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TON E
RYAN JOHNS
analysing
Presenting
nt i n g
and
P re s e
argument
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analysing
n t i n g
and
P rese
argument RYAN JOHNS TO
NE

1
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Johnstone, Ryan, author
Analysing and presenting argument / Ryan Johnstone.
ISBN 978 019 0300708 (paperback)
For secondary students.
Current analysis (Communication)
English language – Discourse analysis.
Communication – Methodology
Mass media.
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Contents
PART 1: HOW TO ANALYSE AND PRESENT ARGUMENT .......................................... 1

What is this book about? ......................................................................................................................................................................................1
Information for VCE students ..........................................................................................................................................................................3
Being ‘positioned’ ....................................................................................................................................................................................................4
PART 2: FORMULATING AND DEVELOPING ARGUMENTS ..................................... 11

Issues and events ...................................................................................................................................................................................................11
Points of view ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................14
Contentions................................................................................................................................................................................................................15
Argument structure ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 18
Argument development ......................................................................................................................................................................................19
PART 3: PERSUASIVE LANGUAGE ........................................................................... 21

Metalanguage – a language about language .........................................................................................................................................21
Verbal language ...................................................................................................................................................................................................26
Connotation and euphemism .........................................................................................................................................................................28
Imagery and figurative language ..................................................................................................................................................................31
Appeals ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Verbal attacks and ridicule ..............................................................................................................................................................................37
Clichés .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................39
Emotive language ...............................................................................................................................................................................................40
Exaggeration and hyperbole ......................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Generalisations .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Logic and evidence ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 45
Formal and informal English ......................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Humour ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................50
Inclusive and exclusive language .............................................................................................................................................................. 52
Common speech devices ................................................................................................................................................................................ 53
Non-verbal language ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
iii
PART 4: PERSUASIVE TEXTS ................................................................................... 63
Your media consumption ............................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Media texts ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................63
Print and online media texts........................................................................................................................................................................... 64
Newspaper features ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 65
Non-print texts ......................................................................................................................................................................................................88
Visual texts ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................89
Multimodal texts ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 94
PART 5: ANALYSING ARGUMENT........................................................................... 101

How do you analyse an argument? ............................................................................................................................................................101
Critical questions of argument analysis .................................................................................................................................................102
Language focus ....................................................................................................................................................................................................103
Style ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................106
Tone ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................108
How to construct an analysis – single text.............................................................................................................................................112
How to construct an analysis – multiple texts......................................................................................................................................121
PART 6: PRESENTING ARGUMENT ........................................................................ 129

Overview .................................................................................................................................................................................................................129
How can I present my opinion? ...................................................................................................................................................................130
Contents
Tips for a successful argument....................................................................................................................................................................130

Steps for creating a point-of-view response: written and oral ....................................................................................................132
Oral presentation of a point of view ..........................................................................................................................................................132
The 5 S's of speech writing.............................................................................................................................................................................136
PART 7: TOOLKIT .................................................................................................... 147

Consolidate and practise ................................................................................................................................................................................. 147
Practice SAC assessment ................................................................................................................................................................................153
Practice examination tasks ...........................................................................................................................................................................157
Templates ................................................................................................................................................................................................................162
Referencing ............................................................................................................................................................................................................166
GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS AND METALANGUAGE................................................. 168
iv
1
Part
How to analyse and

present argument
WHAT IS THIS BOOK ABOUT?
Every day of our lives we are confronted with various
forms of argument. Parents, teachers and friends
encourage us to believe certain things and behave
in particular ways. Politicians strive to convince
us to accept their beliefs and policies. Media texts
(news reports, opinion pieces, letters to the editor,
Part 1
online comments or television advertisements)
strive to advance different viewpoints. Sometimes the
arguments are thoughtful, balanced and logical; at
other times they are highly emotive, skewed and either unintentionally or deliberately unreliable in the ‘facts’ they
present. Either way, language is used in interesting and diverse ways during the process.
As a result, you need to critically evaluate the arguments and language being used to persuade you, rather than
simply accepting a text at face value. One way to do this is to study media texts and issues, as very persuasive
viewpoints are commonly expressed in these contexts. This book has been designed to help you engage with, and
critically evaluate, a broad range of arguments, texts and issues from across the media spectrum.
WHAT IS MEANT BY ‘MEDIA’?

The Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary, Fourth Edition, defines media as ‘the main means of mass communication
(especially newspapers and broadcasting) regarded collectively’. Media is the plural form of medium, which means
‘the means by which something is communicated’. So really we are talking about public sources of information,
products and services, and some examples of such sources include television advertisements, news and current
affairs programs, radio talkback programs, websites and newspapers.
WHAT IS A ‘TEXT’?
While we traditionally associate the word ‘text’ with written words, to say that a text only contains written or
printed words is, within this area of study, too narrow a definition. Some texts are spoken, not written; others
contain visual language, but no actual words. So when we watch television, read a newspaper or magazine, surf
the internet, listen to a digital radio stream or a podcast, we are still receiving information from a text. Texts can
be broken down into the following types: print, non-print and multimodal. These three terms can then be defined
as follows:
• Print texts can comprise print-only or print and visual images, such as novels, plays, scripts and magazines.
• Non-print texts are texts without print or visual images, such as speeches or radio talkback programs.
PART 1: HOW TO ANALYSE AND PRESENT ARGUMENT 1

• Multimodal texts are texts that combine the ‘modes’ of language, which include reading, writing, speaking and
listening/viewing. A multimodal text combines two or more of these. For example, a webpage combines video,
written text and sound, as does a film.
TEXTS ARE PRODUCED FOR A PURPOSE

It may seem obvious, but it is important to remember that the texts
we are presented with in the media are mostly ‘constructions’ – that
is, representations, recreations or recounts of events. For example,
news stories or editorials are drafted, polished and edited;
advertisements are carefully designed to appeal to particular
groups; and seemingly spontaneous talkback radio segments are
often scripted. All media texts are created by individuals (or groups)
with particular views and purposes; sometimes those purposes
include the desire to persuade and/or entertain, in addition to (or in
place of) a desire to inform.
‘THE TRUTH’ – HANDLE WITH CARE

To evaluate a media text critically you need to think about the concept of ‘the truth’ and how it is handled by
argumentative authors. When a text purports to be truthful it becomes important to ask:
• Who has constructed it?
• How has it been constructed?
Part 1
• Why has it been constructed?

• For whom has it been constructed?
The exercises in this book will help you answer these challenging questions. They are designed to strengthen
your understanding of how the ‘truth’ can either be handled very carefully by media sources and authors, or
alternatively distorted or manipulated for other reasons.
Your turn
1.1 Consider these viewpoints – what is your opinion? Discuss your views as a class and come to some
conclusions as to what these statements reveal about this Area of Study.
There are Journalists are

multiple sides to Online news sources obliged to tell the
every story. are convenient and truth and report
reliable. objectively.
Television current The internet is an

Some lies are worse amazing source of
than others. affairs shows are
objective and factual. useful information.
2 ANALYSING AND PRESENTING ARGUMENT

Your turn
1.2 Answer the following questions in relation to the media.
a How truthful is the media? To what extent should we expect truth from the media?
b What media sources do you engage with? How truthful/reliable are they? How can you tell?
c How effectively do you think you question, or critically evaluate, what is presented by the media?
How important do you think it is to do this?
1.3 With a partner, discuss how arguments and language can be used to persuade. Reflect on how you
try to persuade people in particular contexts (e.g. your teacher to let you send text messages in class,
a parent to drive you to a friend’s party on a Friday night). What sorts of arguments would you use in
each context, for each audience? Identify some strategies you might use in each case.
INFORMATION FOR VCE STUDENTS

AREA OF STUDY 2: ANALYSING AND PRESENTING ARGUMENT
All areas of English ask you to explore how ideas, arguments and language are used in different texts and
contexts. In Area of Study 2, students focus on ‘the analysis and construction of texts that attempt to influence an
audience’ (Study Design, Area of Study 2, Unit 1). One way to do this is through the study of media texts and issues,
Part 1
in particular through print and online opinion sources, where strong arguments and language features can be
found on a broad range of topics.
This book will help you to improve your argument and language skills, specifically those related to the
following areas:
• achieve Outcome 2 in Units 1 to 4 of the 2016 VCE Study Design for English/EAL.
• successfully complete the ‘Analysing and Presenting Argument’ section of the end-of-year examination.
The Study Design states the following in relation to ‘Area of Study 2: Analysing and Presenting Argument’.
Unit 1, Outcome 2
On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse how argument and persuasive language can be
used to position audiences, and create their own texts intended to position audiences.
Unit 2, Outcome 2
On completion of this unit the student should be able to identify and analyse how argument and persuasive
language are used in text/s that attempt to influence an audience, and present a point of view.
Unit 3, Outcome 2
On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse and compare the use of argument and persuasive
language in texts that present a point of view on an issue currently debated in the media.
Unit 4, Outcome 2
On completion of this unit the student should be able to construct a sustained and reasoned point of view on an issue
currently debated in the media, and present this in oral form.
End-of-year English examination

In this part of the examination, entitled ‘Analysing and Presenting Argument’, the assessment is based on an
analysis of argument and the use of persuasive language in unseen text/s.

Outcomes: What am I really being asked to do?
Effectively, you are being asked to develop two distinct, but interconnected, skills:
• Analysis of argument and persuasive language: discussion of how language is used in persuasive text/s to
position audiences to share the author’s point of view (in writing, and possibly also orally)
• Presentation of an argument, using persuasive language: presentation of your own reasoned point of view on a
specified issue (both in writing and orally).
Any written or oral task that requires an analysis of how argument and persuasive language is used must:
• identify the ideas being presented and how these ideas are conveyed
• understand and analyse the structural features and conventions of specific text types
• identify and analyse how persuasive language features position audiences to share the point of view.
With any written or oral presentation of an argument,
you must demonstrate your knowledge and creative
control of the bullet points listed above by producing your
own reasoned perspective on an issue.
BEING ‘POSITIONED’
When we talk about being ‘positioned’, we refer to how
or from what perspective people are encouraged to ‘see’
the issue and argument at hand. Argumentative texts are
created for specific contexts, purposes and audiences,
Part 1
and a great deal of thought goes into what ideas,

strategies and language will best accommodate these
factors. As previously mentioned, to effectively analyse an argumentative text it is important to consider
how the arguments and language have been manipulated to best convince an audience of a point of view.
We must also consider the whole package; how all aspects of the text – argument, language, visual
features – work together in that context to achieve certain purposes. To establish how an audience is being
positioned, ask the following questions:
• Why has this text been constructed? What arguments/ideas are the authors advancing? (context, purpose)
• For whom has this text been constructed? (audience)
• What type of text is this? What types of structural and language features does it employ? (form, language)
Ask these questions when you read or view a text and you are already making an effective analysis.
Your turn
1.4 Match each term to its definition and explanation: purpose, context, audience, language, form.
a : The time, place and circumstances in which a text is produced.
Nothing exists in a vacuum – all texts are constructed in response to events and/or issues and
with an audience in mind. If you can pinpoint exactly when, where and why a text first appeared,
it will help to inform your analysis.
b : The reason a text is produced. While the primary aim might be
to influence an audience to accept an argument, the author may also want to shock, condemn, etc.
If you can identify these aims, you can better explain how the language positions an audience to
accept the arguments.
c : The group/s a text is designed for according to a range of
criteria such as age, gender, ethnicity; sometimes referred to as a ‘demographic’.

Your purpose is to identify (1) the group/s for whom the text was intended, (2) the group/s that
the text might appeal to, or offend/alienate and (3) how the author has made argument and
language choices to appeal to them.
d : The text genre (classification or type), as well as the structure,
shape or style of the text. If you can identify the type of text you are dealing with, you will
automatically be able to make certain assumptions about the arguments expressed and how
they are communicated.
e : The various forms of verbal, non-verbal and visual
communication at work; the words, phrases, symbols, gestures, etc. used to convey the
arguments. Good analysis comes from identifying the choices made or strategies employed by
authors and explaining how they are used to position audiences to accept the arguments.
1.5 Working with a partner, take it in turns to explain from memory the important information in pink text
in activity 1.4.
1.6 Study this text from the ABC and answer these questions.
a Would you say the primary purpose of this text is to persuade or inform? Why?
b Answer the bullet-point questions under the ‘Being positioned’ heading to help you analyse the text
more closely. Compare your responses with a partner’s.
c Overall, how is the target audience being positioned? (What is the audience encouraged to think in
relation to the issue? How are they encouraged to feel?)
Part 1
A LE SSON IN THE POWER OF WORDS (AND CENSORSHIP)
Words like ‘spastic’ and ‘gay’ are there’s plenty of choice language And on it went. Not bad.
bandied around the playground peppering the playground. A thoughtful little speech about
every day, but when my son I asked to have a look at what being respectful to others and
wanted to speak thoughtfully he’d written. It went something thinking about the real meaning
about the harm they can do, he like this: of words before you speak. He
wasn’t allowed. had been listening to my tireless
Words are powerful, lectures after all. I sent him off
more powerful than you to school.
We like to think it’s part of think. Every day, people Good news, he’d made it
what defines us as Australian. in our country, in our through round 1, then round 2.
Telling it like it is, calling a suburbs, in our streets Then this.
spade a spade. But something’s and in our homes are
Home he came, face full of
changed. getting smacked with the
dejection, proffering his dirty,
The realisation came to me rude and hurtful words.
dog-eared palm cards. I looked
a couple of weeks ago during But there’s one group
at them. One of his cards had
the annual NSW Public Primary of words that are even
been removed, number 3, and in
Schools’ public speaking worse than the mean
its place, a new one. In perfect
competition. Instead of waxing ones, these are words
teachers’ cursive writing, it read
lyrical about why dogs are better like retard, spastic, gay
something like this:
than cats or why homework and saying someone’s
should be banned, my youngest like a girl. Now, I’m not
There are some
son, all of 10, decided to speak saying I’ve never used
derogatory words which
about words. I was impressed. these words, I think we’re
are discriminatory
all guilty of this crime…
‘What do you want to say against people with
about words?’ I asked. Turns out

disabilities or individuals ‘spastic’ is spat at them. My son matter. He was taught not to
who have cultural wasn’t speaking their language tell it like it is: it’s hard to call a
differences or make in his speech – he was reporting spade a spade without being able
different lifestyle their language. That’s the key to use the word spade.
choices. We should not distinction that the Department His speech was changed
use these words. of Education appears to have because the Department said he
A meaningless sanitization. missed. Without being able to wouldn’t be put through to the
A speech scrubbed of its soul. give specific examples in the next level if the words were not
‘Retard’, ‘spastic’ and ‘gay’ speech, how would his peers expunged. He was taught that
[were] gone. A complaint had know what he was talking about? winning was more important
been made by someone from the By taking those words out, his than honest self-expression.
South Sydney Regional Office of speech wasn’t just censored – it
Words are powerful, he
the Department of Education. was rendered vague and beige.
was right, but so too is their
As if by wiping these words from Every year, children in elimination.
the palm cards, they would be primary schools around the
I walked through the
eliminated from the children’s country are expected to write
playground the other day, past a
vocabulary. and present prepared speeches.
group of boys playing handball.
The children use these This teaches them to speak
‘Retard!’ they shouted at each
words every day, hurling them honestly, clearly and express
other. They never got to hear that
at one another in frustration something meaningful to them.
speech. I can’t help but wonder
and anger. Most would struggle But my 10-year-old was taught
whether it might just have made
to understand the meaning of something entirely different. He
a difference.
the word ‘derogatory‘. But they was taught to say what adults
Part 1
all know exactly what is meant want to hear. He was taught that
Elizabeth Jackson, ABC,
when the word ‘retard’, ‘gay’ or authenticity and context doesn’t 19 September 2014
1.7 Consider the following examples of how context, purpose and audience work to affect an author’s
choices in terms of form and language. Complete the last row with your own example and suitable
details. Compare as a class and discuss the interplay between these different categories..
ISSUE AND CONTEXT PURPOSE AUDIENCE FORM AND LANGUAGE
Teenage parties after To alert the broader • Parents Formal letter from
official school functions; school community to • Teachers principal using school
in the wake of media risks and repercussions • Students letterhead, mailed to
reports detailing associated with parents; formal, clear
unsupervised parties in organising or hosting language with a polite but
neighbouring Melbourne student parties after insistent tone
suburbs official school functions
Public versus private To offer a newspaper’s • National Editorial in daily national

education; following opinion on the importance • Educators broadsheet newspaper
comments from the of avoiding simplistic • Parents The Australian; formal,
federal education divisions between the two • Policy makers sophisticated language;
minister about a need for systems, and to spark detailed paragraph
more accountability in further public debate structure; measured,
schools cautionary tone;
reasoned, evidence-based
arguments etc.

ISSUE AND CONTEXT PURPOSE AUDIENCE FORM AND LANGUAGE
PURPOSE
All texts are written for at least one purpose, but often a text has multiple aims. You have to establish what these
purposes are. In many cases, a text (particularly argumentative texts such as opinion pieces) will express a specific
point of view; one of the primary purposes of this type of text is to influence you to accept this view.
Part 1
Your turn
1.8 With a partner or as a whole class, list of as many purposes of texts as you can (e.g to warn,
rebuke, anger or inspire). Can you think of 50?
1.9 Match the following text types in the left column with the appropriate purpose on the right.
TEXT TYPE PURPOSE
political cartoon to voice a brief personal opinion on an issue in a public forum
tweet to distribute specific details on a particular topic to a local community
editorial to formally critique or analyse a specific text in writing
advertisement to humorously satirise or comment on the behaviour of politicians
local council brochure to present the publication’s point of view to the general public
analytical essay to influence a particular demographic to desire/purchase a product
1.10 Write a single succinct sentence to explain one possible purpose of each of the following text types.
a a television advertisement organised and funded by the federal government outlining the benefits
of changes to Australia’s climate change policy
b a leaflet or brochure from a private healthcare fund to its members detailing an increase in fees
c a letter to parents from a secondary school principal outlining the school’s position on ‘after parties’
d a speech by an Australian celebrity at a fundraising dinner for a children’s charity
e a regularly updated internet blog by an Egyptian resident during the most recent conflict in Egypt

AUDIENCE
The audience of a text is the group of people for whom it is intended. This group can also be referred to as the
intended audience, target audience, readership or demographic. It is possible to classify audiences in a number
of ways, which means that one person can belong to a number of demographics, depending upon how the audience
is categorised.
Identify the audience of a text as specifically as possible. This helps to show that you have a sound awareness of
the various groups for whom texts are produced, as well as the groups a text may offend or alienate. You will also
be able to analyse more accurately how an author has made argument and language choices that appeal to their
target audience, and how they have positioned this audience as a result of these choices.
Your turn
1.11 Listed below are some ‘demographic variables’, as they are sometimes known. Can you identify
others?
• age • social values and habits (political beliefs,
• gender hobbies, etc.)
• ethnic background (cultural heritage) • personality traits or characteristics
• religion
1.12 Who is the likely intended audience for each of the following texts? Be as specific as possible and refer
to multiple groups if necessary.
Part 1
TEXT AUDIENCE
The Age editorial on animal cruelty in horseracing
feature article on virginity in Dolly magazine
television advertisement for Nudie jeans
finance update on ABC News
monthly school newsletter from Laurel College
1.13 Visit the online opinion pages of The Age or Herald Sun. Choose an opinion piece that you feel appeals
to a specific audience. Explain to a partner or the class how the arguments and language are shaped
to appeal to this group.

FORM
When we talk about the form of a text, we are talking about the text type (e.g. editorial, speech), the structural
features of the text or the language used within the text itself. Structural features include the shape and format of a
text, that is, the way it looks and any aspects of its composition (e.g. the use of bold font, logos, layout). Naturally, the
form of a text is often dictated or shaped by its purpose/s and intended audience.
Your turn
Part 1
1.14 Work with a partner to study this website’s homepage.

a Identify as many different structural and design features as you can.
b Who is the target audience? How can you tell?
c How have the creators of this site sought to attract the audience you identified in question b
through the use of the features you outlined in question a? Write a paragraph to explain.
1.15 How would you represent your school online? In groups of three to four students, prepare a design
brief for a new website for your school. Answer the following questions in your brief, and be sure to
justify all of your choices.
• How would you format the page to reflect your school’s distinctive elements or characteristics?
• What colours, images, font types and language features would you use? Why?
• What particular features or functions would you give the site? Why?

Your turn
1.16 Study this letter and answer the
following questions.
a Analyse the form of the Ridgemount Secondary School
Excellence through application
text; identify the text type, 84 Maddox Drive
then identify and explain Ridgemount 3848
the purpose of as many

Dear Parents,
significant structural or
design elements (e.g. bold It has come to my attention that students are increasingly using personal entertainment
font) as you can. systems (namely smartphones and MP3 players) at inappropriate times during the school day.
b What are the key I am sure you will agree that there is a time and a place for the acceptable use of these devices.
To this end, I have decided that the school’s highly successful mobile phone policy will now
arguments? Explain how the
be expanded to include all forms of electronic devices.
language is tailored to these
arguments and the specific The following rules will now apply:
• All electronic devices are to be switched off and in lockers between 8.45 am
audience.
(commencement of Period 1) and 3.25 pm (end of Period 6), with the exception
c Do you think the writer of lunchtime.
chose the most appropriate • Any student found with an electronic device on their person during class time will be
given an automatic 30-minute detention and the device will be confiscated for 24 hours.
form for her purposes?
• Should you require that your son or daughter carry a mobile phone for emergency or
Explain your answer, medical reasons, a written and signed request must be supplied for approval.
proposing alternatives if
you feel there were better I hope you understand that these requirements aim to minimise disruption to your child’s
education, and I trust I will have your full cooperation and support. Please direct enquiries
options.
Part 1
to my secretary, Anne-Marie White: (03) 8910 4810.

d Complete this table by giving
Yours sincerely,
examples of the following
features in the letter and
outlining their impacts on Principal
the audience.
STRUCTURAL AND DESIGN FEATURES POSSIBLE IMPACTS ON THE AUDIENCE
pictorial support (logos, crests, photos, etc.)
clear paragraphing, bullet points, etc.
special design/fonts (such as bold) for

main idea/s
formal, sophisticated language
Your turn
1.17 Look back over Part 1 and create a set of coherent notes to summarise what is really important in this
Area of Study. Answer these questions:
a What am I really being asked to do?
b What should I focus on in order to achieve these outcomes?

2
Part
Formulating and
developing arguments
This chapter focuses on argument: what an argument is and how it is constructed. Good persuasive writing
usually shows a clear sense of what it wants to convey, as well as how it can best do so. A poorly articulated or
structured piece of writing will not win over many readers! Writers and speakers go to great lengths to craft
compelling content and logical structure to communicate their views and it is important for you to be able to
analyse these aspects of a persuasive text.
ISSUES AND EVENTS
Part 2
When analysing an argument of any kind, it is important to be able to distinguish between an event and an issue.
An event is something that happens, such as the ‘facts’ that are reported in news media. An issue can be defined as
a contentious or complex problem, situation or moral concern, and usually has its origins in an event. For example, a
group of malnourished horses discovered by the RSPCA at an abandoned farm constitutes an event, which might
be reported by the media. A group of animal activists might get together to protest the treatment of these horses,
arguing about the issues of neglect, cruelty and exploitation.
Many difficult issues (climate change or asylum seeker policy) have been with us for many years. However,
each time a new event occurs (such as the implementation, and subsequent repeal, of a carbon pollution reduction
scheme, or the arrival of a group of refugees by boat), a range of issues is stirred again, with new
arguments and debates surfacing as well as old ones being revived in a fresh context.
If a journalist only writes about the events that have
occurred, as we would expect from a balanced news
report, only the facts would be reported. However,
the issues that might be raised as a consequence of
these events are many and varied, as people debate
the issues they feel most strongly about. With the
issue of duty of care for asylum seekers, some
people feel that border protection issues outweigh
humanitarian concerns. Others will feel strongly
about an individual’s right to appropriate
medical treatment, regardless of their social
circumstance. It is these differences of opinion
that create issues, as there is often no clear-
cut solution that pleases everybody!
PART 2: FORMULATING AND DEVELOPING ARGUMENTS 11

Your turn
2.1 Decide whether each of the following is an issue or an event, then match each event to
its resulting issue.
ISSUE OR EVENT? CORRESPONDS TO …
a a principal suspends a cohort

of Year 12 students for poor
behaviour on ‘muck-up day’
b sexual discrimination in the

workplace
c the impact of technology on

language
d Beijing authorities shut down a

website that denounces the use of
police violence on Tibetan monks
e the morality of the death penalty
f an English teacher asks students

to write a poem in the language of
text messages
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g a woman is harassed after

requesting a salary increase
to match that of her male
colleagues
h human rights and freedom of

expression
i ‘mob mentality’ behaviour
j three Australian drug smugglers

are executed after a string of
unsuccessful appeals by lawyers
2.2 Choose two events from the table and identify another issue that might be debated as a result.
2.3 Now do the reverse: for two of the issues listed in activity 2.1, imagine one other specific event that
might have sparked the debate.
2.4 One event can spark any number of issues, and in a range of areas. Consider the following news
report, about the death of an Iranian asylum seeker who was being detained at Australia’s Manus
Island detention facility in 2014. Identify all of the facts that are reported objectively.
2.5 Despite being a news report, there are a number of aspects of the article that position readers to see
the event, and its related issues, from a particular perspective.
a What is the perspective? What does the article imply happened?
b How many persuasive features can you identify? How do they position readers to see the events in
a particular light?
c Do you think this is an example of balanced (fair) – or biased – reporting? Discuss as a class.

2.6 How many issues can you and a partner identify as emerging from an event like this? See if you can
come up with at least 10.
2.7 What is your opinion in relation to this event and some of the issues you identified in 2.6? Write three
to four sentences to explain your opinions. Alternatively, debate the issue with your classmates and
teacher, establishing clear arguments in support of your views.
A SY LUM SEEKER BR AIN DE AD AF TER CUT TURNED TO SEP TICAEMIA

IN ‘SHOCKING’ DE TENTION CONDITIONS
on August 27 to receive urgent Refugee advocates say in

medical treatment in a Brisbane the last few days ‘P block’ in the
hospital. Foxtrot compound where Hamid
He was suffering from and 140 others were living has
septicaemia developed from a been evacuated and closed.
cut in his foot, and was admitted ‘Hamid is a victim of the
into intensive care at the hospital shocking conditions and medical
where he suffered a heart attack. neglect on Manus Island. It is
Septicaemia occurs when inexcusable that he developed
disease-causing bacteria enters septicaemia on Manus Island,’
the bloodstream. Ian Rintoul, spokesperson for the
Part 2
Refugee Action Coalition, says.
Yesterday, the Immigration
Department and the hospital Mr Rintoul says the
informed Mr Kehazaei’s family Australian Government is
that he has been declared brain responsible for the conditions
dead. that led to Mr Kehazaei’s illness.
There are reports Hamid
Kehazaei, a 24-year-old Iranian The hospital told his family a ‘There are scores of
asylum seeker who had been legal guardian will be appointed infections on Manus Island, and
detained on Manus Island, has to make the decision about the many complaints of the lack
been declared ‘brain dead’ after withdrawal of life support. of medical attention. Asylum
suffering a heart attack. seekers on Manus Island are
Mr Kehazaei formed part of
often forced to walk through raw
According to the Refugee the first group of asylum seekers
sewage.’
Action Coalition, Hamid Kehazaei transferred to Manus Island by
was transferred to the mainland the then Labor Government in
SBS, 3 September 2014 (excerpt only)
September 2013.
Your turn
2.8 Select an event you have seen in the media recently that has sparked controversy.
a Give a brief, 2-minute presentation to your class about the event and the range of issues it raised.
Include your own opinion; argue your beliefs by incorporating some supporting explanations or
evidence.
b Which class member offered the strongest point of view? Why? What does this tell you about how
an argument can be constructed effectively and persuasively?

POINTS OF VIEW
Have you ever heard people arguing about any of the following topics?
• the place of religion in government schools • public versus private education
• the use of drugs in professional sport • marriage equality
Why do people argue about these topics? Usually because they have an opinion – or a point of view – to
share. A point of view is a broad opinion or belief on a topic, based on prior knowledge and experience. In a democratic
country such as Australia, people have a right to express their point of view freely. As a society, we frequently
debate serious issues of public concern in order to work through their complexities. They spark public debate
and do not have clear solutions. Usually, an issue has two or more contrasting points of view that can be strongly
supported; this is why easy solutions are not available. Debating an issue forces us to explain, and justify, the
reasons behind our beliefs. Sometimes we might even change our point of view as a result of a debate, when we
come to understand that we have not considered all the aspects of an issue.
Your turn
2.9 Think about the issue of drugs in professional sport. What different points of view do you often hear
expressed? Outline them and then compare with a partner or as a class.
2.10 Now, choose one of the other topics listed under ‘Points of view’ and consider which groups or
individuals would be likely to debate the topic, what their viewpoints might be and why they might hold
these views. Prepare a table with the following table column headings. Try to do this exercise with a
partner to get another point of view.
Part 2
WHO MIGHT DEBATE WHAT VIEWPOINT

TOPIC WHY?
THIS ISSUE? MIGHT THEY HOLD?
CONSIDERING DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES

When exploring an issue, consider the full range of views that might be expressed. By understanding another point
of view, you can strengthen your own argument. Similarly, if your knowledge of a particular issue is broad, you can
evaluate the quality of another person’s argument more effectively. Considering opposing viewpoints is a strategy
applied by students in debates; it can be extended to any situation in which you must develop your own viewpoint
and it will help you to construct your own reasoned response.
Your turn
2.11 Consider the issue of adults using a social media site such as Facebook at work. What is your
personal point of view in relation to this issue? Can you justify your position with reasons or
arguments? Write 2–3 sentences explaining your position.
2.12 Use this table to list all of the arguments for and against adults using social media sites during
work hours.
IN FAVOUR OF USE OF SOCIAL-MEDIA SITES AT WORK AGAINST USE OF SOCIAL-MEDIA SITES AT WORK

2.13 Now discuss activity 2.12 with a partner using these questions.
a What is your partner’s point of view, and what arguments can they use to support this view?
b Can you add any new arguments to your table as a result of your conversation? If so, why do you
think you were unable to identify these arguments yourself?
c Compare the relative quality of your (and your partner’s) various arguments. Do any of them need
to be altered, in terms of ideas or expression? If so, address this.
d Which side of the debate appears stronger at this point? Can you suggest any possible reasons why
this might be the case, in terms of audience?
e Look back at the sentences you wrote for activity 2.11. Has your viewpoint changed in any way?
What new knowledge now influences your point of view, if any? What benefit was there in sharing
information with others?
CONTENTIONS
What is the difference in meaning between a point of view and a contention? The two terms can be used
interchangeably but there is a difference. If a point of view is a broad opinion or belief, then a contention can be
seen as the central idea an author is trying to persuade an audience to accept in light of that broader view. If it is your
belief, for example, that culling sharks is wrong, your contention would be your key argument in support of this
view (e.g. shark culling is a cruel reflection of arrogant human authority over other species). In a more complex or
detailed argument, a contention will often be developed with a number of supporting arguments and appropriate
Part 2
explanations and evidence.
It is important to be able to identify a writer’s or speaker’s broad point of view as well as their more specific
contention and supporting arguments. If you can do this accurately you will find it easier to analyse the language
used and how the writer or speaker is trying to influence your opinion. You will be able to identify how and why
they use particular language features or strategies to support their arguments, or how they tailor and manipulate
their language to frame their arguments. You will also be able to construct your own points of view more
coherently and persuasively if you can break your opinion down its more specific components.
Your turn
2.14 Consider the example of shark culling. What is your broad opinion on this issue? Can you create a
specific contention in support of this view?
2.15 Think of two more contentions for each of the points of view in the table, and write them in the
appropriate space. An example for each contention has been done for you.
POINT OF
CONTENTION 1 CONTENTION 2 CONTENTION 3
VIEW
Shark Shark culling is a cruel

culling is reflection of arrogant
wrong. human authority over
other species.
Shark The risk to humans is

culling is too great to ignore the
necessary. threat posed by sharks.

2.16 Look at the following excerpt from a letter to the editor. Summarise the writer’s contention in one
sentence, in your own words, in the space provided.
How nice it must be for the privileged few to enjoy gourmet culinary delights while kicking
back in a comfy corporate box up high at the footy. Meanwhile, the sweaty masses (who
actually pay for their seats) are forced to endure lukewarm pies and soggy chips, and end
up missing half a quarter for the privilege. How about letting those of us in the ‘cheap’ seats
have access to the same food and service?
Contention:
2.17 Consider the following issues. For each, write one sentence to outline your broad point of view and one
sentence that provides a more specific contention in support of this viewpoint.
• same-sex relationship education in schools
• capital punishment in the twenty-first century
• no-homework policies in Victorian primary schools
2.18 Find a partner and, using your answers to activity 2.17, discuss your points of view. No doubt you will
have different broad opinions on at least one issue!
2.19 Choose one issue about which you and your partner have different points of view. Have a mini-debate
in which you both state your contention and give reasoned arguments and evidence to support it.
CREATING A STRONG CONTENTION

Part 2
A good contention is reasoned: factual, plausible or sensible and supported by strong logic. It should reveal an
author’s broad point of view but should also provide specific detail and a good level of insight with respect to the
issue at hand. Put simply, a good contention should make it clear that the author knows what they are talking about!
Your turn
2.20 Read the following contentions and explain exactly what is wrong with each one. The first one has
been done for you.
CONTENTION WHY IT IS INEFFECTIVE
Reality television is just 1 This is a simplistic value judgment, not grounded in fact or logic; the
trash (1) and if we keep language is also unsophisticated.
watching this rubbish we’ll 2 This is exaggeration and unrealistic speculation; again, it is not
lose all perspective and
based in fact or logic.
won’t know what’s real
and what’s not (2). They (3)
3 Not specific. It does not clearly state at whom the criticism is
should be offering us much
aimed, and it shows a lack of insight.
better shows than these. Overall, the contention is not clearly stated, the language lacks polish,
and no specific or workable alternatives are offered.
The issue of climate

change is a difficult and
controversial one. Some say
we must accept its existence
and act now; others feel
we should not make any
rash decisions with respect
to trading schemes or
emissions targets.

CONTENTION WHY IT IS INEFFECTIVE
The only way to deal with

these feral teenagers is
to lock them up. They are
all well overdue for some
tough love.
Greenies need to get a grip

and just accept the fact that
cars are here to stay.
Part 2
Your turn
2.21 Choose an issue that you feel strongly about. If you cannot think of one, choose from this list.
• euthanasia • Indigenous health and life expectancy
• scientific whaling • Year 12 ‘muck-up’ days and ‘schoolies’
• police corruption • genetically modified food
• renewable energy alternatives • freedom in the press
• live animal export trade
• graffiti in Melbourne’s laneways – art or
eyesore?
2.22 Research your issue on the internet using newspaper webpages and online research sites.
a Write a summary of the issue (about 100 words). Be sure to outline:
• the background – how did the issue arise or what events sparked it? What are people arguing
about?
• the major arguments on various sides of the debate
• your particular viewpoints and beliefs.
b Summarise your viewpoint in a one-sentence contention. Make sure it is reasoned: factual,
sensible and logical.
c Finally, list your major arguments and the specific evidence you could use to support each
argument.
d Present your issue to the class in the form of a brief oral presentation. Be sure to outline the
background, your contention, the key supporting arguments and evidence for each argument.

ARGUMENT STRUCTURE
When authors create persuasive texts they can use many different structural approaches. An effectively
structured point of view often has an introduction or orientation, with a clear contention and carefully sequenced
supporting arguments and evidence, as well as a conclusion. However, there are many other structural options
available to authors. They might open with an emotional appeal in order to ‘hook’ the audience before moving
on to a rational and evidence-based case with key arguments and evidence. Or, they might adopt a humorous or
satirical approach throughout, in order to critique or undermine an idea or person. Another author might choose
to bookend a piece with an anecdote designed to personalise the issue and make the facts more appealing. Good
writing is often about manipulating established conventions rather than following them unquestioningly.
Whatever the approach, there is often a multitude of purposes at play, beyond the obvious intention of
convincing the audience of the contention. An author might also desire to:
• embarrass a rival
• undermine an opposing viewpoint
• entertain the audience by making them laugh
• shock people into a new awareness of a particular problem
• infuriate or enrage readers about a particular event.
In order to achieve these different purposes, authors think carefully about the most effective structure for their
argument. Ideas and language do not exist separately – they mesh together to create an impact on audiences,
which can be manipulated with careful planning.
METHODS OF ARGUMENT
Part 2
There are two well-established methods of argument familiar to many

people accustomed to arguing a point of view: the Aristotelian and the
Rogerian models. Each offers an excellent method of structuring and
developing a viewpoint. They are not the only options, but they are
discussed here because they are commonly used.
The Aristotelian (classical) model

The classical approach was devised by the Greek philosopher Aristotle.
His method is commonly used in persuasive argument. The Aristotelian
model relies on the use of ethos, logos and pathos appeals:
• ethos: an appeal that relies on the credibility or authority of the
writer/speaker
• logos: an appeal to logic, supported by valid and relevant evidence
• pathos: an appeal to emotions; motivating an audience through the
emotional quality of the language and ideas.
The Rogerian model

The Rogerian model is based on Carl Rogers’ work in psychology and uses the notion of consensus. When a writer
uses this approach, they find common ground with their audience and those who oppose their view. This fair-
minded approach presents a balanced exploration of all aspects of a debate and accepts that people may disagree
with elements of it. The Rogerian model is less argumentative than the classical model, but there are benefits to
pursuing a measured approach, particularly when it comes to sensitive debates, for example those around abortion
or sexuality.

The following table gives an overview of the structure of the Aristotelian and Rogerian models.
ARISTOTELIAN (CLASSICAL) ROGERIAN
Introduction – capture audience attention, introduce Introduction – state problem to be resolved, raise
issue possibility of positive change
Statement of background – supply context, give audience Summarise opposing views – neutrally state opposition’s
necessary backstory perspective; show non-judgmental fairness
Proposition – state contention (thesis), outline major Statement of understanding – accept that, at times,
points to follow opposing views are valid; show when, why
Proof – present reasons, supporting claims and Statement of position – state your personal position
evidence; explain and justify assumptions after consideration has been shown for opposing views
Refutation – anticipate and rebut opposing views; show Statement of contexts – explain when, why your position
thorough consideration of issue makes sense; acknowledge people won’t always agree
Conclusion – summarise most important points; make Statement of benefits – appeal to self-interest of
final appeal to audience’s values, emotions opponents by showing how they might benefit from your
position
Your turn
Part 2
2.23 Work with a partner. Take it in turns to speak about an issue of interest using both the Artistotelian
and the Rogerian methods of argument. Speak for 2–3 minutes, without substantial preparation.
a Which method was easier to follow? Why?
b How well did you perform overall? What does this suggest about the role of planning and research
in the development of an argument?
2.24 Jump ahead to Part 5 and read Chris Hey’s opinion piece ‘Who’s ready to help?’
a Identify some of the key stages of the Aristotelian model in this piece. Are they effective? Why?
Why not?
b Does any stage appear to be missing? Do you think the piece could have been improved if
they were included? Write another paragraph to insert into this piece that adds the missing
stage(s).
ARGUMENT DEVELOPMENT
The structure and development of a text is based upon the interplay of context, purpose, audience and
form. For example, a broadsheet newspaper editorial is built in an entirely different way to a website
advertisement for a product. The editorial would likely rely on a version of either the Aristotelian
or Rogerian models to uphold its newspaper’s reputation for intellectual rigour and journalistic
integrity. The website advertisement has far more creative flexibility in its online context and can be
constructed very differently.
Part of your work in this Area of Study involves carefully scrutinising the overall shape and
direction of an author’s argument, analysing how and why a text is structured as it is and how the
various arguments, stages or approaches work together to achieve a persuasive whole. The more you
consider how the various arguments and language features work together, the more coherent and
reasoned your analysis will be.

Consider this example of a web-based informercial selling gap-year opportunities, which illustrates how
argument and language features work together.
Contact us | About us | My Account

Incorporate an
GAP
introduction from the
Congratulations... ards your company that uses
on taking the first big step towerience!
Experience life-changing gap yea r exp flattery and exaggeration
Display images of happy to generate enthusiasm
young adults in exotic »Destinations »Volunteering »Work »Advice »Special Offers and motivation in
locations to appeal to Year potential new customers
12 students who are feeling
‘trapped’ by their studies
Include some ‘satisfied
customer’ testimony to
accompany these
photographs, to convince
the target audience of the
validity and benefits of
Trust me guys – this is the BEST decision you will ever make. Just do it. the product from the
Make an appeal to a sense Simone, 19 – gap year success story perspective of people
of adventure to capitalise on similar to the target
this enthusiasm audience
Just imagine yourself cruising the streets of Bangkok in a
local tuk-tuk, then venturing out into the dense jungles of
Borneo to see some wondrous wildlife, before settling into Deepen this sense of
Contrast this possibility of your life-changing role as an aid worker in Nepal. dissastisfaction by
adventure with the focusing on the current
alternative option: another And what’s your alternative? Another year of study, after the
most gruelling year of study you’ve experienced to date? challenges young people
dreary year chained to your face in the job market.
Another winter of work at your desk, spent surfing the internet
desk at university, after an
Part 2
and scanning the Facebook pages of those friends who took Use economic data to
exhausting Year 12 VCE deepen the sense of
the gap year plunge and are living it up in the tropics?
experience concern or anxiety about
The ABS has released its annual youth unemployment update,
and it’s not looking good. There has been a spike in the overall the future
Strategically follow this with unemployment rate, and an increase also in casual rates,
more expert testimony from meaning that more employers are choosing to hedge their
a satisfied customer talking bets when it comes to offering security to inexperienced
about how their gap year younger employees… Close with a number of
made them more tempting hyperlinks,
P
SIGN U
employable. This alleviates a which use imperatives –
potential client’s After my volunteer work in Burma, finding temp ‘Click here’, ‘Sign up
unemployment concerns work as a teacher’s aide back home became a
breeze – suddenly I was more employable, NOW ! NOW’, ‘Take the plunge’ –
and sells the travel product to capitalise on all of the
thanks to the gap year adventure!
as a ‘solution’ to joblessness strategies outlined above
Your turn
2.25 Work with a partner. Imagine you have started a business tutoring Year 12 English students and
you want to design a web-based infomercial. Create an overview of your argument and language
approach. Aim for six to eight stages or features and use language – including visual elements – in a
range of ways to achieve your aims. Think about the order and sequence.
2.26 Re-read Elizabeth Jackson’s opinion piece ‘A lesson in the power of words (and censorship)’ in Part 1
and then answer these questions.
a Why do you think Jackson uses the words ‘spastic’ and ‘gay’ in the opening sentence?
b How does the central anecdote involving her son help Jackson create a more persuasive point of
view? Would this piece have been as effective without this detail?
c Jackson also includes some contrasting ‘evidence’ – an extract from her son’s speech, and later,
a paraphrased version of the teacher’s feedback. Why do you think she includes both of these
‘voices’, and how do they contrast? What is the overall intention here?

3
Part
Persuasive language
METALANGUAGE – A LANGUAGE ABOUT LANGUAGE
To analyse arguments in texts, we use specific terms that explain how authors attempt to achieve their purposes.
These terms are known as metalanguage. In this Area of Study, metalanguage refers to any terms that help
to explain the language choices, features or strategies employed by authors to communicate ideas and present
arguments. For example, any nouns used to identify such choices or strategies – such as exaggeration or
euphemism – can be called metalanguage.
In this context, the word language is used in a very broad sense to include the following terms:
• verbal language: the use of words, in either written or spoken form.
Part 3
• non-verbal language: language that communicates without words, such as body language (facial expressions,
gestures), sound and music. This category includes visual language.
• visual language: includes images, colours, symbols, framing and camera angles.
People can be influenced by arguments and language in many ways. The following metalanguage glossary
table lists many of the terms you need to know, and they are explored in more detail later in Part 3. There is also an
extensive glossary at the back of the book. Familiarise yourself with these terms, so that you can more precisely
analyse how authors use arguments and language to position audiences. Aim to not only identify examples of these
language features, but to explain how they work in conjunction with an author’s arguments to persuade.
Note also that the right-hand column of the table offers only very generalised examples of the potential
purposes and impacts of each term – be sure to consider their specific purposes and impacts of each strategy, in the
context of the arguments presented.
Your turn
3.1 Work with a partner to test your knowledge of the metalanguage terms in
the following table.
3.2 Classify each of the metalanguage terms in the table as verbal, non-verbal
or visual language.
PART 3: PERSUASIVE LANGUAGE 21

METALANGUAGE GLOSSARY
METALANGUAGE EXAMPLES POSSIBLE PURPOSES AND IMPACTS/EFFECTS
adjective ‘a stirring speech’ • adds detail to make text more interesting –

describing word or ‘her perplexing approach’ provides description
phrase • can imply something positive or negative
alliteration and ‘Sydney’s slippery slide’ • adds emphasis, reinforces meaning

assonance (alliteration) • draws attention to key words or ideas
repetition of initial ‘the elite meet-and-greet’ • can create an emotive image
consonant sounds (assonance) • memorable
(alliteration) and vowel
sounds (assonance)
appeal ‘long-range weapons don’t • triggers an emotional response

attempt to persuade discriminate; we are all a target’ • evokes feelings of guilt, shame, concern, fear;
through emotional (appeal to security fears) or conversely of pride, honour, satisfaction, etc.
manipulation; targeting ‘Sadly, Aboriginal health and
particular interests or education are responsibilities we
concerns have still to address.’
(appeal to a sense of social justice)
attack ‘Her comments are little more • belittles opponent’s arguments, may lend
means of criticising or than adolescent gibberish.’ weight to author’s arguments
opposing an individual (mudslinging, ridicule) • can help author argue from position of authority
Part 3
or idea ‘Teachers must be held accountable • can offend or alienate audience if overdone
for these appalling literacy levels’
(scapegoating)
bias an advertisement for the federal • can strengthen argument if bias seems relevant
overt preference or Liberal Party announcing benefits and within context, and if author has some
sympathy for a particular of its changes to Australia’s authority
point of view workplace legislation • can undermine argument if disproportionate to
an opinion piece critiquing context
Australia’s involvement in Iraq
written by an aid volunteer
cliché ‘a gold medal performance by the • can sway audience by appealing to something
overused or hackneyed athletes’ with which they are familiar
phrase or opinion that ‘take a bow, West Coast Eagles’ • may make audience feel informed
shows a lack of original ‘world-class city’ • may alienate sophisticated audience
thought
colourful language ‘they are certainly up the creek now’ • can provide humour
vulgar or rude language; ‘Who gives a toss about the Queen • may offend a conservative audience
particularly unusual or anyway?’ • establishes informal register (friendly, one of
distinctive expressions ‘The whole policy is a dog’s us, on the level)
breakfast.’
connotation ‘The children were slaughtered as • encourages audience (either subtly or overtly) to
positive/negative they slept.’ accept an implication
implications, pejorative ‘Her reckless behaviour was noted • seeks to persuade audience to share particular
phrases; ‘loaded’ by all.’ view of person or event
language that evokes an ‘the Anzac legend’
idea or feeling, either
positive or negative

METALANGUAGE EXAMPLES POSSIBLE PURPOSES AND IMPACTS/EFFECTS
design and structure a letter from a principal on formal • persuades through association
the appearance and school letterhead paper • establishes genre and context
layout of a text, including a website’s appearance; • can manipulate audience emotions
colour, font selection and consideration of how presentation
page presentation appeals to certain demographics
euphemism ‘pass away’ instead of ‘die’ • can ‘soften the blow’ of difficult information or
mild or vague expression ‘let go’ instead of ‘fired’ ideas
substituted for one • can alienate or confuse if overused or used
considered to be too cynically
harsh or direct
evidence ‘The city’s 1.5 million households • can lend argument weight and author credibility
material used in support used over 500 billion litres of water.’ if employed responsibly
of an argument: (statistics) • can undermine argument if used inappropriately
• facts and statistics ‘Wind power generates fewer or overused
• expert testimony pollutants than the burning of fossil
• research findings fuels.’ (fact)
• anecdotal evidence
exaggeration and ‘Every weekend the city is overrun • creates dramatic effect, often through imagery
hyperbole
Part 3
by beggars.’ • argues through employment of ‘shock tactics’;
overstatement used ‘We’re all being brainwashed by appeals to fear
to imply something is mind-numbing reality television • can undermine argument if taken too far
better, worse, more/less shows.’
important, etc.; hyperbole
is a deliberately extreme
form of exaggeration
used for dramatic effect
or humour
formal and informal ‘Success can be facilitated only • formal: creates sophisticated, authoritative
language through the employment of style, can lend weight to argument or sound
formal: more elaborate, sound educational principles in a pretentious out of context
precise, sophisticated; supportive learning environment.’ • informal: conversational, establishes a rapport
adhering to Standard (formal) with audience, humorous, appeals to sense of
Australian English ‘How do you like them apples?’ identity; can alienate if overused or used out of
informal: colloquial, (informal) context
everyday or slang terms ‘She’ll be right, mate’ (informal)
generalisation ‘This poor behaviour was modelled • seeks to validate a theory or contention,
broad statements by the parents, and it is therefore sometimes dubiously
inferred from specific ultimately a parental responsibility.’ • can be inferred to be evidence by a naive
cases ‘It is clear from the evidence at this audience
school that all girls benefit from • can detract from or undermine an argument if
single-sex VCE classes.’ unrealistic or illogical
gesture and body an interviewee folding arms • helps to convey arguments and moods
language and crossing legs to indicate • can influence a subject by making them feel
use of the body and face dissatisfaction either welcome or intimidated
to communicate meaning a speaker pointing to an idea on a
and positive or negative slide
sentiments

METALANGUAGE EXAMPLES POSSIBLE PURPOSES AND

IMPACTS/EFFECTS
humour ‘George Dubya Bush and his • often denigrates the subject
the quality of being amusing, through weapons of mass distraction’ • can provide a more engaging and
the use of puns, irony, sarcasm, ‘Clive Palmer and Joe Hockey friendly tone
satire, wit, etc. came out of the room looking like a • can sway an audience by having
couple of lovestruck Cheshire cats.’ them enter into the joke
imagery and figurative language ‘Australia is a fabric woven of many • paints ‘word picture’; helps to
use of images and metaphorical colours.’ (metaphor) illustrate point visually and by
(non-literal) language to illustrate ‘Citizenship was tossed around like comparison
points and make comparisons: confetti.’ (simile) • author may appear sophisticated,
similes, metaphors, etc. ‘Bodies were piled up in makeshift well spoken
roadside graves and in gutters.’ • can have an emotional impact
(imagery)
inclusive and exclusive language ‘We all have a role to play to • targets or accuses specific groups
use of personal pronouns (I, you, we, conserve our precious resources’ • can create a sense of solidarity
they, their, our, etc.) to either involve (inclusive – positive) • can create ‘us and them’ mentality
(inclusive) or distinguish/alienate ‘We are destroying this planet all by • can encourage a sense of
(exclusive) ourselves’ (inclusive – negative) responsibility
‘their poor policies’ (exclusive
Part 3
– alienating)
‘They had their own laws, their own
beliefs.’ (exclusive – distinguishing)
irony ‘The war on terror has produced • can engender support through use
humour found in contradictory a volatile environment more of humour
situations, often highlighted through susceptible to terrorist forces’ • can evoke emotional response
the use of sarcasm ‘In order to ensure our freedoms, • encourages audience to see flimsy
more control is required’ logic in situation or statement
logic ‘Research has proven that a prison • appeals to reason rather than
reason; the use of justifiable and term for a minor offence hampers emotions; therefore lends
valid arguments to sway an audience rehabilitation; therefore we must credibility
adopt a new approach, as locking • sound logic is hard to refute
people up simply does not work.’ • often offers proof and solutions
noun ‘an Australian legend ’ • adds detail to make text more

naming word or phrase ‘terrorist ’ versus ‘freedomfighter ’ specific – provides a label or name
• can imply something positive or
negative
repetition ‘We cannot imagine the horrors • memorable; enables a word or

reuse of words or phrases for effect they faced; cannot imagine the phrase to be held and recalled
strength of their spirit. And we • highlights main ideas
cannot allow it to happen again.’ • creates a hypnotic rhythm
Martin Luther King Jr’s famous
repetition of ‘I have a dream’ in his
1963 address

METALANGUAGE EXAMPLES POSSIBLE PURPOSES AND

IMPACTS/EFFECTS
rhetorical question ‘Did anyone listen to the garbage he • encourages audience to consider
question that does not require an was spouting? Was anyone awake? issue and accept author’s answer
answer because the answer is And do I really have to wait another • can imply that answer is obvious
obvious or implied four years for this baboon to leave and that anyone who disagrees is
office?’ foolish
‘And why do we do this? Because • can evoke emotional response
we are fair.’
sarcasm ‘Great – we can now look forward to • can provide humour

use of irony to mock or show longer ticket queues, sweatier rides • serves to mock or question the
contempt, by implying the opposite of and more train rage. I for one am logic of a situation; undermines its
what is actually said excited beyond belief.’ validity
‘Why stop at 30 students to a class • can backfire if used excessively or
when we can cram in at least in the wrong context
15 more?’
satire television programs such as The • makes a point in a humorous

use of either exaggeration or Simpsons and Shaun Micallef’s Mad fashion
caricature to expose, criticise or as Hell are satirical in nature • serves to mock or question a
ridicule political cartoons situation
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• can engender hostility in a sensitive
audience
sensationalism ‘Overseas fee-paying students • appeals to an audience’s curiosity

use of provocative language and stealing our university places!’ and prejudice
images, and exaggeration ‘Juvenile joyriders terrorise • reinforces stereotypes
community!’ • can offend or alienate critical
‘Miley Cyrus “exposed” again!’ audiences
sound and sound effects background music during a current • manipulates audience’s emotions
use of music, effects and other audio affairs report to create a particular • persuades through association (e.g.
to enhance a multimodal text mood; classical music = ‘sophisticated’)
song playing on a website to • sound effects can make a text seem
associate a product with a either more ‘realistic’ or more
particular mood or demographic exciting
verb ‘she sprayed her response at the • adds detail to make text more
‘doing’ word or phrase audience’ specific – provides the action
‘As he staggered down the aisle • can imply something positive or
it became clear – he had lost all negative
control.’
vocabulary choice ‘terrorist’ versus ‘freedom fighter’ • paints a subject in a flattering or

careful selection of particular ‘health issue’ versus ‘health crisis’ unflattering light
words – nouns, verbs and adjectives – • subtly or overtly supports a
with a positive or negative connotation particular point of view

VERBAL LANGUAGE
Verbal language refers to written or spoken words; persuasive verbal language refers to words designed to
influence and position audiences.
For example, imagine a mother speaks to an audience of parents and friends at school on the subject of theft.
Her aim is to convince her audience that urgent action is needed. She could appeal to the audience’s emotions
by offering anecdotes to elicit sympathy: ‘Two months ago, my daughter Alyssa lost her mobile phone – and more
disappointingly, a silver bracelet from her grandfather – to thieves at the school’. Once she has the audience’s sympathy,
she might use some inclusive language to position the audience to feel a sense of responsibility for addressing the
problem: ‘We can all do more to help our children protect their personal property’.
The words in bold are metalanguage terms that explain how the language is working and how it is used
persuasively. As you read Part 3, you will find explanations and activities on a range of verbal language strategies.
Remember, when you explore persuasive language, think in terms of how this language works in conjunction
with the author’s arguments. Ask yourself ‘Why has the author made these particular language choices and how
do they help convey the author’s broader purpose?’.
ADJECTIVES, NOUNS, VERBS – VOCABULARY CHOICE

The words and phrases that authors choose to name and describe things contribute significantly to how audiences
read their texts and interpret their arguments. The vocabulary choice affects how the audience is positioned.
Nouns, verbs and adjectives reveal an author’s opinion and are carefully selected to support the arguments
presented. Your job is to identify the revealing adjectives, nouns and verbs and to explain:
Part 3
• their implication, in terms of the author’s broader purpose

• how the choice complements or supports the argument.
Nouns provide us with names for things. Although we take many nouns for granted – Sydney Opera House,
Uluru, our own names – many are carefully chosen by
authors to send particular messages about the person,
object or idea being named. For example, there is a big
difference between the labels vandalism and street art, yet
both have been used in newspaper editorials to describe
the graffiti found in Melbourne’s laneways.
Adjectives are words and phrases that describe nouns.
They add extra meaning to words by telling us more about
the nouns (for example, first-time-ever event, shocking
details, deplorable situation, welcome change, foolish
person). A person’s choice of adjectives often reveals a great
deal about their underlying point of view, as these words
greatly colour or influence our understanding of the people,
places or objects (that is, nouns) being described.
Verbs are our ‘doing’ words – they tell us what is
happening in a sentence, such as ‘the child kicks a ball’.
This example is a relatively harmless one in terms of
conveying opinion, but once we start talking about how a
man staggers down an aisle, a woman sprays a barrage of
insults at an opponent or a politician squirms in the face of
tricky questions from a journalist, the language suddenly
becomes more revealing. What does each of the previous
phrases reveal to an audience about the subject and about
the author’s opinion of that subject?

