv) Why is the annual range of temperature high in the Siberian plains?
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3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.

(i) How do the latitude and the tilt in the axis of rotation of the earth affect
the amount of radiation received at the earth’s surface?
(ii) Discuss the processes through which the earth-atmosphere system
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maintains heat balance.

(iii) Compare the global distribution of temperature in January over the
northern and the southern hemisphere of the earth.

Project Work
Select a meteorological observatory located in your city or near your town. Tabulate
the temperature data as given in the climatological table of observatories :
(i) Note the altitude, latitude of the observatory and the period for which the
mean is calculated.
 SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE 87

(ii) Define the terms related to temperature as given in the table.

(iii) Calculate the daily mean monthly temperature.
(iv) Draw a graph to show the daily mean maximum, the daily mean minimum and the mean
temperature.
(v) Calculate the annual range of temperature.
(vi) Find out in which months the daily range of temperature is the highest and the lowest.
(vii) List out the factors that determine the temperature of the place and explain the possible

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causes for temperature variation in the months of January, May, July and October.
Example

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Observatory : New Delhi (Safdarjung)
Latitude : 28°35°’ N
Based on observations : 1951 - 1980

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Altitude above mean sea level : 216 m

Month Mean of Mean of Highest Lowest

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Daily Daily Recorded Recorded
Max.(°C) Min.(°C) (°C) (°C)
pu January 21.1 7.3 29.3 0.6
May 39.6 25.9 47.2 17.5
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Daily mean monthly temperature

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21.1+7.3
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January = 14.2OC
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39.6+25.9
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May = 32.75OC
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Annual range of temperature

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Mean Max. Temperature in May - Mean Temperature in January

Annual range of temperature = 32.75°C – 14.2°C = 18.55°C
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