Your turn
3.3 Highlight the adjectives in the following advertisement slogans.
a The big % off sale
b Make a smart move with Grace
c Discover new adventures along China’s ancient Silk Road
d Even more enchanting with Singapore Airlines’ Business Class
e Godzilla: experience a tremendously entertaining blockbuster
3.4 Look at the adjectives in italics and match each to an appropriate effect. Then indicate whether each
effect is positive (P) or negative (N). An example has been done for you.
ADJECTIVES EFFECT P/N
her radiant smile implies that the ideas are undeniable, valid P
a preposterous claim suggests intelligence, a keen intellect
a never-ending saga suggests beauty, happiness (radiant)
her rather bold move implies strength, fortitude
an unforgettable moment suggests importance, historical significance
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a typical blunder implies stupidity, irrelevance
his salient points suggests that the mistake has been made before (implies
incompetence)
the board’s irrefutable logic implies that the situation has been ongoing (too long)
3.5 Underline the adjectives in each sentence in the table. Indicate whether each one has a negative (N),
positive (P) or neutral (X) connotation. Where the adjective is positive or negative, write an adjective
that implies the opposite (antonym).
N/P/X ANTONYM
The ferocious sanctions by the US drove

Cuba into the arms of the USSR.
This fatuous gesture was met,

understandably, with much contempt.
All reports indicate that the move was a

deliberate one.
Although the results are staggering, there

are no doubt more surprises in store.
It was an illuminating performance, full

of the kind of magic missing in recent
theatrical productions.

3.6 Read the following excerpt from a review of The LEGO Movie. Identify any nouns, verbs or adjectives
that clearly establish the reviewer’s points of view. Then, replace each of those words with an antonym
to create a highly scathing review!
WARNER BROS’ THE LEGO MOVIE IS ONE OF THE BE ST IN 2014
A block-by-blockbuster? Now Just as the conceptual Better still, The LEGO

that is something that ain’t agility of The LEGO Movie never Movie sets a cracking pace with
been done before. Welcome ceases to astonish — it will take its humour, unleashing a non-
to The LEGO Movie, then. at least three viewings to fully stop barrage of clever one-liners
take in every last detail applied and dazzling sight gags that play
here — the visuals both innovate equally strongly across all age
While it is indeed the grand and resonate to heights only groups.
exercise in product placement previously scaled by Pixar. Which is not to say The LEGO
that the branded title suggests, The animaters have fused Movie doesn’t wear its shiny
there is no need for concern, nor cutting-edge CGI and traditional plastic heart out on its sleeve
any possibility of disappointment. stop-motion techniques to when circumstances dictate.
For this animated comedy piece together a complete LEGO Even the straight sentimental
also just happens to be one of the universe. scenes pay their way without
best movies of 2014. While we already know there cheapening the overall
isn’t much in the real world that experience.
Part 3
The anything-goes creative

ethos that is the very spirit of LEGO cannot replicate, The LEGO Unlike most animated
LEGO has applied to all elements Movie finds new and wondrous productions in the current
of this production. ways to make it all move. And climate, The LEGO Movie is not
While everything snaps make it all matter. here to temporarily impress.
together as a complete all-ages To cap it all off, the ingenious It is here to leave a lasting
offering should, the filmmakers plotting of The LEGO Movie is both impression.
are not afraid to seize a moment playfully subversive, and just
to quickly pull everything apart great fun to play around with. […] Herald Sun, 3 April 2014 (excerpt only)
and build something different.
CONNOTATION AND EUPHEMISM

A word’s literal definition is known as its denotation; many words also have an associated connotation. A
connotation gives a word an additional positive or negative meaning in addition to its literal one. Consider the
difference between the adjectives lazy and unmotivated; although each could be classified as having a negative
connotation, the former sounds harsher because it is more blunt.
Euphemisms are used by authors to ‘soften’ such confronting examples. If a person is described as ‘showing
promise’ or ‘possessing unrealised potential’, they could be trying to find a nice way of saying the person is lazy!
Your child is disorganised and disruptive. Your child is experiencing

some organisational and
behavioural challenges.

Your turn
3.7 Study the following vocabulary choices and discuss their different connotations with a partner. In each
case, which is more negative? Which ones are positive? Are any neutral?
NOUNS ADJECTIVES VERBS
• capital punishment or death by • sharp or cunning • petted or groped

firing squad
• hipster or fashion tragic • assured or cocksure • cut or slash (jobs)
• motorist or hoon • rampant or widespread • laughed or cackled
3.8 Connect each euphemism to its meaning. Then list some other euphemisms that you know and
include their direct meanings.
EUPHEMISM DIRECT MEANING OTHER EUPHEMISMS
generously proportioned lie
let go overweight
be economical with the truth fire an employee
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lively kill an animal
pass away disruptive
put down die
3.9 It’s time for some candid self-assessment. First, brainstorm a list of your worst traits as an English
student (e.g. lazy, disruptive, terrible with homework). Be honest! Then, imagine you are your English
teacher and that you are writing your English report.
a Write four or five sentences using polite and humorous euphemistic words and phrases to subtly
convey to your parents your worst traits without sounding harsh or offensive.
b Share your sentences with others in the class and get some feedback.
WAR EUPHEMISMS
War euphemisms are used by governments and media companies
keen to promote a particular image of conflict; soldiers may be
terrorists or freedom fighters, depending on who is reporting. The
deaths of civilians have, at times, been labelled collateral damage
by governments keen to minimise public outrage. In 2014, when
Australia was preparing to assist the US-led assault on ISIS in Iraq,
the Abbott Coalition Government was keen for the intervention to
be referred to as a mission rather than a war. This was a response
to the public’s heightened sensitivity and scepticism in relation to
war as a result of Australia’s earlier involvements in Iraq under
Prime Minister John Howard and US President George W Bush.

Your turn
3.10 The following opinion piece was published in The Age a number of years ago. However, its
observations on the reasons why governments and the military might wish to employ euphemisms
in the context of a war are still pertinent. Read the article carefully and complete the following
activities.
a Highlight the euphemisms identified by the writer David Campbell. List them and beside each
write the author’s blunt, plain-English equivalents. Compare your work as a class.
b According to Campbell, what are the connotations, or implications, of the word ‘surge’? How do
these connotations fit with the government’s broader purposes in this context?
c What does Campbell suggest is the implication of the euphemism ‘surgical strikes’? Do you
agree? Explain.
d Explain what Campbell means when he says ‘“Staying the course” is seen as a good thing,
although working out exactly what it means is as easy as nailing jelly to a wall.’ Do you think this
is an effective comparison? Work with a partner to devise two other creative comparisons that
achieve a similar impact.
e How would you describe Campbell’s tone? How does this fit with his broader purpose?
f As a class, discuss the following questions:
• Can you think of any other war euphemisms? If so, why are they used?
• Do you think war euphemisms are fair, or irresponsible and misleading?
• What sorts of problems might we face in the context of a war if we refused to use euphemisms
Part 3
of any kind? Would there be advantages?
THE WE A SEL WORDS OF WAR
The coalition of the willing is mind. That’s a place where it’s beamed into our lounge rooms
hiding behind euphemisms, necessary to hide from the truth. daily. We see the carnage and
writes David Campbell. Or conceal it from others. the broken bodies. We hear the
The word ‘torture’, for agonised cries of the wounded,
example, is to be avoided. It’s and the despairing wails of those
President George Bush’s latest been replaced by ‘extreme who have lost loved ones.
foray into Iraq is labelled a rendition’ and, even then, But the upper echelons of
‘surge’. Not a rush, a flood, that’s an unpleasant practice the military still try to sanitise
a storm or a torrent – to use perpetrated by others. It’s been the whole process, to scrub it
some possible synonyms – just contracted out. We wash our clean of any nasty connotations,
a surge. That tells us only one hands of it. to make it fit for human
thing: the military spin doctors consumption. Perhaps it helps
Soldiers kill people. That’s
are working overtime. them to live with the orders they
part of their job and they’re
‘Surge’ is such a harmless trained to do it if faced with an give.
little word. It suggests a enemy. War is bloody, brutal For example, dead soldiers
momentary increase, and not and unforgiving. It means death, are ‘non-operative personnel’.
a very big one. Just enough to trauma and terrible suffering And the innocents who die are
wipe out the bad guys. That’s the for army personnel and civilians ‘collateral damage’. This term is
message. alike. in the dictionary as ‘destruction
It takes us one further step into In today’s media-dominated or injury beyond that intended or
the strange world of the military world, the horrors of war are expected’. What, we might

wonder, is the intended or the city of Fallujah in Iraq. The They’re ‘soft targets’, the victims
expected level of collateral intense aerial bombardment of ‘incontinent ordinance’. The
damage resulting from Bush’s involved laser-guided military mind has a euphemism
surge? Is there someone in 220-kilogram bombs, Hellfire for every occasion.
the Pentagon who estimates missiles launched by Super Iraq has also spawned a
the likely number of civilian Cobra helicopters, and gunships political euphemism industry.
casualties? pounding trucks and cars with ‘Staying the course’ is seen as
No doubt a significant part of ‘the distinctive thump-thump’ of a good thing, although working
this surge will involve ‘surgical 105-millimetre howitzers. out exactly what it means is as
strikes’ aimed at ‘taking out’ What sort of mind creates easy as nailing jelly to a wall.
or ‘neutralising’ targets. That’s laser-guided 220-kilogram ‘Cutting and running’, however, is
a neat, clinical-sounding way bombs, ‘Hellfire’ missiles and definitely bad. That’s something
of describing the bombing and ‘Super Cobra’ helicopters and the coalition of the willing
shelling of enemy combatants. labels their combined use a would never do. At least, not in
We have the image of a surgeon ‘surgical strike’? those terms. In the end, troops
precisely manipulating a The civilians unlucky enough will merely be ‘strategically
scalpel to cut away diseased to be caught in that rain of death redeployed’.
flesh. But bombs and rockets are not to be thought of as people Or perhaps the process will
are not surgical. They kill who have been killed or injured. be described as ‘exfiltration’. It’s
indiscriminately. They shatter They’re not mothers and fathers already in the dictionary.
buildings and people. and children whose lives have
On May 1, 2004, an Age article been destroyed, leaving loved David Campbell, The Age,
gave an account of an attack on ones who can only mourn. No. 17 January 2007
Part 3
IMAGERY AND FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
Figurative language creates strong imagery; it is language that creates ‘word pictures’ and is used non-literally.
Metaphors, similes and analogies are all examples of a figurative approach. They can help to visually illustrate
arguments and give language depth and colour.
Consider this example: if you heard someone say ‘Barack Obama is a beacon of hope in a sea of political
mediocrity’ you wouldn’t think that he was literally a lamp or lighthouse – you would understand that the phrase
was being used metaphorically. It carries a positive connotation and suggests Obama is a man who stands out
when compared to his political contemporaries. (The observation is also a cliché, but more on that later!)
Your turn
3.11 Consider these definitions and examples of figurative language. Explain the impact of each example –
what is the author’s intention or purpose in each case?
DEFINITION EXAMPLE
Simile: A form of comparison where one thing is said The alliance was as fragile as a house of cards, and like
to be like or as another. lightning in both its intensity and brevity.
Metaphor: A form of comparison where one thing is Hird – former Essendon giant turned AFL pariah –
said to be another. declined to comment.

DEFINITION EXAMPLE
Analogy: A form of comparison where the features of The heart is like a city’s busiest intersection – roads
one thing are used to describe elements of the other. lead in and out, and all traffic passes through it at some
point.
3.12 Write sentences using figurative language to illustrate a distinguishing personal trait for a friend and a
favourite teacher. (Be nice!) How does each sentence colour our view of the person?
3.13 Read the following opinion piece about attending the 2014 AFL Grand Final at the MCG and identify any
similes, metaphors and analogies that you can find. In each case, write a sentence to explain how the
example contributes to the author’s contention, that ‘the Grand Final brings out the excited child in all
of us’.
CAN YOU FEEL THE LOV E TONIGHT?
I’ve never really liked sport. To

me it has always seemed like
an annoying distant relative – a
slightly frightening unknown
entity, completely foreign to my
own world of experience but
Part 3
always hovering, nonetheless, in

my peripheral vision. A buzzing
fly at a summer barbeque.
Annoyingly insistent.
And so imagine my surprise
when my girlfriend of three
months announced that she
had scored the two of us tickets We arrived two hours early, Christmas lunch into his insane
to the 2014 Grand Final at that for the ‘pre-show entertainment’. nephew, high on too much trifle
grand old dame of sporting By that of course they mean ‘the and an excess of unnecessary
celebrity, the MCG! Oh joy, oh soufflé that never rises’. It seems gifts. And the roar! Deafening
happy day! She knew me so well! a fixture of this sporting holy beyond belief, and really rather
I was like a kid in a candy store. grail that the pre-game schlock impressive. I looked around the
No, seriously. they pass off as goodtime gaiety great oval and saw approximately
is as uninspiring as week-old 100 000 kids having The Time
The day arrived and by 9am
bread. Yeesh. Somebody get me of Their Lives. Period. Suddenly
she was dressed resplendently
a drink. Oh great – light beer in a I felt like Scrooge for all of
in her baby poo brown and
plastic cup at $15 per thimbleful! my curmudgeonly griping and
old egg yolk yellow Hawthorn
The AFL Grand Final: the gift that cynicism. A real killjoy.
best. You’re a swan, I said, an
just keeps on giving. I leaned over to Mrs Scrooge
absolute swan, thinking this was
a compliment. How was I to know And then something and gave her a peck on the
Sydney was this year’s interstate happened. The bronzed gods cheek, thanked her for the
interloper?! Her face was a map ran into the colosseum, snaking wonderful gift, and tucked into
of something, but I couldn’t quite like two giant pythons through my lukewarm, overpriced pie
read it. Possibly occupied Gaza. the picture-perfect, painted-on with childish enthusiasm.
Anyway it didn’t look good. grass. That was the cue for the
crowd to morph from a slightly Max Downer, 2 October 2014
bemused great uncle asleep at

APPEALS
When authors make an appeal they target specific emotions (such as fear or compassion) or values (such as
patriotism). People will engage more closely with an argument that they can relate to. For example, parents with
school-age children who use public transport are likely to be affected emotionally by an editorial about increasing
numbers of assaults at train stations. Similarly, an opinion piece on the negative economic and social consequences
of full-time day care might target feelings of guilt in parents whose children use these services.
Authors can appeal to a broad range of emotions and values such as:
• fear • a sense of (in)security • group loyalty
• justice • tradition or custom • financial concerns
• compassion • patriotism or national pride • being ‘up-to-date’
• a sense of guilt or responsibility • family values • self-interest.
Your turn
3.14 Study this photograph illustrating the
work of aid organisation Médecins Sans
Frontières (Doctors Without Borders). To
what emotions or values does it appeal?
Which aspects of the photograph convey
Part 3
these appeals?
3.15 Work with a partner. Create phrases to
appeal to the emotions or values listed
under the ‘Appeals’ heading.
3.16 Sentences a to i appeal to a particular
human emotion or need. Choose a phrase from the options below
that matches that appeal and write the corresponding number in the space provided.
1 a sense of security 4 humanitarian instincts 7 financial concerns
2 a sense of justice 5 patriotism 8 fear
3 tradition/custom 6 being up-to-date 9 family values
a These men, who murdered two children in cold blood, have received four-year sentences
and will serve their time under minimum security. Pity the parents who must now endure the
thought of these assassins walking free before anyone can utter the words ‘bring back the
death penalty’.
b In the twenty-first century, Australia cannot justify a sense of detachment from world terrorism.
We are as much at risk of an attack as the US or any other nation. The question is: are we
prepared?
c Anyone who has written a blog or tweets occasionally would know just how nasty trolls can
be.
d Australian parents hoping to ‘purchase’ children from desperate developing-world surrogate
mothers should reconsider – this is the new frontier of human trafficking.
e The next time you consider allowing your child to travel by train after dark, consider this tragedy.
f The MCG is more than an oval; it’s a national institution, a shrine to our heroes of cricket and AFL.

g Banning Christmas carols in schools is the first step. Christmas itself will fall next.
h Families already shoulder too much debt; another interest rate rise will mean doomsday for
homeowners.
i This is a no-brainer. To keep a child in detention without access to education and counselling is
barbaric.
3.17 Consider the topics in this table. Decide which type of appeal is being made (see activity 3.16) and
identify the group from the list who would most likely be emotionally influenced or persuaded by the
appeal. Add other groups to each topic, if possible.
• compassionate citizens • single, young professionals • people with home loans
• parents working full-time • conservative parents • sports enthusiasts
TOPIC TYPE OF APPEAL TARGET GROUP/S
speech about interest

rates under a particular
political party
feature article about the

poor mental health of
refugees in a detention
centre
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opinion piece by a retired

teacher, criticising
declining behaviour
standards in schools
editorial in a tabloid
newspaper criticising
Australia’s disappointing
World Cup efforts
article in a glossy lifestyle

magazine detailing the
10 latest ‘must have’
gadgets
report outlining the

psychological risks of
full-time day care for
children
3.18 Read the following extract from an opinion piece in The Age, and consider the range of appeals made.
Identify specific verbal and visual aspects that appeal to particular emotions or values and explain
what these emotions/values are in each case. Compare your findings with a partner.

AUSTR ALIA’S A SY LUM SEEKER POLICY IS BRE AKING PEOPLE
In the land of the fair go, is short-sighted politicians with

this what Australians want? self-serving agendas […]
A recent letter by 15
doctors who have worked
The United Nations Refugee on Christmas Island points
Agency’s mid-year trends report, to ‘unethical conduct and
released on Friday, reveals more gross departures from
than 5.9 million people globally clinical standards’, and to
were forced to flee their homes decisions not always made
in the first half of this year. The in the best interests of a
UN High Commissioner for patient. The title of a recent
Refugees, Antonio Guterres, Amnesty International
said: ‘It is hard to see such report on its visit to the
numbers and not ask why so Papua New Guinea facility
many people are today becoming says it all: ‘This is breaking
refugees or internally displaced.’ people.’
But the same question is In opposition, the federal
unlikely to be asked in Australia, who want asylum boats to stop
Coalition talked endlessly about
where we rarely debate the also support the indefinite and
its plans to process asylum
broader question of global prolonged detention of children,
seekers in Nauru. The Coalition
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displacement or discuss the pregnant women and vulnerable
also promised that people
roots of a refugee’s experience. men or women? Do we really
would live in open camps, not
These are subjects our want to ‘break people’?
closed detention centres. Now
governments try to erase from in government, the Coalition I suspect that most
our thinking. detains even pregnant women Australians do not. So why are
By narrowing our view of in the stifling conditions of so many Australians quietly
a refugee’s experiences, the Nauru, flexing its muscles for an accepting the damage being done
protection needs of individuals Australian audience. to others in their name?
seeking Australia’s help can But in the land of the fair
more easily be ignored by go, is this really what most Susan Metcalfe, The Age,
Australians want? Do Australians 23 December 2013 (excerpt only)
3.19 Read the following speech by Australia’s Chief of Army, Lieutenant General David Morrison, which was
presented in an online video in the wake of allegations of misconduct demeaning to women by a group
of army officers and non-commissioned officers. If possible, search for and watch the original online
video. Then answer these questions.
a What is the issue here, and what is the speaker’s contention? Outline this contention in one clear
sentence.
b Why might Morrison have chosen to deliver the message in this video format? List as many
reasons as possible.
c In what ways is Morrison a potentially powerful ambassador for the issue?
d Identify as many specific appeals in the speech as you can – be sure to label each one appropriately
(e.g. ‘an appeal to sense of justice or fairness’). How does each appeal work to support the
contention? Try to be as specific as you can when you answer this question.

e What other strategies does Morrison use throughout the speech in order to support his argument
and convince the specific audience to support the cause? Either annotate the text with brief
explanations, or create a list of the strategies and their impacts in your book. Share your ideas as a
class.
The standard you walk past is the standard you accept

Earlier today I addressed the media and
through them the Australian public about
ongoing investigations into a group of officers
and NCOs whose conduct if proven has
not only brought the Australian Army into
disrepute, but has let down every one of you,
and all of those whose past service has won
the respect of our nation.
There are limits to how much I can tell you
because the investigations into this network by
both the New South Wales police and the ADF
Investigative Service are ongoing. But evidence
collected to date has identified a group of men
within our ranks who have allegedly produced
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highly inappropriate material demeaning

women and distributed it across the internet
and Defense’s email networks. If this is true
then the actions of these members is in direct
contravention to every value the Australian Army
stands for.
By now, I assume you know my attitude to this type of conduct. I have stated categorically many times
that the Army has to be an inclusive organisation in which every soldier, man and woman, is able to
reach their full potential and is encouraged to do so. Those who think that it is okay to behave in a way
that demeans or exploits their colleagues have no place in this Army. Our service has been engaged in
continuous operations since 1999, and in its longest war ever in Afghanistan. On all operations, female
soldiers and officers have proven themselves worthy of the best traditions of the Australian Army. They are
vital to us maintaining our capability now and into the future. If that does not suit you, then get out. You may
find another employer where your attitude and behaviour is acceptable, but I doubt it. The same goes for
those who think that toughness is built on humiliating others.
Every one of us is responsible for the culture and reputation of our army and the environment in which
we work. If you’ve become aware of any individual degrading another then show moral courage and take a
stand against it. No-one has ever explained to me how the exploitation or degradation of others enhances
capability or honours the traditions of the Australian Army. I will be ruthless in ridding the Army of people
who cannot live up to its values, and I need every one of you to support me in achieving this. The standard
you walk past is the standard you accept. That goes for all of us, but especially those who by their rank have
a leadership role.
If we are a great national institution, if we care about the legacy left to us by those who have served
before us, if we care about the legacy we leave to those who, in turn, will protect and secure Australia, then
it is up to us to make a difference. If you’re not up to it, find something else to do with your life. There is no
place for you amongst this band of brothers and sisters.
Chief of Army, Lieutenant General David Morrison

VERBAL ATTACKS AND RIDICULE
A verbal attack denigrates an individual, group or idea, usually in an attempt to strengthen the viewpoint of the
author. It may take the form of mudslinging, slander or scapegoating; or it might involve some humour, ridicule
or satire. Sometimes it will criticise specific actions or comments; at other times it might focus on a person’s
physical attributes. An attack can be highly persuasive, but if the accusations are unfounded or unfair the strategy
can backfire, making the author seem desperate or cruel. Judge this by considering the overall context and impact
of the attack being made, and the nature of the argument the attack is designed to support.
Your turn
3.20 Insert each term into the table to accompany its correct definition, and then provide an example of each.
• mudslinging • slander • scapegoating
false and defamatory verbal statement designed to damage a person’s

reputation
Example:
making someone bear the blame for for the wrongdoings or faults of others
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Example:
using insults and accusations, especially unjust ones, to damage a person’s

reputation
Example:
3.21 Indicate whether the following examples qualify as slander (S), mudslinging (M) or scapegoating (G).
a labelling someone a murderer when he has been charged with grievous bodily harm
b blaming teachers alone for the decline in the literacy standards of school students
c referring to a politician’s ‘ballooning weight’ in a report on their professional performance
d reporting (by a rival network) on a television celebrity’s criminal record of an old drink-driving
offence
e referring to a person as a terrorist before they have been convicted of a terrorism-related offence
f suggesting that a particular ethnic group was responsible for an outbreak of violence
3.22 Read the article from National Affairs Editor Tony Wright at The Age. It was written in response to
comments from Palmer United Party leader Clive Palmer about Tony Abbott’s Chief of Staff Peta
Credlin. Then answer the following questions.
a In the first few paragraphs Wright makes a number of observations that attack Palmer on grounds
of his appearance, his personal integrity, his professionalism and his wealth. How many examples
can you identify? What is the impact of each, given the context? Explain.
b How does the photograph, which appeared with the article, support the author’s view?

c How would you describe the author’s tone of voice in the first half of the piece and in the second
half? How do these tones, and the shift from one to the other, support Wright’s argument?
d Wright employs a number of short, sharp sentences in this piece to heighten the impact of his key
observations. Highlight them and explain how each one supports the overall argument.
e Explain in two or three sentences why Wright has chosen to attack Palmer and whether or not you
think these attacks are justified given the context and Palmer’s comments.
CLIV E PALMER BLOW S HIMSELF TO SMITHEREENS WITH SPITEFUL

AT TACK ON PE TA CREDLIN
It is tempting, from time to A mere chance meeting

time, to imagine Clive Palmer between Clive and Malcolm
becoming so puffed up with Turnbull over slow-cooked
self-importance that, like an duck and caramelised banana
over-inflated balloon at a party split with coconut ice-cream
or Monty Python’s corpulent evolved, among fantasists across
Mr Creosote taking the last the land, into the makings of a
dinner mint, he explodes, leadership crisis.
leaving nothing but the slightest Palmer, however, will
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evidence that he existed. struggle for dinner companions

Palmer blew into Canberra from now on, for he turns out
with all the makings of a merry to be what we all should have
prankster, sent to entertain us suspected.
and to fill the void left by the He’s a buffoon.
disappearance from politics of
How else might we explain
characters who could grab and
a parliamentarian who attacks
hold the public imagination.
a woman for wanting a baby; designed its paid parental
Why, here was a fellow who a woman, moreover, who has scheme ‘just so that the Prime
broke the mould, who spouted revealed the pain of discovering Minister’s chief-of-staff can
the very last thought that came that it might be beyond her receive a massive benefit when
into his head, even if that turned destiny and who has reached she gets pregnant’.
out to be the direct opposite for the hope of IVF, so far
of the thought before that, What a spiteful, ill-informed
unsuccessfully.
who turned up to Parliament (Abbott himself has been talking
We don’t need to explain it, and writing about his paid
House in an old Rolls Royce
or to add to the discomfort of parental scheme for years before
designed to ferry royalty and
Peta Credlin, even if she is more Ms Credlin became his chief of
when it broke down, rolled up
capable than most of looking staff) and plain sexist attack it
in a brand new Bentley (and on
after herself. As the Prime was, masquerading up as policy
Monday, squeezed himself into a
Minister’s chief of staff and in debate.
Mercedes gull-wing sports car).
a long career in the political
He snoozed through question And Palmer knew it, as his
firmament she’s seen and
time when he felt like attending following sly comment about
survived plenty of tough days and
and merrily caused the Prime Ms Credlin’s alleged role in
handed out some hard treatment
Minister sleepless nights with formulating government policy
herself to those around her.
threats to detonate the budget. made clear.
But Palmer deserved to be
Amusing old Clive. ‘She’s the top enchilada.
called out for his accusation
She’s the top dog - oh, I
that Tony Abbott’s government

shouldn’t say that. She’s the had the nerve to tweet ‘..I’ve Party’s over. Clive Palmer is a
boss. She’s chief of staff. She’s not intended to personally hot-air balloon.
the top person.’ attack Peta Credlin in my PPL And he’s popped. Blown
‘Top dog - oh, I shouldn’t say criticisms. However, no key himself to smithereens.
that.’ Charming. position in government should
escape scrutiny.’
And then, trying desperately Tony Wright, Sydney Morning Herald,
3 June 2014
to rescue his position, Clive
CLICHÉS
Clichés are overused or overly familiar expressions but they can be very persuasive. They work
best when an audience accepts their familiarity without question. However, they can alienate
an audience if used excessively or lazily. The persuasive power of a cliché will come down to its
context – there’s a time and a place for everything, and with a bit of elbow grease an author can bring
the house down. However, sometimes it can feel like the author is flogging a dead horse …
Your turn
3.23 Read the following excerpt from a tabloid newspaper editorial and answer the following questions.
a Identify any phrases that could be considered clichés. Why do you think there are so many?
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b What is the overall point of view of the editorial? How are the clichés used to support this view?
c To avoid sounding unoriginal, what might the editorial have said in place of the clichés?
COLD COMFORT
Spare a thought this winter for away because such centres spared this winter, might be
those individuals who will be are regularly overflowing with given the reprieve they deserve.
doing it tough, and sleeping desperate individuals just like However, unless those funds that
rough, exposed to the elements. him who have beaten him to the have been flagged for release
As you sit down as a family to punch. On nights like these, Mark are disseminated quickly and
a warming Masterchef meal of confides, he often finds it difficult without impediment, it might just
boeuf bourgignon, or perhaps to gather the strength to soldier be a case of too little too late. At
just a humble roast, count your on. So far he has, but it raises the end of the day, we are talking
blessings. And perhaps say a questions: How much longer about human lives; and while we
little prayer for Mark. should he be expected to endure? cannot put a price on that, money
Mark has been homeless Which setback will be the straw talks. It won’t be a panacea, but
now for 22 months; he has that breaks the camel’s back? every little bit counts.
already faced two harsh There is, perhaps, one dim […]
Melbourne winters this way, light at the end of the tunnel. We must continue to shine
doing everything within his The state government this a light on this unconscionable
power to avoid the nightmare week announced plans to invest darkness. We owe it to Mark to
of a frozen night outdoors with another 2.4 million dollars into do so.
only the wind for company. Some charitable programs across
nights he has managed to find Victoria, and it warms the heart editorial, The Melbourne Daily,
a bed in a temporary shelter; to think that Mark and many 20 December 2014 (excerpt only)
more often than not he is turned more just like him might be

3.24 With a partner, brainstorm as many clichés as you can in three minutes, then
compare your results as a class. If possible, identify a context in which each
cliché is commonly used. For example, ‘it was a gold-medal performance’ is
often heard in sport, whereas ‘at the end of the day’ is a
common political cliché.
EMOTIVE LANGUAGE
Emotive language is confronting language used to arouse
intense feelings, usually by appealing to an audience’s sense
of fear, guilt, disgust, shame, etc. As the name suggests,
emotive language targets a person’s emotions, not their
logic or sense of rationality.
Your turn
3.25 Consider the following newspaper headlines and how they are designed to target particular emotions.
Highlight the specific words that trigger an emotional response, and identify the emotions or feelings
targeted in each case.
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Convicted terrorists face

Baby Jesse starves, alone firing squad
TEEN ABORTION
Mother of four bashed, NIGHTMARE
left for dead
THE KILLING FIELDS: IRAQ

BLOODBATH
3.26 Explain why emotive language might be popular in newspaper headlines and certain television current
affairs programs.
3.27 Can an image use ‘emotive language’? Explain.
3.28 Read the following excerpt from a television news report and highlight the emotive words and phrases
employed by the journalist.
Local news reports made little of the vicious slaughter of over 2000 innocent Iraqi refugees,
the rapes of local women and children and the mass bonfires, lit in the village centre and
fuelled by naked and bloody human bodies. Today’s events cannot be summed up by the
empty rhetoric of terms like ‘genocide’ and ‘humanitarian disaster’; they are stomach-
churning in their ferocity.

3.29 Rewrite each neutral headline using more emotive language. An example has been done for you.
NEUTRAL EMOTIVE
Baghdad battles a daily Baghdad bloodbaths a daily nightmare for civilian innocents
occurrence for Iraqis
Woman experiences surgery

without anaesthetic
Violent storms and floods hit a

Japanese city centre
Teenager crashes father’s car
3.30 Read this news report from Britain’s The Guardian newspaper and complete the activities.
a Identify the most emotive word in the headline. What connotations does this word have?
b What is the impact of the emotive description of childhoods being ‘smashed to pieces’? Who might
this phrase resonate with?
c Pick out at least three other emotive moments in this piece. As a class, discuss what is emotive
about them and what impacts they might have on audiences.
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d Identify and explain at least three emotive aspects of the photograph.
SAMANTHA CAMERON TELL S OF ‘HARROWING STORIE S’ FROM

SY RIAN REFUGEE CHILDREN
Prime minister’s wife

says childhoods are being
‘smashed to pieces’ after visit
to refugee camp in Lebanon
Samantha Cameron has spoken

of the ‘harrowing stories’ she
heard from children who had fled
Syria as refugees.
She warned that childhoods
were ‘being smashed to pieces’
by the conflict after visiting
families now said to be living
in flimsy makeshift shelters in
Lebanon’s Bekaa valley.

Cameron, an ambassador for parents are being killed, more said her three-year-old son was
Save the Children, was helping innocent childhoods are being killed by a sniper’s bullet in front
to draw attention and funds to smashed to pieces.’ of her six other children as the
the charity’s work, as she met Those she talked to included family tried to escape Syria in a
mothers and children who had a 10-year-old girl who saw her car.
witnessed relatives dying in the mother dying after their home Justin Forsyth, chief
brutal civil war. was shelled. Her father is still executive of Save the Children,
‘As a mother, it is horrifying missing in Syria. who accompanied Cameron,
to hear the harrowing stories A 13-year-old girl spoke of said: ‘Without more help,
from the children I met today. her terror during shelling and and quickly, we risk losing a
No child should ever experience bombing, and helping to retrieve generation of Syria’s children.’
what they have,’ Cameron said her uncle’s body after he was
on Wednesday. ‘With every day shot dead in the street. A mother James Meikle, The Guardian,
that passes, more children and 28 March 2013
EXAGGERATION AND HYPERBOLE

Exaggeration is overstatement – language designed to make something appear bigger or smaller, better or worse
than it is. For example, if an author argues that ‘thousands’ of residents are up in arms about a new development
project when the real number is in the hundreds, the author is exaggerating, or overstating, the issue. Hyperbole
(from the Greek ‘excess’) is exaggeration taken to the extreme for dramatic effect; it is not meant to be taken
Part 3
literally. The statement ‘millions of teenagers are brainwashed by the idiot box every day’ is one example.
Hyperbole can sensationalise an issue. It adds drama or excitement, or a shocking or overhyped detail that
stirs enthusiasm but can also misrepresent the facts. Sometimes exaggeration is employed in a light-hearted
manner; at other times it is used cynically or seriously with the aim of stirring concern or outrage.
Your turn
3.31 What exaggerated or hyperbolic phrases do your parents, siblings or friends use day to day, and for
what purposes? Create a class list.
3.32 Review the online news pages of either The Age or the Herald Sun newspapers. Can you find any
exaggerated or hyperbolic headlines? Discuss their purpose and impact in the context of the overall
report or argument – in other words, why do you think the headline was used in each case?
3.33 Read Greg Barns’ commentary about scaremongering and hyperbole in the Australian media on the
issue of terrorism. Then complete the following activities.
a How many examples of incorrect reporting does Barns offer to support his point that ‘claims made
by Australian politicians, police and media in recent days about alleged terrorist activity might well
turn out to be plain wrong or at least over-cooked’? Why do you think he opens with this list?
b Barns’ contention is made clearest at the end of the article. Summarise it in one sentence in your
own words.
c What does Barns mean by ‘police, politicians and media work hand in glove to whip up hysteria’?
d Discuss the purpose or impact of each of the newspaper headlines mentioned by Barns. Then,
create more balanced or neutral headlines that are less inflammatory or divisive.

TERROR SCAREMONGERING THRE ATENS OUR DEMOCR ACY
Be aware, be very aware that

claims made by Australian
politicians, police and media
in recent days about alleged
terrorist activity might well turn
out to be plain wrong or at least
over-cooked. This is because
there is a history in this country
in recent years of hyperbole,
sensationalism, paranoia and
misconstruing of conversations
and activities when it comes
to reporting on and about
Australia’s anti-terror laws.
Back on November 8,
2005, when high profile raids
conducted in Melbourne by
police and ASIO resulted in the
arrest of several men alleged to
be involved in terrorist activity,
the then police commissioner
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Christine Nixon said: ‘We were
concerned that an attack was
imminent and we believe that we
have sufficient evidence to go
before the courts to show that.’ in which he is seen with a gun in the front of a high-rise building;
Lebanon in 2002, was touted by the photo had been taken when
There were media reports
some media outlets as evidence they were touring the Gold Coast.
about Melbourne landmarks such
of his terrorist intent. It was Then there was Jack Thomas.
as the Westgate Bridge, Flinders
nothing of the sort. Thomas was charged with
Street railway station and the
MCG being targets for terrorist The case against these men terrorism offences a decade ago,
activity by this group of men. was put by the prosecution on and there were claims that he
the basis that they did not have was Osama bin Laden’s ‘man in
The evidence in the lengthy
a terrorist target and that they Australia’. Thomas had met bin
court proceedings that
had no plan in place to commit Laden but he was certainly no
culminated in a Supreme Court
a terrorist act. Christine Nixon’s threat to anyone and charges
trial in 2008 showed nothing
phrase, ‘imminent terrorist against him were eventually
of the sort. The reference to
attack’, was simply wrong. dropped.
the Westgate Bridge had been
taken out of context and was While that case was being The claims made in the
completely innocent. There was played out in Melbourne, a past few days – that Parliament
simply no evidence of a plot to Brisbane newspaper made House was to be blown up, that
blow up Flinders Street station, the claim, in 2007, that the beheadings of Australian citizens
and the reference to the MCG man wrongfully accused of were planned – are nothing more
was in the context of a vague involvement in terrorism activity, than allegations. Prime Minister
conversation between two of the Dr Mohamed Haneef, had planned Tony Abbott and Opposition
accused. to blow up a Gold Coast high-rise Leader Bill Shorten should not
building. The claim was absurd. assume everything they are told
A photograph of one of the
The ‘evidence’ included a photo of by police and ASIO is proven
accused, wearing battle fatigues,
Haneef and family members out beyond reasonable doubt,

and they should be reminding the newspapers clearly suggest that exaggerated, is dangerous for
community that allegations are the allegations made by police our democracy.
not facts. are in fact proven. Individuals charged with
Instead, we have headlines Terrorism is understandably terrorism offences, or even
such as the front page of the an emotional subject and under suspicion of involvement
Herald Sun on Friday – ‘Evil terrorist attacks, when they in them, are entitled to the
within’ and ‘Beheading plot happen, are horrific for any presumption of innocence and a
smashed’, splashed over a community. But in Australia, the fair trial. The way our politicians,
photograph showing a man on way in which police, politicians police and media behave should
the ground in hand cuffs. The and media work hand in glove reflect those fundamental rights.
Age was no better, with ‘Terror to whip up hysteria by making
Australis’ and ‘Beheading plot claims which often turn Greg Barns, The Age,
foiled’ on its front page. Both out to be untrue or grossly 22 September 2014
GENERALISATIONS
Generalisations work in a similar way to exaggeration. A generalisation is a broad assumption based on limited
information; in other words, a small set of data or findings is applied to a much broader context. As an example,
consider a journalist who uses the results of a survey from one co-ed school to make general assumptions about
the way girls in general learn in the presence of boys – is this responsible or reasonable reporting?
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The problem is that a generalisation is often not grounded in firm logic and cannot necessarily stand up to
careful scrutiny from thoughtful audience members. Further, generalisations sometimes rely on stereotypes –
that is, assumptions about the demographic in question which, again, may not ring true.
Your turn
3.34 Read the following extract from an opinion
piece on ‘Generation Y’, and answer these
questions.
a Who is the target audience? Be careful –
it might not be as obvious as it seems!
b Identify the range of generalisations that
the author makes about the demographic
in question. Are these generalisations fair?
Are they accurate? Explain.
c Can you see any stereotypes in this
extract? How many other stereotypes – of
any demographic or social group – can you
think of?
d Why do you think the author has
chosen to open this piece with these
generalisations? That is, what purpose
might these generalisations serve in
terms of the author’s broader argument?

Generation Y-should I care?
We should be worried about this generation. It has always to say otherwise. It is a generation of people who were
been given what it wants, particularly when it comes to not even born in 1991 when Australia faced its last really
digital gadgetry. It is a generation that does not even serious financial crisis. So now they expect this online
remember a world without such technological luxuries – world to treat them well, to do them favours, to bring them
Gen Ys have been raised in households with computers success, possibly even fame. And that means that they
and smartphones at every turn, so the benefits of the do not understand how to cope when it all goes horribly,
online world have been forever at their delicate fingertips. horribly wrong.
Their parents tell them they are special, perfect, unique
The Voice Online
little snowflakes and their teachers are all too scared
LOGIC AND EVIDENCE

An effective way to persuade an audience is to present a strong logical case – to establish an argument that is
both reasoned and plausible. Sensible people are more willing to accept a point of view if they can see and accept
the underlying logic. Conversely, when an argument appears flimsy, ill-conceived or irrational it is unlikely to be
accepted by discerning readers, even if there are other powerful language features at play. A reasoned argument
can be created by:
• carefully considering the topic or issue and all of the conflicting viewpoints to establish a sound contention
Part 3
• establishing a clear and appropriate structure for the argument
• communicating strong, logical arguments that are coherently linked
• providing valid, reliable evidence
• establishing causality where necessary.
It is important to be able to distinguish between arguments and evidence – arguments are the ideas, whereas
evidence is the information used to support the ideas. Reliable evidence is relevant, factually accurate and valid
within the context of the argument. It should come from a reputable source (e.g. Australian Bureau of Statistics or
CSIRO) if it is being appropriated. There are different types of evidence, which include research findings, anecdotal
evidence, facts and statistics, expert testimony, and they can have very different impacts.
EVIDENCE – WARNING!
Evidence can be very easily abused. Information that on the surface appears factual may instead have one or more
of these problems:
• be skewed in a particular direction/focused on particular details, to suit an agenda
• reflect an insufficient sample size (e.g. if a phone survey of 50 people is used to assess national voting intentions)
• have certain details deliberately omitted (left out)
• be used in a provocative or inflammatory way
• be used out of context.
This is why it is important to read texts critically and to select information carefully and responsibly when
constructing your own argument. Consider the evidence you are presented with and decide whether or not it
is reliable, valid and appropriate in that context. When presenting your own point of view, be sure that you use
reliable and valid sources. If you acknowledge your sources – either directly within the text or in a footnote – your
work will carry more weight. (See ‘Referencing’ in Part 7.) Finally, use your evidence wisely. That is, do not subject
your reader to an overdose of facts and figures, as this can detract from the argument.

Your turn
3.35 When confronted with evidence that could help you support an argument, what questions could you
ask that would help determine the evidence’s validity? Use the information previously provided.
3.36 Match the type of evidence to its appropriate definition.
TYPE DEFINITION
a facts and statistics (FS) collates (gathers) data through scientific study
b research findings (RF) uses a personal story or case study to illustrate a point
c expert testimony (ET) relies on precise, irrefutable truths and/or statistical data
d anecdotal evidence (AE) calls on people with special skills or knowledge in a field to offer sound
information
3.37 Label each of the following examples as one of the four types of evidence: FS, RF, ET, AE.
a Sixty-eight per cent of people surveyed felt a politician had been dishonest in the lead-up
to the election.
b Two weeks ago, a colleague was driving on the Monash Freeway . She was abused by a
motorcyclist, who yelled obscenities and accused her of cutting him off.
c The nutritionist Dr Fiona Stanley cites a balanced diet and regular exercise as the single most
Part 3
effective solution to soaring rates of childhood obesity.

d Cigarettes produce carcinogens, which damage the lungs, making it difficult for smokers to
breathe and increasing their risk of heart failure.
e Scientists at the Columbia Institute have established a clear link between diet and dementia.
f There are approximately 580 cases of testicular cancer reported in Australia each year; if these
cases are discovered early, 90 per cent of patients can be cured.
g My younger brother becomes agitated after he consumes fizzy soft drinks or junk food with
preservatives; he shouts, is aggressive and struggles to concentrate.
3.38 Consider this extract from the Queensland Government website. Carefully study the facts, statistics
and research findings from a number of recent reports into cyberbullying, then answer these
questions.
a Identify which of the details presented are facts, which are statistics and which are research
findings.
b Which particular facts, statistics or findings did you find most interesting or surprising? Why?
c Does the Queensland Government cite its sources?
Do you think the sources seem reliable in this context?

Young people and technology
Cyberbullying facts > the majority (83%) of
Research by the Australian Communications and Media victims and those who bullied
Authority (ACMA) shows young people use the web – and them knew each other in real life.
social media – a lot. For example: Most victims and those who bullied
also went to the same school, were the
> young people aged 14–17 had the highest rate of
same gender and described themselves as
internet use at June 2010, with 91% going online
a friend – not an acquaintance
weekly
> 25% of young people who cyberbullied targeted
> chatting to friends is the main reason 89% of
people they didn’t know
16–17 year olds use the internet. Social media is
also more popular among teenage girls > MSN, social networking, texting, email and chat were
the mediums most commonly used by young people
> more than two in three 14–17 year olds consider the
who cyberbullied.
internet to be either ‘very’ or ‘extremely’ important to
them How do young people feel about cyberbullying?
> by 16–17 years of age, more than 75% of teenagers Of young Australians aged 12 to 17:
consider a mobile phone to be ‘very’ or ‘extremely’
> just over one in two – 54% – strongly or somewhat
important to them.
agree they ‘worry about someone hacking into their
Research shows many of the same young people who page’ on a networking website
bully others offline, such as at school, are also the same
> 40% either strongly or somewhat agree they ‘worry
young people who bully others in cyberspace.
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about getting upsetting personal emails, comments or
How common is cyberbullying, and who does it chat messages’
affect? > 35% worry about what others know about them from
Australian researchers presented a conference paper, their social networking service page.
‘The prevalence of cyberbullying in Australia’, as part of SOURCES
an international conference on violence in schools earlier
* ACMA report ‘Australia in the digital economy: the shift
this year. More than 3000 students from Year 6 to Year 12
to the online environment’. Available on the Australian
across three Australian states shared their thoughts about
Government’s Cybersmart website.
bullying and cyberbullying in a questionnaire used for the
study. The research showed: ** ACMA report ‘Click and connect: Young Australians’
use of online social media’. Available on the Australian
> more students reported being victims of face-to-face
Government’s Cybersmart website.
bullying than cyberbullying in the last year (30.5%
compared to 14%). More than 7% of students reported *** Campbell, M.A., Spears, B., Slee, P., Kift, S., & Butler, D.
experiencing both forms of bullying (2011, April). ‘The prevalence of cyberbullying in Australia’.
5th World conference and IV Iberoamerican congress on
> age and gender differences, with more females (64%)
violence in school. Investigations, interventions, evaluations
reporting being cyber victims; and 14-year-olds most
and public policies. Mendoza, Argentina.
frequently reporting experiencing both forms of bullying
3.39 Consider this opinion piece from the ABC’s online comment site The Drum. Then, answer these
questions in discussion with a partner or small group.
a Do you feel the author establishes strong cause-and-effect relationships across the four steps
outlining the ‘Abbott Government’s rationale against taking dramatic action to combat climate
change’? Explain the logical progression to a partner.

b Carefully consider the application of this same logic to debate around Australia’s involvement in
the 2014 coalition against Islamic State. Do you feel this is a compelling logical case? Try to explain
your reasoning to a partner.
c Consider the author’s rebuttal of Prime Minister Abbott’s estimate of the financial cost of such
involvement. Is his logic compelling here? Explain.
d Identify all of the evidence used in support of the arguments posed. Does the author cite his
sources? Do you feel that this affects the persuasiveness of the opinion? Explain.
e How effective do you feel this argument is, overall? Write three or four sentences explaining your
view, using quotations from the article to justify your perspective. Debate the merits/ pitfalls of the
argument as a class.
Is the cost of our symbolism worth it?

By now the Abbott Government’s rationale against taking When compared against the United States’ forces,
dramatic action to combat climate change is familiar to Australia’s current contribution to the international
most Australians. Its logic follows four steps: coalition is largely symbolic. Whether IS is degraded,
1) Australia’s contribution is just a drop in the ocean; destroyed or continues to expand the territory under its
2) As such, any action Australia takes will largely control will not be significantly influenced by Australia’s
be symbolic; 3) As such, we can put to one side any current contribution. So, if we want to be pragmatic, like
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assessment of how serious the original threat is and in regards to climate change, we need to ask whether this
concentrate on whether we should make a symbolic symbolic gesture is worth it.
gesture to this global problem; 4) Hence, the choice Prime Minister Tony Abbott has speculated that the bill
becomes: what is going to be the economic cost to for Australia’s war against IS will come in at about $500
Australia for this merely symbolic gesture? million a year. This official figure will be much lower than the
When considering Australia’s contribution in the fight actual costs, as the added wear and tear on personnel and
against Islamic State, I would turn this argument around machines will not show up on balance sheets for a few years
on them. yet. Similarly, the costs associated with support staff here in
Australia will not be factored in, but [are] there all the same.
Australia’s deployment of up to eight fighter jets, four
support aircraft and 200 Special Forces is not sufficient to A second potential cost is that to Australia’s security.
make a strategic difference on the ground. So, like in the Opinion polling is showing that most Australians believe
climate change debate, we can put to one side arguments that our actions against IS are making us less secure.
about ‘per capita’ contributions or whether Australia is This might be right, but probably only marginally. The
‘punching above its weight’ and instead make a hardnosed major direct threat to Australia is not from the IS fighters
assessment of its physical effect. themselves. There are currently only an estimated
31 000 IS fighters that are battling on four main fronts as
dispersed as Damascus, Kobane, Mosul and Baghdad. The
idea that IS commanders could spare fighters to return
to Europe, North America or Asia to conduct terrorist
operations is unlikely.
If an attack occurs in Australia it will most likely be
from those that are finding it increasingly difficult to travel
to the Middle East. Frustrated that they can’t directly join
the fight, they may feel obliged to take violent action closer
to home. As such, it might be that Australia’s military
actions in the Middle East will make these individuals’

violent desires easier to self-rationalise, but in all likelihood Unlike climate change, Australia could make a
they would have found an excuse to carry them out significant contribution to the course of the war against IS.
anyway […] Hypothetically, if IS was as big a threat to Australia as the
There is, however, one significant difference between political hyperbole suggests, then the Government could
climate change and the fight against IS. That is, even if throw three regular brigades at IS, call up its reserves,
Australia was to cut its emissions to zero, it would not introduce conscription and raise Defence’s share of GDP to
significantly affect global temperatures. It would be a World War II levels.
positive symbolic gesture and show moral leadership, but However, this level of commitment to the war against
have no practical difference. In contrast, there is no reason IS is completely unrealistic. So, we are left with a simple
why the Abbott Government needs to keep Australia’s question: is half a billion dollars a year over an indefinite
contribution to the fight against IS at mere symbolic levels. period worth mere symbolism?
Adam Lockyer, The Drum (ABC), 17 October 2014
(excerpt only)
FORMAL AND INFORMAL ENGLISH

It is important to understand and be able to identify the basic difference between formal and informal English and
the ways in which the two registers can affect an audience.
FORMAL ENGLISH
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Formal English adheres to the conventions of Standard English and is appropriate in formal settings. Generally,
formal settings are situations in which we do not know the group or individual being addressed, or involve people
in some position of authority. When we use formal English, we generally pay attention to the rules of grammar and
spelling, and we avoid the use of slang (see ‘Informal English’), offensive words and contractions (such as can’t or
doesn’t). Formal English can be very persuasive, as it can imply intelligence or authority. It has a distancing effect in
that it makes the writer sound detached and therefore objective and rational. However, it can be off-putting if the
tone is too detached, patronising or arrogant.
INFORMAL ENGLISH
Informal English includes colloquial language, which we use in everyday situations with familiar people.
Colloquialisms are usually specific to a country or region (e.g. when describing a carbonated soft drink, some
countries use the term ‘pop’ or ‘soda’, while others use ‘fizzy drink’; here in Australia, we mostly say ‘soft drink’).
Also, colloquial English is not always grammatical because we do not have to worry about being misunderstood
when we are speaking to those with whom we are familiar. (You can say ‘Him and me are going to the beach’
without having your friends correct you!) Informal language can sound friendly and inclusive, but it can also
alienate or offend if used out of context.
Slang, which can be considered a sub-set of colloquial English, is reserved for the most familiar of people. It
is used only with our social peers, and includes words that are sometimes considered rude or offensive, or are
obscure to an outsider. Think, for example, of the language you use with your friends. Would you use the same
words and phrases with, say, your teacher? A clerk in a store? An employer?
YOLO Fair shake of the sauce

bottle, mate.
As always, the form the language takes is dictated by the context, purpose and audience. Formal and informal
English styles are not mutually exclusive, either; persuasive writing is sometimes a clever mix of formal
sophistication and informal moments. Commentators often blur the boundaries by mixing the two registers.

Your turn
3.40 Indicate whether the following situations would generally call for formal (F) or informal (I) English.
a an interview between a Year 6 student, his parents and the principal of a high school that the
student is hoping to attend
b a family dinner conversation among a mother, father and daughter on the topic of religion
c a study group involving several students from a high school chemistry class
d a phone call between a Year 10 student and a potential work experience placement provider
e a broadsheet editorial on the issue of global warming
f an email written by a university student on holiday to a close friend
g an SMS from a student to his mother requesting permission to stay at a friend’s house
h an expository essay written by a student on a Year 12 English text
HUMOUR
The use of humour can be an effective way of persuading an audience. It can have a ‘disarming’ effect, whereby
authors establish a relaxed, informal atmosphere in the hope of making an audience more receptive to their point
of view. For example, by satirising the behaviour of politicians in a humorous article, an author may be able to
establish a platform for the communication of more serious political content at the same time. Humorous texts often
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have a more serious subtext that the authors hope will be received along with the jokes and laughs.
The humour in a text may take the form of satire, parody, irony, sarcasm, puns, jokes or mild criticism.
Sometimes informal, colloquial or slang terms can establish a lighter tone and provide a few laughs while also
critiquing an aspect of society with language that an audience can relate to. The persuasive power of humour is a
highly subjective thing, though; what is funny to some might be offensive or snide to others.
Your turn
3.41 With a partner, define all of the humour terms shown in bold. Check those you are unsure of in a
dictionary or the glossary in this book.
3.42 Name at least three reasons why opinion writers might employ a mixture of formal and informal
language as a strategy in their writing.
3.43 Read the following column from Fairfax contributor Danny Katz, about illegal downloading. Consider
the informal language and humour employed, and the impacts of these strategies. Then answer these
questions.
a How many informal words can you find? How do these words contribute to Katz’s overall purposes?
b Identify some specific instances of humour, and label them according to the terms outlined in bold.
c What is the overall tone of the piece? Use more than one word to pinpoint it accurately.
d Do you find the article funny? Explain, with reference to the author’s language choices.
e To whom is this article most likely to appeal? Justify your response.

THE GUILT Y PLE A SURE – AND PAIN – OF ILLEGAL DOWNLOADS
Attn: HBO Accounts Dept. Then I visited a website presentation directed by Jean-
Please find enclosed a cheque called The Pirate Bay – I don’t Luc Godard.
for $28.98, which I think is a fair know why; I just had a nagging Also, the season came with
retail price for the 10 episodes of hunch there might be something a generous bonus extra: some
Game of Thrones Season 4 that to steal from there. I sailed my kind of malicious malware had
I downloaded illegally from the browser into a foreboding little encoded all my text with pop-up
internet. Sorry, but this was the cove and found Game of Thrones 4 spam ads, and now I don’t
only way I could watch your show, buried there between an episode know how to remove it. (Need
as I don’t have Foxtel, I can’t of Dragon Ball Z and a PBS doco a removalist? We offer a cost-
access HBO GO, and I refuse to called Natural Beekeeping Using effective service for residential and
wait months until it’s released Non-Disruptive Apiarian Methods. commercial jobs! Get a quote! Fully
on DVD while everyone else Avast ye, there be treasure insured!)
walks around with their smug a’plenty for a hornswagglin’ li’l
So I went on one more
faces, blabbing about the scene cockswain like me!
website called ExtraTorrent, but
where the guy got the sword So I downloaded it, sneakily, I couldn’t get anything extra,
through the back of his head and stealthily … sluggishly. It took 1½ my internet stopped working –
it came out his mouth. I hate nights. Then I sat down to watch downloading all those episodes
those spoiler people. They’re the first episode on my computer. had used up my entire broadband
everywhere. And it was good, it was very allowance for the month, and I
Believe me when I say this, entertaining, I loved how all the was only three days in.
characters spoke in an obscure
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but thievery does not come So not only have I enclosed a
naturally to me: I once stole a made-up Dothraki language,
cheque to pay for stealing your
Lion’s Club mint from a post until 10 minutes in, I realised I’d
show, I have also enclosed an
office counter charity box and downloaded the entire season
itemised invoice to cover Anti-
felt so bad about it, I put it back in Portuguese. Isso estava se
Malware software (AUD$29.95)
half an hour later and threw in a tornando ridiculo!!!
and a monthly broadband
Werther’s Original as a heartfelt So I went to a different upgrade from my telco (AUD$25),
gesture of my eternal shame. website called Kickass Torrents, incurred while stealing your
So when I first decided to and this one kicked ass. I show. My terms are strictly 14
steal your show, I was sick about downloaded the entire season in days.
it. I did it late at night so nobody about 1½ hours, then sat down
Muito obrigado,
was watching. I put Blu-Tack to watch the first episode on my
computer. And it was visually Danny Katz (Cat Flea Control
over my computer’s camera so
dynamic, the editing was hyper- is 100% non-toxic and safe for
the feds couldn’t spy on me, and
kinetic, until I realised I may have both adult cats and kittens! Free
I wore a balaclava so I couldn’t
downloaded it a bit too fast – shipping!)
be identified, and little balaclava
socks over each of my typing it was all weird and choppy,
like watching a PowerPoint Danny Katz, The Age, 12 July 2014
fingers.

INCLUSIVE AND EXCLUSIVE LANGUAGE
Inclusive language uses the personal pronouns we, our and us to imply collectivity or togetherness, which allows an
audience to feel involved by sharing a point of view. However, inclusive language can be used in both a positive and
a negative sense; for example, the phrase ‘we are all to blame here’ serves to attack the audience and targets a sense
of responsibility, whereas ‘this land is our land’ creates a positive mood, and aims to instil a sense of national pride.
Exclusive language usually aims to alienate or assign blame by creating distinct groups, or an ‘us and them’
mentality, with the use of the pronouns they, their and them. Consider the phrase ‘they are power hungry’: the word
‘they’ serves to single the group out as ‘other’. The rest of society is excused from these negative attributes. However,
exclusive language can sometimes distinguish rather than alienate a group – it is not always used negatively.
Your turn
3.44 The following speech was written by writer/comedian John Clarke (with Ross Stevenson) and delivered
in July 2000 by actor John Howard (no, not the former prime minister!) on a satirical ABC television
show called The Games. Written for an international audience in the lead-up to the 2000 Sydney
Olympics, the speech was an attempt to address the issue of Aboriginal reconciliation at a time when
then–prime minister John Howard had declined to utter a symbolic ‘sorry’ for past mistreatment of
Indigenous Australians. Consider Clarke’s significant employment of inclusive and exclusive language
and the impact of these choices, and then answer these questions:
a What is Clarke’s overall contention in this speech?
b What is Clarke’s overall tone? Use more than one word if necessary.
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c Explain how Clarke uses inclusive and exclusive language to position his audience. Refer to the
specific impact of each example but also how all of the examples contribute to the point of view.
d In what ways is the speech ironic? (Think about who wrote it, as well as who delivered it.)
e Find an example of figurative language in the speech and explain its impact.
f What other language features are at work here? How do they serve to position the audience?
‘JOHN HOWARD’ APOLOGISES

Good evening.
My name is John Howard and I’m speaking to you from Sydney, Australia, host-
city of the year 2000 Olympic Games. At this important time and in an atmosphere of
international goodwill and national pride, we here in Australia, all of us, would like to
make a statement before all nations.
Australia, like many countries in the New World, is intensely proud of what it has
achieved in the past 200 years. We are a vibrant and resourceful people. We share a
freedom born in the abundance of nature, the richness of the earth, the bounty of the
sea. We are the world’s biggest island. We have the world’s longest coastline. We have John Howard, the
more animal species than any other country. Two-thirds of the world’s birds species Australian actor who
are native to Australia. We are one of the few countries on earth with our own sky. We delivered this speech
on ABC television show,
are a fabric woven of many colours and it’s this that gives us our strength.
The Games
However, these achievements have come at a great cost.
We have been here for 200 years, but before that there was a people living here. For
over 40 000 years they lived in perfect balance with the land. There were many Aboriginal nations, just as there
were many Indian nations in North America and across Canada, as there were many Maori tribes in New Zealand,

and Incan and Mayan peoples in South America. These Indigenous Australians lived in areas as different from
one another as Scotland is from Ethiopia. They lived in an area the size of Western Europe. They didn’t even share a
common language. Yet, they had their own laws, their own beliefs, their own ways of understanding.
We destroyed this world.
We often didn’t mean to do it. Our forebears, fighting to establish themselves in
what they saw as a harsh environment, were creating a national economy. But
the Aboriginal world was decimated. A pattern of disease and dispossession was
established. Alcohol was introduced. Social and racial differences were allowed to
become fault-lines. Aboriginal families were broken up. Sadly, Aboriginal health
and education are responsibilities we have still yet to address successfully.
I speak for all Australians in expressing a profound sorrow to the Aboriginal
people. I am sorry. We are sorry.
Let the world know and understand that it is with this sorrow, that we as a
nation will grow and seek a better, a fairer and a wiser future.
John Clarke, the Australian
satirist who wrote this speech Thank you.
COMMON SPEECH DEVICES
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The verbal language strategies outlined below, some of which we have already discussed, often play an integral
role in spoken language. They are particularly effective ways to hold an audience’s attention, and speakers choose
to use them for a range of reasons, but often because they are strategies that demand either some level of personal
engagement from audience members themselves or a degree of critical thinking.
• exaggeration/hyperbole • repetition
• humour (such as irony, sarcasm, satire) • imagery
• inclusive and exclusive language • rhetorical questions
Your turn
3.45 Connect each of the devices on the left with an appropriate purpose on the right.
DEVICE PURPOSE
1 inclusive/exclusive to confront an audience with an idea or concept with which they are unlikely
personal pronouns to disagree, or to imply the answer
2 humour to create an ‘us and them’ mentality, to invite the audience to share the
speaker’s point of view
3 imagery to increase the impact and memorability of key terms and ideas
4 hyperbole to create a powerful, memorable picture of a concept or argument, which an

audience can more easily relate to
5 rhetorical question to ridicule or highlight weaknesses in an opponent’s arguments, or to engage

an audience by creating a relaxed environment
6 repetition to create a dramatic effect in a limited amount of time by overstating a fact or

piece of evidence

3.46 Use the numbers that accompany the devices in activity 3.45 to label each of the following examples.
a ‘As citizens, we all have a duty to respect and preserve our Indigenous heritage.’
b ‘And face it, you’d rather have him inside the tent pissing out, wouldn’t you, than the other way
around.’
c ‘The answer is accountability: government accountability, corporate accountability, public
accountability.’
d ‘Ladies and gentlemen, this is by far the most selfish and narrow-minded administration in
our history.’
e ‘Is this really the future that any of us envisaged for our children?’
f ‘The majestic wind turbines towered over the earth like benevolent robots, great white
ecodroids.’
3.47 Consider the following speech, which is one of the most famous ever written: US President Abraham
Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address. It was delivered during the American Civil War, at the dedication of the
Soldiers’ National Cemetery, in Pennsylvania, four and a half months after the Union army defeated
the Confederate army at the Battle of Gettysburg. It is only 10 sentences in length – but note how the
final sentence, which is very long and contains a number of connected clauses, enabled Lincoln to
achieve a powerfully persuasive climax.
Work in groups to make a list of all of the strategies employed and explain why the speech is
so effective. Consider the context in which it was delivered, as well as the audience for whom it was
crafted.
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The Gettysburg Address

Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought
forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in
Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men
are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing
whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and
so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great
battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a
portion of that field, as a final resting place for those
who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It
is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate – we
can not consecrate – we can not hallow – this ground.
The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here,
have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add
or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they
did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here
have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before
us – that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full
measure of devotion – that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain – that this nation,
under God, shall have a new birth of freedom – and that government of the people, by the people, for the
people, shall not perish from the earth.
Abraham Lincoln, 19 November 1863

Your turn
3.48 Now consider this more recent speech. On 13 February 2008, former prime minister Kevin Rudd
moved a motion of apology to the Indigenous Australian ‘Stolen Generations’, who in past decades had
been forcibly removed from the custody of their birth parents and placed in care. The apology was the
new government’s first order of business, and made Kevin Rudd the first prime minister to publicly
apologise to the Stolen Generations on behalf of the Australian people.
a This speech seems simple, but was it well-received at the time. As with the Gettysburg Address,
identify as many compelling strategies as you can, and explain why each one is effective.
b Explain the purpose and impact of the fact emphasised in the opening sentence. How does this set
the tone and sentiment for the entire speech?
c The prime minister mentioned a ‘blemished chapter in our nation’s history’, the need ‘to turn a new
page’ and later that ‘this new page in the history of our great continent can now be written’. What
is the connection between these observations and what strategy is employed here? What is the
impact of these observations?
d Find an example of an effective repetitive triplet or tricolon in this speech – where for dramatic
effect, a similar sentence structure and combination of words is employed three times in a row.
How is this strategy effective?
Apology to the Stolen Generations
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Today we honour the Indigenous peoples of this land, the oldest
continuing cultures in human history.
We reflect on their past mistreatment.
We reflect in particular on the mistreatment of those who were
Stolen Generations – this blemished chapter in our nation’s history.
The time has now come for the nation to turn a new page in
Australia’s history by righting the wrongs of the past and so
moving forward with confidence to the future.
We apologise for the laws and policies of successive
Parliaments and governments that have inflicted profound
grief, suffering and loss on these our fellow Australians.
We apologise especially for the removal of Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander children from their families,
their communities and their country.
For the pain, suffering and hurt of these Stolen
Generations, their descendants and for their families left
behind, we say sorry.
To the mothers and the fathers, the brothers
and the sisters, for the breaking up of families and
communities, we say sorry.
And for the indignity and degradation thus inflicted
on a proud people and a proud culture, we say sorry. We the
Parliament of Australia respectfully request that this apology
be received in the spirit in which it is offered as part of the Silvia, Louise and Marjorie holding a
healing of the nation. photograph of their parents as Prime Minister
Kevin Rudd (above) delivers the apology to
For the future we take heart; resolving that this new page the Stolen Generations at Parliament House,
in the history of our great continent can now be written. Canberra, on 13 February 2008.

We today take this first step by acknowledging the past and laying claim to a future that embraces all
Australians.
A future where this Parliament resolves that the injustices of the past must never, never happen again.
A future where we harness the determination of all Australians, Indigenous and non-Indigenous, to close
the gap that lies between us in life expectancy, educational achievement and economic opportunity.
A future where we embrace the possibility of new solutions to enduring problems where old approaches
have failed.
A future based on mutual respect, mutual resolve and mutual responsibility.
A future where all Australians, whatever their origins, are truly equal partners, with equal opportunities
and with an equal stake in shaping the next chapter in the history of this great country, Australia.
Prime Minister Kevin Rudd
NON-VERBAL LANGUAGE
When people use non-verbal language, they communicate by means other than words. These means include body
language (facial expressions, movement and gestures) and sound (music, sound effects), as well as any other form
of visual language.
Non-verbal language is common in non-print and multimodal texts such as websites, radio and television
programs, and advertisements, where static or moving images and audio tracks allow points of view to be
communicated using a number of different strategies. However, the influence of non-verbal and visual language
Part 3
in print texts is also significant; newspapers and magazines, for example, regularly use images that are carefully
selected for maximum persuasive effect.
BODY LANGUAGE
People can say a lot about what they
think and feel without uttering a
word. Our whole bodies indicate our
reactions to circumstances and convey
our opinions; at times we consciously
send these signals, and at other times
they are unintentional and instinctive.
The easiest way to analyse this non-
verbal aspect of persuasion is to
study it in context – watch individuals
communicate a message and consider
how they use their faces and bodies to President Barack Obama and and First Lady Michelle Obama take part in
support their view. Body language can a moment of silence at the White House on the eighth anniversary of 9/11
also be studied in static images. When
we consider people (subjects) in photographs and political cartoons, their relative sizes and their positions within
the frame, we are also considering body language. Photographers and cartoonists usually think carefully about
what their text’s composition says about this relationship between the people involved.
SOUND
This aspect of language includes sound effects and music. These sound forms can be used to persuade through a
process of association or via an emotional appeal. Sound effects are sometimes employed in multimodal texts such
as websites or television programs in order to imitate real-life noise and create an air of authenticity, or alternatively
to invoke a mood or atmosphere.

For example, in order to attract customers, the creators of a website for a health spa might choose to include
the sound of birds chirping or flowing water to associate their service with peace and tranquillity, or to appeal to a
customer’s desire to relax and escape the stress of city life. Think also about the sound of a cash register opening:
‘ker-ching’! Most of us associate this noise with money being spent, and this could be used either in a positive sense
to indicate a saving or negatively to imply a cost.
Music also has considerable persuasive power; advertising companies often spend large amounts of money
to purchase the rights to music tracks in the hope that their product will sell via association or by appealing to a
potential customer’s emotions or values. In this context, it is often very popular music that is sought, as this means
the advertised product has the potential to reach a wider audience.
Your turn
3.49 Brainstorm as many forms of body language as you can. Explain the ‘message’ that each form is capable
of communicating. Which of these forms can be considered rude or inappropriate? In what context/s?
3.50 What sorts of sound effects do you know of that are regularly used on television? Brainstorm a list
with a partner and share your findings with the whole class.
3.51 What songs have you heard used in television advertisements recently? Explain the idea or mood each
one could be associated with and/or to which emotions or values each one appeals.
3.52 As a class, brainstorm different examples of music being used to persuade or to support a point of
view in advertisements, on television programs or on websites. Explain the choices in terms of the
demographic/s being targeted, the associations and mood carried by each piece and the overall
intention behind each choice. Suggest other pieces of music that might have been used to support a
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similar and/or very different view.
VISUAL LANGUAGE
Visual language is any non-verbal language that makes use of images, symbols, colours or other design features. This
includes a huge range of text types, such as photographs, cartoons and illustrations, film footage and graphs (which we
will look at in Part 4), as well as aspects of design, such as font selection and colours.
Visual language can work in conjunction with verbal or non-verbal language (in the case of multimodal
texts such as websites and cartoons with captions) or by itself (such as in a series of photographs). Sometimes
visual language can have a subtle – almost subliminal – impact on an audience, and its significance can be easily
overlooked. At other times, the impact might be obvious. Authors of persuasive texts make just as careful visual
language choices as they do word choices in order to appeal to their audiences.
Australian of the Year winner for 2014 Adam Goodes,

with Prime Minister Tony Abbott

The analysis of visual language requires a different metalanguage and set of skills, as visual texts often
persuade through a process of association and by using the aid of symbols. The old adage ‘a picture is worth
a thousand words’ is a cliché for a reason – because it is true! Visual artists understand that size, framing,
colour, contrast and many other aspects of visual composition can communicate a range of ideas without
using a single word. Regardless of the text type, there are aspects of a visual text’s composition that you can
always consider:
• subjects and objects and their relative sizes
• foreground and background
• contrast and juxtaposition
• symbols
• colours
• framing
In addition to studying these aspects, ask the following
analytical questions:
• Context: What is the circumstance? What is the issue?
• Content: What is contained within the frame?
• Target: Who or what is the visual directed at? (A person? An institution?
An idea?)
• Style: How is the content presented and what mood is created as a result?
• Message: What is the artist’s overall view or contention?
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Your turn
3.53 Brainstorm all of the different visual text types that you see in your daily life. Which ones do you feel
have the biggest impact on you (i.e. are the most persuasive)? Why?
3.54 What is a symbol? How many symbols can you think of that are commonly used in media texts? List as
many as you can with a partner and discuss the significance and meaning of each one.
3.55 As a class, discuss the ways in which visual persuasive language can be used to persuade, and how
this differs from the strategies outlined in the section on verbal language (words).
3.56 Create a glossary in your notebook of all the visual metalanguage terms you have been introduced to
so far. Keep adding to this list throughout the year, and be sure to use these terms in your writing!
3.57 Consider the previous images of Tony Abbott and Adam Goodes. Analyse them by identifying and
explaining the impact of their key aspects on specific audiences. Ask the five analytical questions
outlined above in order to analyse each image specifically.
3.58 Choose a term from this list to identify the verbal strategy being employed in each of the examples
in the table. Use your own knowledge to consider some of the potential impacts of each strategy on
target audiences. The first one has been done as an example and each term can only be used once.
alliteration emotive language inclusive/exclusive language

anecdotal evidence evidence irony
attack exaggeration/hyperbole pun
cliché generalisation

EXAMPLE STRATEGY PURPOSES AND IMPACTS
Brisbane’s biggest blunder? alliteration Draws attention to the ‘mistake’, implies

problem is serious
As I left the train, three drug-

addled youths spat abuse at me
and threw bottles at the platform,
smashing glass and scaring a girl
half to death.
This man is a thug who seeks

only to glorify theft and anti-
social behaviour with his offensive
so-called ‘artwork’.
There’s a time and place for this

sort of thing.
The barbaric slaughter of these

innocent women and children …
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Only four in 10 smoke alarms
fitted in Melbourne homes are fully
operational.
Video games promote violence and

anti-social behaviour.
He’s got the Goodes!
We all play a role here: it is up to

every one of us to do our bit.
These supposed ‘tolerance’

marches have in fact fuelled
further racist incidents in the
community.
Every day in Australia, millions

of viewers are completely
brainwashed by manipulative
advertising.

3.59 Read the following three letters to the editor and consider the viewpoints being presented.
a Identify the contention of each letter.
b Identify each author’s key persuasive strategies and explain their specific impacts. In other words,
explain how each strategy supports the point of view by suggesting why this language was chosen
and how the choice is designed to support the broader argument.
c How does the visual material that accompanies Letter 1 position readers to support this particular
point of view? Make specific reference to the composition of the image (framing, symbolism, etc.)
as well as the writer’s arguments.
d Imagine you are a subeditor at the Melbourne Rag and have to incorporate some visual support
on the letters page. Working with a partner, decide on at least two appropriate images for each of
the other two letters. Try to identify specific aspects of each image that would work to support the
arguments being presented by each writer.
Letter 1
k (‘Schoolies week – rite of
Yesterday’s report on schoolies wee
ed that ‘only 10 000’ schoolies
passage or reckless neglect’) stat
res and that a ‘satisfyingly low’
were par tying on Gold Coast sho
e (13, apparently).
number of arrests had been mad
If these numbers are
satisfying to your newspaper,
Part 3
then I am well and truly out

of touch with society.
I shudder to think what
my 17-year-old daughter is
getting herself involved in
while she’s up there; ever
since she left I’ve heard
nothing but sickening
reports of violence, drug
abuse, vandalism and sexual
promiscuity.
The words ‘ecstasy’ and
‘cannabis’ have been bandied
about by your paper as
though no one actually knows
(or cares) what these deadly
substances do. Reports have
mentioned nothing of ethics,
expectations or decent behaviour.
back and watch, while
Is your paper really content to sit
r still-developing brains,
inexperienced children destroy thei
them to aspire to?
without offering any standards for
sick as the thought of my
Your apathy makes me almost as
drunken youth (or worse, a
daughter being manhandled by a
gh she has no right to say ‘stop’.
drunken adult) and feeling as thou
e Rag, 12 December 2014
Meryl Albain, Doncaster, Melbourn

Letter 2 Letter 3
So another teenager has been bashed in My somewhat anxious mother collected
Brisbane and remains in intensive care in the clippings from your letters page while I was in
Gold Coast Hospital. Schoolies week ends in Queensland last week during schoolies.
Queensland tomorrow, and not a moment too I can understand both her and your
soon. paper’s concern, but I would like to say that
Before you jump on your do-gooder, my experience was an entirely positive and
touchie-feelie bandwagon and tell me I’m out incident-free one.
of touch (that’s Meryl’s domain, letters, 12 Let’s consider the facts: 27 000 happy
December), let me get one thing straight: as students, 14 student arrests in total, with only
a father of four well-adjusted young adults I two of these being for drug-related incidents.
know all about kids wanting to unwind after
In contrast 72 adults, or ‘toolies’ as they
a stress-filled Year 12. However, I also know
have so eloquently been labelled, were arrested
what it means to set limits, to stand firm and to
for drunk or disorderly behaviour.
generally be a good parent.
Who is really at fault here? Yes, a small
If I had a dollar for every time I’d seen one
proportion of students will choose to drink to
of my kids’ schoolmates walk all over a mother
excess for this short period of time following a
or father who clearly had no clue about who
stressful school year. A far greater number of
was boss, I’d be on the Gold Coast foreshore
adults, however, seem to be content to do this
myself – in a million-dollar penthouse.
on a regular basis and for no apparent reason,
Part 3
My kids were all able to let their hair down often with very violent consequences.
after their Year 12 studies. One of them chose
What your letters pages have not touched
to do so at home, one of them on a friend’s
on is the good will and positive sentiments that
farm and two of them on our own glorious
oozed from the vast majority of young adults
Victorian coastline. In each case the kids were
who chose this destination for a well-earned
within arm’s length of one or both parents.
break.
There were no complaints either, because our
children knew what to expect and they knew I had the time of my life. I didn’t need drugs,
we would respect their right to some private, I didn’t hurt anyone and I would do it all over
responsible fun. again.
Wake up to yourself, Meryl: you let your Veronica Wills, Preston, Melbourne Rag,
21 December 2014
daughter loose on the toolies up north, and
you are the one who should have taught her all
about the ‘deadly’ drugs you seem to know so
little about yourself.
Your anger smacks of the sort of guilt
incompetent parents the nation over latch
onto in the absence of sound, firm boundaries.
Well, it’s too late now, I’m afraid. The horse has
bolted.
Nick Marks, Hawthorn, Melbourne Rag,
13 December 2014

Remember, there is more to analysing how language is used to persuade than simply identifying language
strategies or features. Show an understanding of the context and purpose of the text, as well as an ability to analyse
the way language is used in the context of the whole argument. This involves discussing the specific impacts of
individual language features on the argument in question, as well as the ways in which the range of persuasive
strategies contributes to the overall point of view being expressed.
Your turn
3.60 Based on your work in activity 3.59, write a paragraph on each of Letters 2 and 3. Discuss how some
of the persuasive strategies you have identified position the reader to share each of the points of view
presented. Some sample writing on Letter 1 has been provided as a guide. Note the following features
of this sample writing:
• commences with an overview of contention and tone
• identifies specific strategies at work and makes use of concise quotation to provide evidence of these
• explains the specific intended impact of each strategy under discussion
• identifies specific audience groups that are targeted by the author with this strategy
• uses linking words or phrases to establish connections between the sentences, strategies and
impacts – in other words, the writing shows how the various strategies work together to support
the argument.
Letter 1 response
Part 3
In an outraged voice, Meryl Albain writes to express disgust at what she sees as a passive
acceptance by her local newspaper of poor behaviour on the Gold Coast during ‘schoolies’
week. By opening with the fact that ‘10 000’ young people have congregated on the Gold Coast
and emphasising that the paper used the word ‘only’ to describe this seemingly large number,
Albain implies that it is the paper that is ‘out of touch’ with the public consensus, rather than
herself. Furthermore, by immediately following this point with the personal information about
her own daughter, in conjunction with some rather emotive appeals to a sense of concern in
other parents through confronting references to ‘violence, drug abuse, vandalism and sexual
promiscuity’, Albain puts a skewed emphasis on the potential problems of schoolies in a way that
positions parents to focus on the risks rather than the reality of low rates of violence. This works
to establish a sense of doubt in parents, and through contrast paints the newspaper as socially
reckless or immoral in its reporting.
Seeking to shame the paper’s journalists by attacking their supposedly irresponsible position
on the issue, Albain claims that their ‘apathy’ makes her feel ‘sick’. This emotive denigration is
designed to spark outrage in fellow readers of the paper who might have some reservations about
the week of revelry, particularly perhaps concerned parents, or older readers with little or no
connection to the event, and consolidates an overarching sense of disappointment in the paper’s
journalism …

4
Part
Persuasive texts
YOUR MEDIA CONSUMPTION
How much media do you consume? Think about your daily habits: how much time do you spend online? Reading
newspapers? Books? Watching DVDs or films? Listening to the radio or streaming audio online? Now think about
how much of that time is spent consuming persuasive media texts, such as advertisements, opinion pieces, essays,
etc. In other words, for how much of your day are you potentially being influenced or targeted by media texts that
encourage you to share particular arguments or ideas?
In this section, we identify and analyse many of the more persuasive or influential text types that we encounter
day-to-day. If you understand their various features and conventions, you will be able to better scrutinise their
persuasive purposes and adopt similar strategies in your own writing.
Part 4
MEDIA TEXTS
Media texts are our main source of information about the world. They come in a vast array of forms, but can be
broadly categorised as print, non-print or multimodal.
Print texts comprise print-only or print and visual images, such as letters to the editor, editorials, opinion
pieces, scripts for television or radio and transcripts of radio talkback programs.
Non-print texts include spoken or performed texts, such as speeches, dramatic performances or radio talkback
programs. These texts have no print or visual images.
Multimodal texts refer to texts that combine two or more modes of language:
• reading (includes viewing) • speaking
• writing (includes composing electronic texts) • listening.
Examples of multimodal texts include online advertisements or websites that combine digital images with text
and a soundtrack. Multimodal texts are common in our digital age. Advertisers, computer software developers and
internet users have taken advantage of using several different modes of text at once. What might be some of the
advantages of using a multimodal text to sell a product or communicate a message?
Your turn
4.1 Identify whether each of the following is an example of a print (P), non-print (NP) or multimodal (M) text.
MEDIA TEXT P / NP / M
letter to the editor about declining literacy standards
television advertisement for a fat-free ice cream
PART 4: PERSUASIVE TEXTS 63

MEDIA TEXT P / NP / M
ABC radio segment on Japanese scientific whaling
television news report on health benefits of dark chocolate
editorial in The Australian about the carbon tax
online film preview for latest Marvel film
political cartoon in a newspaper
Herald Sun homepage, with news stories, audio files, advertisements, etc.
transcript of Prime Minister Abbott’s speech to world leaders at NATO 2014
PRINT AND ONLINE MEDIA TEXTS

Print media texts, such as newspapers, are an important part of the Australian
media despite declining circulation in recent years. This decline doesn’t Interesting fact: The
necessarily mean there are fewer people consuming news media; more likely, it majority of Australia’s
reflects shifting news-reading habits and the rise of online news sources. You still newspapers are owned
by just two companies.
Part 4
need to be able to identify Australia’s key newspapers, the states in which they
are published and their publishers and owners. The more you are aware of who Do you know them?
owns what and the range of purposes behind the publication of each text, the
sharper your analysis of such texts will be.
This section considers some of the important features of the newspapers that are such a significant part
of Australia’s media and looks at how and why they are constructed as they are. Then we will look at the
range of text types within these newspapers.
Your turn
4.2 Research each newspaper to find out its state of publication. Does it have national distribution? Which
are owned by the same companies, and what are the names of those companies?
NEWSPAPER STATE-BASED OR NATIONAL OWNED BY?
The Australian
The West Australian
Herald Sun
The Age
The Saturday Paper
The Australian Financial Review
The Sunday Telegraph

NEWSPAPER STATE-BASED OR NATIONAL OWNED BY?
The Adelaide Advertiser
The Daily Telegraph
The Mercury
4.3 Research the companies that own most of Australia’s

newspapers. How many of their papers can you name? Ask
your teachers or parents whether they feel these companies
are biased towards a particular political perspective. Are their
responses consistent? What do the results suggest?
4.4 Who is the man in this photo? What do you know about him and
his role in the Australian media industry?
4.5 If the majority of Australia’s newspapers are owned by just one
or two companies, what implications might this have for the
information we receive? Is this a problem? Discuss.
4.6 Find the websites of the two daily Victorian newspapers and take
notes on the following details:
• website address (URL) • different text types in Opinion section
Part 4
• company that owns paper • three issues covered in Opinion section
• other papers owned by company • overall observations about layout and style
• snapshot of major stories on homepage • key similarities and differences (to other
• number of advertisements on homepage newspaper’s site)
• companies and products advertised
4.7 Write a summary of the major similarities and differences between the two websites in terms of
information presented, layout and design, types of advertisements and target audiences.
NEWSPAPER FEATURES
NEWSPAPER FORMATS – TABLOID AND BROADSHEET
Historically, there was an obvious physical distinction that could be made between tabloid and broadsheet
newspapers: tabloids were A3 in size when closed, and broadsheets were A2 in size. You may have seen a
frustrated commuter trying unsuccessfully to turn the pages of an unwieldy broadsheet – this is one of the reasons
The Age changed to a tabloid-sized format in 2013.
However, apart from physical differences, there are also firm distinctions between the two newspaper types
in terms of content and style. Tabloids are sometimes associated with a more populist approach to journalism.
Broadsheets tend to offer more in-depth coverage. Consider the following entry from the Wikipedia page on
broadsheet newspapers:
In some countries, especially Australia, Canada, the UK and the US, broadsheet newspapers are commonly
perceived to be more intellectual in content than their tabloid counterparts, using their greater size to examine
stories in more depth, while carrying less sensationalist and celebrity material.

However, all newspapers need high circulation rates to satisfy advertisers and shareholders, which means they
need as broad an audience as possible. Editorially, this can have a homogenising effect on the content, reducing
the differences between tabloid and broadsheet. Other independent print and online news companies have since
emerged to fill the gap by offering comprehensive and independent journalism that is sometimes less compromised
by such factors.
Your turn
4.8 Complete the following summaries of the traditional differences between tabloid and broadsheet
newspapers by inserting each key term into the correct space.
Tabloids (e.g. Herald Sun)

headlines objectivity line sensationalist emotional column inches
Tabloid newspapers are often more inclined to put a _____________________ or more populist slant on their
content, either by granting more _____________________ to celebrities or sports people alongside regular
news stories or by opting for dramatic, eye-catching _____________________ that aim to shock or provoke
an _____________________ response. Tabloid newspapers are also sometimes inclined to take a harder
_____________________ (point of view) on social issues and issues of law and order; at times these papers will
judge the actions of people or groups involved in more controversial issues (e.g. illicit drug use, vandalism) in a
way that oversteps the boundaries of _____________________.
Broadsheets (e.g. The Age)

Part 4
complex economic factors discerning comprehensive
When people read broadsheets, they expect to find detailed and _____________________ reportage on
serious social, political or economic issues and events. The language used is often more sophisticated or
_____________________ than that of a tabloid paper, and a broadsheet audience is perhaps more likely to be
described as critical, or _____________________. However, while many would argue that broadsheets offer a
more rigorous account of current affairs than their tabloid competitors, these companies are often still driven
by _____________________ and the interests and views of editors and owners.
NEWSPAPERS – OBJECTIVE OR BIASED?

Is the role of a newspaper to provide facts, opinions or both? When might this be a
problem? The Australian Journalists Association Code of Ethics states that journalists
should ‘report and interpret honestly’ and not ‘give distorting emphasis’. You may be
aware that people talk about the ‘politics’ of newspapers and media companies, or that
some of these companies sometimes seem to support one political, social or moral
perspective over another. These discussions suggest that the objectivity of the paper is
compromised, and that it exhibits bias.
Consider the difference between a fact (undisputed ‘truth’) and an opinion
(subjective belief); media texts, particularly news reports that aim to provide details of
specific events, will usually contain a number of facts that are checked for accuracy and
fairness. The aim is to maintain objectivity: to report the details of an incident without
offering editorial commentary or personal opinion. Sometimes, however, news reports
do include opinions, either from stakeholders or the journalists who have produced the
story. Sometimes these opinions are directly stated, and at other times they are implied
through careful argument structure, language choices and subtext. If an author
appears to be favouring one opinion over others, then the text becomes biased.

Bias is not always a bad thing – it depends on its purpose. Naturally, an opinion piece of any kind will exhibit
bias, as authors often intend to push one viewpoint over others. But news reports are technically not opinion
pieces – we expect to receive statements of fact, and therefore we must think carefully about the information we
are offered in such reports and judge accordingly. When writing about bias, it’s important to distinguish between
the noun (bias) and adjective (biased).
Your turn
4.9 Decide whether each of the following statements is a fact (F) or an opinion (O).
a The 2015 Mini Cooper S Coupe is a turbo-charged vehicle. ___________
b The new Mini Cooper is a streamlined and attractive car. ___________
c iPads are used extensively in many Australian high schools. ___________
d iPads are a distraction, not a learning tool. ___________
e A smartphone is a must-have accessory. ___________
f Drinking coffee in the evening is unwise. ___________
g Some energy drinks contain the stimulant guarana. ___________
4.10 Look at the following texts and scenarios. Circle Y if you think bias would be likely and N if you think
bias would be unlikely in each of the texts.
a A letter to the editor in The Age aiming to persuade readers that offshore processing of asylum
seekers is inhumane and a poor reflection on Australian culture. Y/N
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b An independently funded report for the government into the issue of police corruption. Y/N
c An ABC radio news bulletin reporting the results of a state election. Y/N
d An opinion piece written for the Entertainment section of The Age online by Richard Kingsmill,
Music Director at triple j, on the current state of live music in Australia. Y/N
e A student’s essay, which argues for the abolition of live animal exports on grounds of animal
cruelty. Y/N
4.11 Complete the following sentences, using either the noun or the adjective, as appropriate.
a There is considerable _________________________________ evident in the journalist’s comments.
b The journalist offered a disappointingly ___________________________________ version of events.
c The editorial outlines the detrimental effects of ___________________________ in print journalism.
d This report would be enjoyable to read if it were not so _____________________________________.
e People accuse The Australian of ___________________ reporting, but I think it’s an objective paper.
4.12 Read the following article from Australian online commentary site Crikey, and consider the author’s
observations in relation to newspaper bias in climate change reporting. Then answer these questions.
a Using the bullet points in the early section of the article and its details more broadly, write your
own definition, or list, of what is meant by ‘misleading reporting’.
b Consider Wendy Bacon’s analysis of News Limited’s carbon tax reporting: ‘This indicates a very
strong stance against the carbon policy adopted by the company that controls most Australian
metropolitan newspapers, and has 70% of Australian newspaper circulation.’ What does this
suggest about how news is presented in Australia? Do you think this is problematic? Explain.
c Re-read the quotation included towards the end from Rupert Murdoch (News Corp CEO), and
the information about News Corp’s endeavours to make their offices more ‘green’. How does this
evidence work to colour our perception of Murdoch and the reportage in his papers?

THE MURDOCH PAR ADOX: BIA S IN CLIMATE REPORTING
Research has found more Out of 40 mentions

than 80% of stories on of climate change on
climate change from selected Fox News, 37 were
US News Corp outlets are determined to be
misleading, or 93% of
‘misleading’ – and the
stories. The reporting
problem seems to extend to
in The Wall Street
Australia, writes ANU’s Simon
Journal (researchers
Copland. looked at the opinion
section) was slightly
more accurate;
New research out of the US
81% of stories were
has provided evidence of the
considered misleading.
‘misleading’ reporting of climate
Disparaging the basic
change by News Corporation.
fundamentals of the
The report Is News Corp. Failing
science was the most
Science, written by the Union of
common approach at
Concerned Scientists, looked Lachlan, Rupert and James Murdoch
both outlets.
into representations of climate
change at Fox News and The Wall This finding brings into
may have come up during Rupert
Part 4
Street Journal over a period of six stark reality the challenge

climate scientists and activists Murdoch’s recent Australian visit.
and 12 months respectively.
have when it comes to the issue In Robert Manne’s 2011
In their study, stories were
being reported in the media. Quarterly Essay, ‘Bad News:
investigated and rated ‘accurate’
Anecdotal evidence of misleading Rupert Murdoch’s Australian
or ‘misleading’. Misleading pieces
reporting on climate change and the Shaping of a Nation’, he
were defined as those that:
is common, but this report took aim at News Ltd’s reporting
• had a broad dismissal of provides evidence. It also shows on global warming. Manne’s
the scientific evidence that that climate change reporting research found The Australian
climate change is occurring goes beyond simply providing contained a high number of
and is largely due to human ‘equal sides’ to scientists and articles from those who denied
activities sceptics. What it shows is that the science of climate change,
• disparaged climate scientists at least when it comes to News while commentary from those
generally or specifically Corp, climate change is not even who had been published in
• disparaged or mocked framed as a 50–50 debate, but is academic journals on climate
climate science as a body of shaped by denying the existence science was rare […]
knowledge of the problem. Manne’s research was
• cherry-picked individual The report focuses on backed up in November 2011 by
facts or findings to question News Corp in the US, but has Wendy Bacon from the Centre
overall climate science ramifications in Australia. of Independent Journalism and
conclusions News Limited, the Australian the University of Technology
• engaged in debates or subsidiary of News Corporation, Sydney. Bacon reported that
conversations in which which has 70% of Australia’s News Ltd had presented highly
misleading claims drowned newspaper market share, has biased coverage of the federal
out accurate ones. been criticised for its reporting Government’s carbon pricing
on climate change. The subject package. She stated:

‘Negative coverage [of the These realities for News Corp The GEI website boasts that
carbon price] across News Ltd run counter to some of the public News Corp’s action on climate
newspapers far outweighed posturing of Rupert Murdoch […] change has seen the Carbon
positive coverage with 82% In 2007 Murdoch stated: Disclosure Project rank the
compared to 18% positive ‘Now, I realise we can’t take company in the top 5% of
articles. This indicates a very just one year in one city or even companies in the S&P 500 and
strong stance against the carbon one continent as proof that the top 10% in the Global 500 for
policy adopted by the company something unusual is happening. action on climate change.
that controls most Australian And I am no scientist. But there What this report shows
metropolitan newspapers, and are signs around the world, […] however, is that action within,
has 70% of Australian newspaper […] Climate change poses clear, and news coverage from the
circulation.’ catastrophic threats. We may company, are very different
Bacon’s research found that not agree on the extent, but we beasts.
this coverage was systematic certainly can’t afford the risk of
across News Ltd papers, with inaction.’ Simon Copland, 24 September 2012
The Daily Telegraph and Herald News Corp has also (excerpt only)
Sun being standouts. Bacon worked extensively to tackle
found Fairfax newspapers were climate change internally. The
more balanced, with 56% of company has set up a Global
their stories positive and 44% Energy Initiative to address the
negative. company’s carbon emissions.
Part 4
Influence of ownership
So, we know that the majority of Australia’s newspapers are owned by two companies. These companies, like all
businesses, are driven at least in part by economic factors. Sometimes this means that the stories reported and the
points of view expressed are subject to the scrutiny of company owners and newspaper editors, in light of their
personal bias as well as audience expectation. Some newspaper companies stress the importance of maintaining
editorial independence more than others; so remember that, at times, certain points of view are favoured over
others, even in supposedly objective reports.
Influence of advertising
Interesting fact:
Advertisers often pay enormous amounts of money to have their products promoted
the layout of
in media texts, and this is how media companies can make a profit. Naturally, a
advertisements is
bigger advertisement or one in a more prominent position (e.g. on the front or right-
often the first step in
hand page of a newspaper) is more expensive, so larger companies with substantial
the publication of a
advertising budgets, such as banks, car companies or multinational corporations,
newspaper.
can afford to splash out on prominent advertising spaces.

Demographics, target audiences
Collectively, the body of people who typically read certain newspapers, watch particular television shows, buy
certain magazines, visit favourite websites and listen to particular radio programs is what is known as a target
audience (demographic). We’ve established that many media companies are profit-driven, and that advertising
provides much of this profit and therefore shapes the initial stages of production. A media company aims to sell
as many copies of its publications as possible by appealing to a broad cross-section of demographics through a
number of different sections within the paper.
Your turn
4.13 Ask your parents about the newspapers that they prefer to read and the sections within those papers
that they find most appealing. What are their reasons for these preferences?
4.14 Watch one hour of television on a commercial network. Take note of the ads that appear in the breaks.
At which demographic are they targeted? Is there a link between this and the genre of the television
show into which the ads are inserted? What does this suggest to you about the nature of advertising?
4.15 Using the information in this section as well as your own knowledge, create a two-column table that
lists some of the traditional major differences between tabloid and broadsheet newspapers. Consider
form, language choices, target audience, purpose and content in your response.
4.16 Explain the difference between ‘bias’ and ‘biased’. Write sentences using both forms of the word to
indicate your personal view on the state of journalism in Australia.
4.17 In a coherent paragraph, summarise, in light of what you have read so far about media texts, how
Part 4
economic factors might influence the information offered by news companies. Then explain this
to a partner using these key terms: objectivity, bias, advertising, owners, point of view, audience
expectation.
4.18 Consider this range of Australian magazine publications. What do you know about each of them?
Identify the demographic/s to which each one seems to be appealing, and discuss how these appeals
are being made.

Headlines
The aim of a headline is to grab the attention of readers, and/or convey the main ideas of the story. To achieve
the former, journalists and subeditors, who are responsible for adjusting the material provided by journalists and
finalising how it will be presented, will sometimes resort to sensationalism, by focusing on a shocking or curious
aspect of the story that may or may not be an important point; in such instances a headline can be misleading.
Alternatively, some humorous puns, allusions or alliteration might be employed to arouse interest.
Your turn
4.19 Match the headline strategies of sensationalism, pun, allusion and alliteration with their appropriate
definitions.
a ____________________: repetition of an initial consonant sound in two or more words close

together, usually employed to enhance the rhythm of a written passage.
b ____________________: a play on words by using a word or phrase that has a double meaning;
most commonly employed as a form of humour.
c ____________________: placing the focus on a taboo or controversial aspect to make a story
appear more interesting, shocking or provocative than it actually is.
d ____________________: comparison of one thing to another from a different context, such as
comparing a modern-day person or event to a literary or historical event.
4.20 Identify examples of sensationalism, alliteration, pun or allusion in each of the following headlines.
The first one has been done as an example.
Part 4
a ‘Seen, but not Hird’ (report on James Hird’s initial silence about Essendon’s doping scandal)
____________________
a pun
b ‘Harry’s hot-tub high jinks’ (gossip column about a video of Harry Potter star Daniel Radcliffe
in a spa) ____________________
c ‘Bieber, Las Vegas’ (blog about a Las Vegas show by pop star Justin Bieber) ____________________
d ‘Alexander the Great’ (report on up-and-coming AFL star Alex Simms) ____________________
e ‘Obama opens fire in Afghanistan!’ (story about US President Barack Obama participating in rifle
range practice with troops at a military base in Afghanistan) ____________________
4.21 Study the following headlines and subheadings and answer these questions for each.
Who in his write mind? Hard line on soft drinks

Poet Geoff Purge turns 70 Coke gets canned from school tuck shops
Quoting reliable sorcerers

Halloween’s a hoot for these wicked
witches
a What do you think the story is about?

b What is the focus of the headline and subheading?
c Identify any techniques being employed (puns, alliteration, etc.) and explain their impact.
d Is the example neutral or biased? If biased, how does the language position the audience?

4.22 Write two opinionated headlines – one positive, one negative – for each of the following events.
Experiment with the techniques typical of newspaper headlines such as sensationalism, metaphor,
simile, alliteration/assonance, pun and satire.
• A survey reveals Australians have the highest rates of mobile phone use in the developed world.
• A 16-year-old girl wins the $25 000 ‘Fashions on the Field’ prize at the Melbourne Cup.
• A school announces a plan to notify parents of student absences via SMS.
• The Queen announces an upcoming visit to Australia.
• Your brother or sister washes the dishes for the first time in months.
TYPES OF TEXTS IN NEWSPAPERS

The following pages give an overview of potentially persuasive text types, starting with those that regularly
appear in print newspapers and their online counterparts. Remember: when we use the term text type, we are
referring to the form of the text, or the genre to which the text belongs. Genre is decided on the basis of the
features of the text. An overview of the features of each text type is provided.
1 News reports and articles

A journalist’s aim when compiling a news report is to communicate relevant facts about a ‘newsworthy’ event
in an objective or matter-of-fact voice, by answering the ‘5 Ws’ of journalism: who, what, when, where and why.
However, as we have already established, some news reports can be as opinionated as those texts designed
Part 4
primarily for persuasive purposes (e.g. opinion pieces).
SUMMARY OF FEATURES
News reports and articles will often have these features:
• be written by journalists to report on the important facts and details of a specific event
• adopt a matter-of-fact tone and a detached, objective voice (less so in tabloids)
• employ mostly formal language, with exceptions (e.g. ‘human interest’ reports are often informal)
• aim for objectivity – but not always! May subtly or overtly include opinion or support a viewpoint.
Your turn
4.23 Read the excerpts from two news articles reporting on the same event but for different newspapers
(one tabloid, one broadsheet). Then answer these questions.
a Look only at the headlines and photographs (with their captions). What similarities can you identify
in terms of how the two newspapers approach the event? Are there any obvious differences?
Discuss as a class.
b Which text seems more objective? What makes you say that? Discuss this as a class – how does
the more objective text achieve this?
c What other differences can you identify in terms of purpose and content? Pick out individual words
or particular strategies employed by each journalist to achieve their purposes.
d Why do you think the differences between these two texts exist, based on what you have learnt
about tabloid and broadsheet newspapers?

CYCLONE MARCIA: QUEENSL AND TOWNS FACE FLOODS
Ex-Cyclone Marcia is continuing

to spread misery, with some
Queensland communities now
flooding as others get on with
cleaning up the enormous damage
left by her ferocious winds.
The army will lend its
muscle to the vast recovery task
now underway in the hard-hit
communities of Yeppoon and Premier pledges to rebuild central Queensland
Rockhampton.
emergency services work out ‘Now, they’re going to go back
That help can’t come soon
where to focus their efforts. and look through all the research
enough with so many people,
During a press conference and try to work out how that
from pensioners to young
at Yepoon yesterday Premier happened so quickly.
families, struggling without roofs
over their heads and essential Annastacia Palaszczuk said the ‘But can I just assure everyone
services such as power and speed the storm had picked up – the Bureau of Meteorology, they
sewerage cut. The army has jumping from a category 1 to 5 – did everything that they possibly
already done some preliminary had taken everyone, including could,’ she said.
work, flying over the battered the Bureau of Meteorology by But the drama caused by the
communities to take aerial surprise. former cyclone is not over yet […]
Part 4
pictures of the damage and help ‘They’d never seen this in their
lifetime, so this was a rare event. news.com, 22 February 2015,
(excerpt only)
CYCLONE MARCIA DAMAGE TO LE AV E THOUSANDS WITHOUT POWER

UNTIL NE X T WEEK
Ergon aims to have the

coastal town back on line by
Tuesday and all of Rockhampton
by the end of this week.
Mr Pleash said a further 7000
customers were expected to be
reconnected on Tuesday.
He said Ergon workers were
Fallen tree brought down by Tropical Cyclone Marcia facing an uphill battle, with 1800
powerlines brought down by
As many as 25 000 homes areas on Tuesday morning in the
Marcia.
and businesses on the central wake of Cyclone Marcia.
Queensland coast look set to ‘There is a massive amount of
He said 65 000 were
remain without power until at work to be done,’ he said.
without power in the immediate
least Tuesday next week. aftermath of the storm on Friday. ‘There has been a huge
Bob Pleash, a spokesman for amount of damage. We have
Residents of Yeppoon and its
Ergon Energy, said 42 000 had trees falling across a lot of
outlying areas, where Marcia hit
customers remained without lines and some areas are like a
as a powerful category five, are
electricity in Yeppoon, twisted mess.
in for the longest wait.
Rockhampton and surrounding

‘In outlying rural areas, provide energy through tour Rockhampton and Yeppoon
some sections will have to be generator power, until on Tuesday […]
completely rebuilt.’ construction was complete.
Mr Pleash said in areas Both Premier Annastacia Kim Stephens, The Age,
24 February 2015 (excerpt only)
requiring major infrastructure Palaszczuk and Opposition
reconstruction, Ergon would Leader Lawrence Springborg will
Your turn
4.24 Watch a week’s worth of news reports on the ABC and on the commercial networks (channels 7, 9, 10)
and make notes on the differences in terms of stories reported, language used and objectivity. What
are your findings?
2 Editorials
Newspaper editorials are written by editors or teams of editors to reflect the views or stance of the paper. While
they can be highly opinionated, editors will often try to establish a sense of fairness, responsibility and objectivity
by acknowledging the range of viewpoints an issue has generated. Broadsheet editorials in particular tend to strive
for this balance by offering complex, sophisticated and reasoned views. Tabloid editorials will, at times, sound more
inflammatory and divisive, and typically are less detailed or comprehensive in terms of the arguments presented.
Part 4
The aim of both broadsheet and tabloid editorials is usually to sell the newspaper’s point of view as authoritative,
informed and trustworthy – a ‘voice of reason’.
SUMMARY OF FEATURES
Editorials generally have these features:
• are written by a team of editors, to reflect the point of view of the newspaper
• offer some background; summarise and/or contribute to debate by presenting reasoned arguments
• offer different perspectives, acknowledge different community interests; may present key arguments and
evidence for conflicting sides of an argument
• make recommendations, aimed at governments, businesses, community leaders and the public
• criticise, at times harshly, behaviour deemed unacceptable by the paper
• adopt a commanding, authoritative tone, for example, ‘It has long been this newspaper’s firm belief that …’
• are characterised by formal, sophisticated language and complex sentences and paragraphs (particularly
‘broadsheets’)
• use ‘we’ (usually to imply a need for community action or involvement) but not ‘I’ or ‘me’.
Your turn
4.25 Read the following brief editorial from The Sunday Age, which appeared after a longer editorial on
climate change, and answer these questions:
a What is the contention of this editorial? Explain it in one sentence.
b Find examples of each of the following strategies in the editorial, and explain the likely intention
behind each one in terms of audience response: figurative language, appeals (be specific),
alliteration, evidence.
c How is the way in which this point of view is expressed different from what you might expect in
other text types (e.g. a news report)?

EDITORIAL
And another thing … a visit from Santa, despite the as well? Maybe children want
Toys are serious business. As fear of job losses, the gyrations more than toys? A recent study
the world economy wobbles like of world markets and property showed that parents don’t spend
a fat American tourist doing a price plunges. Toy makers say enough time with their children.
limbo dance in a Trinidad street, parents prefer to do without This Christmas, your greatest
it seems that the sale of toys so the kids can enjoy a happy gift could be the gift of your time.
are holding up pretty well as childhood. But do your children Wouldn’t that be something?
Christmas looms. Many parents need ride-on dinosaurs or robot
don’t want to deny their children dogs that do everything real dogs The Sunday Age
do and eat expensive batteries
Your turn
4.26 The following is an example of a tabloid editorial on the issue of voluntary euthanasia.
a What is the contention of this editorial? Why is it hard to pin down, and what does this suggest
about this issue and the editors’ sense of their audience?
b Explain the pun in the headline. Which event has brought this issue back into the spotlight?
c Look carefully at the article’s opening two sentences. How do they work together, and what is the
Part 4
purpose here in terms of audience positioning?
d How does the paper position its audience to see Dr Philip Nitschke? How is this achieved, and why
do you think the paper adopts this particular strategy? Think carefully about the sensitivity around
this issue and your focus on the role of the audience from question c.
A DYING DEBATE COME S BACK TO LIFE
Dr Philip Nitschke may Parsons committed suicide

have achieved a forum because she felt existing laws
to further argue his case left her no choice after she
for voluntary euthanasia assisted in the death of her
after the deaths of two friend.
Melbourne women, as According to Dr Nitschke,
reported in Friday’s Ms Parsons informed him she
Herald Sun. could not deny 75-year-old Val
That forum could be Seeger’s wish to die after she
in a court if Dr Death, was diagnosed with Alzheimer’s
as he is known to his disease last year. Nor did Ms
opponents, is charged Parsons wish to live without her.
following a police What has made this case
investigation. unique as well as tragic is that
As reported in Ms Parsons was a healthy
Friday’s Herald Sun, woman who died because she
66-year-old Claire feared the law. Dr Nitschke’s

role in her death refocuses as well as planning to open what patients have gone to other
attention on what has been one he calls a euthanasia clinic in countries to arrange their
of the main issues in legalising Melbourne. deaths.
voluntary euthanasia. Many people agree with The Euthanasia Laws Act 1997
This concern is usually Dr Nitschke’s views in assisting passed by federal parliament
because of the potential for those who no longer wish to prevents Australian territories
someone to choose to die when live in pain or have a terminal from allowing voluntary
they have been convinced to disease, and many others do not. euthanasia but does not stop the
do so by someone who might The voluntary euthanasia states from changing the law.
benefit from their death, campaigner founded Exit Many doctors oppose
or when effective medical International after the voluntary euthanasia and point
treatment is still possible. Commonwealth overturned to the medical profession’s
Dr Nitschke confirms selling legislation in the Northern obligation to preserve life, while
the equipment used in bringing Territory that briefly legalised others in the medical profession
about the deaths of Ms Parsons voluntary euthanasia in the are just as concerned about
and Ms Seeger, and says he 1990s. the need to relieve unbearable
has sold 1000 such kits without The Rights of the suffering.
being charged. He admits there Terminally Ill Act, believed to Doctors may feel that
have been other suicides. be one of the first of its kind in death does not always occur
In the case of Ms Parsons, the world, allowed terminally with either dignity or comfort,
he says she could not be ill patients to commit medically while others would argue that
discouraged from sacrificing assisted suicide. Dr Nitschke advances in palliative care make
her own life. Assisting a suicide euthanasia unnecessary.
Part 4
administered what was said

carries a maximum five-year to be the first legal voluntary While we should always be
jail term in Victoria, with euthanasia injection. sensitive to the wishes of the ill
six prosecutions since 1997 Right-to-die groups said and those in pain, as a society
involving a suicide pact, inciting the legislation gave people the we should never be comfortable
suicide and aiding or abetting choice of ‘death with dignity’. to sit idly by as a perfectly
suicide. Right-to-life groups were just healthy woman decides she has
Dr Nitschke is no stranger to as passionately opposed and nothing left to live for.
voluntary euthanasia deaths and the debate has continued in
is a director of Exit International Australia as terminally-ill Editorial, Herald Sun, 5 June 2014
4.27 Now, read this editorial from The Age on essentially the same issue. Consider the similarities and
differences between this editorial and the previous tabloid version and answer these questions:
a Outline the contention in one sentence. Why is the contention of this editorial easier to pinpoint and
what does this suggest?
b Pinpoint the tone of the editorial. Use two to three words to account for any shifts. How does this
tone support the paper’s purposes, in terms of audience impact and a desire to persuade?
c Re-read the ‘Summary of editorial features’. Identify some of those features in this text. Compare
your answers with a partner and then as a whole class.
d Look back at the overview of the Aristotelian model of argument from Part 2. Which of the stages
of this method can you identify in The Age editorial? Why do you think the editors adopted such an
approach to structure their argument?
e Discuss as a class the major differences between the two editorials in terms of purpose and form.

RIGHTING A TR AV E ST Y FOR THE TERMINALLY ILL
Today, The Age calls on federal one of the people who inspired within the capacity of our
parliament to recognise in law Senator Di Natale’s bill. A video lawmakers.
the right of terminally ill people interview with Mr Short, who As we have stressed in the
to choose, under rigorously testified before the Senate past, we do not support voluntary
regulated circumstances, the committee, is part of our euthanasia advocate Dr Philip
timing and manner of their death. coverage this week. Nitschke, because through his
In coming hours, the cross-party Dr Syme’s argument, based organisation, Exit International,
Senate legal and constitutional on decades of experience, he aids people who are not
affairs committee is expected is compelling: dying may be terminally ill to die by suicide,
to report on such a legislative associated with excruciating and we are concerned he is
proposal by Greens senator suffering, and there may be a fuelling inappropriate demand –
Richard Di Natale. Throughout crescendo of suffering as death and an online black market – for
this week we will be publishing, draws nigh; a doctor’s duty a particular drug being used to
across our digital platforms is to relieve suffering; some induce death. It is in the public
and in our newspaper, stories, suffering will only be relieved interest to pass a law that
interviews and arguments to by death; a doctor’s duty is to permits medical practitioners
ventilate the case for change, respect a patient’s autonomy; such as Dr Syme to offer peace
and we invite our readers to some patients rationally and to terminally ill patients but
participate in the debate in the persistently request assistance prevents those like Dr Nitschke
pages of the paper and online. to die; and, palliative care from facilitating the death of
The committee may well raise cannot relieve all the pain and people who should instead
Part 4
a small number of concerns, but suffering of dying patients. receive treatment.
we believe, as other nations have Palliative support is central to The time has come for
shown, it is eminently possible our advocacy – most people who Australia’s political leaders to
to produce a law with adequate have the option of physician- not only grant a conscience vote,
safeguards. And we believe the assisted death do not take it, but but to urge their colleagues
moment has arrived for our as Dr Syme, Mr Short and many to advance our civilisation by
lawmakers to respect a position others attest, those who do have passing well-honed legislation.
surveys have long shown is that option immediately benefit This issue concerns all humanity.
supported by as many as eight in because it alleviates fear and It transcends party politics,
10 of our citizens. anxiety. and it behoves our elected
We hold that life is Some argue that people representatives to show courage
inestimably precious and should might unduly make such a and decency by delivering an
be protected. But we recognise final decision because they enlightened, compassionate
there are many terminally ill are depressed or feel they change.
people who suffer dreadfully. are a burden to others, and
In such cases, we share the that unscrupulous relatives Editorial, The Age, 9 November 2014
view of Dr Rodney Syme, one might seek to manipulate a
of the leading proponents for patient. Overseas experience
physician-assisted death and a suggests these concerns
man who openly admits to having are misplaced. Another
helped terminally ill people die issue the committee report
by giving them the means and might raise is definitional
knowledge to end their suffering. boundaries. What should be
He is doing so for Peter Short, a the definition of terminal,
Melbourne man close to death for example? We believe
who has been campaigning for settling this is also readily
the right to choose and who is

3 Letters/emails to the editor
Letters and emails are typically far more personal than editorials; the sense of
fairness and objectivity in quality editorials is sometimes missing from letters.
This is because letters are generally written in response to an event or issue
of personal interest to the writer and are therefore passionately argued.
However, this is not always the case; we also see many restrained letters
from individuals keen to promote a thoughtful and considered public
dialogue on the issue. We also sometimes see authoritative letters from
groups of professionals expressing their objection to, or support of,
an issue relevant to their employment. Sometimes letters are detailed
and logical, at other times they are brief and highly emotive (writers are
always subject to a maximum word limit). A newspaper will always check
the source of the letter to confirm that the writers are genuine – editors will never
publish anonymous letters.
SUMMARY OF FEATURES
Letters/emails to the editor will generally have these features:
• differ substantially in tone – (e.g. may be restrained/reasoned or passionate/inflammatory, or a combination)
• employ formal and informal language, depending on context and audience
• offer arguments in defence of the point of view – the quality of these arguments varies wildly!
• offer personal and anecdotal evidence in support of arguments
• generally push one side of an argument over another, often employing provocative questioning techniques
Part 4
Your turn
4.28 Read the following letters, which appeared after news reports of poor behaviour at particular
Victorian schools during last year’s ‘muck-up day’. Consider how differently the letters communicate
their varying points of view on the issue, then answer the following questions:
a In your own words, outline the point of view expressed by each writer and the reasons for their
viewpoint.
b Study each writer’s choice of vocabulary. Find three examples of words or phrases from each
letter that have been carefully chosen to support the point of view, and explain specifically how
each example provides this support. Then suggest alternative words or phrases that would have
sent a very different message.
c Identify two to three other language features employed by each writer to support their key
arguments. Explain how they are using these features to attempt to position the audience to support
their ideas.
d Which of the two letters do you find most persuasive? Justify your response.
e Write a letter to the editor expressing your point of view in relation to this issue. First, conduct
some research of your own. Then, construct a detailed response of 300–400 words that outlines
several arguments and, if possible, provides some evidence in support. Consider your approach in
terms of tone and style (logical, emotive, balanced, etc.) and choose your language accordingly.

Letter 1 Letter 2
The thuggish and mob-driven behaviour of Year In this paper yesterday, Jed Dansch outlined
12 students on ‘muck-up day’ confirms what his concerns regarding ‘a generation that
many of us have suspected for some time: this knows no bounds and no common decency’.
is a generation that knows no bounds and no I doubt whether his didactic sermon, full of
common decency. what could only be described as jawdroppingly
We hear the phrase ‘civics and citizenship’ in inaccurate generalisations, would be reaching
educational circles more and more these days many of the ears he seems so keen to give a
– why? Because kids don’t actually know what good-old-fashioned ‘clip’.
either term means, far less how to incorporate Kids, especially teenagers, will experiment,
the concepts into their daily lives, and as a try on new ‘selves’. Occasionally this means they
result concerned adults spend half their lives do things they will later regret. Any sensible
frantically searching for ways to help kids see adult would acknowledge that a lot of ‘muck-up
that living in a community means looking out day’ behaviour is technically wrong. Yet they
for that community, not tearing it apart through would also understand that some pranks and
violent acts and selfish attitudes. misdemeanours are more harmful than others,
I travel by tram to work. Almost every and that it would be unnatural and unrealistic
day I see teenagers ignore elderly people not to expect some mischief on a day which
standing patiently next to the sign labelled has come to symbolise a release from 13 years
‘priority seating’. Almost every day I hear cruel of conformity and hard work. The behaviours
conversations about fat kids, skinny kids, dumb witnessed on this day in recent years are by no
Part 4
kids, smart kids, kids who ‘suck’ because they means new, nor are they particularly shocking.
have everything and those who ‘suck’ because I see no more evidence of this generation
they have nothing … It would seem you can’t ‘tearing (communities) apart’ than any other.
win. Some say the teenage years are the (Mr Dansch’s dismissive remarks are hardly
happiest years of your life; I beg to differ. new, either, but they might just be helping to
tear communities apart.)
The sooner teachers and parents realise
that we need to take a harder line with these What I see here is the age-old conundrum:
out of control kids the better. I say bring back younger people need, and want, guidance;
corporal punishment – it didn’t hurt me. (Not in adults sometimes fail to provide it, preferring
the long term, anyway …) to offer a sermon on the mount rather than
modelling civil behaviour themselves. Mr
Jed Dansch, Warwickville
Dansch was keen to stress the importance of
‘civics and citizenship’, yet felt comfortable
describing an entire generation of individuals as
‘violent’, ‘selfish’ and ‘out of control’ … Was the
irony lost on him?
Jed old chap – kindly do us all a favour and
retreat back to the dark recesses of whatever
rock you crawled out from under. This issue
requires open minds, not armchair critics
keen to fire off knee-jerk nannyisms from the
comfort of their ivory towers. Or is that glass
houses?
David Halliwell, Narre Warren

4 Opinion pieces
Opinion pieces are point-of-view responses written by individuals considered to have expert status or a vested
interest in an issue, or they might be written by a public figure whose opinion is influential. Generally, they aim to
explore an issue in depth, and often the author makes suggestions or offers practical solutions. Because the author often
has experience related to the issue, the opinion piece is usually carefully considered. But if the author does have a vested
interest in the issue, consider whether the evidence used is reliable, valid and appropriate in the context.
SUMMARY OF FEATURES
Opinion pieces will generally have these features:
• present an informed, opinionated point of view to widen debate; they might be scathing, supportive,
etc.
• be written by someone with expert status or a public profile
• adopt an authoritative, assertive, confident tone
• employ quite formal and sophisticated language, which can be skilfully varied to appeal to a wide
audience
• display strong writing skills – clear structure, wide vocabulary, range of persuasive devices
• incorporate anecdotes to personalise/illustrate the issue.
Your turn
4.29 Read this opinion piece that appeared on The Drum, the ABC’s online opinion forum, and answer these
Part 4
questions:
a What is the writer’s point of view? How is the extensive anecdotal detail used to support this view?
b To what emotions and/or values does the author appeal? Provide specific examples.
c Identify some other strategies employed to support the point of view. How is the author hoping that
these strategies will work to position and persuade the audience?
d Consider the author’s identity. How does his language and argument reflect his professional status?
e How is the visual language intended to support the point of view?
FALL OF THE BERLIN WALL: A ROAD TRIP INTO HISTORY
It was a privilege to be part across eastern Europe began to As the fast-moving events
of the generation that passed fall like dominoes. unfolded and intensified, teams
into East Germany knowing I was working as a news were sent behind the lines
there was an easy and free producer for the BBC in London into eastern bloc nations like
at the time and marvelled at the Romania and Bulgaria that
way of getting out, writes
intense planning that involved seemed likely to topple as
Peter Ryan.
intricate and often secret the anti-Soviet mood towards
plans for mobilising reporters, democracy took hold.
As global stories go, few producers, camera crews and Although travel restrictions
compare to the crumbling of the pieces of satellite equipment into had been softened by East
Berlin Wall in November 1989 place for the anticipated fall of German authorities, no one
as Soviet Union satellite states the Berlin Wall […] expected what appeared to be

from the graffiti-covered Wall
which was once an icon of the
Soviet Union’s iron-fisted resolve
against the West.
The chisel slipped and
I emerged bloody having scraped
the skin off my knuckles. But it
was a price I was prepared to pay
to be a participant in an event the
whole world was watching.
The next day we lined up
at Checkpoint Charlie for our
day visa to get over into East
Berlin. The weather was cold,
drab and grey – just like the
Soviet style architecture – but it
was a privilege to be part of the
possible from early October – new-found freedom of just going generation that passed into East
the fall of the Berlin Wall was out on a day trip was their reason Germany knowing there was an
coming faster than expected. for jubilation and you could cut easy and free way of getting out.
While many of my colleagues the happiness in the air with a
I returned to Berlin two years
were being enlisted to head to knife.
ago, once again as a tourist, and
Berlin as the BBC planned major It was all consuming and
Part 4
found it to be vibrant, colourful
coverage, I was given the news I thought at the time about how and free.
that I would be staying in London. many Australians took their
I walked through the
Rather than missing out on travel liberties for granted.
Brandenburg Gate from west to
history in the making, and having It was an unforgettable east, remembering how it was a
exhausted lobbying efforts to be experience – and the excitement cold sealed-off no-go area just
sent, I managed to book a week easily surpassed taking a right- 23 years before.
off – encouraged as always by my hand drive Vauxhall on West
Since then, German
wife Mary Cotter who remains German autobahns as left-hand
reunification has been a
my best life adviser. drive BMWs and Mercedes glided
challenge but it eventually
We hired a trusty Vauxhall past.
became a successful template
and headed off around 4am As soon as we checked into despite initial cries that the
from London to take the ferry to our hotel not far from Checkpoint West German economy would
Calais […] Charlie, we headed out into the not be able to sustain the extra
More than 20 years before streets of West Berlin to witness demand for basic services and
in-car navigation systems history unfolding before our eyes. givens such as health care and
became commonplace, we East German soldiers peered education.
studied foldout road maps and through cracks in the Wall and Our road trip from November
made our way to Bruges for the even allowed those on the west 1989 might sound like the
night, on to Hamburg the next side to light up their cigarettes. account of a journalist’s road trip.
day and then into East Germany Soldiers walked atop the But for me, it will always
on our way to Berlin. Wall, viewed by locals and represent a career highlight
As we got closer to Berlin, tourists who jostled to clamber and underscores the privilege
we soon saw streams of people, up makeshift stands to view over of being a journalist with a front
presumably east Germans into the East. row seat to history.
in their Skodas and Ladas, Mary and I lined up to take
heading west – horns tooting, our turn with a hammer and Peter Ryan, The Drum (ABC),
lights flashing, arms waving. The chisel chipping what we could 10 November 2014, (excerpt only)

Your turn
4.30 Read this opinion piece from The Age by Malcolm Fraser and Barry Jones, and answer the following
questions.
a At whom is this article targeted? Refer to the text to justify your response. Remember there may be
more than one target group – different groups may be targeted at different moments.
b Consider the headline. Which words seem most powerful and how do they persuade?
c Consider Andrew Dyson’s complementary image. What is its message and how is it conveyed?
d Consider the identities of the authors. Fraser was a Liberal prime minister, and Jones a minister in
Bob Hawke’s Labor government. What impact might these facts have on readers?
e What is the contention of the authors? Identify the arguments and evidence put forward in support of
their view. Does this case seem logical and rational? Discuss as a class and justify with evidence.
f Which values do the authors appeal to? Provide examples of specific appeals.
g Identify other strategies employed to support the argument and explain their impacts.
PERV ERSE MIGR ATION BILL SHREDS THE RULE OF L AW
If passed, The Migration and offshore until being ‘resettled’ life-threatening situation. For
Maritime Powers Legislation in squalor and risk of attack on example, their case may be
Part 4
Amendment (Resolving the Asylum Nauru. We should rightly ask, if knocked back because they have
Legacy Caseload) Bill would the government is prepared to be false or no travel documents. This
effectively enshrine in law the so cruel and give itself this much is inherently unfair. People fleeing
mistreatment of asylum seekers unchecked power over refugees, for their lives don’t have time to
and refugees who flee to our who’s next? get their paperwork in order and
country to escape persecution, The bill narrows the definition are often forced to travel on false
torture and death. of a refugee. This makes it easier documents to escape.
The legislation is the to send more people back to Would we have expected
perverse creation of a harm, rather than offering them people fleeing Nazi Germany to
Government prepared to tear protection. This is a particularly obtain travel documents from
up the rule of law for its own insidious step which will render Hitler? Would we punish them
political ends. It bestows an obsolete decades of legal for using a friend’s passport to
unprecedented level of power precedent and stack the odds clear the border and escape the
on the immigration minister to against refugees. For example, if concentration camps?
make life and death decisions it’s considered that a refugee can Not only are these measures
about individual refugee cases. simply ‘modify their behaviour’ unfair, they are unnecessary.
It creates a regime where the to avoid persecution or harm at The current Migration Act
chance of sending people back home, they’ll be sent back. Would already contains a robust legal
to a situation of grave danger, or you expect the inspirational process for determining whether
even death, is a real possibility. Nobel Peace Prize winner Malala someone is owed protection
It denies permanent Yousafzai, who fights for girls’ from harm. We require people
protection to those found to be right to education in the face of to tell their story, repeatedly,
refugees, simply because of their Taliban opposition, to ‘modify her consistently, with evidence, and
mode of arrival to this country. behaviour’ and simply retreat within the confines of the law. We
Even babies born on Australian indoors? judge their character, undertake
soil to parents who arrived by Under this bill, refugees security checks and review their
boat will be denied protection, will be disadvantaged by the health. It is incredibly difficult to
rendered stateless and detained very consequences of their pass this process unless

you are anything other than a so it can send people on
refugee. boats back to the country
This bill effectively dismantles they’re fleeing from,
this robust process for people without any court oversight.
arriving by boat, creating a The bill further puts us at
parallel system under which life or odds with the international
death decisions will be made via a community by denying
brief, cursory assessment. Known people who come by boat
as ‘fast-track’, decisions may be permanent protection,
made within two weeks of arrival, indefinitely.
with people having to present The reintroduction
their case under intense pressure of temporary protection
and with no legal assistance or visas (TPVs) means that
understanding of our system. refugees have to prove
It will undoubtedly see people and re-prove they are
returned to harm and persecution. refugees. Australia has
We borrowed this process tried this approach before, consequences of the bill and his
from the UK, where it has already at considerable emotional and support for it is now shaky.
been ruled unlawful by its High mental cost to desperate people Other Senators and MPs have
Court. This does not concern forced onto temporary visas, also expressed concerns about
our government however; it who were left in limbo, unable the bill, including crossbench
is more interested in avoiding to reunite with their family. The Senators, who will ultimately
our country’s laws altogether. harm this caused is so well
Part 4
decide its fate. This bill not only
People receiving a negative documented it’s almost become seeks to tear up the rule of law,
decision through the fast-track its own field of mental health. it serves to undermine our proud
process will be at the mercy of TPVs break people who managed history as a multicultural nation,
the minister to decide if their case to survive torture. inspiring the world with our
is deserving of review. Having It is in the interest of the diversity and harmony.
a minister—particularly one Australian community to have
It feeds fear to the electorate,
with such a fixed agenda—make people settled quickly, so they may
which the opposition feels obliged
decisions about individuals heal from their trauma, gain work
to support, in a context of a
flies in the face of procedural or undertake study and get on
beat-up of Olympian proportions.
fairness. with their lives. Some 95 per cent
The numbers of refugees heading
In its determination to of people on TPVs the first time
for Australia are trivial compared
send people back at all costs, around ended up with permanent
to those travelling to many
the government also wants to protection. There is no reason to
European countries. They don’t
remove consideration of whether believe this statistic would be any
overreact. We do.
someone is at risk of torture when different now. In fact, situations of
There are moments in history
seeking to return them home. It is conflict are more protracted than
which are turning points. Now is
astonishing that the government ever before, making peoples’ need
such a time. Australia can stand
wants to deem torture and our for permanent protection even
up and protect the rule of law or
non-refoulement obligations more likely.
become an international pariah,
irrelevant when removing Prime Minister Tony Abbott
living isolated at the end of the
someone from Australia. It and Immigration Minister Scott
world, forever in fear of others.
is essentially a guarantee of Morrison have work to do to
returning people to face serious get this bill through the Senate
Malcolm Fraser and Barry Jones,
harm or death. in December as they plan. It The Age, 7 November 2014
As well as circumventing appears that in their negotiations
Malcolm Fraser was prime minister of
Australian law, the bill also with Clive Palmer, they were far Australia 1975–1983.
seeks to put the government from honest about the scope and Dr Barry Jones is a former minister
above international maritime law, for science in the Hawke government
1983–1990.

OTHER TYPES OF TEXTS IN NEWSPAPERS
Essays
Essays are formal written compositions on a specific topic. They can be persuasive/argumentative in nature, to
promote one side of an issue over others, or they might be informative/expository, where the purpose is usually to
provide facts and explanations, or simply to explore ideas. For the purposes of this Area of Study we will focus on
the persuasive variety. Persuasive essays share some features with opinion pieces, letters and editorials, but must
follow more stringent structural conventions (they need an introduction, body paragraphs and a conclusion).
Occasionally, an opinion piece in a newspaper is presented in the form of an essay.
SUMMARY OF FEATURES
Essays should have these features:
• have a clear structure – an introduction to provide an overview, several body paragraphs, and a conclusion
• contain one main idea in each body paragraph, which is developed and supported by appropriate evidence
• employ language that is as sophisticated and formal as possible; use of the personal pronoun ‘I’ should be kept
to a minimum (with the exception of more personal persuasive essays)
• contain a sound objective, usually employing a calm, reasoned tone that can be varied to engage readers
• make careful use of linking words (although, however, in addition, etc.) to skilfully connect arguments.
SAMPLE ESSAY
Read the following persuasive essay by a Year 11 student, on the topic ‘Love is a powerful, and sometimes
destructive, force.’ As you read, reflect on the following notes from the teacher to the class, which focus on some of
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the essay’s interesting language features. Note that the essay is clearly structured with these key features:
• an engaging, lively introduction with a contention
• a number of key arguments in separate body paragraphs, developed from a topic sentence
• a conclusion that summarises the key threads and reiterates the contention (without sounding repetitive).
Note the use of the personal pronoun ‘I’ – while this is generally not acceptable in a formal school text response
essay, in this broader persuasive essay form it creates an engaging level of rapport with the reader.
Note also the use of contractions, for example ‘that’s’ and ‘we’re’ in the introduction. This creates a more relaxed,
informal voice and helps the author to establish intimacy with the reader. Again, this would be inappropriate in a
more formal essay, but is effective in this persuasive mode.
Finally, note the effective use of the linking words and phrases (in bold in the essay). Consider how they help to
enhance not only the flow of the text, but also the logic of the overall argument. These connectives are critical to
good writing.
Your turn
4.31 What persuasive strategies can you identify at work in this essay, and what is the impact or purpose in
each case? Annotate the essay to identify these things.
4.32 Highlight the contention and the key arguments in each body paragraph. Is there a clear sense of logic
connecting these elements? Could the logical links be improved in any way? Explain.
4.33 How would you describe the student’s voice? How does this voice add to the persuasiveness of the
piece overall? (Incorporate some of the arguments of the essay into your response.)
4.34 Write your own persuasive essay on the topic of love, or any other topic of interest. Take care to
structure the essay effectively, in accordance with the bullet points in the ‘Summary of features’ and
‘Sample essay’ sections. Try also to construct a logical and reasoned case, and to employ a range of
persuasive strategies in your writing to enhance its persuasiveness.

Love is a powerful, and sometimes destructive, force
It should go without saying that love is essential and the distance became a problem, my parents’
to our lives. As the comedy folk duo Flight of the relationship degenerated, culminating in their
Conchords once said, ‘Love is the strongest kind of divorce. The irony, perhaps, was that the distance
adhesive’. It’s powerful, it’s moving, it can sweep between them seemed to open them up to the
us off our feet and carry us to dazzling heights – problems they were facing, and then there was no
but it can also be destructive, harmful and very, way for them to get back to where they had been.
very painful. Love isn’t always easy. Everybody Furthermore, sometimes the strain of a relationship
knows it, that’s why we’re all a little tired of going can just be too much to bear – in the poem ‘Love
to see a movie where guy meets girl, they get (dialogue)’ by Michael Dransfield, we see a man and
married and live happily ever after – we know that’s a woman engaged in an affair, as the woman cheats
often not how it works. We go to see characters’ on her husband. She doesn’t want to stay with him;
love triumph over whatever plot-convenient when asked how long she’s waited for him, she
complication they stumble across, or perhaps be replies ‘too many years’. And yet, instead of dealing
destroyed by it if we’re in a more pessimistic state with the inherent problems with her husband and
of mind, because that is how love works – there gaining some closure, the woman instead chooses
are challenges and there are adversities, and the to escape it – to seek refuge from her own failing
ways in which we deal with them create the drama. marriage in another relationship. This relationship,
Love is a powerful truth drug – under its influence, however, also fails – she is unwilling to leave her
our true natures are revealed, for good or ill – husband and enter a stable relationship with the
and hence, the way in which we approach love is new man. The poem chronicles the development
revealing of our true selves. and decline of their relationship, symbolically
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Love has the power to transform us from cynics showing its timeline through the order of the
to believers. I once read a novel that contained the snippets of their meetings – their final farewell,
lines, ‘When I am with you, I lose myself. When I ‘Goodbye. I’ll see you’, wraps up the poem and the
am without you, I find myself wanting to be lost relationship, by showing the eternal, unbridgeable
all over again.’ I found it around the time I met my chasm between them – she is unable to commit to
current girlfriend – and a few weeks later, I was saving either of her relationships and dealing with
reminded of the quote and suddenly found it more their challenges, and as such, both of them unravel,
revealing. When I was with her, I felt at home in and are destroyed.
the world and totally comfortable with my identity. Not all relationships are unsalvageable,
When she was gone, I noticed she occupied my however; indeed most of them suffer change, but
mind so much that I was tempted to start charging often this change has its own strange benefits. In
rent. It wasn’t easy, though, wooing her – there another poem, ‘The Hug’ by Thom Gunn, we see a
were a lot of complications. I found myself on the couple faced with the challenge of age – they are no
verge of calling it quits and giving up more times longer young, and their relationship is in danger of
than one. And, coming from a conservative Asian becoming stale and dulled by time. However, after
background, telling my mother about her was one a night of drinking and celebration, they lock in a
of the hardest things I’ve ever had to do. But I stuck tender embrace – a touching gesture that renews
with it, because inside, I had realised an important their relationship ‘as if [they] were still twenty-
truth: I loved her. There would be no mountain that two’. The phrase, ‘It was not sex’, shows that their
I wouldn’t climb to be with her. Old men and cynics relationship has managed to survive despite the
might look upon my naivety and shake their heads, fact that the sexual urge has faded – for this couple,
but I am neither, and I am still capable of hoping for intimacy no longer comes from sex and partying, but
an ideal future. from simple contact and close proximity. Despite
However, the challenges in a relationship are the ravages of time, their love has matured past
not always surmountable – sometimes there is the sexual and into a less physical but equally
just no coming back from the hurt a deep love can meaningful – perhaps more meaningful – form of
cause. My own parents’ relationship demonstrates love. This image is echoed in sculptor Ron Mueck’s
this fact. When my mother and I moved to Australia similarly themed artwork, ‘Spooning Couple’, which

shows a loving pair in the midst of a warm, tender dissolves, like that of my parents; or we look for an
embrace, completely ignorant of the world around escape, take refuge in others, or set off on another
them, lost in their connection. Love, as it shows, destructive relationship, as the lovers in ‘Love
is not always about fireworks and sleepless nights (dialogue)’ are shown to do. But sometimes, if we’re
of passion – true love will remain intimate and lucky, and the love is strong enough, it can triumph –
overcome challenges long after these delights have above age and time and any adversity. I am a young
faded. man; I may be naive, but I’m not stupid. Love shows
Love has a tendency to bring out our real who we really are and forces us to confront great
character and our true natures are often revealed challenges – if I am lucky, and count my blessings, I
by how we deal with adversity. Sometimes, the think I can still overcome mine.
challenges are too great – we are faced with Max Nie, Year 11
insurmountable problems and the relationship
Speech transcripts
A speech transcript is a printed verbatim copy of a speech. Usually it contains non-essential information such as
interruptions and questions. While an actual speech is a non-print text when it is delivered, any written record of
the speech is a print text.
Some common strategies employed by speechwriters include repetition, emphatic language, humour,
rhetorical questions, anecdotes and appeals. However, speeches are as unique as the individuals who deliver
them, and often cannot be ‘boiled down’ to a crude list of techniques. They are written and delivered for a multitude
of reasons and the language used varies significantly depending upon the context and the audience. Take each
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speech on its individual merits and consider carefully who it was designed for and the speaker’s purposes.
SUMMARY OF FEATURES
A speech transcript will have these features:
• have a clear introduction and greeting, and a strong conclusion that may restate the main arguments
• highlight key arguments, often by ‘signposting’ (first of all, second, etc.) and support these with evidence
• often incorporate anecdotes, humour, inclusive language, rhetorical questions, vivid imagery and figurative
language – strategies that engage and challenge an audience
• often directly address the audience or ask questions to encourage active listening and critical thinking
• often incorporate repetition or a repetitive triplet (also called a tricolon) to reinforce ideas
• sometimes argue by consequence or propose hypothetical scenarios for the audience to contemplate (‘What
would happen if …’, ‘Imagine in 20 years …’).
Your turn
4.37 Read this extract from former prime minister Paul Keating’s famous Redfern Speech, delivered in the
Year for the World’s Indigenous People, 1992. The speech made a powerful impact at the time and has
remained ingrained in the national consciousness since. Many of the issues Keating addressed then
are still relevant today. After reading it, answer these questions.
a Which of the features of a speech transcript can you identify in this speech?
b This speech was praised for its power and frankness, and it left many people in tears. What key
moments do you think might have been particularly emotive? Why?
c How many appeals can you identify, and what types are they? What is the impact of each?
d In your opinion, what are the most powerful moments in the extract and why? Discuss as a class,
then watch the full speech online and reflect on the most powerful moments in terms of Keating’s
delivery. Did your opinion of the speech alter after seeing it spoken? Explain.

Redfern Speech
[…] Redfern is a good place to contemplate these things.
Just a mile or two from the place where the first European
settlers landed, in too many ways it tells us that their failure
to bring much more than devastation and demoralisation to
Aboriginal Australia continues to be our failure.
More I think than most Australians recognise, the plight of
Aboriginal Australians affects us all.
In Redfern it might be tempting to think that the reality
Aboriginal Australians face is somehow contained here, and that
the rest of us are insulated from it.
But of course, while all the dilemmas may exist here, they are
far from contained.
We know the same dilemmas and more are faced all over
Australia.
That is perhaps the point of this Year of the World’s Indigenous
People: to bring the dispossessed out of the shadows, to
recognise that they are part of us, and that we cannot give
indigenous Australians up without giving up many of our own Paul Keating with Anon Link, 7, at
most deeply held values, much of our own identity – and our own Redfern Park in 1992
humanity. Nowhere in the world, I would venture, is the message
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more stark than it is in Australia.
We simply cannot sweep injustice aside. Even if our own conscience allowed us to, I am sure, that in due
course, the world and the people of our region would not.
There should be no mistake about this – our success in resolving these issues will have a significant
bearing on our standing in the world.
However intractable the problems seem, we cannot resign ourselves to failure – any more than we can
hide behind the contemporary version of Social Darwinism which says that to reach back for the poor and
dispossessed is to risk being dragged down.
That seems to me not only morally indefensible, but bad history.
We non-Aboriginal Australians should perhaps remind ourselves that Australia once reached out for us.
Didn’t Australia provide opportunity and care for the dispossessed Irish? The poor of Britain? The refugees
from war and famine and persecution in the countries of Europe and Asia?
Isn’t it reasonable to say that if we can build a prosperous and remarkably harmonious multicultural
society in Australia, surely we can find just solutions to the problems which beset the first Australians – the
people to whom the most injustice has been done.
And, as I say, the starting point might be to recognise that the problem starts with us non-Aboriginal
Australians.
It begins, I think, with that act of recognition.
Recognition that it was we who did the dispossessing.
We took the traditional lands and smashed the traditional way of life.
We brought the diseases. The alcohol.
We committed the murders.
We took the children from their mothers.
We practised discrimination and exclusion.
It was our ignorance and our prejudice.

And our failure to imagine these things being done to us.
With some noble exceptions, we failed to make the most basic human response and enter into their hearts
and minds.
We failed to ask – how would I feel if this were done to me?
As a consequence, we failed to see that what we were doing degraded all of us.
If we needed a reminder of this, we received it this year.
The Report of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody showed with devastating clarity
that the past lives on in inequality, racism and injustice.
In the prejudice and ignorance of non-Aboriginal Australians, and in the demoralisation and desperation,
the fractured identity, of so many Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders.
For all this, I do not believe that the Report should fill us with guilt.
Down the years, there has been no shortage of guilt, but it has not produced the responses we need.
Guilt is not a very constructive emotion.
I think what we need to do is open our hearts a bit.
All of us[…]
Extract of Redfern Speech, delivered in Redfern Park by PM Paul Keating, 10 December 1992
NON-PRINT TEXTS
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Non-print texts contain no printed words or visual images of any kind. Common examples include speeches and
radio talkback programs. Analysis of such texts requires consideration of the ways in which spoken language
differs from other forms of language, and of how these differences can impact on audiences. For example, watching
and listening to a speech live is an altogether different experience to reading a transcript of the same speech after
the fact; the transcript can offer no indication of how the speaker stood (posture), what gestures they used, what
tone of voice they adopted at various stages of the speech or when and why they chose to pause or add particular
emphasis. It also fails to take into account the context of the speech and the mood or atmosphere in which the
speech was delivered. All of these aspects can impact greatly on the way the speech itself is received, and how
persuasive it is.
Your turn
4.36 Consider the following aspects of spoken language.
pause tone stress (emphasis)
pace and timing intonation rhythm
pitch sentence fillers
volume articulation and diction
a Define each term to a partner.

b Explain how each aspect of spoken language is important in terms of audience engagement.
4.37 Using YouTube or any other media player, find and listen to Martin Luther King Jr’s famous ‘I have a
dream’ speech (or choose another speech). Before you listen to it, obtain a transcript of the speech. As
you listen, annotate the speech transcript to identify any significant aspects or features of the spoken
language, as outlined in activity 4.36. Then, share your notes with a partner and explain to them your
opinion of the three most persuasive moments from the speech.

RADIO PROGRAMS ARE NON-PRINT TEXTS
Triple J’s radio current affairs program Hack can be heard every weekday between 5.30 and 6.00 pm. It is similar
to a television current affairs show in the sense that a host offers editorial commentary, and a number of reporters
present key stories on a range of issues, in this case stories of interest to young people. A show such as Hack, when
heard in its original context (i.e. over the radio), is an example of a non-print text because there are no printed
words or visual images to be found. Of course, a transcript from such a program is a print text. Here is an extract
from one such transcript, found at the Hack website.
Empathy games and #Gamergate

Would you play a video game that made ‘It’s about being in the space and resting there and
you cry? contemplating it and experience what it is to love the
Imagine you’re sitting in a hospital room, your son is dying simple things and the simple interactions and the simple
from cancer in the bed next to you and there’s nothing discussions that we have in life, and kinda like let that soak
you can do to save him. Well, you don’t have to imagine it all through you,’ Ryan says.
anymore, you can play it in That Dragon, Cancer. Games like this, known as empathy games, aren’t your
‘An interactive, autobiographical retelling of my family typical gaming experience. They’re not about running and
and our battle against that dragon cancer in our life,’ shooting, instead they’re about dealing with social issues
developer Ryan Green explains. It’s about his son Joel. and making you feel something …
Stephen Stockwell and Kaitlin Sawney,
Hack, ABC, 17 October 2014
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Your turn
4.38 Listen to Hack over a number of days and take notes on the types of issues covered and the manner in
which the stories are presented. Consider reporting your findings to your class.
4.39 In a small group, plan and produce a Hack-style segment on a local issue of interest to you all. In this piece
of journalism strive for objectivity, or balanced reporting, rather than overt bias or persuasion. Follow
these steps:
a Research the issue carefully and work out exactly what it is you want to cover in your report.
b Devise a list of interview questions and speak to a range of people to gather different views on the
issue. Record the interviews so that you can edit the sound later.
c Edit the interview responses into a coherent order. Choose music or sound effects to include at key
moments to help communicate the views expressed. Think about any editorial overdubs you will need
to record so that the final product makes sense.
d Write an editorial introduction and record it, along with the overdubs identified in
the previous step.
e Add the soundtrack, and you’re finished! Be sure to play this segment to your
class.
VISUAL TEXTS
This section covers visual texts that use images and symbols to argue a point, either in
place of or in conjunction with verbal language. Remember to also refer to the section on
‘Visual language’ in Part 3 when analysing visual or multimodal texts.

CARTOONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
Cartoons and illustrations from artists are commonly found in the Opinion sections of print newspapers and
their online counterparts. These cartoons or illustrations – such as the digitally altered ‘globe on a spit’ – are an
expression of a point of view, in the same way that a letter or opinion piece is. While most of these images offer
the artist’s point of view, they may also support or respond to the newspaper’s editorial stance. This is why they
are often positioned next to an editorial. However, while the perspective expressed in the image and the print
text may be similar, the means by which it is communicated differ significantly. Cartoons and illustrations often
communicate a serious message in a humorous fashion, commonly through the use of satire, caricature or
irony. Sometimes they will contain only visual language; at other times they will combine visual language with a
verbal caption or some speech from the subjects. Images such as these are more visually arresting than a written
opinion, but the underlying message can be just as complex, and is often quite subversive.
Summary of features
Cartoons will often include these features:
• visual commentary on an issue
• a point of view, just as an opinion piece or letter to the editor does
• satire, sarcasm, caricature and other forms of humour
• an appeal to government, businesses, community leaders, the general public
• a verbal caption in support of the visual language (but not always)
• a subversive, scathing, critical tone and/or style.
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Your turn
4.40 Complete these tasks for each of the following cartoons or illustrations:
a Explain the context in one sentence.
b What is the artist’s overall message? Again, explain in one sentence.
c With a partner, discuss significant aspects of the artwork’s subjects and objects and their relative
sizes, the foreground and background, colours, symbols and framing.
d Choose one of the artists and write a short paragraph to explain how they use different forms of
language to position an audience to share a point of view. Refer to the section on ‘Visual language’
in Part 3 to help you.
Harry Afentoglou, The Canberra Times,

Jon Kudelka, The Australian, 25 February 2014 30 January 2013

PHOTOGRAPHS
Photographs are often used to help communicate a written or spoken point
of view because they tend to be more ‘immediate’ or visually arresting than
words. Advertising companies know how to attract specific demographics
by targeting needs, desires or emotions, and photographs can be a powerful
way of ‘hitting’ these targets because they can carry so many associations.
For example, the author of an article on animal cruelty might try to
engender sympathy by including an emotive photograph of a pup
chained to a fence in an anonymous backyard. They might also choose to
print the photograph in black and white, as this creates a more serious
and sombre mood than colour. The author would also carefully consider
the best way of framing the pup to focus the audience’s attention on
harrowing aspects, such as the pup’s protruding ribs, which would imply
malnourishment. All of these visual details work together to elicit feelings of compassion and
shame, and to communicate a powerful message of neglect – and all with the use of a single, static image.
Analyse a photograph as you would a cartoon or any other visual, using the aspects and questions outlined
in the ‘Visual language’ section in Part 3. In addition, you should consider the use of the camera itself and discuss
any relevant aspects of the shot sizes and angles employed and any significant use of lighting and effects. Also,
remember that photographs can ‘lie’ – they can be digitally edited and altered to appear more compelling, flattering
or shocking! If you can see obvious evidence of such alteration, consider carefully why it has occurred and the
possible intention in terms of impact.
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Your turn
4.41 Explain the difference between a camera shot size
and a camera angle to a partner.
4.42 Classify the following shot sizes from furthest
away to closest. How would you define the typical
composition of each type to someone who knew
nothing about how a camera works? Can you find an
example of each one in a magazine, newspaper or
online?
close up long shot
extreme close up medium or mid shot
full shot establishing shot
4.43 Explain the potential impact of these camera angles
on the way an audience perceives the subjects or
objects in photographs or on film or television:
low angle high angle
eye level bird’s eye/aerial
4.44 Consider the use of the camera in this photographic
still from Samson and Delilah, the acclaimed 2009
Australian film directed by Warwick Thornton. Write
sentences to explain the intended impact of any
Samson and Delilah stars first-time actors
significant framing, shot or angle choices made by Rowan McNamara and Marissa Gibson and tells
Thornton. the ‘survival love story’ of two 14-year-olds living
in a remote Aboriginal community

Your turn
4.45 Look at the following photographs.
a What issue is illustrated in each of them? In
each case, do you feel the image is persuasive
or neutral in its representation of the subjects/
objects? Explain.
b Explain how each photo uses language to
persuade. Outline the context, content, target
audience, style and message, and analyse the
content and style in terms of subjects, objects,
size, foreground, background, colours, symbols,
framing and camera shots/angles.
c For each image, suggest an alternative that would
present the subjects in a different light.
Russell Molony, winner of the
Indigenous Surfing Title at Bells Beach, 2012
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Alex McKinnon of the Newcastle Knights National Rugby

A child poses for a photograph at the League team is overcome with emotion while making his first
rubbish dump in Anlung Pey, Cambodia, public appearance after he broke his neck in a tackle during an
which is home to 300 people. NRL game early in the 2014 season.
d Source a persuasive photograph of your own and deliver an oral presentation to outline the
persuasive elements in use and their impacts. Display the photograph in such a way that you can
identify these elements to the class.
POSTERS
Posters are used for a range of purposes, but typically to advertise a product, service or event or to communicate
information. They vary significantly in terms of content and presentation, although most employ a combination of
verbal language, such as slogans and headings, and visual language, such as graphics or symbols. A poster can
be analysed in the same way as a photograph or cartoon – in terms of context, content, target audience, style and
message, and visually in terms of the subjects, objects, size, foreground, background, colours, symbols and framing.

Your turn
4.46 Study this poster used to advertise the 2013 Superman film
Man of Steel and answer these questions.
a Can you see any symbolism or allusions at work in this
poster?
b Consider the following extract from Revelation in the Bible,
about the return of Jesus Christ at the Second Advent –
‘Behold, he cometh with clouds; and every eye shall see
him, and they also which pierced him: and all kindreds
of the earth shall wail because of him. Even so, Amen.’
(Revelation 1:7) Does this help you answer question a? Why
might the filmmakers want to make such an association?
(Consider the identity of the central character and the long
history of Superman films in Hollywood.)
c Explain the use of camera shot size, angles, framing,
lighting, colour and computer graphics – what impact is
achieved?
4.47 Consider these two Australian Government immigration posters

from 1948 and 2014. Then answer these questions.
a Using only these posters, explain the government’s purpose in
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each case.
b What do you think has changed between 1948 and 2014 to
change the persuasive purpose?
c Make notes to compare and contrast the two posters in
terms of imagery, symbolism, colour, mood and use of verbal
language.
d Write a detailed paragraph in which you compare and
contrast the two posters in terms of
their purposes and the use of verbal
and visual language features.
4.48 Photograph or print a copy of a
persuasive poster you’ve found in a
public place or online.
a Annotate the poster or make notes to
explain the persuasive features of the
poster. Use appropriate metalanguage
in your explanation, such as framing,
symbolism and contrast.
b Give an oral presentation to explain
how the poster uses both verbal
and visual language to persuade.
Display the poster and refer to specific
elements of its composition during your
presentation.

CHARTS, GRAPHS, TABLES AND GRAPHICS
These forms of visual language convey specific information related to issues and events, and present potentially
confusing information in a way that is easy to understand. However, as well communicating certain ‘facts’,
such visual support can sometimes be used persuasively to support a point of view. As usual, analyse any such
language carefully. Don’t be fooled: seemingly ‘factual’ or ‘reliable’ data is easily manipulated. Results can be
skewed, and flattering or damning aspects of information can be highlighted or left out to suit a particular purpose.
Remember to look carefully at the axes of any charts, graphs or tables – scale can be distorted to imply a more
significant trend than the reality of the situation would suggest!
Your turn
4.49 Consider this graphic, which was published
in the Sydney Morning Herald in April 2014 and
accompanied a report on the potentially deadly
Middle East Respiratory Syndrome. Then answer
the following questions.
a Work with a partner to identify the type and
purpose (or impact) of each of the elements
(e.g. photo, map, graph, verbal language) of
the graphic.
b Are there any elements of this graphic that
seem persuasive, or even misleading, rather
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than objective? Why? Discuss as a class.

4.50 Now consider this second graphic, which was
used by independent think tank The Australia
Institute to comment on Australia’s use of its
foreign aid budget. Then answer these questions.
a What is the overall message of this graphic?
b How does the graphic position its audience to
consider the issue of Australia’s foreign aid
spending? What do you think are the three
most persuasive elements of the graphic, and
how do they work to persuade?
c As a class, discuss any additional information
that might have been included to allow for
a more informed assessment of Australia’s
foreign aid spending.
MULTIMODAL TEXTS
A multimodal text uses two or more ‘modes’ of communication (reading, listening, etc.) in an integrated way. It might
do this by combining print, image and spoken text, as in film. Blogs are good examples, as they can combine video
footage, hyperlinks, images and text in an engaging and interactive way. However, a ballet performance can also be
considered multimodal: it incorporates the spatial element of movement, the visual impact of the sets, costumes and
dancers and the aural impact of the music. Even something as simple as a picture book, which contains both words
and images, can be considered multimodal. The appeal of many multimodal texts is that they often engage with
a number of our senses—sight, sound and in some cases even touch. These texts can have a complex persuasive
impact on us that manipulates a range of thoughts and feelings simultaneously.

Your turn
4.51 Think about the types of multimodal texts you engage with regularly.
a What types of texts are they?
b Which ones have the most persuasive impact on you? Why?
c Create a class list of multimodal text types.
d Explain some of the advantages of using a multimodal text to sell a product or communicate a
message.
TELEVISION CURRENT AFFAIRS PROGRAMS

Current affairs programs explore topical issues by presenting introductions and editorials from the host, reports
from journalists, live-to-air or pre-recorded interviews with stakeholders or experts and occasional special-interest
presentations (such as financial advice segments). Individual reports are edited and presented with the use of
video footage, usually with voiceover, sound effects and/or music, clips of interviews or soundbites, and a range of
visual language. The programs usually have a regular host, and this host can have a persuasive impact as a result
of the image they project. Some hosts have reputations as being provocative or opinionated; others seek to project
a more neutral, balanced (but still authoritative) perspective. The same can be said of the journalists who create
the stories, and the editors who shape these stories into products – some strive to maintain objectivity more than
others!
Part 4
Interviews
Journalists and hosts conduct interviews with stakeholders or experts to explore the interviewee’s point of view.
When analysing an interview, take into account the visual language (what you can see) as well as the verbal
language (what is said). Consider the interviewer, the interviewee and the location in your analysis.
LOCATION
• Where is the interview conducted: in a television studio or on location? What persuasive purpose does this
location serve? Is it ‘neutral’ territory, or does the location favour one point of view over another?
• Is the background neutral or does it present the interviewee in a particular light? Is it held in a laboratory to
suggest scientific credentials, or on a football oval to indicate sporting prowess?
INTERVIEWEE
• Identity: who are they? Expertise/status? Appearance?
• Body language: smiling and nodding in response to the
interviewer’s comments? Facing the interviewer directly?
Appearing relaxed and open to discussion? Alternatively,
sitting at an angle, or crossing arms or legs in a gesture
of defensiveness? Pointing finger or waving arms
aggressively?
• Attitude: is it enthusiastic? Considerate? Dismissive?
Aggressive?
• Verbal language: is it articulate? Informed and educated on
the issue? Are persuasive strategies employed?
Hosts of The Project: Waleed Aly,

Carrie Bickmore and Peter Helliar

INTERVIEWER
Ask all of the same questions as for the interviewee, but also consider the following points:
• Questioning style: are the questions asked in a friendly manner, or aggressively? Does the interviewer allow the
interviewee to answer in full or are they cut off?
• Types of questions: are they easy, whereby they don’t challenge the interviewee, or hard-hitting, whereby they
force the interviewee to justify their position? Are they closed (requiring short or obvious answers) or open
(encouraging a detailed response)?
• Are they encouraging or discouraging the interviewee in any way? How?
Consider the following table.
ENCOURAGING LANGUAGE AND GESTURES DISCOURAGING LANGUAGE AND GESTURES
• supportive non-verbal gestures (e.g. nodding) • negative non-verbal gestures (e.g. folded arms)
• sympathetic comments (‘I understand …’) • unsympathetic comments (‘That’s ridiculous …’)
• considerate tone • aggressive or sarcastic tone
• allowing interviewee to answer in full • cutting the interviewee off mid-sentence
Your turn
Part 4
4.52 Can you add any more ‘encouraging’ or ‘discouraging’ language or gestures to the table?
4.53 Do you regularly watch any current affairs shows? If so, which ones and why? What about your
parents? Ask them why, and what they expect to gain from watching them. Discuss your findings as
a class, exploring some of the key differences between the different current affairs shows shown on
Australian television.
4.54 Over a 1–2 week period, view several episodes of the following programs:
• 7:30 (ABC1, 7.30 pm, Monday–Thursday),
• A Current Affair (Channel 9, 7.00 pm, Monday–Friday),
• The Project (Channel 10, 6.30 pm, Monday–Friday).
Make notes on their similarities and differences by answering the following questions and the ones in
the ‘Interviews’ section. Consider reporting your findings to the class.
CURRENT AFFAIRS PROGRAMS – COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS QUESTIONS
Hosts How do they present? What image do they project? (appearance, voice, mannerisms, etc.)
Reports Types of stories? Are they serious or sensationalist? Give examples.

How many stories per program? Any other regular segments?
Advertising Are advertisements shown during the program? If so, what sorts of products are being
advertised? What conclusions can you draw about the program’s demographics?
Presentation What image does the show try to project? (serious, intellectual, entertaining, ’moral guardians’,
etc.) Any significant use of colours, set design, music, sound effects, etc.?

4.55 Look at these promotional photographs for the hosts of different Australian current affairs programs.
a What image does each program attempt to project with the photograph? In other words, how does
the show attempt to position the audience to view the host?
b What visual language strategies are being used to achieve this positioning or image?
c Do you think these images are similar in style, or are there differences? Make notes and discuss as
a class.
Leigh Sales, host of 7.30 Tracy Grimshaw, host of A Current Affair
DOCUMENTARIES
A documentary is a work of non-fiction that aims to ‘document’ reality and therefore strives for objectivity
Part 4
rather than bias. The most common forms are film and television documentaries, but they can be in radio and
photographic format, too. In recent years, feature-length documentaries such as Blackfish, Exit Through the Gift Shop
and Food, Inc., as well as older documentaries such as An Inconvenient Truth and Michael Moore’s blockbusters
Bowling for Columbine, Fahrenheit 9/11 and Sicko have been popular with audiences. Intriguingly, these films were
successful because of their persuasive power; this is controversial in a genre that has traditionally sought to
document facts in an informative fashion. To this end, documentary makers are sometimes labelled opinionated
entertainers rather than educators, who present interesting but not necessarily objective versions of issues.
Analyse the merits of a documentary for yourself by considering how the information is presented.
Your turn
4.56 Think about some recent documentaries.
a How many can you think of? Brainstorm a list as a class. Do you think they were primarily neutral
or persuasive in terms of the director’s purpose?
b View one (or more) of the documentary films you listed in activity 4.5a. Use the following table
headings to make notes to indicate how the documentary maker attempts to position the audience
to share a point of view. Explain the impact of each technique you observe.
VERBAL LANGUAGE CONTENT NON-VERBAL LANGUAGE VISUAL LANGUAGE CONTENT

SPOKEN/WRITTEN LANGUAGE, CONTENT IMAGES, CAMERA SHOTS
PERSUASIVE STRATEGIES, BODY LANGUAGE, GESTURES, AND ANGLES, COLOURS AND
TONE, ETC. SOUND EFFECTS, MUSIC SYMBOLS
c Give an oral report on the documentary’s most persuasive scene. Use your notes from activity
4.56b.

4.57 Consider this poster for the 2006 documentary
film An Inconvenient Truth, directed by Davis
Guggenheim. The documentary is about former
US Vice President Al Gore’s campaign to educate
citizens about global warming, and it was hugely
popular. Then answer the following questions:
a Consider the verbal language placed with
the film’s title, as well as the poster’s overall
design. Which genre of filmmaking does the
poster satirise, and why?
b Identify one verbal and one visual aspect of the
poster’s language that creates a form of pun or
conveys a double meaning. Explain the impact
of each.
c Comment on the poster’s significant
use of colour, and any other verbal or
visual elements that you find particularly
persuasive. Discuss as a class.
d Is this poster multimodal? Explain.
e Using appropriate computer software, design
your own multimodal poster for a ‘fictional’
documentary of your own choosing, or for
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one of the ideas listed:

• a day in the life of your frightening family
• a school run by zombie teachers
• parents who secretly hack their children’s
Facebook accounts
• dancing dogs.
WEBSITES (AND OTHER ONLINE TEXTS)

A website is an electronic page or series of pages uploaded to the internet. They are multimodal when they offer
interactive combinations of, for example, text, static visuals or moving images such as video footage, and audio.
Modern webpages often allow dynamic forms of content to be accessed by users and businesses. Many websites
are set up to be persuasive, unless they are dedicated to the sharing of information (such as government
websites related to census data, etc.). Increasingly the data captured is ‘sold on’, or used to increase the
persuasive potential of advertisements or other information by having it tailored to individual users’ interests.
Some common web text types and applications include the following:
• Online forums: Web applications that facilitate discussion within an internet group or ‘virtual community’. Also
known as web forums, message boards or electronic discussion groups.
• Blogs: Short for ‘web log’. Similar to online forums in that they facilitate online discussion, although many are
like personalised online diaries. Often interactive; most are text-based, but can also include photos, videos, etc.
• E-zines: Word derives from ‘electronic’ and ‘magazine’, which is exactly what they are – magazines in electronic
form. E-zines cater to special interest subjects, such as musical genres, and are usually a series of webpages.
• Wikis: Software applications that allow users to freely create and edit webpage content using any web browser.
They encourage democratic use of the web and promote content composition by non-expert users.

Your turn
4.58 Study the website pictured and answer the following questions.
a Explain the various purposes of this website. What aspects
of the site help to convey each purpose?
b Identify a specific appeal being made and explain the
intention behind it.
c Look at the visual language of the power plug. What
famous painting does it allude to? Discuss with your
teacher and explain the purpose of this allusion.
d The site contains a number of imperatives – phrases that strongly urge people to do
something – such as ‘Switch now’. Identify some other examples, and explain their specific impact.
ADVERTISEMENTS
Advertisements are representations of reality – constructions –
designed to sell a product or an idea. They are usually created by
copywriters at advertising agencies and appear in magazines,
newspapers or on billboards; non-print varieties can be heard
on the radio. Multimodal ads are commonly found on television
and the internet and are increasingly being used to replace old-
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fashioned, static billboard posters. Advertisers now use digital
billboard posters such as the one pictured.
Aspects and features of advertisements

Advertisements generally have these features:
• will be biased/subjective and designed to present the product or concept in a flattering light
• appeal to particular senses, emotions or desires; often work on a ‘must-have’ mentality
• may try to sell via association (e.g. using celebrity power: Lady Gaga promoting Google Chrome)
• are often multimodal (use a mixture of verbal, non-verbal and visual language)
• often deal in stereotypes (e.g. businesspeople) and are aimed at specific demographics (e.g. teenagers).
Desensitisation
As a society, we have become increasingly desensitised to advertising in public spaces because we are so used to
seeing it everywhere. Advertisements appear at the bottom of our television screens during programs and they
are positioned on public transport windows and in between goals at the football – much to some people’s disgust!
Advertisers are constantly trying to find original and effective ways of persuading consumers.
Is advertising ethical?
In recent years some companies have come under fire for pitching advertisements directly at children. Whether
film characters are selling fast food or ‘alcopop’ drinks are being marketed at underage teenagers, significant
moral and health-related arguments arise in this context. Issues of morality aside, your job is to consider how an
advertisement uses language in all its forms to persuade. To do this, ask yourself these questions:
• Exactly who is this advertisement aimed at (demographic), and how can I tell?
• What appeals are being made, if any? What other types of language have been used?
• What aspects of the visual design stand out, if relevant (symbols, colour, framing, etc.)?
• How have the creators sought to position the target audience with the various forms of language?

Your turn
4.59 Study the following two car advertisements
and then answer these questions.
a With a partner, discuss the ways
in which language is used in each
advertisement. Consider the context
and target audiences of each
advertisement and explain the impact
of specific language strategies.
b Which advertisement do you think
uses language more effectively to
appeal to its target audience? Why?
Part 4
4.60 Look at this confronting poster advertisement and answer

the following questions.
a Who is the target audience (demographic)? How can
you tell?
b How does this advertisement parody another form of
poster? Why do you think the designers might have
chosen to do this, in light of your answer to question
4.60a?
c What emotions and sentiments does the ad appeal to?
(For example, does it appeal to the viewer’s desire to
be seen as sexy or cool? Does it appeal to the viewer’s
need for social acceptance?) How does the ad create this
appeal?
d Write a short paragraph to explain the advertisement’s
purpose/s, use of language and the impact of this
language on a specific target audience.
e Design your own multimodal advertisement, for the
same purposes as are evident in this example. Think
carefully about how to use both verbal and visual
language to appeal to your chosen target demographic.

5
Part
Analysing argument
HOW DO YOU ANALYSE AN ARGUMENT?
Exactly as you have been doing so far in this book! In this part of your English course, when you study how
argument is made and language is used you are asked to analyse and sometimes compare the arguments
presented in texts as well as the ways authors construct these arguments to position their audiences.
This involves several elements:
• considering the intent and development of an argument, along with any bias in its presentation of
information and ideas
• identifying significant language strategies that contribute to the persuasiveness of the argument
• discussing and analysing the intended impacts of these arguments and language features on the specific
Part 5
audience groups being targeted.
In other words, you are being asked to identify and analyse the way in which argument and language complement
one another and interact to position the reader.
WRITE CRITICALLY AND SYSTEMATICALLY

Writing that analyses the arguments and language in texts requires a great deal of critical thinking and a
systematic approach. Clearly explaining an argument and the use of persuasive language is not easy. It is more
than just identifying language strategies and commenting on their effects. You have to show an understanding of
the purposes of the text and the key arguments being put forward, and how specific language choices operate in
relation to those purposes and arguments. You need to explain the specific intended impacts of key language features
in light of the aims and ideas of the authors in question.
As we have already discussed, if someone is seeking to persuade you to agree with their opinion, they can use a
range of ideas and persuasive strategies. Say, for example, a writer wants to explore the impact of global warming
on Australian agricultural practices. The writer might appeal to logic, use authoritative evidence and write in
the third person. These strategies would be immediately
persuasive to an audience who is unaware of the fact that
the writer has left out critical conflicting evidence or has
demonstrated bias.
Argument analysis requires you to consider all aspects
of the writing – the arguments and the language features
– and how the ‘whole package’ works in context. To do
this, you must consider the elements of context, purpose,
audience, language and form that were mentioned in
Part 1, and then use the following ‘Critical questions
of argument analysis’ to prepare a coherent piece of
writing.
PART 5: ANALYSING ARGUMENT 101

Your turn
5.1 Use the information from the ‘How do you analyse an argument?’ section as well as from the
‘Information for VCE students’ section in Part 1 to answer the following questions.
a Create a bullet-point list of the key skills in this Area of Study under the title ‘Argument analysis: what
is expected?’ Review it with your teacher and use it as an ongoing reference for your written analyses.
b Based on what you have learnt in Parts 1–4, write your own lists of what to look for in an argument
and language features. Use these lists in conjunction with your bullet-point list of key skills from
activity 5.1a.
Critical questions of argument analysis

Whatever the text, always ask the following questions. If you can be accurate and specific in your answers,
you will be able to produce an effective analysis of both argument and language. The acronym CAPITALS will
help you to remember the important questions. Test yourself and a partner in the weeks ahead.
C Context
When was the text created? Was it in response to other texts or particular events? Is any background
knowledge required?
A Argument
What is the overarching point of view, or contention? What ideas or arguments are put forward in
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support of this view?
P Purpose and positioning

What are the author’s overall purposes? How do the persuasive strategies reflect and support these
purposes? How does the author want to position the audience on the issue? Why?
I Issue and implications

What is the issue and what are its implications? For example, the issue of whether schools should be allowed
to conduct random drug tests has wider implications that relate to issues of privacy, safety, health, etc.
T Text type
What type of text is it and why has this text type been chosen? What are the interesting features of
genre or form in this example and how might they impact on someone’s reading of the text?
A Author and audience

Who is the author? Do they have a vested interest? Does their identity impact on their
viewpoint or audience? Who are the target audiences? How is it made apparent in the text, in
terms of the language choices?
L Language features
What persuasive language features (verbal, non-verbal, visual) are predominant? Why have they
been chosen? (Consider how different choices might have made a different impact.) What are their
impacts on the target audiences? How do they support the arguments?
S Stakeholders
Who are the stakeholders (parties involved) in this issue? What do they stand to gain or lose?
Remember: the aim is to consider ‘the whole package’. A written text will consist mainly of verbal
language, but also consider any relevant aspects of design and layout, as well as any visual language,
such as images or symbols, that accompanies the writing. Carefully consider the context in which
the text appears, as this can significantly change the way it is read by an audience.

LANGUAGE FOCUS
NOTE-TAKING
Detailed note-taking should be a regular part of your analysis work. Rehearse the
skill – it does not come naturally to many students. For all text types you should:
• write notes, or construct a table using headings and subheadings
• make annotations with either handwritten comments in the margins or by inserting comment boxes into
electronic documents or texts.
Your notes should summarise the content and nature of the arguments presented, as well as the specific
impacts of key language features. Ask yourself: ‘How does the author want the audience to think, feel or respond at
key moments?’
Your turn
5.2 Read any opinion piece or editorial from Part 4 or a recent article you have downloaded from the
internet or used in your English class. As you read it, take careful notes, using one of the approaches
discussed in the ‘Note-taking’ section.
WRITING ABOUT PURPOSE OR INTENTION

Useful phrases
Part 5
The following expressions help to explain exactly how a particular language strategy serves either to position an
audience or to support a point of view. Use them throughout your analyses of argument and language.
• This strategy is designed to … - incite anger or outrage by …

• The aim here is to … - advocate the view that …
• These provocative verbs position readers to … - propose a viable alternative to …
• With the intention of … the author … - divide the audience by …
• The writer/speaker hopes to … - provoke serious debate by …
- evoke/instil a sense of … - elicit an emotional response that …
- alienate dissenters by … - validate the underlying contention by …
- include the audience in the debate by … - encourage support for …
- appeal to a sense of …
Make specific verb choices

Carefully choose the most specific verb to explain the aim of a writer’s particular argument or strategy. Some
useful verbs are listed here.
accentuate dismiss highlight praise

allude to draw attention to inform provoke
attack educate intensify rebut
challenge emphasise lend weight to reflect
criticise encourage negate reiterate

Use linking words or phrases, connectives and conjunctions
Linking words are highly effective ‘signposts’ that make it easy to follow a line of argument
and clarify the links between your individual sentences and ideas. They can indicate:
• a new point similar to the previous one
• a new point of a different or contrasting nature
• a conclusive or summative point (the logical end of an argument)
• a complete change of topic.
If used effectively, linking words make even an average argument seem more convincing. But if used
awkwardly or incorrectly, they will confuse the reader. Whether you are producing an analysis or your own
opinion piece, linking words are crucial to the coherence and sequencing of your argument.
Your turn
5.3 Review the useful phrases list, the list of useful verbs and the table of connectives. Then answer the
following questions.
a What other useful purpose/intention phrases can you add to the list in the ‘Useful phrases’
section?
b Work with a partner or your class to brainstorm any other suitable verbs to add to the list in the
‘Make specific verb choices’ section.
c How many other connective words or phrases can you add to this table? Work with a partner or
search the internet. Compare as a class, then create your own comprehensive table as a
Part 5
reference tool – these expressions are very useful and important in your own writing.
CONNECTIVES
A NEW POINT (DIFFERENT/ A CONCLUSIVE/

A NEW POINT (SIMILAR)
CONTRASTING) SUMMATIVE POINT
in addition however overall
furthermore on the other hand in conclusion
also in contrast therefore
d The following linking words and phrases are sometimes difficult to classify using the categories in
the ‘Connectives’ table. Why is this so? Are any of them synonymous?
• admittedly • despite (this) • although • nevertheless
5.4 Choose the appropriate linking word or phrase to complete the following sentences.
• in contrast • for this reason • however • in addition
a Cigarettes clog the arteries, making breathing difficult; ____________________ to this, they are
expensive!
b This beachfront proposal is robbing our children of their heritage; ____________________ we must
fight the council’s decision to allow its construction.
c All parents want the best for their children. ____________________, any fool can see that three
hours of homework every night in Year 7 is not appropriate.
d For ‘pro-choice’ campaigners, the right to an abortion is symbolic of a woman’s right to choose.
____________________ ‘pro-lifers’ see the act as barbaric and murderous.

5.5 Complete the following letter to the editor by choosing an appropriate linking word to fill each space.
To the editor,
I am disgusted at this government’s proposal to introduce drug tests in secondary schools. It is an offensive
proposition because it serves to undermine family relationships. _____________________, it is sending the
wrong message to our children; it is saying ‘we don’t trust you’, and I for one do not wish to be associated with
such a negative agenda.
I could list dozens of reasons as to why this is a flawed initiative, _____________________ here are my three
major concerns: _____________________, children are individuals. This proposal negates this, and lumps a
law-abiding majority in with a troubled, misunderstood few. _____________________, my children know they
can come to me to discuss how drugs might affect them; this proposal only serves to erode the bond of trust
that parents have established with their kids. _____________________, this proposal sends a cynical and
patronising message. If we want our children to remain open and honest, this is the worst thing that we could
be doing.
_____________________ if we strive to maintain open lines of communication and build on trust, we will
enjoy strong relationships with most, if not all, kids.
_____________________, this proposal is out of touch and barbaric. I feel like we’re headed back to the
scaremongering of the 1950s. The fact is, drugs exist, and teenagers will experiment. _____________________,
we need to be realistic and face facts. Otherwise we might as well kiss our kids goodbye once and for all.
The answer is simple: just say no to drug tests.
Part 5
Vary your sentence structure
To make your writing more interesting and less repetitive, consider the different ways in which a sentence can be
structured. Look at this example from a student’s written analysis of a text:
The writer attacks and undermines the state government’s credibility by labelling the new water conservation
strategy an ‘ill-conceived disaster’.
This sentence can be written in a number of different ways, as the following examples show. The phrase ‘by the
writer’ is not always necessary so don’t overuse it in your own writing.
• Aiming to undermine the state government’s credibility, the

writer attacks the new water conservation strategy and labels
it an ‘ill-conceived disaster’.
• The state government’s credibility is potentially undermined

by an attack on the new water conservation strategy, which is
labelled an ‘ill-conceived disaster’.
• The writer, aiming to undermine the state government’s

credibility, attacks the new water conservation strategy by
labelling it an ‘ill-conceived disaster’.
• The new water conservation strategy is attacked and labelled

an ‘ill-conceived disaster’ by the writer*, which undermines the
state government’s credibility.

Your turn
5.6 Consider this sentence from ‘Sample single-text analysis 1’.
Positive statements such as ‘Why this matters’ and ‘How we win’ use upbeat and inclusive
language to reassure young people that their involvement through the petition is smart and
community minded.
a Re-write the sentence in three different ways, being sure to identify the strategies employed,
provide examples and show how the strategies relate to the overall purpose and how readers are
impacted or positioned.
b Choose another sentence from ‘Sample single-text analysis 1’ and repeat the process in
activity 5.6a.
STYLE
The style of a text refers to the way in which it has been constructed or the manner in which it is expressed. Do
not confuse style with tone or voice. Tone refers to the way a piece of writing would sound if it were spoken aloud,
or, for example, the emotional quality of the delivery. Voice is sometimes used to mean the same thing as tone;
however, it can also describe the identity of the person who is speaking. For example, the voice of a piece could be
an elderly female retiree from Frankston, the head of a lobby group or a school prefect.
When we refer to the style of a text, we refer to the many elements of its composition:
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• how clearly an author has used language • whether the writing is concise
• the emotions that the text conveys • how carefully the argument is constructed
• whether it is objective, neutral or conveys bias • the originality of the writing.
Your turn
5.7 The following words can be used to describe the style of someone’s writing. Do you know their
meanings? Give as many definitions as you can to a partner, then look up the terms you don’t know.
impartial convoluted succinct reasonable unique
formulaic passionate illogical biased dull
5.8 The words in the following table can also describe the style of a text. Note that they all have positive
connotations.
a Categorise each of the style words from question 5.7 into the table according to whether they are
synonyms (similar in meaning) or antonyms (opposite in meaning). Do not use the same word
twice. What other synonyms and antonyms can you add? Use a thesaurus.
STYLE OF TEXT SYNONYMS ANTONYMS
objective
concise
enthusiastic
logical
original

b Work with a partner to explain the meanings of each of the following ‘style’ words (use a dictionary
if necessary). Create a table with the following headings to classify whether each word has a
positive (P) or negative (N) connotation. Then write a simple definition or a synonym in the last
column. An example has been done for you.
warm rambling polished straightforward clumsy
sophisticated balanced obscure long-winded
vague awkward fluent imprecise
POSITIVE (P)
STYLE WORD DEFINITION/SYNONYM
OR NEGATIVE (N)
clumsy N awkward
5.9 Read the following texts on the issue of appropriate behaviour at office Christmas parties.
a List at least five words to describe the style of each text. Choose your style words from those given
on the previous pages, or select your own.
b How is the style of each text a product of its respective forms and audiences? Answer with
reference to specific language choices made by each author.
Text 1
Part 5
Y ULE BE SORRY IF YOU DON’T A SK THE SE 3 QUE STIONS
ABOUT YOUR COMPAN Y ’S CHRISTMA S PART Y
To avoid getting a writ for New However, there are some ‘If you are
Year, a company’s directors simple strategies to keep a director or a
[…] need to meet some everyone safe, and the business senior officer in the company and
obligations even when they are out of the firing line from any you don’t know the immediate
claims or complaints, adds answer to those questions, you
not attending staff Christmas
Selinger. need to get on top of things
parties, says Holding Redlich
A good starting point for quickly, as you could find
partner Michael Selinger.
directors and officers is to ask yourself personally liable for
these three questions: the misconduct of others,’ adds
‘Bullying, sexual harassment, and Selinger.
1 Are you confident that
even violence are unfortunately everyone in your business This is because senior officers
not uncommon incidents that understands what behaviour can be liable for breaches by
businesses continually have to is acceptable and what workers in respect to laws that
deal with at this time of the year,’ conduct will be considered make bullying and harassment
says Selinger. unacceptable? unlawful; the business itself can
As a result, directors and be directly liable under health
2 Do senior managers and
senior officers, who are not and safety laws; and the business
workers know what the
involved in the day-to-day can be vicariously liable for the
repercussions can be if
operations of a company, could be misconduct of staff under anti-
misconduct takes place?
exposed to claims or complaints, discrimination laws.
3 What systems does your
as a result of behaviour at a business have in place to
workplace during this period. Michael Bailey, BRW,
ensure this understanding is 29 November 2013, (excerpt only)
achieved?

Text 2
To: [email protected]
Subject: Disaster!
Hey Sammy – OMG!!! Did you hear about Jules? One too many fruit punches @ Xmas bash and she ended up
telling her boss where to go … V embarrassing. Of course, now she’s super-stressed – thinks she’s going to
get fired!!! Doubt it’ll be that bad but Mon morning will be interesting … !
;)
Catch ya then – C xxx
TONE
Tone has several meanings: it refers to the way a text sounds when it is read aloud (e.g. appalled, annoyed,
humorous); it also can describe the mood of a visual or written text (e.g. dark, sombre, light-hearted). Tone is
conveyed through specific words and can be easily identified in spoken texts, as the expression of the speaker’s
voice conveys their intention. The tone of a text can also change the way the words are understood. For example,
a sarcastic tone implies the opposite of what the words actually state; if someone says ‘Great!’ sarcastically, we
understand that they don’t actually think the situation is great at all!
Part 5
PINPOINT THE TONE ACCURATELY

In written texts, the tone of a text can be difficult to establish; re-read pieces of writing to analyse the sentences closely.
A text’s tone can change to suit different purposes; for example, an elated or outraged tone might be attention-grabbing,
but a rational or measured voice may more effectively communicate a complex and logical argument. Many texts will
employ a range of tones for this reason. Here is a table of useful tone words, listed in broad synonym groups – be sure to
consider their subtle differences and choose carefully when using these words in an analysis.
Useful tone words

calm amicable amused arrogant alarmed
diplomatic appreciative humorous condescending bewildered
moderate approving ironic patronising outraged
open-minded conciliatory ridiculing proud shocked
reasonable friendly sarcastic self-important critical
authoritative sympathetic sardonic self-righteous disappointed
cautious understanding satirical heavy-handed dismayed
conservative earnest animated moralising forthright
guarded humble elated punctilious matter-of-fact
restrained modest enthusiastic cynical unequivocal
apathetic apologetic fervent negative aggressive
detached remorseful passionate pessimistic confrontational
insipid sentimental zealous scathing hostile

Your turn
5.10 In groups, create brief dialogues for the following roles and scenarios. Experiment with a range
of tones.
• A teenager argues a case for borrowing the new family car for the evening. Play the parent first as
annoyed and outraged, then as supportive and friendly.
• Two football fans discuss the results of an AFL match in which one team was thrashed. First play
the roles of the fans as sarcastic and nasty, then as despondent and heartbroken.
5.11 Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper to express concern regarding some appalling student
behaviour you witnessed on an afternoon bus. Write two brief paragraphs:
• in an outraged tone, to outline some of the specific behaviours you’ve witnessed
• in an restrained voice, to make recommendations to the schools or students concerned.
5.12 Write a definition of each of the following tone words. Include at least two synonyms.
a admonishing ______________________________________________________________________
b authoritative ______________________________________________________________________
c patronising ________________________________________________________________________
d satirical __________________________________________________________________________
5.13 Match each tone word to its definition.

scathing moderate appalled unsympathetic despondent earnest facetious pessimistic
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insensitive; tactless; lacking compassion
stressing the negative or unfavourable view; thinking the worst
avoiding extremes of emotion; controlled; restrained
sincere; genuine
extremely shocked; angry and dismayed
joking or jesting; tongue in cheek
harsh; critical; attacking
forlorn; unhappy; discouraged
5.14 Choose an appropriate tone word from any of the previous lists to describe each of the following
excerpts.
EXCERPT TONE WORD
This ‘initiative’ takes my breath away. How can we expect ambulance workers to
provide professional, responsible care when they are working 10–14 hour shifts,
day in and day out, for weeks at a time? And for such atrocious pay? Premier, your
offer is an insult: ambos, don’t accept it – you are worth so much more.
It is appalling to think that professional sportspeople will be treated differently to

members of the general public when it comes to illicit drug use. What message
does this send to our kids? ‘It’s okay to do drugs, so long as you’re good looking
and talented?’ This is shameful hypocrisy at its finest.

EXCERPT TONE WORD
Once again we confirm our status as the equine hub of the nation thanks to the
wonderful Melbourne Cup. Jaw-dropping fashion, gourmet produce and, of course,
those glamorous, galloping geldings. A national treasure – well done, Melbourne!
So not only do we have to stand up for hours at a stretch on these outmoded,

painfully slow sardine tins the state calls ‘trains’, we now face the added bonus of
knowing that there will be ‘no noticeable improvements to services’ in the short
term, while we wait for the results of another report. Brilliant.
To suggest that the future of this project will be decided on economic grounds is
foolish; there are significant environmental issues to address, and at this stage it
would appear that neither the state government nor the Port Authority has taken
the necessary steps in this direction.
CONSIDER THE IMPACT OF TONE

As with all aspects of argument analysis, explaining the effect of a particular tone is more important than simply
identifying it. The intended effect or the intended impact of the language refers to how the language makes us feel, think
and respond. For example, if someone used an aggressive tone in an article on children in asylum detention in Australia,
their aim might be to make the audience feel alienated, threatened or perhaps even offended about such a hard line policy.
Use the mnemonic ‘TEE’ (Tone, Example, Effect) to help you remember to identify the tone and explain its effect.
Part 5
(Mnemonics are language tricks that help us to remember things, such as ‘i before e except after c’.) Also, when you
identify the tone of a text, be sure that you can pinpoint individual words or phrases that indicate the tone. Look at the
examples in this table.
TEXT EXAMPLE TONE EFFECT
‘This report is a damning ‘damning critical, establishes a sense of failure; accuses and
indictment; it reveals indictment’ condemnatory attacks the aged-care industry
years of systematic abuse
and negligence within ‘must be emphatic, implies a sense of urgency; paints the author as
the aged-care industry, addressed insistent responsible, proactive, a ‘moral guardian’
and the issues must be immediately’
addressed immediately …’
‘This ceremonious pomp ‘ceremonious dismissive, represents the government as focused on outward
and posturing is sadly pomp and scathing show and self-promotion at the expense of action;
typical of a government posturing’ encourages readers to feel resentful about the
obsessed with public fact that nothing has been done
image …’
‘sadly typical’ cynical suggests that the conceited behaviour is no
surprise; paints the government in a negative light
Helpful hints
There are many ways to introduce the tone and explain its effects. Experiment by using a range of sentence
structures and avoid overusing the word ‘tone’. Here are four examples:
• Smith condemns the plan in an aggressive fashion, which suggests that …
• Suggesting that … Smith condemns the plan in an aggressive voice …
• Johnson criticises the government’s new legislation in a scathing yet humorous tone …
• The speaker contends, in a scathing yet humorous tone of voice, that this new legislation will negatively impact …

Your turn
5.15 Pinpoint the tone in each of the following samples of writing by using the TEE approach. Explain the
impact of this tone.
TEXT TONE EXAMPLE EFFECT
a ‘There is often only a fine line

between satire and puerile,
sexist slander; Redfoo’s latest
single sits fairly and squarely in
the latter category. He should
apologise for this offensive attack
on women and men alike …’
b ‘Poor Leslie Cannold! … She can’t

afford to send her son to private
school! If you don’t like your
local state school, Ms Cannold,
perhaps you should find another
one …’
c ‘This entire community should

feel proud of its achievements
– not for a very long time have
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we seen such a tireless display
of teamwork and genuine
benevolence. Hats off to all of you
…’
5.16 Source an editorial from this book, The Age or the Herald Sun.
a Re-read it carefully. Identify key moments in the editorial where the tone changes or ‘shifts’.
b Explain why this shift has occurred in terms of the author’s purpose. How does the change in the
tone reflect a change of the argument, intention, etc.?

How to construct an analysis – single text
Sometimes, in this Area of Study you are required to analyse the argument of a single text. You can take
many approaches, and some are more appropriate for particular text types than others. Your final product
should be clearly structured into paragraphs, and it should contain a suitable introduction, several body
paragraphs and a conclusion. The following steps outline one possible approach. Your teacher may be
able to suggest others.
Step 1 Read the text at least twice – re-reading helps you to pick up on the text’s subtle aspects, such
as tone and irony. Annotate the text or take notes to identify key arguments and key language
strategies and how they serve to support the contention. Focus on the specific impacts of the
arguments and features of language, as well as how these elements work together.
Step 2 Answer the CAPITALS questions in the ‘Critical questions of argument analysis’ in note form.
Step 3 Plan your piece; decide which arguments and language strategies you will discuss and in what
order. This depends on the text type – you could work through the text from start to finish and
break it down into key ‘sections’, identifying and explaining key arguments and the impacts of
language features as they appear. Focus on how the language positions the audience to accept
each idea, as well as the overall contention. Show how the author’s language choices reflect the
arguments and intention, as well as how they are chosen to suit the audience.
Step 4 Write an introduction that identifies the issue and its context, the text type, the author and their
point of view, and the overall tone and/or style of the piece. Perhaps also outline any significant
structural features (headline, design features, etc.) and their impact
if this is relevant.
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Step 5 Write the body paragraphs, showing how the language

is used to support the author’s arguments. Incorporate
analysis of visual language, where it seems most relevant
to the author’s specific arguments, to show how verbal and
visual language features work together. Vary the structure
of your sentences to avoid sounding repetitive. Be concise
– use phrases such as ‘This is an attempt to …’ or ‘This
repetition serves to …’. Exercise your vocabulary and avoid
clichéd and common phrases.
Step 6 Write a conclusion to summarise the author’s purpose
and how they have used a range of argument approaches
and language features to persuade. Reflect on the
quality of the argument. Was it logical? Reasoned? Was
it adequately supported? Balanced or biased? Try
also to identify subgroups within the intended
audience that might be particularly persuaded
or alienated, and explain why.

Your turn
5.17 Go to the website of the Australian Youth Climate Coalition (AYCC) and click on the ‘Campaigns’ tab
and then the ‘Renewable Generation’ campaign (see the partial screenshot). Think carefully about
the range of ways in which verbal and visual language is used to position the target audience to share
a point of view. Identify key arguments and language features and explain their impacts – be sure to
consider how the whole package works together.
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5.18 Now read this high-scoring sample analysis of the AYCC campaign. Consider the useful phrases in
bold and annotate them to indicate why they are effective elements. Discuss your answers as a class.
high-scoring
Sample single-text analysis 1 response
In 2014 the Australian Youth Climate Coalition photographs and illustrations, designed to
established an online campaign to support foster community empowerment and support
renewable energy initiatives and condemn for the initiative.
government plans to ‘scrap billions of dollars of Unsurprisingly, the AYCC puts the online
renewable energy investment’. The campaign campaign option front and centre at the top
emerged in the context of lapsed federal of its webpage, hoping to elicit the support of
government support for climate change action young people comfortable with online protest
and in the wake of the dismantled carbon and activism. This campaign directly appeals
tax. It sought to maintain young people’s to a youth audience who aligns itself with clean
enthusiasm and commitment to serious action energy initiatives and against coal options. The
on climate change through renewable options. page is entitled ‘RENEWABLE GENERATION’ in
The campaign was an upbeat mixture of a bold word-play statement that asserts that
positive slogans and imperatives, and arresting young people are the generation to bring about

renewable energy change and can ‘renew’ the community minded. This is reinforced by the
country’s focus. This positivity is supported by argument that Australia has ‘the sun, wind and
the colourful retro illustrations at the top of the space’ to create an economy ‘powered 100% by
site: bright yellows and greens stir a sense of renewable energy’. This last, highly optimistic
patriotism and nostalgia, and reflect the colours claim is more an ambition than a factual
of the sun’s power and the earth’s natural projection or research-based statistic; however,
fertility respectively. Readers are positioned to many young people would find its positivity
feel upbeat about the possibility of a ‘renewable persuasive. Such appeals to youth enthusiasm
future’. are also evident in ‘We love renewable
These bright colours contrast starkly with energy and why wouldn’t we?’ as well as the
the grim photograph of a coal-fired power (unsupported) ‘Polls show that Australians want
station further down the webpage. Miserable to see more investment in renewable energy’.
dark browns mingle with clouds of billowing grey Each relies on generalisation rather than
smoke to create a depressing alternate vision firm evidence to persuade, but on the surface
of Australian power generation, one which is appears reasonable, particularly to young people
clearly designed to spur the youth audience on already inclined to support such initiatives.
to commit to the campaign by submitting their The impressive photograph of hundreds
details. The text under the heading ‘The problem’ of white posters on the lawns of Parliament
emphasises the impacts of the government’s House, spelling out ‘YOUR CHOICE = OUR
plans; observations such as ‘the government FUTURE’, makes an inclusive and direct appeal
is currently trying to scrap billions of dollars to this youth audience by combining a sense
of renewable energy investment’ and risking of community and activist spirit with national
‘thousands of future jobs’ paint the government
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pride. The word ‘choice’ also links back to the

as financially reckless and destructive, and campaign and the importance of submitting a
encourage young people to consider their own protest to the government. In conjunction with
professional futures and the risks that such cuts the emphatic closing remark ‘This is a campaign
might present to them personally. Overall this we can win’ and the plea ‘will you join us?’, the
campaign promotes a positive vision for a future AYCC leaves its young audience confident of
‘Australia powered by renewable energy’ while change and empowered by their own role in
demonising a government that threatens this helping to facilitate it.
future. Overall, the campaign is an engaging call to
The other elements on the webpage work action that targets primarily young adults to give
together to present the renewable approach as strong support for renewable energy action. The
the most logical and beneficial to all of Australia. colourful design and inclusive language combine
Positive statements such as ‘Why this matters’ to inspire enthusiasm and commitment, with
and ‘How we win’ use upbeat and inclusive the ultimate aim of ensuring that the audience
language to reassure young people that their understands that ‘As young people, it’s [their]
involvement through the petition is smart and future environment and jobs on the line’.
5.19 Read the following opinion article that featured in an Australian broadsheet newspaper.
a Analyse the quality of the arguments and how effectively they are supported and developed. Do you
think the author Chris Hey constructs a sound logical argument? Explain.
b Highlight the key arguments put forward and list the key language features that support each one.
How does Hey tailor his language to support the arguments presented? Use examples to explain.
c Discuss as a class how you would best construct an analysis of this particular point of view.
How would you structure this response? Where would you incorporate discussion of the visual
language? Why?

WHO’S RE ADY TO HELP?
The concept of introducing an (calculated as a proportion of dictatorships, by employing more

overseas aid tax – a proposal net income), the impact on those Australian contractors we are
initiated by a broad cross-section families and individuals who helping to ensure that our money
of businesses, churches and could least afford it would be gets to where it needs to be.
altruistic interest groups and negligible. At the other end of Poverty is the breeding ground
outlined in this newspaper last the scale, individuals earning for terrorist activity and despotic
Tuesday – is an honourable hundreds of thousands of dollars violence; by contributing more
one. It would assist thousands a year would simply be giving a aid we are doing our bit for global
of people around the world, little back to those around the stability.
enhance Australia’s international world who need it most. Such aid would enhance
reputation and provide invaluable There is no denying the Australia’s reputation as a global
local business opportunities. moral arguments behind the citizen. It would strengthen our
Currently Australia’s foreign implementation of such a tax – economy. It would bring us more
aid contributions are nothing in an age of ‘global villages’ allies, and diminish our enemies.
short of abysmal – by no means and ‘global markets’, how can It would provide opportunities
do we share equal responsibility we justify not coming to the aid for education and empower
with the rest of the world. In of our fellow human beings, impoverished communities. But
2000 we pledged to aspire to the wherever they might be? How can most importantly, it would save
UN Millennium Goals, whereby we do nothing when thousands lives.
we aim to help eradicate world die every day from diseases So hands up – who’s ready?
poverty by 2030. Yet in 2007, which are cured with a 30 cent
Part 5
rather than expending the 0.5 per vaccine in the western world?
cent of GDP that we promised To paraphrase humanitarian
in order to achieve this worthy activist and U2 front man Bono,
aim, we spent just 0.28 per our place of birth should not
cent; despite repeated claims determine whether we live or
from both sides of government die. Children born into poverty
in the years since, this figure did not ask to be poor, nor can
has not substantially changed. they be asked to get themselves
Furthermore, in January out of such a predicament when
2014 the Abbott-led Coalition their access to education is either
announced it would slash severely limited or non-existent.
Australia’s aid contributions As compassionate human beings
to pressing issues such as they deserve our help, and this
climate change, health and aid tax helps us help them.
sanitation crises in developing The benefits of such a tax are
countries via a whopping not just moral, either. Currently,
and immediate $650 000 000 a majority of Australia’s foreign
in cuts. This is a shameful aid budget is spent on employing
surprise announcement from a Australian contractors and
government which campaigned buying Australian goods to send
on a promise of no cuts. overseas. Hundreds of Australian
An overseas aid tax would businesses and workers rely
help to facilitate the necessary on these initiatives – imagine
redressing of this failure in a the additional jobs that could
fiscally responsible manner, as be created if this tax were
Chris Hey is a lecturer in economics and
the burden would be carried introduced? Furthermore, to political science and founding member
by the whole community. And, those who argue that aid usually of What Price Peace, a Melbourne-based
as it would be means tested ends up in the hands of corrupt charity organisation and lobby group

Your turn
5.20 Read ‘Sample single-text analysis 2’, which is a medium-scoring response. Note how it is structured
around Hey’s key arguments, and how the discussion of significant language ties in to these arguments.
a Look at the student’s discussion of how Hey’s language supports his ideas. While there is some
good discussion, there is also summary or commentary rather than analysis, and the discussion
is very general in places. It could be much more specific. Where and how might this response be
improved?
b Look again at the student’s use of language. At times, the student uses informal words or phrases
that undermine the overall quality of the writing. Identify these awkward informal moments, and
rewrite them using more sophisticated terms.
c This student used a separate paragraph to analyse the two images. The analysis might have
been more effective if it had combined the visual discussion with the paragraphs on the verbal
arguments and language. Explain how this might have been done.
d Does this student refer to specific audience groups? Where and how might she have done this, and
to which groups might she have referred?
e Has this student written an effective conclusion? Explain, then discuss as a class.
f Write your own analysis of ‘Who’s ready to help?’ Remember the tips you’ve been offered and think
about the limitations or weaknesses of the sample.
medium-scoring
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Economics lecturer Chris Hey wrote a piece for even angrier when they read that the current
a Melbourne newspaper on the idea of a foreign government is ‘slashing’ our contributions. This
aid tax, arguing that Australia could do more suggests we’re going backwards rather than
to assist developing countries by expecting all forwards.
Australians to contribute. His argument is a very Hey then looks at all the positives the tax
strong case for more action and uses persuasive would bring for Australians. He says it would
language to get the point across effectively. be done in a ‘fiscally responsible’ way, which
Hey immediately argues that the aid tax is makes it sound like a careful approach so people
a good idea and criticises governments for not don’t worry about losing lots of money. The
doing enough, aiming to have readers thinking focus on the means testing achieves the same
that more action is needed. The headline poses a result. When he says that rich people would
direct question to readers and encourages them be ‘giving a little back’ he makes it sound like
to consider what it is that the author might want the overall contributions are really small and
them to help with. This is designed to encourage nothing to worry about. He also then confronts
the audience to read on to find out more. Hey readers with the ‘moral’ arguments, and poses
then tells the audience in the first paragraph questions to challenge readers. The repetition
what he’s talking about, which means that of ‘How can we justify’, ‘How can we do nothing
there would be no doubts in readers’ minds. He …’ makes readers think there is no other choice
says the tax idea is ‘honourable’, and this word and urges them to act. This is basically a guilt
suggests that all Australians would benefit from trip but it’s effective because it’s more emotive
seeming noble if they took this generous step, than the section that uses just dry statistics.
which is backed up by the statement that it would Furthermore, using Bono from U2 makes people
‘enhance Australia’s international reputation’. realise that this is a big issue and that if pop
He then contrasts these positives with poor stars are involved then we all should be making
government efforts to make the politicians an effort. He closes this section by focusing
look bad. The evidence of failure to meet 0.5% again on self-interest, arguing that lots more
target makes the government seem lazy and jobs could be created. He says that ‘hundreds’ of
causes anger in readers. They would then feel people already rely on this industry and ‘imagine’

what we could achieve if we donated more – this the aid contributions. The other image – of hands
makes people feel optimistic about the benefits holding up the globe – suggests that we can
of action rather than focusing on cost. make a difference if we all act together.
There are also two images which support Overall Hey’s argument is very strong
Hey’s view and they both make an emotional because he combines a logical case with some
appeal. The first is a photo of cute developing emotive appeals. It would probably appeal to
country children, smiling and looking happy; this a wide group of people and it would be hard to
positions us to think that they are benefiting from disagree with his case.
5.20 Read the following opinion piece from freelance radio producer Tom Wright, which appeared on the
ABC’s opinion website The Drum. As you read, consider the annotations that identify some of the key
arguments and language features, and how they work to persuade his online audience.
Direct imperative – blunt Idyllic image – links to Wright’s Alliterative and slightly hyperbolic – positions
message to challenge readers argument about the beauty of flying readers to see flying as wondrous
STOP COMPLAINING ABOUT THE MODERN MIRACLE OF FLYING
Tone suddenly
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Sure, you can criticise plane route that could carry shifts – becomes
the food and the elbows, me to the land of my birth. more lyrical and
emphasises wonder
but nothing beats the How lucky I am.
of flying
ability to skip around the Fifty years ago a return
world from the (relative) plane flight would have cost
Historical
comfort of a chair 30 000 the same as a small car. One
comparisons –
feet in the air, writes Tom hundred years ago I would show readers how
Wright. have held a living wake to fortunate they
‘celebrate’ my emigration to are and to ‘get
Australia. Coming back was over’ their petty
but still complain. We should complaints
A few years ago I watched US not really an option.
all stop acting so spoiled.
comic Louis CK talk about Now I just enter details
broadband on a plane flight. I agree. I am British but
into search engines. The
The system was a trial and I chose to live in Melbourne,
cost is sizeable but not
fell over after a few minutes. which means that because
impossible.
Louis’s neighbouring I’m just over six foot and
not a corporate raider, I In our increasingly Appeal to
passenger rolled his eyes
am faced with nearly an atomised society, long haul human desire
and complained […]
entire day squeezed into plane flights are a rare for connection –
And Louis went to town communal experience, romanticises idea
an economy class seat in of flying
on the West’s sense of where you are up close to
order to see my family. And
collective entitlement – the humanity in all its forms
recently when one of my
fact we can fly in a chair in for long periods of time.
parents fell ill, I suddenly
the air all across the world Everyone’s emotions
felt a deep connection to the
Informal, anecdotal opening to Writer identifies himself with

hook readers with reference to majority of readership (economy
well-known comic class, not business)

Lyrical descriptions of departure, arrival, stranger experiences was Being in the air that long
– again elevate excitement or despair swirl editing a pilot from Malaysia gives you time to meet new
idea of flying about the cabin like the Airlines speaking before the people. Someone who met
beyond the mysterious smells from the twin catastrophes of 2014. their eventual husband on
petty problems galley. This gets magnified His admission that he has a flight to Europe said that
we sometimes by a few drinks and lack of learnt to love the Earth he on such a long flight by
encounter
sleep. regularly flies over and how yourself, you can be who
On planes I cry at the the location systems work you want to be. Free of your
Pixar movies: normal on Malaysia Airlines planes baggage both literally and
plots that I find boring and makes listening to him now metaphorically.
predictable on the ground kind of hard. So next time you fly long
seem to move me 30 000 feet But on the plus side, haul, ignore the babies,
in the air. if you fly from Australia delays or Adam Sandler
I’ll admit flying long to London, you fly over movies. Look out the window
haul has its challenges: warzones past and present, (maybe take binoculars, like
the food, the elbows, the volcanoes, and some I do), enjoy the largely phone
Writer considers
flipside – delays, the waiting. And then amazing landscapes. You get free time, and consider that
acknowledges the there is the terror, known hit by lightning and survive. you are in a chair in the air,
downside to appear and unknown, that makes You are most likely travelling taking part in a modern
more reasonable you take your shoes off at with an array of animals miracle.
security and makes planes underneath you in the hold.
fall out of the sky. One of my Tom Wright, The Drum,
14 November 2014
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Swift return to idealistic, exaggerated positives in Finishes with a plea for readers to remember the ‘miracle’ of flight
attempt to brush aside potential dangers and negatives – rhyming ‘chair in the air’ a playful consolidation of this idea
Your turn
5.22 Read ‘Sample single-text analysis 3’. Note how the piece is structured around Wright’s key arguments,
and how the discussion of significant language features ties in to these arguments.
a Highlight the sentences that focus clearly on the impact of the arguments and language. How do
they position the target audience to share the writer’s point of view? What do you notice?
b Can you identify some key weaknesses in this analysis? List them and then discuss as a class.
c Write your own analysis of the Wright piece, taking care to address any issues you identified
in activity 5.21b.
high-scoring
In late 2014, freelance radio producer Tom to establish popular support for his view that
Wright wrote an opinion piece for the ABC’s we are too selfish in our attitudes to flying.
online forum The Drum to celebrate the wonder By agreeing with the comedian’s criticism of
of modern flight. Wright admonishes his our ‘sense of entitlement’, Wright is able to
audience for their selfishness and reminds them chastise readers without getting them off-side,
of how lucky they are to have the luxury of global because he is merely agreeing with someone
travel at their fingertips. else’s critique. This positions readers to feel as
Wright opens with an anecdote involving the though the author’s view is not an isolated one,
well-known comedian Louis CK, in an attempt and encourages them to reflect on their own
attitudes. By concluding this argument with

some inclusive admonishment – ‘We should However, in order to avoid sounding overly -
all stop acting so spoiled’ – Wright manages to positive and therefore unrealistic, Wright
consolidate his view of our modern selfishness acknowledges the negatives of flying as well.
and elicit audience guilt without sounding too His list of common flight irritants – ‘the food,
patronising; he includes himself in the mix, and the elbows, the delays, the waiting’ – would no
therefore encourages readers to be similarly doubt resonate with anyone who flies regularly
appreciative of the benefits of flying. and is designed to show that he is not oblivious
Having established the idea that our to these problems. Furthermore, his references
complaints are unjustified, Wright adopts a to ‘the terror’ and the rather blunt observation
more emotive approach to establish his own that planes can ‘fall out of the sky’ are designed
gratitude and to convince readers that there is to acknowledge current fears around terrorism
much to celebrate about air travel. By including and airline disasters such as the MH17 tragedy of
the anecdote about his own sick parent and 2014. It would seem Wright wishes to accept these
explaining the ‘deep connection’ that he formed possibilities in order to neutralise his audience’s
with the route back to the ‘land of my birth’, possible fears of them. However, he quickly
Wright personalises the issue and urges readers glosses over these concerns with a much longer
to consider the substantial emotional and social list of flying’s positives, from viewing ‘amazing
benefits of such travel, and therefore to dismiss landscapes’ to surviving lightning strikes and
the modern tendency to ‘complain’ over trivial being ‘who you want to be’; these rather fanciful
and petty problems. This social argument is observations are designed to leave readers feeling
strengthened with references to flying as a optimistic about the wonders of modern flight,
‘rare communal experience’ in an ‘atomised’ rather than cynical or concerned. This positive
world; here Wright cleverly appeals to a sense of conclusion is reinforced with the pun about being
Part 5
community, which is at odds with the self-interest alleviated of personal ‘baggage’, and leaves
of the passenger on Louis CK’s flight. The author readers feeling thoroughly optimistic about the
is essentially romanticising the idea of flying, by benefits of flying.
emphasising that we are ‘up close to humanity’ Wright’s piece is essentially a critique of
and its associated ‘emotions’ and therefore selfishness combined with a slightly romanticised
reminded of our interconnected lives. It is an idea celebration of flying. It aims to spark an initial
that is reinforced by his multiple references to sense of guilt and subsequent enthusiasm in
flying as a ‘modern miracle’ and is designed to readers and encourages them to remember how
counter the cynicism of the opening anecdote with lucky they are to have the ‘chair in the air’ at their
infectious positivity. disposal.
5.23 Study the blog from Victoria’s now-retired Chief Commissioner of Police, which was uploaded to the
Victoria Police’s blog page ‘Cops and Bloggers’. Think carefully about the range of ways in which
language is used to position the audience to share a particular perspective. Annotate the text to
identify key arguments and language features and to explain their specific impacts.
5.24 Construct an analysis of Ken Lay’s blog entry. Follow the steps in ‘How to construct an analysis –
single text’ and consider sample single-text analyses 1 and 3 (the high-scoring responses).
• Focus how the arguments are presented and how the features of the language complement these
arguments.
• Consider how everything works together – arguments, verbal and visual language – to position the
target audience to share Lay’s point of view.
• Think about the paragraph structure of your writing and paragraphing – how will you ensure that
there is a coherent focus in each paragraph? (Hint: consider structuring your essay around the key
stages of Lay’s argument.)

Ken Lay on family violence
Ken Lay was Chief Commissioner Victoria Police Australia. The Organization’s report found that a third of the
from 2011–2014 world’s women had been assaulted.
Okay. Now I have another figure – a real figure – that I think If you think I’m exaggerating, consider Victoria’s crime
is just as horrific. A figure that is just as worthy of galvanising statistics for the previous financial year. During 2012/13,
our sympathy and outrage. But it doesn’t. there were 60 829 incidents where police submitted family
The figure is this: every week a woman is murdered by incidence reports. This is a rise of 21.6% on the 50 000
her partner or ex-partner. Every week this happens. Now, reports submitted the previous year. Sixty thousand incidents
our public response isn’t at all like we imagined it would be in Victoria alone. […] Violence against women – in whatever
if those victims died not in their family rooms but at train form – is not solely a feminist issue. It’s a social issue […] It’s
stations. Why do you think that is? a blokes’ issue […]
I’ll tell you why I think it is. Because what happens in Men, I need your help in making any form of indecency
someone else’s home doesn’t affect us. And because we against women deeply shameful. I want you to use the full
are constantly misapprehending the nature of violence […] measure of your profession and your passion to try to correct
And it’s also much, much easier to do this when the crimes this. I want you to use radio and newspaper and TV; I want
are domestic – when they’re behind closed doors. When it you to use boardroom and community meetings; I want you
happens we might think ‘Well, why did she marry him?’ just as to talk about it with colleagues and children. Men, when
we might think of a rape victim, ‘Well, why was she wearing an estimated 20 per cent of Australian women have been
a short skirt?’ When we imagine this sort of complicity for sexually assaulted – and when we know that sexual assault
the victim – when we essentially blame them – we are is massively underreported – we can’t say we don’t have a
Part 5
congratulating ourselves for our superior judgement, a problem […] I want you to consider what twisted sense of
judgement that will ensure it never happens to us. entitlement compels a man to grab a woman in a bar or call
But when we do this we are injuring our imaginations, her a slut. Men, I want you to consider why blokes are so quiet
which is the lifeblood of our sympathy. When we do this, on these issues.
we come up with the wrong answers about why violence Then I need you to correct that silence.
happens. And when we do this, we make it less likely anybody To all of you, I ask that you help repel a callousness that
will care enough to do anything […] has crept into our society. Callousness and complacency.
The theme of tonight’s forum is obviously family violence, What I want to leave you with is a sense of the complacency
but I place that in a long continuum of violence against we must battle. And a sense of the prevailing, damaging
women. I place family violence in a wider culture where vulgar attitudes towards women. We must all stand up to these
and violent attitudes to women are common […] things wherever they occur. Not just at community forums.
Our culture is heavy with warped and misspent But on trams and trains and streets. In the workplace and our
masculinity. And every single day the casual groping and lewd sporting clubs. With our children.
comments that go unchallenged erode our standards. And if I talk a lot about ethical leadership in my position,
none of us are saying anything, then this feral atmosphere and how I frame it for my audiences – how I explain why
gets worse, until it becomes an endorsement of violence people fail to act – is often with what psychologists call the
against women. bystander effect. A famous case-study of this phenomenon
If you think I’m comes from 1968, when a young New Yorker called Kitty
exaggerating, consider Genovese was murdered in front of her apartment. About
the recent World Health 40 witnesses did nothing. The bystander effect looks at
Organization’s report that why there is less likelihood of bystanders responding when
found that violence against there are more people around. Now what psychologists have
women had reached ‘a found is that people don’t fail to intervene because of malice
global health problem of or indifference. What they found is that most people fail to
epidemic proportions.’ intervene because of simple social anxiety. People become
And yes, that includes self-conscious: what if no-one else helps? What if my

appraisal of the situation is wrong? What if my help isn’t And that’s my challenge to you:
wanted? What if people think I’m a busybody? There’s also the be that circuit-breaker. Be that
assumption that somebody else will help – an assumption person that says something – again
that increases with a larger number of bystanders. So and again and again. Because if we
what happens is there’s a collective reluctance to act until shrug our shoulders when a sex
somebody else has acted. worker is murdered – or a wife is
Once somebody has, it becomes the normal thing to do – battered to death – then we’re
the barrier to action has been broken. diminished as a community.
Ken Lay (excerpt only)
How to construct an analysis – multiple texts

In your School Assessed Coursework (SAC), you might be expected to analyse and compare up to three
persuasive texts in one coherent piece of writing. This is a challenging task that requires a systematic
approach. As with the analysis of a single text, there is more than one way to structure a response. The
following steps give one possible method.
Step 1 Read all of the texts at least twice – repeated reading allows you to pick up the texts’ subtle
aspects, such as tone and irony. Annotate them or take notes to pinpoint key arguments and key
language strategies and their specific impacts; identify at least four to six language strategies from
each text. Consider also some of the key differences between the texts in terms of purpose, form
Part 5
(text type, language, etc.) and audience.
Step 2 Refer to the ‘Critical questions of argument analysis’ section and answer the CAPITALS questions
for each text in note form.
Step 3 Plan your piece. Decide the best order for the analysis of the texts (usually chronological, oldest
first), which arguments and language features you will analyse in each text and in what order.
Focus on how these arguments and features are used to position the audience to share the point of
view; show how the author’s language choices reflect their arguments, purposes and audiences.
Step 4 Write an introduction that identifies the context and issue and then briefly outlines each text
individually, stating the text type, author, point of view, the overall tone and/or any significant
structural features. Use appropriate linking words and phrases to compare and contrast the texts
and varied sentence structures to avoid sounding repetitive.
Step 5 Write the body paragraph/s for the first text, remembering to focus on how the language is used
to support the arguments presented and how the target audience is positioned. Incorporate
discussion of visual language also. Again, vary the structure of your sentences to avoid sounding
repetitive. Be concise – don’t signpost by using obvious phrases like ‘The writer uses this technique
because …’. Avoid overusing common terms.
Step 6 Repeat Step 5 for the other texts. Start your first paragraph for each new text with a linking
sentence to enable a smooth transition. You could do this by comparing or contrasting the point of
view or language of each writer. At key moments in your analysis of the second and or third texts,
look for opportunities to consciously compare or contrast key elements of the texts, according to
how they use language similarly or differently to achieve their purposes and to appeal to specific
audiences.
Step 7 Write a conclusion that compares or contrasts the texts and how each author has used argument
and language to persuade. Reflect on the overall quality of each author’s argument. Was it
logical? Reasoned? Was it adequately supported? Balanced or biased? Try also to identify specific
subgroups that might be particularly persuaded or alienated by each piece, and explain why.

Your turn
5.25 Look carefully at the following editorial and image that appeared in a tabloid newspaper, The Daily
Tribute. The letter that follows appeared the next day in the Letters to the editor section.
a Annotate both texts to identify each author’s key arguments and the language features used to
position their readers to share their points of view.
b What are the key differences between the texts in terms of tone, style and content?
THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY
Seven hours. That’s how

long it took for thugs to
desecrate the freshly painted
southern wall of Patrick and
Lisa Berger’s East Park
café. Patrick and his heavily
pregnant wife had spent the
majority of their one day off
that week restoring the wall,
which locals have described
as an ‘eyesore’ and a
Part 5
‘disgrace’.
Until the Bergers tackled
the daunting physical
challenge of painting
the building’s façade,
passers-by were confronted
with an imposing mixture of
offensive sexual diagrams
and obscenities that would make
even a bikie reel. One local with two mortgages, the The issue of graffiti is a public
mother confessed to taking a Bergers have kept up with one, let us make no mistake
longer route to her daughter’s their repayments and worked about that. The ingratitude and
school each morning out of a tirelessly to make their new selfishness of individuals who
fear that her eight-year-old business a success. They insist on defacing other people’s
would ask her what some of appealed some months ago for hard-earned bricks and mortar
the phrases meant – a question the council to meet them halfway to offer ‘political comment’
which the mother knew she with the paint and labour costs (inane drivel) rings clear to any
would not have the vocabulary for the wall’s rejuvenation, as self-respecting citizen. Council
(or the fortitude) to answer. the façade forms a significant officials and local government
part of the East Park café strip, members should be supporting
The wall has been a thorn in
a drawcard for hundreds of the efforts of individuals like
the side of the struggling young
locals and visitors every day of Patrick and Lisa, not passively
café owners, who have met
the week. The council (which has condoning this cultural
with continual resistance from
refused to comment to The Daily vandalism.
their local council regarding
Tribute) dragged its heels for
responsibility for the wall’s
months and then refused to offer Editorial, The Daily Tribute, 16 July 2014
upkeep. As new entrepreneurs
any support.

Letter to the editor less than three weeks after their request was
lodged. In this correspondence our office
To the editor, explained the reasons why support was not
possible. To claim, as your paper did, that we
Yesterday I read with disappointment your
‘dragged [our] heels for months’ is a lie, and
paper’s dismissive assessment of what this
frankly, irresponsible journalism.
council deems a serious issue (Editorial: ‘The
good, the bad and the ugly’), and I wish to Finally, I wish to touch on the issue of graffiti
address your less enlightened remarks. itself, which your paper seems determined to
smear. While we at the East Park Council would
I must correct your summation of our
never ‘condone’ vandalism, as you suggested,
response to the Bergers’ request for support
we do accept that graffiti is a culturally
with the repainting of their café wall. I say
acceptable art form in the right context. A
‘their’ café wall because that is what it is; the
portion of our constituency embraces this
Bergers chose to purchase the building, and
aspect of youth culture, and we feel we have
as such have no recourse to council assistance
a responsibility to cater for this group. To that
for maintenance. Our budget is only just able
end, we are negotiating with two youth support
to cover the legitimate claims of hundreds of
agencies with the aim of providing public spaces
leaseholders who cannot be expected to fund
dedicated to the expression of this skill.
upkeep costs on properties that are not legally
theirs. Can you imagine the blow-out to our No one likes to see private property
budget if we were also expected to support defaced. However, nor do many of us like to see
those who are in the enviable position of owning ‘responsible’ publications dismissing an entire
property? Do you think residents would like to subsection of our community. This narrow-
Part 5
see a rates increase as a result? We are obliged minded attitude serves no one well, and is likely
to manage our constituents’ money fairly, and only to encourage more anti-establishment
we do so. behaviour in an already disaffected generation.
Second, records at our offices indicate that Kim Nguyen, East Park Council, The Daily Tribute, 17 July
2014
the Bergers received written correspondence
Your turn
5.26 Read ‘Sample multiple-text analysis 1’, paying careful attention to those sections of the analysis that
compare and contrast the two texts. Then answer these questions.
a Highlight all of the sentences that explain the intended impact of the various arguments and
strategies (sentences that explain how language is used to position the audiences to share a point
of view). What do you notice about how frequently these sentences appear?
b Highlight in a different colour those sections of the analysis that compare or contrast the two texts.
Why is this an important part of the task of analysing more than one text?
c What other strengths can you identify in this particular analysis? Annotate it to point them out in
the margins, or create a bullet-point list. Share your thoughts as a class.
high-scoring
Sample multiple-text analysis 1 response
The issue of graffiti and its impact on a ‘self-respecting’ citizens and condemn graffiti.
community was addressed on 16 July 2014 In contrast, Nguyen’s letter addresses areas
in an editorial for THE DAILY TRIBUTE, with of inaccuracy in the editorial and assertively
a response in a letter from Kim Nguyen. The justifies the council’s stance. While she is more
moralising and emotive editorial contends that tolerant of graffiti than THE DAILY TRIBUTE, her
councils and governments need to support

critique of the paper’s conservative stance is just Nguyen’s formal letter of response is
as scathing. carefully argued, and more reasoned than the
The structural features of the editorial serve to emotive editorial. Her tone is equally critical,
establish a divide between ‘upstanding’ members but her scorn is reserved for the paper, rather
of the community and graffiti artists. The headline than graffiti artists. Seeking to undermine
– which alludes to the classic Western film of the paper and establish rapport with her
the same name – implies a distinction between audience, she labels the editorial ‘dismissive’
‘good’ and ‘bad’ members of society and that and ‘inflammatory’ and declares graffiti ‘a
graffiti is ‘ugly’, which establishes an instant rift serious issue for all residents’; this allows her to
in the community. The accompanying photograph condemn the paper’s conservative stance without
positions the audience to support the paper’s alienating readers who might have concerns
derision: the graffiti dominates the frame, empty about graffiti. She also logically argues that
spray cans scattered around in the foreground of the Bergers ‘have no legal recourse to council
the frame imply a lack of respect within the graffiti assistance’, lending weight to the council’s
community itself and the anonymity of the graffiti decision through a clear statement of fact which
artists, whose faces are all hidden, suggests makes the paper seem ill-informed. Then, in an
that these individuals are not prepared to take appeal to the hip-pocket nerve of leaseholders,
responsibility for their behaviour. The photograph Nguyen poses two rhetorical questions to
provides the conservative paper with an easy highlight that the council budget would ‘blow out’
scapegoat, which would appeal to the paper’s key and that ‘property rates (would) increase’, neither
audience: older, conservative citizens unfamiliar of which is a desirable outcome for this portion of
with the world of graffiti art. the audience. All of this undermines the paper’s
criticisms while positioning Nguyen herself as
An opening anecdote juxtaposes a ‘struggling’
Part 5
reasonable.
couple with the ‘selfishness’ of graffiti artists;
sympathy is expected for Patrick Berger and Aiming to further expose the editorial team
his ‘heavily pregnant’ wife, who have ‘worked as unprofessional, Nguyen corrects the paper’s
tirelessly’ to earn a living. Appeals to civic hyperbolic suggestion that the council ‘dragged
values are made with a reference to their ‘dual- its heels’, saying that correspondence was
mortgage’ and the fact that they have ‘diligently sent ‘less than three weeks’ after the request
kept up with … repayments’. In contrast, negative was lodged, and labelling the comments
language labels graffiti artists ‘thugs’, the café ‘irresponsible’. This diminishes the paper’s attack
wall a ‘disgrace’ and graffiti ‘offensive’. This and implies that the council acted fairly. It also
negativity engenders feelings of anger towards gives Nguyen the moral high ground, which the
the perpetrators and concern for the rest of the paper had clearly sought to establish for itself.
community, strengthening the ‘us and them’ To finish, she addresses the issue of graffiti in a
mentality established through the photograph. more tolerant fashion, labelling it a ‘culturally
acceptable art form in the right context’ with the
The editorial then attacks the council, to
aim of targeting those in the community who
create further sympathy for the Bergers and
might be more open-minded about such art.
to make the council a scapegoat for what the
paper ironically accepts is a ‘public’ issue. The editorial is a conservative, emotive
Overstatement is employed with the phrases appeal to civic values, and would likely appeal
‘continual resistance’ and ‘dragging its heels’, to an audience who does not accept graffiti
and the council is painted as belligerent as it as art. Nguyen’s letter offers a reasoned
‘refused to comment’ or ‘offer any support’. The argument supported by logic and encourages a
piece finishes by combining its attack on the ‘responsible’ approach to a sensitive issue. As
vandals and the councils which condone ‘this such, she is likely to receive support from more
puerile cultural vandalism’. The audience is tolerant readers, and her balanced approach
left with no doubts as to who is to blame, yet is might also convince a few fence-sitters of the
absolved of personal responsibility; this ensures benefits in not ‘dismissing an entire subsection’
that the readership is not alienated. of the community.

Your turn
5.27 Read the following articles (an opinion piece and an online comment) about two Australian men who
faced execution by firing squad in Indonesia in 2015. Consider how the authors use arguments and
language very differently to share their points of view. Annotate each text to identify its standout
arguments as well as the language strategies and impacts. Then, answer the CAPITALS questions
from ‘Critical questions of argument analysis’ section in note form.
Background information
Australian citizens Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumaran were the alleged co-ringleaders of a heroin-smuggling operation
from Indonesia to Australia and were jailed in Indonesia in 2005 along with a group of others known as ‘the Bali Nine’. Chan
and Sukumaran were found guilty of their respective crimes and sentenced to execution by firing squad. In the context of
widespread Australian community and government support for the men’s clemency, Sydney lawyer Tim Dick published this
opinion piece in the Sydney Morning Herald on 2 February 2015. A member of the public responded to the article with an
online comment. Subsequent to the publication of this article and comment, the men were executed on 29 April 2015.
CHAN AND SUKUMAR AN SHOULD NOT HAV E

TO BEG TO AVOID BARBARIC DE ATH PENALT Y
Every second Australian wants radio host Garry Linnell who

two of her fellow citizens to be thinks opponents of the death
killed for trying to take heroin penalty need better ‘poster
Part 5
out of Indonesia. Roy Morgan boys’ for the cause. Do the
Research last month asked crime, do the time – for eternity.
2123 Australians by SMS about Yet the cases of the guilty
their compatriots convicted of bring the case against capital
drug trafficking overseas and punishment into focus. Here
sentenced to death. Should they we have a case undistracted Andrew Chan, left, and Myuran
Sukumaran, right, still hope for
be executed? Fifty-two per cent by the chance of innocence,
mercy from Indonesia.
said yes. Half the respondents incompetent lawyers or dodgy
supported a foreign state’s prison informers. In this case,
methodical plan to kill two there is no doubt of guilt. They all. No matter how dreadful
Sydney men for committing will not be exonerated too late. the crime for which a man
a crime in which no one was And still there is no reason for stands condemned, attention
injured. their execution. turns from his detestable
Perhaps some hadn’t At its heart, the death action to the state killing with
considered the implication of penalty says much not about malice aforethought. Indonesia
their snap-opinion-by-text: that those it kills, but those at least dispenses with the
it is morally acceptable for a who impose it. Killing as pretence of using drugs to
government to carefully plan punishment is indefensible lessen the pain in a supposedly
to kill the citizens of another for drug runners, murderers, humane execution. It kills the
country for a non-fatal crime. terrorists, even war criminals. condemned with bullets, a final
Perhaps they had, and think Whoever is put to death, one to the head if the volley
we should respect the rule of capital punishment deserves toward the heart doesn’t do the
perverse law in countries which no respect. Killing someone job. The brutality is plain.
still impose the death penalty; intentionally is murder. Killing Why do half those
when in Denpasar and all that. with careful planning is the Australians surveyed last
Perhaps many of us just don’t worst category of murder. An month find these meticulously
care much for Andrew Chan execution, a lawful killing, is planned deaths of two of our
and Myuran Sukumaran, like the most carefully planned of citizens acceptable?

Presumably because they and compare murder rates in Sukumaran should not have
think they deserve it: Chan and those American states which to beg to live. Nor should
Sukumaran knew their plot was kill felons, and those which their families. Yet they do, and
criminal. But sentencing should don’t. Between 1991 and 2011, Indonesian president Joko
follow some kind of reason, and the annual rate in states without Widodo appears determined
if a death sentence is anything capital punishment averaged to ignore both them, and us.
it is irrational. Sentencing is about 5.3 murders per 100,000 He is a determined participant
meant to punish the offender, population, according to an anti- in a practice banned in most
to deter him and others from death penalty group summary of the world, although not for
breaking the law and to protect based on FBI statistics. In most of the world’s people. If
the community. There’s often a states with capital punishment, he allows the killings, Australia
rehabilitative element, but the it averaged about 6.7. That should protest loudly. If we
death penalty has never done is, Americans have a greater don’t make a fuss about the
that very well. You might say we chance of being murdered in a execution of two of our own,
should kill those who kill, but state which kills its murderers. when will we? Withdraw the
we don’t burn down arsonists’ Some deterrence. Or take ambassador for a time, cancel a
houses, we don’t rape rapists, countries which have abolished ministerial trip, take a stand of
we don’t take the eye of the the death penalty; the weight some kind. It needn’t be huge.
drunk glasser or the hand of the of international research of Mere symbolism, possibly.
thief. Eye-for-eye retribution murder rates before and after Risk a retort about mandatory
has long been rejected as abolition finds no deterrent detention of asylum seekers. It
civilised punishment. We effect. With no evidence to may come at a cost. So be it.
jail, we fine, we make people justify the death penalty, it We should be vocally against
Part 5
do community service – all becomes nothing but extreme the death penalty wherever
to punish, protect and deter vengeance. imposed. We should protest it
without either assuming the Praise to the Australian in Indonesia, in China, in India,
role of God or descending to government in pushing for in Saudi Arabia. In the United
criminal acts in response. clemency for the Bali Nine States. We can’t force other
It is debatable which is leaders, although it should not nations to change, but we should
more punishing: death or life have to ask for mercy. There protest this useless barbarism
imprisonment, and the dead can should be no need for the everywhere. We should never
do no further harm. But deter, heartfelt campaign for mercy respect it, even if every second
execution does not. The ultimate that saw hundreds of people Australian is all for it.
punishment ought to have the light candles in Martin Place
ultimate proof of efficacy, yet the last week led by the courageous Tim Dick, Sydney Morning Herald,
opposite is true. Take murder, artist Ben Quilty. Chan and 2 February 2015
Comment
The following comment was posted online within a few hours of Dick’s opinion piece.
I find it ironic that a lawyer could so blatantly ignore hypocrisy. These mules were Australian only in the sense
Indonesia’s right to sovereignty on this issue. These that they held citizenship – in every other way they flouted
drug mules committed a crime in a country with a well- the values we hold dear and were determined to fill our
established reputation for strong drug prevention strategies, streets with deadly heroin. Anyone who commits such
they were caught, found guilty in (more than one) reputable crimes knowingly is clearly terminally criminal and deserves
court and sentenced accordingly. Yet again we have a no opportunity for rehabilitation. It is a waste of our money
white Australian male convinced of his right to lecture his and human resources. You reap what you sow.
poor cousins in Indonesia about their inhumanity – what
#Bringbackthedeathpenalty, Sally, Balwyn North

Your turn
5.28 The following analysis was written by a Year 12 student and is another example of a high-scoring
response.
a Read and annotate the analysis carefully to identify its key strengths. Discuss as a class.
b Highlight the useful phrases or sentences that compare and contrast the different texts. Do you
think there is sufficient comparison and contrast in this response? Where else might the student
have incorporated some comparative analysis? Discuss as a class.
c Make a list of useful phrases, based on this student’s written analysis, that you could use in your
own writing. For example, ‘… works to incite a shocked, emotional reaction in the reader’ (from the
first topic sentence).
high-scoring
response
Sample multiple-text analysis 2
Sydney lawyer Tim Dick’s powerful and rational serve to cajole readers into rejecting such
opinion piece for the Sydney Morning Herald unsympathetic perspectives, to open up to the
(SMH) in February 2015 outlines the moral possibility of a more compassionate response to
barbarity of capital punishment, contending a serious issue.
that it demeans ‘those who impose it’ far more The simple photo of Chan and Sukumaran
than ‘those it kills’. The SMH included a photo of supports this desire for a humane approach by
Andrew Chan and Myuran Sukumaran in a bid to presenting readers with a strong sense of the
further humanise and personalise Dick’s appeal
Part 5
men’s ordinariness. Dressed in civilian clothes,
to compassion, while a thoroughly unmoved caught in a moment of seemingly reasonably
reader, Sally, responded to these texts with relaxed conversation, we are positioned to
harsh judgment on ‘drug mules’, painting them consider them as human beings rather than
as ‘un-Australian’ and ‘terminally criminal’ in a ruthless or sinister criminals. And yet the
scathing rejection of the compassion sought vertical lines in the background – reminiscent
by Dick. of prison bars – are a subtle reminder of the
Immediately Dick confronts his readership men’s incarceration, just as the camera in
with a shocking opening that essentially accuses the foreground alerts us to their high media
‘Every second Australian’ of heartlessness, and profile. Overall the photograph effectively
this idea forms the subtext of the first half of encapsulates the pressures faced by these men
his article. It is a blunt sentence designed to while prioritising their everyday qualities, which
challenge readers – certainly to decide which essentially supports Dick’s view that they are,
‘half’ they belong to, but also to consider the first and foremost, ‘our citizens’ – men with
serious implications of what he calls ‘their whom we should sympathise.
snap-opinion-by-text’. This description works to Dick then emphatically argues ‘that there is
paint such a response as poorly considered – a no reason’ for capital punishment, with a series
‘snap’, spur of the moment tick of a box without of arguments that hope to completely dispel the
any reflection – and is designed to position case for execution. Dick turns the spotlight back
readers to consider this dark issue in more onto those ‘who impose’ the death penalty, and
depth. His accusatory tone is supported by three repeatedly refers to this act as ‘murder’ rather
consecutive sentences that open with the word than, for example, the application of the law.
‘Perhaps’ and that work to gradually undermine This confronting word works to demonise those
the strength of the counter-arguments he countries which still employ the death penalty,
identifies, particularly when he pointedly and Dick does indeed make ‘the brutality …
criticises those ‘like radio host Gary Linnell’ plain’ in his graphic description of Indonesia’s
who ‘just don’t care’. These dismissive attacks approach: ‘It kills the condemned with bullets,

a final one to the head if the volley towards Dick’s expertise in the field as a lawyer by
the heart doesn’t do the job’. All pretence is implying that he is ignoring ‘Indonesia’s right
stripped away in such a description and the to sovereignty’, and doing so ‘blatantly’; this
paper’s readers – particularly the ‘half [of] those last word implies a degree of recklessness or
Australians surveyed last month’ that might unprofessionalism, and seems an exaggeration
still be supporting execution – are positioned or even a distortion of Dick’s intention. Her
to accept the inhumanity and violence of the assault on Dick continues with the accusation
process. of his arrogant lecturing as a ‘white Australian
In order to logically convince pro-execution male’ – this personal attack seeks to paint Dick
Australians of the practice’s inefficiency, Dick as out of touch or patronising, and possibly
labels capital punishment ‘irrational’ in an even racist, and urges readers to withdraw
appeal to common sense. He bluntly dismisses their support for his expert view. However her
the ‘Eye-for-eye retribution’ argument with strongest criticism is reserved for the men she
cold and repetitive logic – ‘we don’t burn down labels derogatorily as ‘drug mules’, then later
arsonist’s houses, we don’t rape rapists’ etc. – with the very exclusive ‘these mules’ who were
and lays out the alternatives at the same time, to ‘determined’ to smuggle heroin; the former
make the logical course of action clear: ‘We jail, labelling hopes to distance her readership from
we fine, we make people do community service’. Chan and Sukumaran, just as Dick hoped to
By offering up these alternatives Dick makes bring us closer to them, and the vocabulary
the death penalty seem unnecessary as well choice of ‘determined’ paints the men as sinister
as barbaric. This is supported by the statistics and deviously driven to harm others. This
from the US that reveal, with sharp irony, that dehumanisation, in conjunction with her appeals
to her readership’s patriotic rejection of their
Part 5
‘Americans have a greater chance of being

murdered in a state which kills its murderers’; ‘un-Australian’ behaviour, characterises the men
at this point Dick has cornered supporters of as ‘criminal’ rather than Australian citizens, and
the death penalty with both emotive and rational fully deserving of their dark fate.
arguments, targeting both their heads and hearts Sally’s response is an unyielding, severe
in a comprehensive dismissal of the practice. condemnation of the crime as well as of Dick’s
To conclude Dick returns to his opening humane support for the men. In contrast, Dick’s
approach of appealing to a sense of human piece is a more complex and certainly more
decency, making it clear that the government compassionate criticism of exactly the sort of
‘should not have to ask for mercy’ and ‘That there attitude presented by Sally in her comment.
should be no need for the heartfelt campaign’.
The implication here is clear: if more of us
were more compassionate, the debate would
disappear. His abundant inclusive language in
the article’s final sentences – ‘We should be
vocally against the death penalty… We should
never respect it’ – constitutes a rallying cry to
all Australians to defend humanity wherever
possible, and his final characterisation of the
death penalty as ‘useless barbarism’ combines
the logical and emotive aspects of his arguments
with precision, leaving doubters with a strong
sense of his overarching contention.
The commenter from Balwyn North exhibits
little of Dick’s compassion in her brief tirade
against both Dick and the men awaiting
execution. Sally initially attempts to undermine

6
Part
Presenting argument
OVERVIEW
When people express their own point of view on an issue, they use language to challenge or influence the opinions
of others. Parts 1–5 of this book have helped you to analyse how other people do this; now it is your turn to be
persuasive!
Presenting an argument is about showing that you have an excellent understanding of an issue and the range
of viewpoints it raises, and that you can construct a reasoned, well-researched and well-supported perspective
using language appropriately and effectively.
To start, reconsider a fundamental question we have explored throughout this text: Why do people bother to
express an argument in the first place? People offer their opinions for a range of purposes:
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• to persuade or convince • to inform or educate • to make people laugh or to
• to defend an individual or cause • to ridicule, demonise or attack entertain them
• to intensify or provoke debate • to scaremonger or alarm • to protect a vested interest
• to effect change • to express anger or • to correct an inaccurate report or
disappointment offer an alternative one.
Argument analysis – the skill developed across Part 5 – is partly about identifying
the purposes of other people’s viewpoints; in expressing your own you must be
equally clear about your purpose. If you are not, your writing will suffer from a
lack of reasoning, faulty logic or incoherence. Often your main purpose will
be to persuade your audience of the validity of your argument or contention.
However, you may also want to entertain, inform, or challenge a conventional
perspective; good writing can fulfil a multitude of purposes without losing
coherence.
To write coherently, you must have a strong contention, or at least a clear
point of view (position) in relation to the issue. Your argument should be
logical, carefully developed and sustained throughout. As you know by now,
arguments and language can be manipulated in myriad ways – this is your
opportunity to show what you have learnt about the persuasive power of both!
In Unit 4, Area of Study 2, you are asked to use your understanding of argument
and language as the basis for the development of an oral presentation of your own point
Malala Yousafzai, the
of view; elsewhere across your VCE study of English you will have the opportunity to world’s youngest Nobel
present both oral and written points of view on issues. Both written and spoken forms Peace Prize Winner
are covered in Part 5.
PART 6: PRESENTING ARGUMENT 129

HOW CAN I PRESENT MY OPINION?
Effectively, you can choose from whatever options your teacher offers! In this Area of Study, you can experiment
with a range of print, non-print and multimodal forms while presenting your point of view. Naturally, the language
choices you use in a broadsheet editorial would differ from those appropriate for a class debate or an online
discussion. The more you experiment with different text types, the better you will become at making smart
language choices. These are some common ways to present an opinion:
Print Non-print Multimodal

• Letters to the editor • Oral presentations • Websites
• Editorials • Debates • Short films
• Speech transcripts • Informal discussions • Documentaries
• Persuasive/argumentative essays • Podcasts • (Filmed) online forums
• Opinion pieces • Radio segments
• Feature articles
• Online comments (blogs, forums, etc.)
Tips for a successful argument

Consider the following tips, which are designed to help you ensure
your point of view is arresting, thoughtful and complex. Your goal
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is to be clear about your purpose, audience, context and form at

all times.
Tip 1 – Create a strong contention

A contention is a central, underlying argument; it is the
foundation, or the primary focus, of your argument. Sometimes
it is also called a thesis. The contention is usually supported by
a series of logically connected and developed arguments and
evidence.
An example of a contention might be that Melbourne must
significantly expand its public transport network and bike paths in
order to address the population boom. The supporting arguments
might outline the positive impacts on the environment and
health, as well as on social cohesion.
A strong contention should be brief and direct; you should
be able to state it in one sentence. It should also be logical,
factually-based and specific.
Tip 2 – Develop a reasoned point of view

Solid research is the key to developing a reasoned point of view, as it ensures a sound working knowledge
of the various viewpoints and the complexities of the issue. Consult a wide range of resources and carefully
read the various perspectives offered before attempting to construct your own case. Plan and develop
a logical case that unfolds coherently. Each argument should flow naturally from the one preceding it.
Effective language can make a point of view sound compelling, but there must also be sound underlying
arguments and evidence if you want to convince the smartest people in the room! If one of your aims is to
challenge people who disagree with you, the development of a water-tight, logical case is crucial.

Tip 3 – Show off your vocabulary
Always ensure that you sound intelligent, articulate and informed. Show off your best English skills,
regardless of your role and the context. But remember to sound fair and reasonable – extreme responses
can alienate a wide audience. You are not likely to persuade many people by sounding arrogant, insensitive
or ill informed!
Tip 4 – Use evidence and supporting material

Provide appropriate evidence for every argument you use to support your contention. Vary the types of
evidence you use: facts, statistics and survey results, expert testimony, anecdotal evidence or case studies
and research. All of these options are powerful in the right context. Ask these questions:
• Do I know where my evidence has come from? Are my sources reliable?
• Does my ‘expert testimony’ really come from an expert? What are their credentials?
• Does any of my evidence rely on generalisation? Can it be trusted, or is it unsupported?
• Is there a provable link between any cause and effect statements made? For example, if an expert
claims that children are getting fatter every year and that as a result junk food must not be advertised
during children’s television programs, they have created a direct link between childhood obesity and
advertising that may or may not be true.
• Is any data or information being skewed, omitted or taken out of context?
• Have I mistaken opinion for fact at any point?
Always consider how any supporting material you have been given or that you have uncovered during
your research (such as expert opinion or other evidence, famous quotations or graphs) might be employed
in your piece, as either arguments or supporting evidence. Do not plagiarise this material; rather, use it as
you would any other piece of information, and then cite your sources appropriately. For example:
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‘According to Dr Smith’s analysis, each student should have an “individually tailored exercise program”.’
‘As Aristotle once noted, “a true friend is one soul in two bodies”.’
Good writing requires appropriate, effective synthesis; the drawing together of materials in a coherent way
in support of a point of view. Showing that you can synthesise relevant materials will impress your audience.
Tip 5 – Include rebuttal

Consider addressing or attacking an opposing or counter
argument by either proving it wrong with the use of evidence
or accepting it, with some adjustment or qualification.
This second option requires you to accept the validity of
an argument and work it into your overall point of view
effectively, without undermining your own position. This
might mean making certain exceptions. Rebuttal can be very
effective, as it suggests that you have undertaken research,
and can make you appear reasonable or broadminded. The
Rogerian model of argument structure outlined in Part 2
often relies on this approach.
What do I really How might I best

want my audience to How will I ensure that use language to
understand? they understand it? persuade them?

Steps for creating a point-of-view response: written and oral
Whether you are creating a written or oral point of view, the process by which you research, plan and then
write should remain the same. Follow these steps to ensure your view is reasoned and sustained.
Step 1 Analyse. What are you being asked to do? Break the topic or issue down, identifying key words and
ideas.
Step 2 Brainstorm. List everything you can think of that relates to the topic. There are no ‘wrong’ ideas at
this point.
Step 3 Research. Find out as much as you can about the topic. Consult a broad range of sources and
gather a range of arguments and evidence from differing perspectives.
Step 4 Contention. Write a one-sentence statement that encapsulates your point of view. What is the
fundamental idea you want your audience to grasp? Consider the wider implications of the issue –
what does it mean for the people involved and the broader community?
Step 5 Supporting arguments. Establish the key arguments that will support your contention. Choose
them carefully and establish the best order – will your strongest point come first or last? What is
the logical order for the points that you will make? Consider also the major opposing viewpoints,
and how you might rebut them.
Step 6 Language features and evidence selection. Identify the language features you want to employ in
your response, and your overall approach. Will it be humorous, sombre or authoritative? Establish
supporting explanations and evidence for each of your main arguments. Use different types of
evidence, such as anecdotes, facts and statistics, expert opinion and research findings.
Step 7 Draft the introduction. Write a powerful opening statement. Be sure to outline your contention and
your main arguments.
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Step 8 Draft the body. Construct your case by creating strong topic sentences that outline your main
arguments. Support your argument through carefully selected and presented evidence and details.
Don’t forget to use linking words and appropriate signposting, such as ‘first of all’, ‘second’, etc.
Step 9 Draft the conclusion. Write a powerful final paragraph to wrap up your main points and restate
your contention in a fresh, original way. Ask yourself whether the introduction and conclusion
complement one another. Is there any unnecessary repetition of ideas? Are you finishing on a
powerful note?
Step 10 Editing, refinement and proofreading. Read over your point of view and check for unnecessary
repetition, poor sequencing, weak arguments or a lack of evidence, and technical errors such as
incorrect spelling or pronunciation. Look for moments where you could enhance your argument
with a particular language feature, such as humour, repetition or imagery. Remember that
persuasive arguments are often a complex mixture of features and styles.
ORAL PRESENTATION OF A POINT OF VIEW

An oral presentation can offer a dynamic alternative to the written presentation of a point of view. As we have
established, the choices are many and varied, from informal debates to formal speeches with slideshows. Public
speaking of any kind is challenging, as you often have to ‘think on your feet’; even if a speech is pre-prepared, some
element of spontaneity is crucial. For example, in a debate you are expected to rebut the flaws in your opposition’s
argument. Spontaneous interaction helps to ensure that you don’t sound mechanical or disengaged.
Think of a speech you’ve heard recently where the individual was simply reading word for word from pages
of notes – what was the point of them speaking in the first place? They could have just distributed the notes! The
idea of an oral presentation is to engage with both your material and your audience, and to show that you are
passionate about what you have to say and that you understand your audience. You can do this by making genuine
eye contact, responding to questions, injecting your presentation with some humour and addressing the specific
interests of your audience, among other things.

Participating in a broad range of oral activities will help you to articulate points of view more
coherently and to be spontaneous. You will also improve your active listening skills. Whatever
oral work you undertake, express yourself clearly and consider other people’s points of view
respectfully. Here we will consider three oral options: debates, forums and formal speeches.
DEBATING
A debate is a structured verbal argument on a specific topic between two teams. The affirmative team argues in
favour of the topic; the negative team argues against it. Debates are often conducted with three students on either
team, although they can work with as few as two people or as many as a whole class. An example of a debate
topic is: That Australia should allow the full production of genetically modified foods. You should consider the following
elements in your preparation for a debate.
Definition
Usually the affirmative team presents the definition. The purpose of a definition is to: explain what the debate is
about, identify the main issues influencing the debate and clarify the meanings of key words.
Brainstorming
The aim of a debate brainstorm is to consider arguments for both sides, in order to predict what the opposition will
say and to pre-empt rebuttal. Create a simple two-column table, so that you can list all of the arguments that might
be offered by both sides.
Team split
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A team split is a way to divide arguments thematically between the speakers. For example, in a genetically
modified foods debate, one speaker might deal with the scientific and health issues, while another might discuss
the moral implications. Consider the arguments identified during your brainstorm and categorise them according
to themes. Then establish which categories are most appropriate for your case. Consider giving the most important
arguments to your first speaker.
Team line
This is a general statement of your team’s point of view in relation to the topic – similar to a contention. An
effective line for a negative team in a genetically modified foods debate might be: We believe that it would
be irresponsible to permit the full production of genetically modified foods when there is insufficient research
about their potential dangers.
Model
A model is only required in some debates. It tells the opposition and the audience how your team would
achieve the goal/s described in the topic. For example, in a debate about banning smoking in all public
places, a model would be beneficial as the affirmative team needs to show that it is possible to ban
smoking in these places. Without this, the negative team could argue that it simply isn’t practical.
Rebuttal
Rebuttal is the act of responding to the opposition’s arguments; it requires you to explain why their
arguments are not justified. It forces teams to think quickly, which makes debating different from public
speaking. All speakers should present rebuttal before the main arguments in their speech, making sure
to attack the most important points first. Rebuttal should be carefully structured in the following order:
• state the argument to be rebutted
• explain why the argument is wrong
• give an example, if possible, to illustrate your point
• connect the rebuttal to your team’s case, to strengthen your team’s position.

Your turn
6.1 Host a class debate on one of the topics provided or another issue of interest. Allow several days for
preparation. Have a teacher adjudicate, or run your own competitions in groups of eight (two teams of
three, plus adjudicator and chairperson).
• secondary students should compulsorily study civics and undertake citizenship courses
• cosmetic surgery should be banned for anyone under the age of 21
• the world would be a better place without the fashion industry
• school leavers should be required to take a gap year
• McDonald’s is public enemy number one
• smart phones have made us anti-social
• co-educational schools are the best
• gamers are tragic
• Facebook is evil
FORUMS
Forums are a medium for the exchange of views on a topic; in other words, they
are structured discussion groups. They can involve a number of participants
delivering prepared speeches on an issue to an audience, with or without visual
support (graphs, etc.). At other times they are less formal and more like polite
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discussions. There is usually a chairperson (host) to introduce the speakers,

guide the questioning and provide concluding remarks.
Television forums
Television forums consist of a host and a panel (often experts or well-known public figures) discussing a current
issue in detail. The host introduces the issue and gives the forum structure with prepared ‘focus questions’, they
also steer the forum in the right direction. They ensure that a range of views from different perspectives are
heard. A studio audience is usually present and able to contribute to the discussion. The aim is to facilitate a fair,
intellectually rigorous debate. Two examples of formal, televised forums are:
• Q&A, hosted by Tony Jones, broadcast on ABC television
• Insight, hosted by Jenny Brockie, broadcast on SBS television.
Your turn
6.2 Host a class forum on an issue of interest to your group, allowing time for research and preparation.
Your teacher could act as the host/facilitator, and the rest of the class could be organised into a panel of
three to eight people and an audience. The host should ensure that a broad range of views is expressed
and that the panel and audience actively listens to and considers opinions different to their own.
Roles
• host/facilitator – steers the forum, asks focus questions devised by the class
• panel – either three to four people or a larger panel of six to eight split into two factions. Create
clear ‘persona profiles’ for each panel member that include their age, race, gender, profession,
political views, overall point of view in relation to issue with underlying reasons, etc.
• audience – should represent a wide variety of interests, views and traits (profiles would again
be helpful)

FORMAL ORAL PRESENTATIONS OR SPEECHES
A formal speech is a common oral assessment task at VCE level. It allows your teacher to
establish whether or not you have a good understanding of a particular issue, as well
as whether or not you can communicate that understanding effectively, taking into
account your purpose and audience. First, follow the ‘Tips for a successful argument’
section as you would for a written point of view. Once your speech is written,
consider the following advice for effective delivery.
Pause, pace and pitch – the ‘3P’s’

Pause The ‘gaps’ in your speech add meaning and emphasis. Be sure to wait before and
after important points to ensure your message is received.
Pace Be aware of your speed of delivery: too fast and you will risk losing emphasis and the audience’s attention, too
slow and you’ll sound dull. Vary your pace to be interesting.
Pitch Vary your volume, register and intonation to maintain interest and add emphasis. A speech delivered in a
monotone (one tone of voice) will put your audience to sleep.
Audience
Don’t ignore the people to whom you are speaking. Engage your audience by making meaningful eye contact with
individuals. Do not always look at the same person. ‘Read’ your audience.
Resources
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Use as many resources as you can to support your speech, not detract from it. If you use a slideshow screen
(electronic support such as PowerPoint), remember that the focus should still be you, not the screen. Slides should
contain a minimal amount of verbal language – main ideas only; visual language on slides to illustrate or enhance
points can help. Familiarise yourself with the technology to avoid any issues at speech time.
Non-verbal elements of speech

Avoid distracting mannerisms (sitting or leaning on a desk, fussing with your hair, fidgeting), saying ‘um’ or using
other inappropriate phrases (‘yeah’, ‘whatever’, ‘like’) and laughing or allowing other class members to distract you.
Make regular eye contact with people in all areas of the room. The occasional relevant gesture (e.g. pointing to a
slide) can add interest.
Cue cards
Cue cards are essential, unless you can memorise your
whole speech (an impressive option!) Hide them in your
palm so they are not distracting. Use key words, not full
sentences, otherwise you will ‘read’ your speech and
seem disengaged. Prepare as many cards as you need.
This may help you pause appropriately and avoid losing
your place.
Rehearse
Rehearsing is absolutely essential. Use all resources (cue
cards, slideshow) when rehearsing, and practise in front
of friends, a sibling, your parents or the mirror! Accept,
and act upon, critical feedback. Rehearse your speech
with the technology to ensure it runs smoothly.
Martin Luther King Jr was an inspirational public speaker

Get inspired
Listen to some famous speeches on the internet. Note the techniques the speakers employed to make them
sound powerful. You might like to download some of them (many are available as MP3 audio files). Experiment
with some powerful verbal speech techniques such as repetition, inclusive language, humour, etc.
THE 5 S’S OF SPEECH WRITING
1. Subject 2. Structure
What is the issue? What is the context/background? What is your contention (main, overarching
Who are the stakeholders? argument)?
What are the problems? Possible solutions? Is it clear and consistent throughout?
What are the different angles and opinions? What are your key supporting arguments?
What are your beliefs and arguments? What are potential counter-arguments?
Do not move on until you know your topic How can you rebut counter-arguments?
thoroughly and have a definite argument you wish to Is it appropriate to put forward solutions?
make about it. What is the best way to order your arguments?
Can your audience identify and differentiate between
the different arguments?
TIP: Each argument and rebuttal should have a
3. Substance topic sentence.
Do not move on until you have a ‘skeleton’ for your
Flesh out each of your arguments:
speech: contention, arguments, rebuttals to
• explain of your ideas
counter-arguments, conclusion.
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• provide evidence and information (facts, expert

opinion, statistics, sources, etc.)
• give examples that illustrate your point.
Make links between arguments; use signposting
(first, finally, as a result, etc). 4. Style
In appropriate places, reiterate your point, Ensure your speech has a voice appropriate to the
summarise what you have said so far or remind task and audience – consider formality and register,
the audience of your overall contention. tone and word choice. Consider using rhetorical or
structural devices to make your speech more
engaging and interesting:
5. Speaking • involve the audience through inclusive language,
and emotional appeals
Plan how you will present your speech, taking into • use strong empathetic language such as
account effective use of these features: ‘I’m sure you’ll agree’, ‘we should/must …’
• pace • give anecdotes or hypothetical scenarios
• pause • include a shocking fact or statistic
• pitch • use simple, powerful images (Powerpoint)
• modulation • provide imagery (with words)
• volume • include ‘bookending’ – start and end with the
• tone same concept/device/image/anecdote
• body language – stance, gestures for emphasis • use repetition.
• eye contact – regular, look around, don’t read Start with a bang – engage the audience’s interest
off notes or palm cards in the first 20 seconds.
• variation, appropriateness Convince the audience of your personal passion for
• emphasis. the topic.
Make palm cards that contain only key words to
guide you (you may also want to include statistics,
names, etc. if they are difficult to recall). Don’t
refer to them too often.
Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse – to friends, family,
the mirror or record yourself.

SAMPLE STRUCTURE FOR A 5-MINUTE ISSUE-BASED SPEECH
Introduction (1 minute)
• Brief overview of issue (inform audience of background).
• Outline implications (economic, environmental, political, ethical, legal, etc.).
• Who does this issue/topic involve (local, national, global)?
• Are there multiple sides? What are they?
• State your position – offer a clear contention.
First key argument (1.5 minutes)

• Initiate and outline your first key point (i.e. a verbal topic sentence).
• Develop the argument carefully and logically – what are the implications?
• Provide evidence to reinforce your viewpoint.
• Make sure you engage with what you have identified as the key elements of the topic.
Second key argument (1.5 minutes)

• Outline and articulate your second key point. Link it to the first.
• Develop the argument carefully and logically – what are the implications?
• Provide evidence to reinforce and back up your viewpoint.
Rebut counter argument/s (30 seconds)
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• What are the key arguments against your stance? Pinpoint one to two key arguments.
• Identify flaws in these arguments or reasons why they are not as problematic as implied.
Conclusion (30 seconds)

• Are there any alternatives or compromises to appease all parties?
• What are your recommendations? Finish off strongly by making a final assertion of what is needed
or required and why it is relevant.
Other considerations when crafting your speech:

• If using images, have you planned when you will use them and how?
• Have you collected evidence to support your opinion?
• Have you ignored any major opposing arguments?
• What tone (e.g. serious, sarcastic, disbelieving, etc.) do you plan to adopt
at various points in your speech?
Does your choice of words and tone and your intended speaking style
(pace, volume, pitch) suit the points you are making?

Your turn
6.3 Look at the following transcript of a student speech and its accompanying visual language, then
answer these questions.
a Consider the presentation’s overall structure. Identify the key ‘stages’ of the argument by drawing
a line where you feel the speech shifts focus. Is it a logical structure? In what ways could it be
considered effective?
b Study the student’s verbal language closely. Select one or two standout strategies at work at each
key stage of the speech and write sentences to explain the potential impact of each one.
c Study the visual support, which appeared in the form of slides at key moments of the presentation.
What impact is the speaker hoping for? How is each one being used to support the opinion?
d How does this student attempt to engage the audience of fellow Year 12 students and English
teachers? Pick out specific moments in the speech where you feel this audience engagement is
best achieved and explain why.
e Can you ‘critique’ this speech? How might the student have improved the presentation? What
different approaches might have been adopted? Discuss as a class.
high-scoring
Sample oral presentation response
PETER GRESTE
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[shows first slide]

Let me tell you about a man called Peter Greste.
This man is not a terrorist nor a murderer,
yet he is held like an animal in a cage. He is not a
drug dealer nor a thief, yet he has wasted away in
an Egyptian prison for more than 12 months.
No, in fact Peter Greste is a well-renowned
multi-award winning journalist who has spent
his life reporting from around the world … and
he’s an Australian citizen.
Yet, on the 29th of December 2013, just a few and imprisoned in Egypt, where this is also
short weeks after arriving in Egypt, Peter Greste supposedly the case. Way back in 1967, Egypt
and a number of his Egyptian media colleagues became party to an international treaty – the
were arrested by Egyptian police, charged with International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,
‘falsifying news’ and ‘spreading dissent’. which states that anyone who is arrested has the
right to be:
Over the 12 months of his captivity, the
Australian Government has been largely silent. 1 promptly informed of any charges against him
Today I ask you to consider this question; what 2 promptly tried in court
should our government do? When should our 3 not be deprived of his liberty without good
government intervene if an Australian citizen is reason.
arrested in another country? This is what should have happened, what
Now, as we all know, if you’re arrested in Egypt as a nation pledged to do.
Australia, you can expect a number of things, So why then, has Greste suffered in prison for
notably: the possibility of bail, as well as a fair months, with no trial, no evidence, no justice …
and speedy trial that presents and examines no hope?
the evidence. Peter Greste was captured

Because of all of this, there have been So back to Peter Greste – what should the
repeated calls for the Australian Government government do? What do they need to be careful
to intervene. Thousands have flocked to the of?
Egyptian streets in protest, while more than Well, the first complexity lies within the
38 000 people have signed a petition calling political situation in Egypt. The country is in
for an end to Peter Greste’s captivity. But crisis, plagued by years of destructive violence.
you see, politics and international relations The current government lacks legitimacy, after
are complicated at the best of times; on the seizing power and imprisoning their opposition
one hand nations must respect each others’ – seemingly with little regard for the law. The
sovereignty and independence; on the other, they Muslim Brotherhood, whom Greste was accused
have a duty to protect the rights of their citizens. of supporting, has been involved in a rising tide of
And sometimes these principles can conflict. violence and is now banned in Egypt as a terrorist
Now this isn’t the first time the government organisation. This isn’t The Lord of the Rings; there
has found themselves in such a situation. are no white knights in Egypt, no good guys in
[shows second slide] whom to trust.
The second complexity relates to Greste’s
employer, the Al Jazeera news network. Another
respected Australian reporter, Jennifer Byrne,
revealed that Al Jazeera’s principal backer is
the Emir of Qatar, who has been accused of
influencing his company’s reporting about the
Middle East with his own political agenda. So it is
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possible that Al Jazeera’s coverage of Egypt and
the banned Muslim Brotherhood is not as fair and
unbiased as has been claimed; it’s possible that
Greste is not completely innocent.
What is clear, however, is that Greste and his
colleagues have a right to a fair trial. If there is
evidence that they have deliberately broadcast
Let me tell you about Stern Hu. false information, this evidence should be brought
Stern Hu is an Australian, a senior employee forward and they should be given a proper
at Rio Tinto. In 2010 he was arrested in China on opportunity to defend themselves. The Australian
charges of spying and bribery. Government needs to use diplomatic channels to
push for this. Prime Minister Abbott’s single scant
Now, as we all know, China’s human rights
phone call to the Egyptian President is not enough
record and its legal system don’t have the most
– our government must actively and consistently
glowing reputation; the Chinese Government’s
uphold the legal rights of their citizen. As the
brutal response to the 1989 Tiananmen Square
months tick on and Greste remains questionably
protests ensured that. So you can understand
detained without a clear case to answer, our
that when Stern Hu was arrested it was front
government must act to protect the rights of their
page news and there was lots of pressure on
citizen; a man trapped alone far from friends
the Australian Government to take up his case.
and family in a country which, in his words, ‘sees
However, in this instance, Stern Hu was in the
anyone just trying to report alternative views as a
wrong; he pleaded guilty, with his employer Rio
threat that needs to be crushed’.
Tinto reportedly persuaded of his guilt. So it
seems that the government did the right thing [shows first slide again]
in not jumping on the bandwagon and assuming Thank you.
he was innocent; instead they stood back and
Paul Colman, Year 12 English student, 2014
allowed the evidence to unfold.

Sample statement of intention
My aim with this speech was to draw attention I then sought to deepen the sense of
to the need for our government to ‘actively injustice with evidence, by highlighting Egypt’s
and consistently uphold the legal rights’ of its commitment to the 1967 International Covenant
citizens, even when to do so might be difficult. on Civil and Political Rights and the fact that over
I am fascinated by the role of journalists in 38 000 people have ‘signed a petition calling
reporting the truth of the world’s conflicts, for an end to Peter Greste’s captivity’. These
and the extent to which some countries will details were designed to establish the sense that
actively campaign against this right in order all governments are obliged to follow through
to preserve their authority. I had followed on their promises, and by focusing on Egypt’s
the case of Peter Greste in the press and failure to do so I hoped that my Australian
was drawn in by his description of Egypt as audience would better appreciate the need for
a country which ‘sees anyone just trying ‘our government’ to do better. However I also
to report alternative views as a threat that understood that this is a complex issue, and
needs to be crushed’; I saw this as a brave that there is the issue of national sovereignty to
assessment of the undemocratic climate in consider – that is, respecting another country’s
this country and decided to produce a speech rights. This is why I introduced the second
that argued for the defence of a journalist’s example, or case study, involving Stern Hu; I
(or any citizen’s) right to protest and right to used this example to show that a government
freedom of expression. must be prepared to allow the legal process to
To make the issue less abstract, or more run its course, to avoid jumping in too quickly
human, to my audience of Year 12 students, and thereby corrupting the course of justice. This
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I opened with a photograph of Greste so is also why I added the details about Egyptian
that they could put a face to the problem. political instability and the complexity around the
My opening remarks were emotive – the Al Jazeera news network – to show that this is a
simile comparing Greste to ‘an animal in a complex and murky issue, which makes it hard
cage’ and imagery describing him as having for our government to act without hesitation or
‘wasted away in an Egyptian prison for more concern. I wanted my audience to appreciate the
than 12 months’ were designed to create various problems that any government faces in
sympathy and to establish the inhumanity such a delicate scenario – to avoid seeing the
of the Egyptian government. To emphasise issue as black and white.
this poor treatment I deliberately contrasted I finished with a strong statement of my
the emotive descriptions with Greste’s contention in clear, unambiguous language –
professional achievements, noting that he is that people deserve ‘the right to a fair trial’ and
a ‘renowned multi-award-winning journalist that our government ‘needs to use diplomatic
who has spent his life reporting’. My aim was channels to push for this’. I wanted my audience
to create a sense of injustice, to highlight the to be left in no doubt about my position, and by
inappropriateness of his imprisonment and to returning to the image of Greste on the screen
establish the need for Australian Government to conclude I hoped to remind everyone of the
support of his plight. human cost of inaction.
6.4 Read this extract from a 2014 speech by US President Barack Obama to students at the University
of Queensland, before the G20 meeting. This speech focused on climate change at a time when
the Australian Government’s reluctance to address the issue contrasted with China’s and the US’s
demonstrated commitment by agreeing to substantial greenhouse gas reductions.
a Consider how effectively Obama targets his specific audience and directly addresses them at
times. The best speakers show genuine engagement with their audiences – this is why Barack
Obama is considered such an effective orator. Highlight all of the moments where you can see
Obama directly appealing to the audience in question.

b What other language features stand out in this extract? How does Obama use language to
persuade this particular group to agree with his climate change ambitions?
c Now, draft a 3-4 minute speech for delivery to your peers. Choose any issue, but focus on a topic
that you know will capture your classmates’ attention. When you draft the speech, make a number
of direct appeals or references to your classmates, to ensure that you properly engage with them.
Deliver the speech!
President Barack Obama’s speech at

the University of Queensland
US President Barack Obama has told students at
Queensland University that nobody should care
more about climate change than those living in
the Asia Pacific region.
[…] As we develop, as we focus on our economy, we cannot
forget the need to lead on the global fight against climate
change. Now, I know that’s – [applause] – I know uh, I know
there’s been a healthy debate in this country about it.
[Laughter.] Here in the Asia Pacific, nobody has more at stake
when it comes to thinking about and then acting on climate
Part 6
change.
Here, a climate that increases in temperature will mean
more extreme and frequent storms, more flooding, rising
seas that submerge Pacific islands. Here in Australia, it
means longer droughts, more wildfires. The incredible
natural glory of the Great Barrier Reef is threatened.
Worldwide, this past summer was the hottest on record.
No nation is immune, and every nation has a responsibility to do its part.
And you’ll recall at the beginning I said the United States and Australia have a lot in common. Well, one of
the things we have in common is we produce a lot of carbon. Part of this legacy of wide-open spaces and the
frontier mentality, and this incredible abundance of resources. And so, historically, we have not been the most
energy-efficient of nations, which means we’ve got to step up.
In the United States, our carbon pollution is near its lowest levels in almost two decades – and I’m very
proud of that. Under my Climate Action Plan, we intend to do more. In Beijing, I announced our ambitious new
goal – reducing our net greenhouse gas emissions by 26 to 28 per cent below 2005 levels by the year 2025,
which will double the pace at which we’re reducing carbon pollution in the United States. Now, in a historic
step, China made its own commitment, for the first time, agreeing to slow, peak and then reverse the course
of China’s carbon emissions. And the reason that’s so important is because if China, as it develops, adapts
the same per capita carbon emissions as advanced economies like the United States or Australia, this planet
doesn’t stand a chance, because they’ve got a lot more people.
So them setting up a target sends a powerful message to the world that all countries – whether you are
a developed country, a developing country, or somewhere in between – you’ve got to be able to overcome old
divides, look squarely at the science, and reach a strong global climate agreement next year. And if China
and the United States can agree on this, then the world can agree on this. We can get this done. And it is
necessary for us to get it done. [Applause.] Because I have not had the chance to go to the Great Barrier Reef
– [laughter] – and I want to come back, and I want my daughters to be able to come back, and I want them to
be able to bring their daughters or sons to visit. [Applause.] And I want that there 50 years from now.

Now, today, I’m announcing that the United States will take another important step. We are going to
contribute $3 billion to the Green Climate Fund so we can help developing nations deal with climate change.
[Applause.] So along with the other nations that have pledged support, this gives us the opportunity to
help vulnerable communities with an early-warning system, with stronger defenses against storm surges,
climate-resilient infrastructure. It allows us to help farmers plant more durable crops. And it allows us to
help developing countries break out of this false choice between development and pollution; let them leap-
frog some of the dirty industries that powered our development; go straight to a clean-energy economy that
allows them to grow, create jobs, and at the same time reduce their carbon pollution.
So we’re very proud of the work that we have already done. We are mindful of the great work that still
has to be done on this issue. But let me say, particularly again to the young people here: Combating climate
change cannot be the work of governments alone. Citizens, especially the next generation, you have to keep
raising your voices, because you deserve to live your lives in a world that is cleaner and that is healthier and
that is sustainable. But that is not going to happen unless you are heard.
It is in the nature of things, it is in the nature of the world that those of us who start getting gray hair are
a little set in our ways, that interests are entrenched – not because people are bad people, it’s just that’s
how we’ve been doing things. And we make investments, and companies start depending on certain energy
sources, and change is uncomfortable and difficult. And that’s why it’s so important for the next generation to
be able to step up and say, no, it doesn’t have to be this way. You have the power to imagine a new future in a
way that some of the older folks don’t always have […]
President Barack Obama, 15 November 2014
(Extract of official White House transcript)
Part 6
Your turn
6.5 Consider the following observations – some facts, some opinions – on role models in sport.
a Which statements are facts and which are opinions? Which are hard to classify? Why?
b With a partner, take turns to articulate your own point of view in relation to each opinion.
c Take turns speaking for 1 minute on each prompt. (For a challenge, let your partner choose the
prompt!)
Issue focus: Role models in sport

i Ninety per cent of Australians watch some form of football each week during the season. Only 6 per
cent of Australians go to church on a regular basis.
ii Psychologists say that sport can generate feelings of spirituality and help us to learn values.
iii Sport teaches children about teamwork and strength; professional players personify these things.
iv Seventy-six per cent of Year 11 boys surveyed by Inside Sport magazine said sportspeople were their
major role models. Forty-three per cent of girls said the same. For both sexes this was the number
one response.
v Sports stars face myriad pressures, from obsessive fans to relentless media coverage; they are
expected to be perfect 24 hours a day. It is no surprise that they fail to meet our expectations at times.
vi We equate sporting prowess with moral perfection, which puts unrealistic expectations on players.
vii Bad role models serve a purpose also – to show children how not to behave.
viii Sport is nothing more than entertainment, which makes sportspeople nothing more than entertainers.
ix Money has ruined sport. It has made the games a quest for television ratings and the players have
become the Australian equivalent of America’s cashed-up celebrities.
x The codes of AFL and NRL promote sexist, misogynistic and harmful values. The players send a
message that it’s okay to treat women like sexual objects.

6.6 Read this article by Tracey Holmes, a reporter and presenter on ABC News Radio who was also
Australia’s first female host of the national sports program ABC Grandstand.
a Identify Holmes’ contention, as well as her supporting arguments and evidence. Do you find her
opinion convincing? Explain in a paragraph, or discuss as a class.
b Look at the tweets submitted to the internet page where this segment was uploaded. Which of the
views most closely reflects your own? Write your own tweet, or series of tweets, to express your
personal response to Holmes’ opinion. Again – share them as a class.
c Construct your own response to any aspect of this issue, in writing. You might choose to respond
to Holmes via an online message or produce a more substantial opinion piece of your own for
publication.
AF TER HOMOPHOBIA LE T’S TACKLE PRE JUDICE AGAINST

WOMEN’S SPORT
Australia’s major sporting

codes have made a laudable
commitment to ending
Rebecca Grundy
homophobia on the field and of England fails to
in the stands. Tracey Holmes stop the ball as Meg
Part 6
argues the most ingrained Lanning of Australia
bats during the final of
prejudice in Australian sport
the ICC Women’s World
is against our successful Twenty20 Bangladesh
female athletes. 2014 in Dhaka,
Bangladesh
Congratulations to Australia’s
sport endlessly. Coverage on dollars after her gold medal
professional sport leaders, who
weekends is wall to wall men’s presentation at London 2012.
were this week praised widely for
sport with the very odd exception. Netball’s ANZ Championship,
their commitment to eliminate
Nobody thinks it’s unusual to the trans-Tasman league
homophobia – an issue which
see a virtually woman-free zone featuring the best teams in
only affects men and men’s
with the occasional token female Australia and New Zealand, is
teams, it seems.
thrown in. one of the rare women’s sports
The bosses of football,
On a world scale, Australia’s on TV, and is broadcast by SBS
rugby league, Aussie rules and
women’s cricket, football and and Foxtel. Unlike the men’s
cricket (all men) signed the
basketball teams are far more sports, who earn hundreds
document along with a selection
successful than their male of millions of dollars in TV
of representatives from each of
colleagues. But who’d know? rights, netball has to pay for the
the sports – again, all men, with
Male cricketers’ wives get production of its own coverage.
the exception of footballer Sara
more coverage, and in some Netball regularly plays to
Walsh, who was conspicuous
instances more sponsorship, sell-out crowds, with the Sydney
given her isolation in a sea of
than the Australian women’s Swifts last year hosting 8000
testosterone.
team. Sally Pearson is a world fans at one match, more than
Then again, if you watch sport and Olympic champion in one went to watch one of the games
on TV or read about it in the of the blue ribbon track events played by their AFL cousins, the
papers, the sea of men that is and, incredibly, lost sponsorship Greater Western Sydney Giants.
sport in this country is normal.
The Giants, though, with the
Panels of men talk about men’s

benefit of television broadcast you read declaring the brilliance standard is not good enough.
rights, have a salary cap of of the Matildas? Sally Pearson stands alongside
around $10 million. The Swifts In the words of that great Usain Bolt as an International
operate under a salary cap scientific mind, Professor Julius Association of Athletics
of $300,000. Sumner Miller, why is it so? Federations Athlete of the Year.
This week, Australia’s It’s not because ‘nobody is It’s not just a sport issue,
women’s football team, the interested’, as many of the men it’s something far more deeply
Matildas, beat one of the world’s who run TV, radio and newspaper rooted. It’s a cultural issue
toughest teams, Brazil. Had sports departments continue to that needs a shift, and it cannot
the Socceroos done the same tell us. That argument was shot happen quickly enough.
thing, we would have had a dead when 50 million people I am all for outing
live broadcast with teams of tuned in to watch Australia’s homophobia from sport in this
anchors, reporters, panellists most dominant cricket team, country, but I’ll be cheering even
and sideline eyes flown in to the women’s team, win the 2013 louder when Australia’s most
cover the game. Front and back World Cup in India. It was also powerful sports bosses are
page headlines would have shot down when SBS recorded referring to women’s sport when
screamed about our success a 48 per cent audience jump for they say ‘we will not tolerate
and momentary dominance. Be the time slot when it broadcast discrimination’.
honest, how many headlines did a Matildas World Cup quarter
final game. It’s not because the Tracey Holmes, 10 April 2014
Part 6
Tweet 1 Tweet 2 Tweet 3

Julia Holman Peter Gerard Michael Dawe
@JulesHolman @PetrosKG @Diddoms
Listening to @natashamitchell @RadioNational @RNLifeMatters Was that Sir Les Patterson
talk women’s sport on Some women’s sporting events interviewing the Aussie
@RNLifeMatters. Just cringing are simply too bland and Cricketers? I’m male and I
at how some commentators talk unexciting to watch. It’s not was cringing #womeninsport
about female athletes! #abcrn about a ‘fair go’ #abcRN@natashamitchell
Tweet 4 Tweet 5
Nicole Phillips @npdesign Pat McConville @ptmcconville
@RadioNational @RNLifeMatters Great discussion on ABC @RadioNational
Women’s sport as a microcosm of wider society this morning on women’s sport; shamefully
shows that misogyny and sexism is still rife in the underfunded and under-supported.
world. #womenssport
6.7 Read the following report from The Age, written the day after AFL star Adam Goodes was announced
2014 Australian of the Year. Then, answer these questions.
a Consider the ‘ripple of discontent’ mentioned by Webster, ‘about whether Goodes was a worthy
recipient’ of the award, given that he is ‘just – gulp! – a footballer’. How does Webster rebut this
criticism? Are you convinced?
b What is your own opinion when it comes to sports stars being awarded such an accolade? Do you
think they deserve such recognition, or should the award be reserved for people who serve our

country in other ways? Construct your own point of view to explain your opinion – write either a
letter to the editor in response to Webster’s piece or a newspaper editorial offering the paper’s
view after the Australia Day award ceremony.
c Research the ‘ape’ incident referred to in the article, involving a 13 year-old girl at a 2013 AFL
game. Be sure also to research Goodes’ own response to the incident, in the days that followed.
Then, write an opinion piece for a local newspaper to offer your own opinion on the following topic:
‘When it comes to tackling racism in sport, Australia has a long way to go.’
d Draft and deliver a speech to your class on your favourite Australian (it might be a sports star, but
it does not have to be). Persuade your class as to why this person should be the next Australian of
the Year.
ADAM GOODE S: THE RIGHT MAN FOR AUSTR ALIAN OF THE Y E AR
The most ill-advised argument

anyone could make right now is
that Adam Goodes was named
Australian of the Year for calling
out a 13-year-old girl at the MCG
in between chasing a piece of
inflated red leather around a
footy oval.
Part 6
The most ill-advised question
anyone could ask is what has the
Swans footballer done compared
with those who have served
and lost lives in Afghanistan, or
produced miracles in operating
theatres?
It’s what Goodes can do over
Australian whinger. They’re John Howard, but let’s just
the next year that makes his
the same people who complain assume it was a coincidence.
appointment one of the most
about the heat in summer, With all due respect to those
inspired choices in years.
sand at the beach, the traffic indigenous sportspeople who
When it was revealed on during school holidays, and how have gone before him - including
Saturday night that the 34-year- bad Seven’s coverage is of the Lionel Rose (1968) and Evonne
old had received the honour, it tennis. Goolagong (1971) – Goodes’
was overwhelmingly applauded
Goodes is the first influence can be immense. A
yet also caused a predictable
sportsperson to win the award footballer, yes, but so much more
ripple of discontent. That ripple
since former Australian Test than that.
wasn’t so much laced with racist
captain Steve Waugh in 2004, and On May 24 last year, Goodes
undertones as with questions
before that the likes of Pat Rafter was pictured standing in the
about whether Goodes was a
(2002), Mark Taylor (1999) and middle of the SCG at sunset,
worthy recipient.
Cathy Freeman (1998). lifting his Swans jumper, pointing
After all, he is just - gulp! - a
Some will point out that to his dark skin and dipping his
footballer. Moaning about the
sportspeople often won during lid to another indigenous hero,
worthiness of the Australian
the tenure of Australia’s little St Kilda’s Nicky Winmar, who
of the Year winner is the
Wallabies tracksuit-wearing 20 years earlier had lifted his
equivalent of shooting fish
prime minister and sports tragic shirt to say, ‘I’m black and I’m
in a barrel for your standard
proud’.

‘That’s exactly what the photo people at the MCG and watching and former Swans teammate
symbolises to me,’ Goodes said on TV at home’. Michael O’Loughlin to provide
of Winmar’s remarks. ‘Even But it isn’t about that moment scholarships for indigenous
today, 20 years later, it highlights that makes Goodes a hero. students.
how every indigenous person It is about the past year when
It is about the next day, when
should feel about their heritage.’ he has been at the forefront of
he took a call from a distressed
Imagine, then, the grief teenage girl, and then asked via raising awareness of the issue of
Goodes must have felt when he social media for the community domestic violence.
was standing near the boundary to support her. Adam Gilchrist, former
line at the MCG later that night Test cricket wicketkeeper and
It is about how he handled
when a 13-year-old Collingwood Australia Day Council chairman,
Pies president Eddie McGuire a
fan called him an ‘ape’. said last week: ‘People might
few days later after he joked on
‘People don’t understand how radio that Goodes would make a debate if we made the right
one word can cut me so deep,’ good promoter for the King Kong choice, but they can never say we
Goodes says in a video on the stage production. made the wrong choice.’
Australian of the Year website, Goodes will further a debate
It is about the way Goodes has
before later adding: ‘I haven’t this country has been having
used his own ugly, heartbreaking
always been a confident, young since Australia Day, 1788, with so
experience and turned it into the
man. I was shy growing up. I much more to go, and surely that
best possible tool to wipe out the
learnt about standing up for makes him the right one.
stain of racism that is still there,
what you believe in.’ Now, there’s
even now.
standing up for what you believe Andrew Webster, The Age ‘Real Footy’,
in, and there’s standing up in It is about the GO Foundation
Part 6
27 January 2014
front of tens of thousands of he formed in 2009 with cousin
6.8 Try one or more of the following oral activities on the topic of sport.
• Role play: In groups, devise and perform a live-to-air television football talk show segment, in which
the hosts and a cross-section of guests from the community (parents, sports enthusiasts, sports
stars, etc.) debate the issue ‘Sports celebrities: Do we expect too much?’
• Whole-class activity: Divide your class in two and debate the topic ‘Money has ruined professional
sport’. One student from the affirmative should start the debate by offering one opinion about why
money has ruined sport. Any student from the negative team should raise their hand if they can rebut
the argument and offer an opinion of their own. Continue in this fashion until the debate is over, or
your teacher has declared a winner. Alternatively, you could conduct a traditional six-person debate
with an adjudicator.
• Individual presentation: Construct your own point of view on the issue of role models in sport. Deliver
it to your class or record it onto a computer and save it as a podcast for your classmates to download.
• Small groups task: Create a documentary or short film on one of the above sport-related issues, or
any other current issue of interest. Carefully script and storyboard the content, then use software
such as iMovie to shoot and edit your footage. Be sure to incorporate non-verbal language, such as
sound effects and music.
• Whole-class forum: Debate one of the sport-related issues outlined here or any other issue of
interest. Allow a week for research before the debate. Nominate a host (possibly your teacher) to
guide the discussion with some focus questions, which will have been devised by the class. Identify
some key stakeholders (perhaps six to eight people, of various backgrounds and representing a range
of viewpoints), which some students will portray. The remaining students will comprise the audience.
• Blabbermouth challenge: Speak for 2 minutes, uninterrupted, on the ‘Role models in sport’ topic
outlined in activity 6.5. Start with a clear contention, and then outline several supporting arguments,
with evidence, if possible. Get the class to vote on the most persuasive blabbermouth.

7
Part
Toolkit
CONSOLIDATE AND PRACTISE
In this section you will find practice writing tasks, templates, tips on referencing and more. Use these activities and
resources to consolidate your knowledge and to practise in the lead-up to presentations, SACs and/or examinations.
Try to implement the skills you have learnt in this book, and adopt a systematic approach to all tasks. For example,
use the ‘Critical questions of argument analysis’ in Part 5 for a written language analysis task, and use the
metalanguage glossary (Part 3), useful tone words (Part 5) and other resources to expand your vocabulary.
Your turn
Part 7
7.1 a The paragraphs in the cloze passage below offer a framework for constructing an analysis. Only
use the framework if you are still unsure about how to write one. Even then, adapt it to suit the
individual texts you are analysing. Aim to eventually write your own analyses without using these
paragraphs. (Refer to the steps in ‘How to construct an analysis – single text’ in Part 5.
Following _____________________ (event), debate resurfaced regarding _____________________ (issue).

In a ____________________ (text type) for ____________________ (publication) on ____________________
(date), ____________________ (author) argues in a ____________________ (tone word) and
____________________ (different tone word) fashion, that ____________________ (contention). The piece
____________________ (sentence about overall structure and/or style).
The ____________________ (structural feature or first language feature) highlights the writer’s contention
with its message of ____________________. This is heightened by references to ____________________,
which urges support for the contention by ____________________. In addition, ____________________
(language feature) in the word ‘____________________’ serves to ____________________ (effect).
The writer is primarily seeking to ____________________ in this part of the text, and positions
____________________ (specific target audience) to feel ____________________.
In the following (paragraph/sentence/etc.) the author speaks of ‘____________________’, which
encourages readers to ____________________ (effect) by ____________________. This is confirmed with
a reference to ‘____________________’, which seeks to engender support by ____________________. The
____________________ phrase ‘____________________’ recalls the idea that ____________________. The
overall effect here is ____________________, and the author’s argument about ____________________ is
therefore strengthened.
(Write another body paragraph if necessary.)
PART 7: TOOLKIT 147

The ____________________ (text type) is ____________________ (description of style and purpose), and
would most likely appeal predominantly to ____________________(specific audience). However, anyone who
____________________ (specific vested interest or opinion) might be inclined to feel ____________________
(alienated/offended/etc.). Overall, ____________________ (sum up the structure, style and/or effectiveness
of the piece).
b Find an editorial or opinion piece in The Age or Herald Sun of interest to you, or pick an article in this
book that you have not already analysed in detail. If possible, choose one with an element of visual
language.
c Read the text at least twice and answer the CAPITALS questions from the ‘Critical questions of
argument analysis’ section in Part 5.
d When you are ready, write your own analysis of the text.
7.2 Read the following letters and consider their contrasting arguments and approaches.
Then complete the following questions.
Stem the carnage Straight away I know people are going to

argue that the water is their domain and that
I was dismayed to hear about last week’s if we don’t like the idea of sharing it with them
fatal shark attack near Esperance in Western then we should just stay away. My response to
Australia. My heart goes out to the family of this naïve view is that Australia has built itself
Neil Timms, in particular to his younger brother on a culture of sand and surf for generations.
Part 7
James, who was watching helplessly from the Our tourism industry is heavily dependent on
shore as the beast attacked without warning. it. Every year, thousands of visitors flock to
our white sands and crystal clear waters to
This is the seventh fatality in four years –
experience an abundance of ocean activities.
an alarming statistic. And this is what scares
Are we going to call a halt to a lifestyle we all
me more than anything: these attacks have
love and sabotage a booming industry because
always seemed so sudden, so unexpected,
of a few fierce fish?
but now they also seem so frequent. I am
not a beachgoer myself, but despite this I Let’s put our greenie sentiments aside and
feel very strongly about the debate that has face this threat rationally: culling a few of these
resurfaced over whether or not man-eaters predators will not endanger the species, but
like last week’s culprit should be tracked down not culling them could endanger a whole way
and killed. In light of the increasing number of of life.
attacks, the answer is obvious: they must be Sam Forsythe,
destroyed. 18 November 2014
Love thy neighbour non-beachgoer, that needs to be culled – not

the creatures that he knows so little about.
Anyone who has had an up-close and personal These animals are constantly misrepresented
experience with a Great White Shark, one of by people such as Mr Forsythe who are
the planet’s most glorious marine species, ignorant of the facts: there have been seven
would understand just how appalling it is to attacks in the past four years, not fatalities, and
suggest that we decimate them for the selfish in three of these cases the ‘victims’ escaped
purpose of human convenience. unharmed. Further, in the majority of these
cases, the individuals that were attacked
It is the scaremongering of people like Sam
were in waters known for their itinerant shark
Forsythe (Letters, 18 Nov), a self-confessed

populations, and usually there was signage to Great Whites that draw in those ever-important
indicate this. Therefore, these people were in the dollars from hordes of overseas tourists. What
water at their own risk (as is anyone who swims kind of message does it communicate if we send
at any beach, because yes, Mr Forsythe, it is out Rambos in speedboats to blow them all out of
indeed the sharks’ domain). the water?
This leads to the other point I feel compelled Take some time to get to know these
to make: both the ‘culture of sand and surf’ and creatures, Mr Forsythe, and you won’t be so quick
the tourism industry defended by Mr Forsythe to condemn them.
rely heavily on the vast array of marine species James Whitt,
our waters have to offer. It is often our fascinating 20 November 2014
a Write a 500–600 word analysis of both

letters. Remember to compare and
contrast the texts. Refer to Part 5 for
the steps and samples for analysing
more than one text.
b Consider this photograph, which

initially appeared in the Sydney Morning
Herald alongside an article about a
Part 7
WA government plan to catch and kill
sharks. Which of the letters is best
supported by this image, and how has
the photographer used language –
verbal and visual – to convey a view?
c What would be an appropriate
form of visual support for the other
author’s letter?
d Research the issue of shark culling for yourself by consulting a range of online opinion sites.
Create a two-column table to outline the best arguments for and against shark culling in Australia.
e Write a 300–400 word letter to the editor, offering a strong point of view, reasoned and connected
supporting arguments and compelling evidence. Think carefully about your paragraph structure.
Use a range of argument approaches and language features to position your audience to share
your view.
7.3 Read the following editorial from Hobart’s The Mercury newspaper carefully. Then answer these
questions.
a What is the editorial team’s contention? Summarise it in one sentence, using your own words.
b What is the editorial’s attitude toward social media? Identify specific words or phrases that
communicate this attitude – how does this language position the audience to view social media?
c What is the impact of the visual language? How does this image achieve this impact?
d What typical editorial features are employed, in terms of arguments, language and structure?
Annotate the text to identify them and make notes on their intended impact.
e Pinpoint the overall tones of this text. Use two or three different adjectives to identify the tonal shifts.
f Write a 500–600 word analysis of the editorial. Focus on how it uses a range of visual and verbal
language strategies to position its specific audience to share the paper’s point of view.
PART 7: TOOLKIT 149

CYBER BULLY THRE AT RE AL (OPINION)
and other social media with Her tragic death shook the
mobile phones, tablets and PCs to nation, and has helped focus
create cruel parodies and taunts. attention yet again on tackling
Photoshop and other software cyber bullying.
enable[s] bullies to manipulate Spare a thought for Tasmanian
information and use it against Cassie Whitehill after the tragedy
those they fear or despise. of her 15-year-old sister Chloe
This type of bullying is who suffered years of bullying
potentially much more severe and before her death.
the impact more widespread than How can we continue to turn
in previous generations where a blind eye or minimise the issue
word of mouth and backyard of cyber bullying when it clearly
chatter was far less pervasive. has such significant impact on
Spare a thought for the victims?
13-year-old Tasmanian schoolgirl As ethereal and mythical as
who was humiliated after another cyberspace sounds to those born
student allegedly created bogus too early to come to grips with
Charlotte Dawson social media profiles and sent it, it is also patently real for the
pornographic photos from it. generation that is growing up with
Imagine the embarrassment and it. Many people spend hour after
Charlotte Dawson was a victim of
Part 7
sense of shame. hour on the internet, and there is

cyber bullying.
It is hardly surprising the no doubt social media assumes a
It is becoming increasingly girl did not return to school. It significant part of their social life.
obvious that cyber bullying is a is hardly surprising she feels This weekend hundreds of
very real and dangerous threat in wounded and embarrassed. She Tasmanians are expected to
our modern society. has been wronged and is well gather on Hobart’s parliament
The concept of bullying is age- advised to seek counselling to lawns in a show of support for
old in the history of humankind. help her through the ordeal. the introduction of Chloe’s Law to
Communities throughout the Spare a thought for the stamp out bullying in Australia.
ages have struggled to counter young girl’s mum who felt Of course we must be prudent
bullying within their ranks. powerless and unable to protect in protecting personal freedoms,
So often the perpetrators of her daughter, or her daughter’s but it is becoming more clear by
bullying hide in the shadows, reputation. All control had been the day that something must be
working behind the scenes taken from her, and she was done to send a strong message
to smear their victims with largely helpless to stop her throughout our society that cyber
debilitating rumours and daughter’s pain. bullying will not be condoned. We
innuendo. Spare another thought owe it to Chloe, Charlotte and all
The 21st century, however, for TV personality Charlotte the other victims.
has provided bullies with new Dawson who died this week. An
technology that can spread their anti-bullying advocate, Dawson Editorial, The Mercury,
lies and rumours around the was hospitalised in 2012 after 26 February 2014
planet in a matter of seconds. hundreds of social media trolls
They can use Facebook, Twitter viciously targeted her on Twitter.

7.4 This opinion piece appeared on the ABC’s Ramp Up online magazine in June 2014. Read it carefully and
then answer these questions.
a Consider the headline. How does it play on a well-known phrase, and what is the intention in terms
of audience response?
b What is the author’s contention? Explain her overall purpose in writing this piece, including some
discussion of her anecdotes.
c Consider Young’s observation: ‘Bodies that fall outside socially constructed beauty norms are not
bodies we’re expected to feel proud of. They are certainly not bodies we are expected to show off.’
How does she support this argument in her writing? Do you agree with her? Explain.
d Identify Young’s key supporting arguments and the standout language features employed to
convey these ideas. Explain how each feature serves to position readers to share the author’s
point of view.
e Answer the CAPITALS questions from the ‘Critical questions of argument analysis’ section in Part
5 in note form. Then write a 600–800 word analysis of the ways in which the author uses language
to position readers to share her point of view. Follow ‘How to construct an analysis - single text’
from Part 5 and don’t forget to incorporate discussion of the visual language.
Background information
Stella Young was a comedian, journalist and respected disability advocate who was the editor for the ABC’s online
magazine Ramp Up. Young was born with a bone condition known as osteogenesis imperfecta, and doctors told her
parents she would not live beyond her first birthday. She died in December 2014 – at the age of 32.
Part 7
DANCING LIKE E V ERYONE’S WATCHING
Sometimes it seems that fun. But I also dance because it’s

anything you do in a non- political.
normative body is somehow Just as I am aware of my
political. Stella Young feels body in those moments, the way
this is particularly true my muscles feel as I move, I’m
for a wheelchair user on a equally aware of the able-bodied
dancefloor. gaze. Heck, I’m aware of it when
I’m in the supermarket, on a
tram or wheeling through the
I am never more aware of streets. But there’s something
my body than I am at around extra at play on the dance floor,
midnight on a Friday. More often and people not only look, they
than not, I’m on a dance floor, comment.
feeling music pulse through my It is not uncommon for
body and moving it accordingly. someone to stop me while I’m
Stella Young
I’m surrounded by people. dancing, and tell me what great
They’re dancing. I’m dancing. But exercise it must be for ‘someone
in a body that looks like mine, one possibly just move my body for
like me’. One woman recently
is never just dancing. the sheer joy of it. There’s often
commented that it must be
a subtle assumption that we
I’m less than a metre tall, and ‘better than rehab’. Because
disabled folk don’t do things
I’m a wheelchair user. My dancing anything physical I do with my
with the same motivations as
takes place in this […] body and body must have a therapeutic
non-disabled people, as though
in this chair. I dance because it’s or ‘healing’ purpose. I couldn’t
PART 7: TOOLKIT 151

Normal People Things would my presence is assumed to be a expectations. It is not always my
not be important or meaningful lesson for non-disabled people. intention – living your life with
to me. I recently delivered a TEDx the express purpose to challenge
Another fellow dancer talk on the way we as a society people is exhausting – but I have
recently leaned down to me and objectify disabled bodies for the learnt that it’s a consequence of
shouted that it was ‘great to purposes of ‘inspiration’. We doing what I want to do. To live
see me out’. I asked him what are positioned firmly as ‘other’ unapologetically in a body you’re
he meant and he replied, ‘It’s so non-disabled people can consistently told you should be
just so awesome that you don’t distance themselves from the ashamed of is a political act. Life
care what people think.’ Right. idea that disability is simply part as a disabled woman means I am
Because, presumably, if I did care of the human condition. In the both spectator and spectacle.
what people think I’d have enough make-up room before I went on It has taken me a long time
sense not to be shaking my crip stage, a woman tidied up my hair, to learn that my body is not
booty before the delicate eyes of redid my lipstick and, before I defective, or wrong, or less than.
the general public, right? could object, painted a generous But it’s also more than those
Rather than explain to this amount of foundation over a things. It moves and feels and
gentleman that, in fact, I do care surgical scar on my right arm. responds to touch and lust and
what people think (I’m just not ‘Just to make it less obvious,’ music, in exactly the same way
self hating enough to assume she said. those bodies which are given
people find me disgusting), I didn’t argue with her, but leave to claim such privileges. I
I dismissed him with a not- I did have one of those all-too- dance as a political statement,
particularly-polite invitation to familiar thoughts: a reminder that because disabled bodies are
go away. I’m supposed to not like that part inherently political, but I mostly
Part 7
of my body, that I’m supposed dance for all the same reasons
These comments remind me
to feel ashamed. And to be fair, anyone else does. Because it
that people are surprised by my
that’s her job; to cover the things heals my spirit and fills me with
presence; that the dance floor
society deems imperfections. Her joy; each foray onto the dance
is not for me. Why? Perhaps
assumption that I’d want them floor brings the possibility of
it’s because a dance floor is not
covered was a reasonable one, that delicious frisson that comes
merely a place for moving, but
given the social context […] from locking eyes with someone
also for sensuality and sexuality.
and knowing, in that moment,
From traditional courtship Bodies that fall outside
that you’re dancing just for each
behaviour to straight-up cultural socially constructed beauty
other; because it makes me
metaphors, dance and sex are norms are not bodies we’re
sweat and move [to] connect with
inextricably linked […] expected to feel proud of. They
people and feel like I’ve landed
Perhaps that’s it. I’m just not are certainly not bodies we
in my skin when I finally stop.
supposed to be so damn showy. are expected to show off. Even
And I dance because, in the end,
The man who told me it was in the so-called body positive
dancing is a way for my body to
awesome I don’t care what people campaigns that seek to showcase
have a conversation about these
think was actually expressing the diversity of women’s
things, the pulsating waves of a
surprise to see me behaving as bodies, such as Dove’s Real
hundred people sharing thoughts
though I belonged on that dance Beauty campaign, the bodies of
and dreams and ideas about what
floor, as though my presence physically disabled women are
it means to be alive.
was an act of defiance and not conspicuously absent. Disabled
women, perhaps, are not It’s my body, and I’ll bloody
enthusiasm. Even here, in this
included in the definition of ‘real well dance if I want to.
space where culture has taught
us we can dance away our cares women’.
Stella Young, Ramp Up, 27 June 2014
and leave our troubles behind and By deliberately placing my
(excerpt only)
surrender our souls to music, disabled body in contexts where
it is not expected, I subvert

PRACTICE SAC ASSESSMENT
On the following pages you will find some practice SAC and English Section C: Analysis of Language Use
examination-style tasks. Read all of the supporting materials carefully and complete the practice activities.
Unit 3, Outcome 2: Analysing argument requires students to ‘analyse and compare the use of argument and
persuasive language in texts that present a point of view on an issue currently debated in the media’.
VCAA Key skills (English): students need to demonstrate an ability to identify and analyse:
• the intent and logical development of an argument
• language used by the writers and creators of texts to position or persuade an audience to share a point of view
• the impact of texts on audiences by considering the similarities and differences between texts
• the way in which language and argument complement one another and interact to position the reader.
Unit 4, Outcome 2: Presenting argument requires students to ‘construct a sustained and reasoned point of view
on an issue currently debated in the media, and present this in oral form’.
VCAA Key skills (English): students need to demonstrate an ability to:

• apply the conventions of oral presentations in the delivery of spoken texts
• apply the conventions and protocols of discussions and debates
• develop reasoned arguments in oral form
• conduct research to support the development of arguments on particular issues and acknowledge sources
accurately and appropriately where relevant
Part 7
• select evidence to support particular positions
• plan texts that present an argument, taking account of the context, audience and form in determining the
selected content and approach
• develop, clarify and critique ideas presented in their own arguments through discussion and writing
• gather, organise and synthesise information and ideas into a reasoned argument
• draft, review and rehearse spoken texts that support the presentation of an argument, critically analysing
their own developing texts.
The following tasks are designed to help you rehearse for these particular outcomes.
Practice SAC task

7.5 Read the following article to become familiar with the issue of cruelty in horseracing,
which arose after the deaths of two horses following the 2014 Melbourne Cup.
Note: this report is not one of the texts you will be asked to analyse!
MELBOURNE CUP 2014: THIS IS THE UGLY SIDE OF THE R ACE THAT
STOP S A NATION
It was the moment that stopped cruelty and horse racing is still Cup victory last year, many
Australia in its tracks, and galloping ahead. Australians were left horrified
12 months on it’s happened again. Twelve months ago, as after French runner Verema was
Admire Rakti’s death after celebrations took place euthanised after snapping a bone
Tuesday’s Melbourne Cup has and champagne flowed in her leg.
again ignited the debate around following Fiorente’s Melbourne
PART 7: TOOLKIT 153

what happens to horses after and that a proposal put to the
they finish their careers. Australian Racing Board to spend
But Racing Victoria jumped one per cent of its funds on such
out of the gates with a campaign a plan was rejected.
of its own, claiming the industry Mr Young said while he
is anything but cruel. acknowledged injured horses
In the CPR video, reportedly needed to be euthanased, those
taken on the night of the with behavioural issues were
Cox Plate two weeks ago, also often sent to the knackeries
11 thoroughbreds and 9 when they could simply just be
standardbreds (harness racing suffering from a small health
horses) are waiting in a holding problem […]
pen at a Melbourne knackery. Mr Young said the industry
French horse Varema Some appear obviously still had lessons to learn from
wounded and limping, others Verema’s death, and also turned
Nothing could be done to save his attention to the overuse of the
have bleeding sores.
the champion mare, who lay on whip and the predominance of
the ground with a shattered leg, These horses, according to
two-year-old racing in Australia.
about to be put to sleep. the video by the CPR, are among
the 13 000 horses which are In addition to calling for a
The horse snapped her mandatory retirement plan for all
killed every year in what it says
cannon bone, a large bone in racehorses, Animals Australia is
is a by-product of the racing
her lower leg. It left vets with pushing to end the excessive use
industry.
no choice but to euthanase the
Part 7
of whips, and wants jumps racing

million-dollar mare. However, racing officials
abolished.
believe that figure is grossly
Today, Japanese racehorse Spokeswoman Lisa Chalk
inaccurate.
Admire Rakti collapsed and died said Australians were appalled
after pulling up distressed after CPR spokesman Ward Young
by the sight of tired horses being
the 2014 Melbourne Cup. said the group was so horrified
flogged with whips and were sick
by the anonymously-supplied
The horse, who started a of hearing of yet another horse
footage that it had lodged an
well-backed Melbourne Cup being killed on the jumps racing
official cruelty complaint to
favourite but faded to last after track.
Victorian Government regulatory
leading, dropped dead in his stall ‘And they certainly don’t
body Primesafe.
shortly after the race. think not being fast enough is
Mr Young said while some of
The news of Admire Rakti’s justification for thousands of
the horses obviously needed to
sad death came just minutes young and healthy horses ending
be euthanased, he claimed the
before further reports that up in knackeries each year,’
animals were not put down until
another 2014 Melbourne Cup she said.
two days later.
runner, Araldo, may have to be ‘The Australian racing industry
euthanased. The Mike Moroney- ‘There are two issues here,’ will continue to struggle with
trained stayer fractured a cannon he said. ‘One is the immediate its public image and declining
bone (leg bone) jumping a fence welfare issue and why critically popularity until it delivers
after shying at a spectator’s flag. injured horses are being left meaningful, cultural change and
overnight, which is totally this must address the three big
Animal rights activist group
unacceptable. issues: whipping, jumps racing
the Coalition for the Protection
of Racehorses (CPR) recently ‘If it’s critically injured it and the killing of thousands of
launched a new video as part needs to be euthanased straight young and healthy horses each
of its latest campaign to argue away.’ year.’
that the industry is cruel. It is He said the second was there
concerned not just about what was no mandatory retirement Debra Killalea,
plan for former racehorses news.com.au, 4 November 2014
happens on the track, but about
(excerpt only)

7.6 Analyse and compare the use of argument and persuasive language in the following texts.
Use the CAPITALS questions from the ‘Critical questions of argument analysis’ section
and ‘How to construct an analysis – multiple texts’ section from Part 5 to ensure that you
produce a coherent piece of writing that includes an analysis of both visual and verbal
language. Aim to write 800–1000 words.
7.7 Referring to the ‘Tips for a successful argument’ and ‘Steps for creating a point-of-view response:
written and oral’ as outlined in Part 6, construct a spoken presentation with a sustained and reasoned
point of view. Aim to position a specific audience to share your view. Speak for 5–7 minutes, and
provide a clear contention and a range of supporting arguments and evidence.
THE R ACE THAT STOPPED A NATION KILLED 2 HORSE S. AND I WA S

A PART OF IT.
Did you put a bet on the horses down after an aborted attempt to Several hours later, he was
today? Throw some dollars in the save a severed leg. dead, put down when an attempt
office sweep? Halfway through today’s race to save his leg by inserting metal
Did you dig out an old hat, it became clear that there was pins failed.
or your kid’s tiara, pull out a something seriously wrong with ‘It is with sadness that we
party dress, get stuck into the Admire when he dropped back confirm that Araldo has had to be
champagne? to last in the field – doubtless humanely euthanised as a result
Part 7
Of course you did. I did. infuriating thousands of punters. of the injury it suffered in a freak
Admire Rakti was gasping his accident following the Emirates
In the Mamamia office, like in
last breaths. Melbourne Cup,’ confirmed Dr
so many others, we stood around
Brian Stewart, Racing Victoria’s
the big TV, in our not-a-normal- The Japanese officials who
Head of Veterinary & Equine
Tuesday dresses with our hats travelled across the world with
Welfare.
and our warm bubbles in hand, him to run in one of the world’s
and we jeered and cheered and richest races were with him when As social media erupts in
teased each other about where he collapsed immediately after anger, you have to wonder why
we were coming in the Sweep. the race and died in the stalls. any of us are even a tiny bit
surprised. Twelve months ago,
And then. The horse’s jockey, Zac
the same thing happened.
While everyone was mentally Purton, said: ‘I felt something
was wrong unfortunately and I After the 2013 Melbourne Cup
tallying their winnings and the
didn’t push him out otherwise it race, Verema, a four-year-old
nation went back to the bar,
might have happened earlier.’ horse from Jordan, broke a leg
a horse was dying a horrible
and was euthanised behind a
death. This happened just Back in our office, we felt
green screen on the track after
moments after the end of today’s awkward and uncomfortable.
the race as everyone looked away
Melbourne Cup in amongst The envied winner muttered
and filled up their glasses one
thousands of happy racegoers. something about ‘blood money,’
more time.
Today’s race that stopped a and we all went back to our day.
But still. Today, we pulled on
nation has now killed two horses. Then, almost immediately,
our hats, opened the wine and
Again. came the news that another,
headed to the TAB.
Araldo, a locally-trained horse,
Today it was Cup favourite, Because Melbourne Cup is
had shattered his cannon bone
Admire Rakti, who won the a party time, and Australians
after shying away from a flag-
Caulfield Cup just two weeks ago. are always more than happy
waving child on the side of the
And tonight news has broken that to punctuate the sometimes
track. He put his leg through the
a second horse, Araldo, was put grinding monotony of everyday
fence and cut it severely.
PART 7: TOOLKIT 155

life with a celebration. Anything Young told Mamamia, ‘We’re
will do. And a little fun and distraught that this happened, but
frivolity is certainly a welcome not surprised. It takes an incident
thing at a time of so much bad like this to remind everyone of the
news both global and local. cruelty of horse-racing.’
But what are we celebrating, ‘This horse is just one of the
really, on the first Tuesday in 125 other horses who were killed
November? on Australian race tracks this year.’
Money. Lots and lots of people ‘Add in the use of the whip and
handing over money that they the fact that a horse can be beaten
can’t afford to lose, and people an unlimited amount of times
who already have a great deal toward the end of a race, and then
making more. Australians, it’s the glamour of racing doesn’t
estimated, would have gambled seem like what it’s advertised by
more than $87 million today. the racing industry around Spring
$87 million pouring into the Carnival,’ Mr Young says.
hands of bookmakers in one day. Admire Rakti before the 2014 And what’s worse, none of the
And that’s before we even Melbourne Cup vast amounts of money made by
factor in the estimated $1.7 billion the racing industry goes back into
that business generates from the often leads to horses getting looking after the horses, according
‘networking’ opportunites around gastric ulcers. A study of to Mr Young.
the Cup, or the $6.2 million prize racehorses at Randwick ‘The racing industry rejected
Part 7
money that’s up for grabs for the found that 89 per cent had our proposal last year to use just
winner. stomach ulcers, and many one per cent of revenue from all
Those figures go a long way of the horses had deep, betting turnover throughout the
to explaining why we’re happy to bleeding ulcers within eight financial year – $14 billion – for a
overlook the other thing we’re weeks of the commencement retirement plan for racehorses,’
celebrating on Cup Day. of their training. Mr Young has told Mamamia.
• The exertion of the races I am not an innocent when it
Animal cruelty. We’re
leads a large proportion of comes to animal welfare. I am not
celebrating the lives of animals
horses to bleed into their an activist. I eat meat, and wear
being manipulated and managed
lungs and windpipe – Animals leather, and I take my kids to the
in an entirely unnatural way so
Australia say it’s called Zoo.
that they can entertain us and
Exercise-Induced Pulmonary
make us lots and lots of cash. But even to me, it seems
Haemorrhage. A study
None of it’s pretty. there’s something obscene about
carried out by the University
our willful blindness to the cruelty
Consider this information from of Melbourne found that 50
of horse-racing.
the opponents of horse-racing: per cent of race horses had
blood in Especially on this one day. That
• In the last 12 months, comes around every single year.
the windpipe, and 90 per cent
125 horses have been
had blood deeper in Today two horses likely paid
killed on Australian race
the lungs. for all our fun and hangovers and
tracks. The Coalition for the
• 33 knackeries across empty pockets with their lives.
Protection of Racehorses
Australia slaughter between Maybe next year I’ll remember.
estimate 18 000 ex-racers are
22–32 000 horses every And leave my hat at home.
killed every year.
year. Forty per cent of those
• Animals Australia say that
horses are racehorses.
racehorses are fed a high Holly Wainwright,
www.mamamia.com.au,
concentrate diet (grains) Today, The Coalition for the
4 November 2014
during training, rather than Protection of Racehorses’s
extended grazing, which communications manager Ward

Comments
I’m an avid horse lover, I compete my horses, I’ve owned an OTTB and know plenty of them. The thing
is, while Admire Rakti’s death could have been from undue stress of racing … the other horse had an
ACCIDENT that could have happened to any horse doing anything anywhere in the world. I know horses
that have done that just running around in the pasture. And the people TRIED to save him, they only put
him down when it was apparent they couldn’t do anything for him (and no, you can’t save a horse with a
broken leg, that’s too much weight distributed unevenly through the other legs, and tendons will blow
out from the pressure. It’s called anatomy.). I don’t know the specifics of Admire Rakti’s death, but I do
know that these racehorses win because they love what they do and they want to win. Trust me, you can’t
make a horse that doesn’t want to win a race, win. And you can’t hold back a horse that wants to race. The
jockey didn’t push him because he knew something was wrong. There was no possible way of knowing
exactly what was wrong. Maybe he should have pulled him out of the race, but again, you have no way of
knowing what’s wrong with the horse and sometimes horses just have off days. It’s so easy to sit behind
a computer, read an article, and feel self-important by saying ‘Horse Racing is Evil!’ and even ‘Competing
Horses Is Evil!‘, without knowing all the details that go on behind the scenes. Yes, there are a lot of things
that need to be changed in the racing industry around the world. Drugs for one. Retirement plans after
racing. You could argue that any sport has things that need to be changed, though.
Fun Fact for the day: the majority of horses that go into racing training never run a race because they
show no desire to do it. Most of the ones that DO race retire early because, again, no desire to win.
Holly Evans
Part 7
PRACTICE EXAMINATION TASKS
This section of the VCE English examination, entitled ‘Analysing and presenting argument’, is based on an analysis
of argument and the use of persuasive language in unseen text/s. Be sure to always:
• read the background material carefully, as this is provided to enable you to locate your analysis in the context of
the issue being discussed and will also often contain useful information about audience, purpose or form
• read the texts in detail, and study all accompanying visual material
• write your analysis as a coherently structured piece of prose.
Practice examination task 1

Read this editorial from Brisbane’s Courier-Mail newspaper and then analyse how both argument
and persuasive language are used to position the target audience to share the paper’s point of view.
GAME OV ER FOR ILLEGAL DOWNLOADING A S GOV ERNMENT LOOK S TO

PUT ONLINE PIR ATE S TO THE SWORD
In the Seven Kingdoms of to run a sword through their off heads – laws and common
Westeros – in which the wildly enemies. decency be damned.
successful television series Game Sure, they also try subterfuge In the real world, fans of the
of Thrones is set – the ruthless and bedding appropriate series have taken the Lannister
Lannister family finds the best allies, but the surest way is to lead – taking the law into their
way to take what they want is unsheathe their swords and cut own hands and breaking
PART 7: TOOLKIT 157

the law by illegally downloading renting a DVD or whipping out the clamping down on internet piracy.
the shows, aired here on pay credit card to legally download The tough new measures are
television network Foxtel. a film. outlined in the leaked government
Australia has the dubious Box-office hits and television discussion paper Online Copyright
honour of leading the world in success stories help fund the art Infringement.
illegal downloads of Game of house movies and niche TV series. Among measures being
Thrones. Even the US Ambassador And the more people who considered is forcing internet
in Australia made a plea to the steal content without paying, service providers to block
public last year to stop. The the more the content creators offending websites and to punish
plea fell on deaf ears. When the suffer. The end result is a world of customers caught infringing
fourth series went to air in April, vanilla cinema, television, music, copyright.
Australia accounted for literature and newspapers. It would also extend ‘safe
11.6 per cent of the piracy. harbour’ to universities and search
As a newspaper, we are also
In many respects, online not immune to the theft of our engines as long as they moved
piracy is like the hypothetical stories. From the inside we see to stop piracy and moved to shut
question: If you could get away the sweat, tears and occasional down repeat piracy offenders.
with the perfect crime would blood that goes into chasing The paper says illegal
you commit it? Like jaywalking, and creating a compelling news downloading is jeopardising our
it is a crime that almost always story. The tears normally come $90 billion copyright industries,
goes unpunished. It is a common when someone else, who has not which employ more than 900 000
domestic crime, whether it be invested weeks or months in the people.
downloading an illegal TV show story, and who has not invested ‘Digitisation means that
yourself or borrowing a pirate copy
Part 7
time, money, care and legal these industries are particularly

of a movie from a parent of one of advice, takes the story and offers susceptible to harm from online
your kids’ schoolfriends. it to the world for free. We see copyright infringement, with
The music industry was among expensive investigative journalism the potential to directly impact
the first which had to deal with that aids the community stolen on the Australian economy and
the issue when file-sharing site within seconds. Australian jobs,’ it says.
Napster made stealing music The Courier-Mail has a vested The argument to stamp
simple and easy. interest in this argument. Our out digital piracy is logical and
As internet speeds have parent company, News Corp clear-cut.
become faster it is now so much Australia, is also a part owner
Measures to punish those
easier to download the large files of pay-TV network Foxtel. Our
who steal online, and take away
required for TV series and movies. broader company also makes
their means to continue doing so,
Next time you are at the films as owners of 20th Century
should be implemented as soon
movies watch the lengthy end Fox. But having a vested interest
as possible.
credits: They give an indication of does not make our argument any
the enormous number of people less credible.
Editorial, The Courier-Mail, 30 July 2014
needed to make cinematic magic We welcome, then, indications
– people whose livelihoods depend from the Federal Government that
on other people buying a ticket or it is finally getting serious about

Read this opinion piece by journalist Joseph Williams, which was uploaded to digital news and lifestyle
magazine TakePart, and then the responding online reader comment. Analyse and compare how both argument
and persuasive language are used by each author to position their audiences to share their point of view.

Why taking a ‘gap year’ should be a new college admissions
requirement
A year off – spent wisely – can enhance a The National Association for College Admission
student’s educational experience. Counselling also recommends travelling and volunteering
as a way for incoming college students to figure out what
they want before heading to campus.
‘While there is significant peer pressure, parental
pressure, and school pressure to go right on to college, the
adventurous few who take time off are richly rewarded,’
according to the NACAC’s web site. ‘Taking time off before
college gives you the gift of time to learn about two
essential things: yourself and the world around you.’
Rather than digesting and regurgitating rote classroom
lessons, a year doing something interesting ‘introduces into
a young person’s life a challenge in a new and interesting
way,’ O’Shea says. ‘They get an experience that challenges
Google the words ‘gap year’, a term that barely existed in their assumption of themselves and the world around
the national lexicon a decade ago, and you’ll get roughly them. They get a better capacity to understand problems
60 million results. They range from websites for a dozen or and think from a different perspective.
so programs as well as gap year fairs, at least one online
‘It can help you see your own life and your own
Part 7
guidebook, and testimonials from students who say it’s a
historical context and privileges in a new light,’ he says,
rewarding, valuable experience.
‘and it can help to enrich their college career afterward.’
The options for a recent high school grad looking to
Top quality programs, O’Shea says, focus on the whole
take a break from formal education to travel or volunteer
student, and not just the volunteer services they provide.
before heading to college have exploded in recent years.
The best ones, he says, offer development, leadership or
They range from opportunities in exotic places, like working
educational components, guidance on college or career
on an organic farm in Thailand, to helping rebuild schools
options, a support system for students as they travel, and
or teach young children in Washington, D.C.’s under-served
a safe, nurturing environment that program alumni have
communities.
vouched for.
That’s why Joe O’Shea, author of Gap Year: How
Gap-year experiences can seem exotic. The website
Delaying College Changes People in Ways the World Needs,
omprakash.org boasts ‘volunteer opportunities in
argues that time off between high school and college can
42 countries … with 142 international partners, …[and]
pay dividends for society at large.
11 985 volunteers.’ And over at the website GapYear.com,
‘It’s very common for students to go through the tours of Italy aimed at gaining a better understanding of
motions in high school, and be pushed along by family’ to art history as well as volunteer research opportunities at a
get to college, ‘often as quickly as possible,’ says O’Shea, marine preserve in Malawi are available.
who is also director of Florida State University’s Office of
Other students may sign up for AmeriCorps, which offers
Undergraduate Research. However the key lies in how that
living-expense stipends and college scholarship money in
year off is defined.
exchange for domestic service. However, depending on the
Travelling abroad and volunteering in a developing program, an AmeriCorps member may have to apply for food
country ‘is the gold standard,’ says O’Shea. Going to a part stamps because they are paid so little.
of the planet, or the nation, that they’ve never seen before,
While gap years have spiked in popularity, O’Shea says,
can lead to a more thoughtful, mature student better
a year off from school isn’t for everyone – young people
prepared for college.
who have personal or family issues, for example,
PART 7: TOOLKIT 159

or who don’t want to venture any further than the distance ‘The benefits of it are so varied, but in the end they
from the sofa to the refrigerator in their parents’ home. become the type of [well-rounded] people we need in
More work also needs to be done to make gap years more society,’ O’Shea said. ‘They’ve experienced not just people
accessible to kids who don’t come from well-off families. who look like them and think like them and talk like them.’
Although a student can gain valuable experience by simply
Joseph Williams, Take Part, 24 June 2014
getting a job and working for a year before enrolling in
college, a real gap year, says O’Shea, ‘usually involves leaving
your home community to do something else.’
Comments
‘Change the world needs’? Nope, the world absolutely does not need more 18-year-olds running around
Africa building shoddy schools and taking Instagrams. Just because you personally thought it was an
incredible experience doesn’t mean you actually helped anyone in the long term. Programs like this take
jobs from people in the community and sometimes the buildings literally fall down because they’re built by
kids with no applicable skills. (You know what the developing world has in abundance? Unskilled labour.) If
you want to make a difference, come back when you are a doctor, a nurse, an engineer … or better yet, stay
home and donate to a development fund that invests in job training and financing for small businesses.
People in the developing world are not your ‘learning experience’.
Ellen Stuart Kittle, University of New Hampshire
Part 7

Read this online opinion article from youth climate activist and budding author Ryan Jones, which was
uploaded to his personal blog. Then, analyse how both argument and persuasive language are used to position
his audience to share his point of view.
Oh crap! It’s climate change …on yer bikes, climate denialists … the
science is here to stay
If you’re one of those (zany! NUTS!!!) people who
believes what 99.95% of experienced and rational
climate scientists the globe over have been saying
for years about the catastrophic impacts of climate
change, it’s hard to imagine how you’re getting any
sleep. I happen to believe them (I know, crazy), and must
confess, there have been some restless nights of late:
the predictions don’t make for pleasant bedtime reading.
And in a world which is already stressful thanks to
Islamic State terrorism, good old Vlad Putin in charge of
one of the world’s most substantial nuclear arsenals and
artists like Redfoo insisting on producing ‘music’ for our
listening ‘pleasure’, who needs more bad news? I mean,
REALLY?!

Well too bad, here it is: not so long ago the in Beaufort in 2009, according to the editor of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Pyrenees Advocate, Craig Wilson. And his relentless
released a fourth and final report. It supported the position determination to ‘axe the tax’ – a determination
of the 99.95% of scientists, funnily enough, and unveiled successfully realised in 2014 – only confirms this
some worrying stats of its own: eleven of our Mother scepticism. One assumes that the collective expert
Earth’s twelve warmest years since 1850 have occurred consensus of an overwhelming majority of the global
since 1995; she has a fever (her temperature will rise scientific community is not good enough for him or his
by 3C by 2100); carbon dioxide levels are far above the party. Which of course begs the question: what is …?
Global temperature changes

from the 20th century average (°C)
0.75
0.7
0.65
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
–0.05
–0.1
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–0.15
–0.2
–0.25
–0.3
–0.35
–0.4
–0.45
1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Source: NASA
natural variable range of the last 650 000 years … and the So there you have it, all bad news. The scientists are
icing on the cake: it’s mostly, if not all, our fault. Sweet. right (pesky smart people with rigorous testing methods
Furthermore, the NASA GISS land–sea temperature index and thoroughly rational outlooks – who the HELL do
is about to reveal that this year is either the hottest or they think they are, anyway?!), and our politicians are
second hottest … EVER. And the average temperature behaving like … well, politicians. So what are we going
of the past five years is higher than any other five year to do about it? I suspect there’s nothing we can do about
period, and the same goes for the past 10, 15, 20 (and so the pollies, but if you want to be more like my pal Al
on…) years: (Gore, that is – remember his movie An Inconvenient
Of course, most of the world’s scientific community Truth? Weeeeell it seems it’s still true … and becoming
stands behind such evidence, as do many political more inconvenient …), sell the gas-guzzling eco-wrecker
heavyweights. British PM David Cameron supports the and get on yer bike. Every little bit counts. If you have
recent climate pact between heavy emitters, the US and a spare $1000 you might also be able to buy a ticket to
China, and UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon declared hear Gore speak next time he’s in Oz, in the hope that it
climate change, at 2014’s G20 summit in Brisbane, ‘the will help you sleep a little easier (at night, not during his
defining challenge of our times’. But there are still some speech). Who knows, if he sells enough tickets at that
LOUD dissenters, and our very own big cheese Tony price he’ll be able to run for PM of Australia. He had a
Abbott is the poster child of this school of scepticism: good trial run in the US, after all.
‘The argument [behind climate change] is crap’, he
robustly declared to a room of climate change sceptics
PART 7: TOOLKIT 161

TEMPLATES
LETTER TO THE EDITOR
In the space in the template provided, plan your own letter to the editor on a current issue in the media. Use bullet
points only. Then write a separate letter or email of 400–500 words. Consider sending the finished product to a
newspaper of your choice. Use a range of persuasive strategies, and be aware of your point of view and tone of
voice. Follow the guidelines provided in the template.
Greeting
Introduction
• Give context and outline issue or respond to a
previous viewpoint
• State your contention
Body paragraph 1
• Present first argument
• Provide supporting evidence
Part 7
Body paragraph 2
• Present second argument
• Provide supporting evidence
Body paragraph 3
• Present third argument
• Give supporting evidence
and/or
• Present opposing views and rebut
Conclusion
• Sum up/make a recommendation
• Finish strongly

EDITORIAL
Choose one of the following issues (or any issue of interest) and plan an editorial for The Age or Herald Sun in the
space in the template (use bullet points only). Then type the editorial. Refer to a real editorial from your paper
of choice and to the information on editorials in Part 4 to guide you regarding common techniques and typical
language.
• Should boys and girls be taught together or separately in secondary schools?
• Was Barack Obama a wise choice as President of the United States?
• Over-protective parenting – are mums and dads mollycoddling their kids?
• Teenagers and elective surgery – is it ever okay?
Opening paragraph
• Provide overview of issue, explain why it is
back in the spotlight
• Briefly outline opposing viewpoints
Part 7
Middle paragraphs
• Tackle various arguments in detail
• Support arguments with appropriate evidence
• Put forth paper’s views
Closing paragraph
• Make firm recommendations; be specific
(e.g. appeal to government, parents, wider
community)
• Suggest what could be lost/what is at stake
PART 7: TOOLKIT 163

SPEECH
Choose any issue of interest and plan a speech for a specific audience in the space in the template. Use bullet points
only. Consider powerful strategies such as repetition, rhetorical questions, inclusive/exclusive language, humour
and exaggeration (within reason!). You can use this template to create cue cards. Deliver your speech using only
your bullet points and remember that eye contact is essential.
Introduction
• Give appropriate greeting
• Introduce and outline the issues
• Make strong opening remarks (e.g. ‘What if …’
scenario or rhetorical question)
Body paragraph 1
• Present first argument
Part 7
Body paragraph 2
• Present second argument
Body paragraph 3
• Present third argument
and/or
• Present opposing views and rebut
Conclusion
• Restate your main arguments
• Make firm recommendations
• Finish on a strong note

ESSAY
Use this template to plan an essay on a topic of your or your teacher’s choice. Use bullet points only. Address each
prompt in bullet-point form to ensure you consider all of the important structural aspects.
Introduction
• Address the topic
• Clarify the key terms
• Outline your main arguments
• State your contention clearly
Body paragraph 1
• Topic sentence: first main idea
• Provide supporting explanations and evidence
• Write a concluding or linking sentence
Part 7
Body paragraph 2
• Topic sentence: second main idea
Body paragraph 3
• Topic sentence: third main idea
Conclusion
• Come back to the essay topic
• Sum up your main arguments: what have you
established?
• Strong finish
• Avoid unnecessary repetition
PART 7: TOOLKIT 165

REFERENCING
Referencing is all about acknowledging your sources appropriately and
accurately, where relevant. It requires that you list, in a standardised way, all
of the resources you have used in the production of your own material. It is a
necessary component of good writing, as it formally acknowledges the work
and ideas of others that you have incorporated into your own material, and it
enables your audience to check your sources and research the topic further.
Good referencing can help you to avoid plagiarism (passing off someone
else’s work as your own). Your work becomes more credible, and potentially
more persuasive. However, avoid simply stringing together a series of referenced
quotations and then passing them off as a complete piece of work. References should
support your ideas, not be them.
The Harvard system is the most commonly used referencing method in Australia. It is also known as the
author–date system. This system requires that you:
• acknowledge your sources within the body of your work
• acknowledge your sources at the end of your work, under the headings ‘References’ and ‘Bibliography’
ACKNOWLEDGING SOURCES WITHIN THE TEXT

To cite (make reference to) someone else’s idea or information in the body of your work, list the author’s surname
and the year of the source’s publication in brackets after the relevant information:
Part 7
The test results offered minimal variation between the control subjects and the rats injected with carefully
monitored doses of pethidine (Jones, 2007).
Use quotations marks to quote directly from another source, then list the author’s surname, the year of publication
and the exact page number(s):
Jones’ results indicated that pethidine levels showed ‘minimal variation between control and experiment groups’
(Jones, 2007, p. 113).
Footnotes
A footnote is a note placed at the bottom of a page in a book or document. The footnote comments on, and may cite
a reference for, part of the main body of text on that page. A footnote is usually indicated by a superscript number
(example: note 1) following the portion of text to which it refers.
ACKNOWLEDGING SOURCES AT THE END OF THE TEXT

References
A references section at the end of your written work should list
all the sources you cited in the body in alphabetical order by
the author’s surname. The titles of books, films, websites
and television shows should be set in italics if you are
using a computer; if you are submitting a handwritten
copy, underline the title. The titles of short stories
and newspaper articles should be set between
quotation marks. Layout is determined by text
type.

REFERENCE GUIDELINES EXAMPLE
TYPE
Books with one List author surname, first name or initial, Laverty, C., 2006, Art for Everyone, Oxford, South
author year of publication, title, publisher, place Melbourne, Vic.
of publication.
Books with List all authors in the order in which they • Moynihan, D., Titley, B., 2001, Economics:
multiple authors are listed on the title page. If there is an A Complete Course, 3rd ed., Oxford, South
editor, list under this person’s name only Melbourne
with (ed.) after their name. • Versteden, K., (ed)., 2010, Early Childhood
Development, 4th ed., Penguin, Camberwell
Newspaper List author surname, first name or initial, Carney, Shaun, 2006, ‘Leader or follower?’, The Age,
articles year of publication, title, newspaper 29 July.
publication, date of publication.
Internet sites/ If known, list author surname, first name Croggon, Alison, ‘Theatre Notes’
pages or initial, title (with ‘online’ in parenteses) (online) accessed 29 July 2006,
date accessed, website. www.theatrenotes.blogspot.com.
Bibliographies
Information to be included in a bibliography should be cited in the same way as for references. The bibliography
Part 7
section comes after the references section.
Endnotes
Endnotes are similar to footnotes, but they are listed collectively at the end of a chapter or book instead of at the
bottom of a page. You should consider using endnotes or footnotes in formal writing, such as essays, particularly
when you have used a number of sources.
Your turn
7.8 Using the Harvard system of referencing, prepare a bibliography that lists the following sources in
alphabetical order:
• an art show review in The Guardian Weekly newspaper entitled ‘Modigliani’s way’, written by Adrian
Searle, published on Friday 28, July 2014
• a home decorating guide by Laura Ashley – The Complete Guide to Home Decorating – published in
1992 by Hodder & Stoughton (Aust) Pty Ltd, New South Wales
• an art book borrowed from the Yarra-Melbourne Regional Library called Turner in His Time by
Andrew Wilton (1987, Thames & Hudson Publishers, Great Britain)
• an online discussion of cartoonist Michael Leunig’s paintings and drawings by Justin Combs, at
www.artloft.com.au, downloaded or printed on 18 September 2005
• a feature article, written by Jennifer Isaacs, entitled ‘Makinti Napanangka: Under the desert sky’, in
the magazine Australian Art Collector, published by Gadfly Media, in Issue 37, July–September 2006.
PART 7: TOOLKIT 167

Glossary of key terms
and metalanguage
adjective atmosphere cause and effect
word that describes a noun (e.g. good, pervading tone or mood relationship between an action or
blue, fast, overweight, sinister) event (cause) and the effect that it
attack (verb)
produces
advertisement to criticise or oppose in a public forum;
print/non-print/multimodal notice or to ridicule, denigrate an opponent cliché (noun)
display promoting something overused phrase or word, showing
audience
lack of original thought
alienate people for whom a text is intended
cause to feel isolated; to lose or destroy (listeners, viewers or readers) colloquial language
the support or sympathy of (an audience) language used in ordinary
audience expectation
conversation; not formal
alliteration what an audience hopes to receive,
repetition of a consonant sound at the understand, believe, etc. commentary
beginning of two or more words close expression of an opinion or the
authoritative
together (e.g. big, bad boy) offering of an explanation on an
commanding and self-confident; from
issue or event
allusion a position of authority
indirect reference to something (usually connotation
background
Glossary
of a cultural or literary nature); form of implied meaning; idea or feeling invoked

circumstances leading up to an event;
comparison, often in the form of a play on by a word, in addition to its primary
details of a picture represented in the
words (e.g. Lord of the Pies) meaning
distance
analogy consensus
balanced
comparison made between two things general agreement or majority of opinion
objective, neutral; lacking bias
for the purpose of explanation
content
bias
analysis material found within a text, as distinct
prejudice for or against a thing or
detailed examination of something in from form or style
person
order to interpret or explain it
contention
broadsheet
anecdotal evidence assertion; central or underlying
newspaper with a large format and
evidence based on the oral reports of argument
regarded as more ‘serious’ than a
others
tabloid context
anecdote circumstances that form the setting for
caption
short story about a real incident or an event
brief explanation appended to an
person, employed to illustrate a point
illustration or cartoon conventions
appeal (noun) ways in which a text is normally
caricature
serious or heartfelt request that targets constructed; typical features of a text
depiction of a person in which
an audience’s emotions
distinguishing characteristics are credentials
argumentative exaggerated, usually for comic effect professional qualifications; record of
using, or characterised by, systematic or to ridicule achievements
argument
causality critique
association strong cause and effect relationships, (1) expression of disapproval of someone
conceptual connection, whereby one where one event – the effect – is or something; (2) critical assessment of
thing reminds of something else considered a direct result of another a text
event – the cause
assonance current affairs
repetition of a vowel sound in two or issues or events belonging to the present
more words close together (e.g. blue time; contemporary, topical news
moon)

demographic euphemism framing
particular group classified according to mild or less direct word substituted for careful arrangement and ‘cropping’ of an
a particular criterion (e.g. age, gender, a harsh or blunt one in an unpleasant image for particular effect, or to enhance
income, interests); target audience or embarrassing context (e.g. passed certain elements
away instead of died )
denigrate generalisation
to criticise unfairly; to attack, put down, event broad statement made by inferring
insult thing that takes place; specific news something from specific cases (e.g. all
story or incident dogs are vicious)
denotation
sign or symbol of something, or a word’s evidence genre
literal definition information indicating whether a style or category of text
belief or argument is true or valid (e.g.
design gesture
research, statistics)
a text’s structural layout; the movement of part of the body to
arrangement of its various features exclusive language express an idea
language that leaves out or alienates a
editorial graphic
particular group for effect (characterised
formal newspaper article putting forth visual image of some kind, often used
by the use of the pronouns they, them,
the paper’s opinion on a particular issue to support a written text; form of visual
those, etc.)
language
editorial independence
expert status
media company’s desire to be viewed headline/heading
considered to have specialised
as free from external influence (e.g. heading at the top of a newspaper
knowledge or skill in an area
the influence of advertisers), i.e. not article or page; title often written in
subject to another authority expert testimony larger, bold font
opinions offered by a professional or
emotional appeal hyperbole
leader in the field
statement that hopes to arouse intense deliberate exaggeration employed for
Glossary
emotional feelings by targeting fact effect and not meant to be taken literally
specific areas of concern undeniable or indisputable truth;
imagery
something that can be proven and
emotional response form of figurative language that
supported
reaction springing from intense provides visual symbolism; a ‘word
feelings and emotions rather than logic feature article picture’
or reason newspaper or magazine piece that
images
provides detailed information about a
emotions visual representations of an object,
subject of interest or concern
feelings of joy, sorrow, fear, hate, etc. idea, etc.
features
emotive language imperatives
distinctive attributes or aspects of a text
language that arouses intense feelings; authoritative commands (e.g. ‘Come
(such as headlines)
often appeals to a sense of guilt, fear, here!’, ‘Donate now!’); grammatically,
shame, etc. figurative language the imperative is a mood rather than
non-literal language that makes a tense, giving direction with a verb
emphasis
comparisons by way of metaphors, but no grammatical subject (e.g. ‘Please
special importance given to an idea,
similes, personification, etc. (e.g. our have a seat’, ‘Kiss me’, ‘Hand me that
or stress laid on a word or words in
society is a fabric woven of many knife’)
speech
colours )
inclusive language
engage
foreground language that involves its entire
to attract the attention of; to involve
part of a view or image that is nearest to audience and does not alienate or leave
engender sympathy the observer out (characterised by the use of the
to elicit or encourage feelings of pronouns us, we, our)
form
concern or compassion
arrangement, classification (genre) and/ in-depth
essay or physical shape of a text detailed, comprehensive, thorough
formal piece of writing on a single
formal language inflammatory
topic with an introduction, body
writing or speech characterised by intended to arouse angry or violent
paragraphs and a conclusion
adherence to grammar and widely feelings; designed to cause outrage
accepted structure
GLOSSARY 169
informal language metalanguage opinionated
writing or speech characterised by set of terms used for the description or assertively dogmatic in one’s views;
less formal grammar and vocabulary; analysis of how language is being used possessing strong and unflinching beliefs
language for relaxed, unofficial settings
metaphor overstatement
informative language that makes a comparison by exaggeration; overly emphatic statement
providing useful information stating that one thing is another, in a
parody
non-literal sense (e.g. he is the giant of
intended audience imitation of the style of something (a
the team)
group of people for whom a text is created person, genre, etc.) for comic effect
mood
intended effect/impact pause
atmosphere or ‘tone’ created by an
impression an author hopes to make on ‘gap’ in a speech for the purpose of
author or artist through language
their audience; desired response providing emphasis or variation in
mudslinging delivery
irony
use of insults and accusations to
expression of thought (usually humorous) persuade
damage an opponent’s reputation
using language that signifies the to cause to do or believe something by
opposite; state of affairs that seems to multimodal text advice, argumant or influence
contradict what is expected using several types of communication
persuasive language feature
(e.g. writing, images and sound) in an
issue literary device or technique employed
integrated way
important topic for debate or resolution to convince an audience (e.g. rhetorical
neutral question, irony)
language strategies
not biased; not supporting a side;
literary techniques employed by writers podcast
impartial
and speakers to enhance meaning and/or digital recording that is uploaded to the
to persuade news report internet for people to download onto a
broadcast or newspaper text that computer or MP3 player
Glossary
letter to the editor

reports on the important factual details
short text from a member of the public point of view
of an event
expressing individual opinion, usually in opinion; particular attitude or way of
response to an editorial or news article, non-print text considering a matter
written for a newspaper text that has no print or visual images
positioned
(e.g. a radio program)
linking words or phrases encouraged to see, feel or understand
conjunction; word that connects or joins non-verbal language something from a particular viewpoint
two ideas in a sentence or paragraph any form of communication not
posture
(although, whereas, similarly, however, involving words (e.g. gesture, images,
way in which a person holds their body
etc.) music)
while speaking
logical noun
print text
showing rational thought; constructed in word used to name a person, place or
text that comprises print only or print
a truthful and valid way and making clear thing
and visual images, such as novels,
sense
object television scripts, manuscripts of radio
manipulate person or thing to which an action, talkback programs, etc.
to alter or present information in a way feeling or message is directed
provocative
that may be misleading; to control the
objective deliberately seeking a strong reaction,
outcome of something
not biased (see neutral) such as anger, outrage or shock
media text
online forum public figure
print, non-print and multimodal
discussion group facilitated by the well-known individual; popular identity
communications with a public
internet
audience; texts found in newspapers pun
and magazines, on television, video, opinion joke exploiting the different meanings of
film, radio, computer software and personal point of view or judgment not a word, or words of the same sound but
the internet (e.g. ezines, editorials, necessarily based on fact or knowledge; different meanings; a play on words (e.g.
advertisements) belief Carlton’s got the blues)
message opinion piece purpose
idea/s being communicated by authors text published in a newspaper or reason for which something is done;
in texts magazine that provides a detailed, often reason why a text is produced (e.g. to
expert perspective on an issue inform, shock, ridicule)

rational slang tabloid
reasonable, logical, sensible informal language used more in newspaper with pages half the size
speaking than in writing of a broadsheet, popular in style and
readership
dominated by sensationalist stories
collective readers of a print text; target slogan
audience short, memorable phrase used in target audience
advertising or associated with a political group for whom a text is designed or
reasoned
party or group intended
thoughtful and logical; clearly developed
sound effects text
register
artificial sounds other than speech or print, non-print or multimodal source
type of language used (degree of
music for use in films, advertisements, designed to achieve one or more
formality, choice of vocabulary,
etc. purposes, in speech and/or writing, for a
punctuation, etc.); can be formal or
specific audience
informal stance
viewpoint of an author, editorial or tone of voice
repetition
newspaper way a text would ‘sound’ if spoken aloud
act of repeating or restating a word or
(e.g. outraged, sarcastic)
phrase statistics
facts or data obtained from a study of a values
research findings
large quantity of numerical data, used as personal or cultural principles or
conclusions reached on the basis of
a form of evidence standards; an individual’s or a society’s
investigation and analysis
judgements as to what is valuable or
stereotype
rhetorical question important in life
lazy or inaccurate image of a cultural
question asked for effect, to make
group, which has become fixed through verb
a statement or to elicit an expected
being widely held word used to describe an action, state or
response (e.g. Does the minister think we
occurrence
are fools?) structural conventions
Glossary
typical features of a genre; expected verbal language
ridicule
elements of a specific text type any form of communication involving
mockery or derision
words
structural features
sarcasm
elements that give shape to a text; the vested interest
use of irony to mock or convey contempt
way a text looks and any significant personal stake in an issue or situation,
(usually a form of either humour or
aspects of the way it has been put especially one with an expectation of
ridicule)
together financial (or other) gain
satire
style visual language
use of humour, irony, exaggeration or
way a text has been written or created; images (photos, cartoons, graphs, etc.)
ridicule to expose and criticise people’s
manner in which it appears (e.g. used to convey meaning; includes some
stupidity or weaknesses
coherent, logical) aspects of non-verbal language (e.g.
scapegoat (noun) body gesture; facial expression; layout
subheading
person or group blamed for the and design; font and colour choices; and
secondary heading that supports the
wrongdoings or mistakes of others filmic devices, such as framing, angles)
headline of a newspaper article; often a
sensationale one-sentence summary voice
deliberately use sensational (exciting, sometimes used to mean tone; can also
subject
attractive) stories or language in the mean the identity of the ‘speaker’ of a text
person or thing under discussion; focus
media to create interest
or topic of a text
simile
subtext
language that makes a comparison by
underlying theme or message in a text
stating that one thing is like another (e.g.
that is not stated explicitly but established
he was as brave as a lion)
through tone, implication
slander
symbols
action of making a false statement that is
image or thing used to represent, or
damaging to a person’s reputation
stand for, something else
GLOSSARY 171
Acknowledgements
The author and the publisher wish to thank the following copyright holders for reproduction of their material.
AAP Image/ABC, 53 /AP, 125/Channel Ten/File, 139/Dean Saffron, 60 /Howarth PA, 138/Karin Calvert, 73 (top)/Lisa Martin, 92 (left) /
Lukas Coch, 135 (top) /Peter Parkes, 73 (bottom) /PR Handout Image, 161/Refugee Action Coalition, 13 (top)/RSPCA SA, 91 (top); Alamy/AF
Archive, 93 (top), 98/Down Under Digital , 26 /Glasshouse Images, 135 (bottom); Australian Customs and Border Protection, 93 (bottom);
The Australia Institute (2013) Infographic: ‘How foreign is foreign aid?’, 94 (bottom); Peter Broelman, 57 (right); Extract, ‘Yule by sorry
if you don’t ask these 3 questions about your company’s Christmas party’ by Michael Bailey, BRW, November 29, 2013, 107; Thanks to
Byron Youth Service - Cringe the Binge program, 100 (bottom); Reproduced by permission of John Clarke, 53; Corbis/Visuals Unlimited/
Ton Koene, 33; Extract from 'The Murdoch Paradox', by Simon Coplan, Crikey, September 24, 2014, 68-9; Department of Defence, 36;
Extract, ‘Is the cost of our symbolism worth it?' by Adam Lockyer, The Drum, 48-9; Extract, ‘Dancing like everyone's watching’, by Stella
Young, Ramp Up, ABC, 27 June 2014, 152-3; Reproduced by permission of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and ABC Online.
© ABC. All rights reserved, 5-6, 117, 143-4, 80-1, 89; Extract, ‘And another thing’ The Age, October 26, 2008, 75 (top); Extract, ‘Righting a
travesty for the terminally ill’ The Age, November 9, 2014, 77; Extract, ‘Terror scaremongering threatens our democracy’ by Greg Barns,
The Age, September 22, 2014, 43; Extract, The weasel words of war’ by David Campbell, The Age, January 17, 2007, 30; Extract, ‘Perverse
migration bill shreds the rule of law’ by Malcolm Fraser and Barry Jones, The Age, November 7, 2014, 82-3; Extract, ‘The guilty pleasure
– and pain – of illegal downloads’ by Danny Katz, The Age, July 13, 2014, 51; Extract, ‘Australia’s asylum seeker policy is breaking people’
by Susan Metcalf, The Age, December 23, 2013, 35; Extract, ‘Cyclone Marcia damage to leave thousands without power until next week’
by Kim Stephens, The Age, February 24, 2015, 73 (bottom); Extract, ‘Adam Goodes: the right man for Australia of the Year’ by Andrew
Webster, The Age, January 27, 2014, 145-6; Extract, ‘Game over for illegal downloading as Government looks to put online pirates to
the sword’ Courier Mail, July 30, 2014, 158-9; FairfaxPhotos, 90 (right)/Alex Ellinghausen, 38/Andrew Dyson, 83/Canberra Times, 36/
Justin McManus, 92 (top)/Malloray Brangan, 94 (top)/Quentin Jones, 52; Ford, 100 (top); Frankie #53 May/June 2013 cover, reproduced
by permission of Frankie Press, 70 (right); Getty Images/AFP, Photo/Torsten Blackwood, 99 (bottom) /AFP/William West, 65 /Andrew
Sheargold, 55 (top)/Ben Symons Archive, 151/Gamma-Rapho, 81/Jason LaVeris, 68 /Matt Jelonek, 150 /MyLoupe, 115 (top)/oli scarf, 129 /
Pool Images, 134 /Quinn Rooney, 32/Science Source/PRI, 18/Scott Barbour, 143/Universal History Archive via Getty Images, 54/Vince
Caligiuri, 155, 157; © 2013 Guardian News and Media Limited or its affiliated companies. All rights reserved, 41-2; Extract, ‘A dying debate
comes back to life’ Herald Sun, June 5, 2014, 75-6; Extract, ‘Melbourne Cup: 2014: This is the ugly side of the race that stops a nation’ by
Debra Killalea, Herald Sun, November 4, 2014, 154-5; Extract, ‘Warner Bros’ The Lego movie is one of the best in 2014’ by Leigh Paatsch,
Herald Sun, April 3, 2014, 28; iStockPhoto/RapidEye, 115 (bottom)/shironosov, 107; Kobal/Scarlett Pictures, 91 (bottom); Jon Kudelka, 90
(left); Reproduced courtesy of Michael Leunig, 3; Extract, used by permission of Holly Wainwright, Mamamia, 156-7; Extract, ‘Editorial:
Cyber bully threat real’ The Mercury, February 26, 2014, 150-1; Cover of Tony Abbot, illustrated by Neil Moore, reproduced by permission
of The Monthly, 70 (left); By permission of National Library of Australia, 55 (bottom)/ 93 (middle); Extract, ‘Cyclone Marcia: Queensland
towns face floods’ news.com, February 22, 2015, 73 (top); Newspix/Andy Tyndall , 35/Anthony Reginato, 141/Bob Finlayson, 87/Brett
Costello, 92 (bottom right) /David Caird, 120, 121/Gary Ramage, 57 (left)/James Croucher, 43, 97 (left)/Josie Hatden, 152 /Michael Perini, 97
(right)/Phil Hillyard, 145/Tony Gough, 122; Picture Media/Reuters/Jim Young, 56 /Umit Bektas, 48; The Project (Roving Enterprises) on
Network TEN, 95; http://www.realgap.com.au, 9; Saul Steinberg, Untitled, 1969. Ink on paper. Originally published in The New Yorker,
November 8, 1969. © The Saul Steinberg Foundation/Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY/Licensed by Viscopy, 2015, 131; Save the Children,
41/Jonathan Hyams; Extract from 'Asylum seeker brain dead after cut turned to septicaemia in 'shocking' detention conditions' SBS, 13;
Shutterstock/06photo, 117/bezikus, 20 (bottom) /Don Mammoser, 20 (top)/Elena Blokhina, 101 /Fabio Alcini, 167/hxdbzxy, 75 (bottom)/
Ingvar Bjork, 47/Lightspring, 1/Megapixel, 78/Picsfive, 2 /Pixsooz, 112 (top)/Sergey Peterman, 130 /Sergey Furtaev, 160/vectorkat, 10;
Extract, ‘Chan and Sukumaran should not have to beg to avoid barbaric death penalty’ by Tim Dick, Sydney Morning Herald, February
2, 2015, 125-6; Extract, ‘Clive Palmer blows himself to smithereens with spiteful attack on Peta Credlin,’ by Tony Wright, Sydney Morning
Herald, June 3, 2014, 38; Cover, Great Escapes, reproduced by permission of Time Out Melbourne, 70 (middle); Reproduced courtesy of
Victoria Police, 120-1; Used by permission of Youth Climate Coalition, 113.
Every effort has been made to trace the original source of copyright material contained in this book. The publisher will be pleased to
hear from copyright holders to rectify any errors or omissions.

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ISBN 978-0-19-030070-8
9 780190 300708
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Licensed to Samantha Harrison, from Fitzroy High School until 2021-01-01.

Licensed to Samantha Harrison, from Fitzroy High School until 2021-01-01.

For details of the CAL licence for educational institutions contact:

Licensed to Samantha Harrison, from Fitzroy High School until 2021-01-01.

PART 1: HOW TO ANALYSE AND PRESENT ARGUMENT .......................................... 1

PART 2: FORMULATING AND DEVELOPING ARGUMENTS ..................................... 11

PART 3: PERSUASIVE LANGUAGE ........................................................................... 21

PART 5: ANALYSING ARGUMENT........................................................................... 101

PART 6: PRESENTING ARGUMENT ........................................................................ 129

Tips for a successful argument....................................................................................................................................................................130

PART 7: TOOLKIT .................................................................................................... 147

GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS AND METALANGUAGE................................................. 168

How to analyse and

WHAT IS MEANT BY ‘MEDIA’?

PART 1: HOW TO ANALYSE AND PRESENT ARGUMENT 1

TEXTS ARE PRODUCED FOR A PURPOSE

‘THE TRUTH’ – HANDLE WITH CARE

• Why has it been constructed?

There are Journalists are

Television current The internet is an

2 ANALYSING AND PRESENTING ARGUMENT

INFORMATION FOR VCE STUDENTS

End-of-year English examination

PART 1: HOW TO ANALYSE AND PRESENT ARGUMENT 3

and a great deal of thought goes into what ideas,

4 ANALYSING AND PRESENTING ARGUMENT

PART 1: HOW TO ANALYSE AND PRESENT ARGUMENT 5

ISSUE AND CONTEXT PURPOSE AUDIENCE FORM AND LANGUAGE

Public versus private To offer a newspaper’s • National Editorial in daily national

6 ANALYSING AND PRESENTING ARGUMENT

TEXT TYPE PURPOSE

political cartoon to voice a brief personal opinion on an issue in a public forum

tweet to distribute specific details on a particular topic to a local community

editorial to formally critique or analyse a specific text in writing

advertisement to humorously satirise or comment on the behaviour of politicians

analytical essay to influence a particular demographic to desire/purchase a product

PART 1: HOW TO ANALYSE AND PRESENT ARGUMENT 7

The Age editorial on animal cruelty in horseracing

feature article on virginity in Dolly magazine

television advertisement for Nudie jeans

finance update on ABC News

monthly school newsletter from Laurel College

8 ANALYSING AND PRESENTING ARGUMENT

1.14 Work with a partner to study this website’s homepage.

PART 1: HOW TO ANALYSE AND PRESENT ARGUMENT 9

the purpose of as many

to my secretary, Anne-Marie White: (03) 8910 4810.

STRUCTURAL AND DESIGN FEATURES POSSIBLE IMPACTS ON THE AUDIENCE

pictorial support (logos, crests, photos, etc.)

clear paragraphing, bullet points, etc.

special design/fonts (such as bold) for

formal, sophisticated language

10 ANALYSING AND PRESENTING ARGUMENT

ISSUES AND EVENTS

PART 2: FORMULATING AND DEVELOPING ARGUMENTS 11

ISSUE OR EVENT? CORRESPONDS TO …

a a principal suspends a cohort

b sexual discrimination in the