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EE05466unit1 6

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24 views9 pages

EE05466unit1 6

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1.

1 Optimal operation of Generators:

The optimal system operation involved the consideration of economy of


operation, system security, optimal releases of water at hydro generation
etc. The main aim in the economy of operation problem is to minimize the
total cost of generating real power at various stations while satisfying the
loads and the losses in the transmission links. The economy of operation
only, also called the economic dispatch problem. The presence of hydro
plants which operate in conjunction with thermal plants. While there is
negligible operating cost at hydro plant, there is a limitation of availability
of water over a period of time which must be used to save maximum fuel
at the thermal plants.
Economy of operation is naturally predominant in determining allocation
of generation to each station for various system load levels. The first
problem in power system is called the unit commitment (UC) problem and
the second is called the load scheduling (LS) problem. Unit commitment
problem, where in it is required to select optimally out of the available
generating sources to operate, to meet the expected load and provide a
specified margin of operating reserve over a specified period of time.
Economic dispatch is the on line economic dispatch where in it is
required to distribute the load among the generating units actually
paralled with the system in such manner as to minimize the total cost of
supplying the minute – to – minute requirements of the system.
Economic load dispatch problem is really the solution of a large number
of load flow problems and choosing the one which is optimal in the sense
that it needs minimum cost of generation. The cost of generation is not
fixed for a particular load demand but depends upon the operating
constraints of the sources. Therefore, the following the various
constraints before taking up the economic dispatching problem.
System constraints:
There are two types of constraints.
(1) Equality constraints
(2) In equality constraints.
1) Equality constraints:
The equality constraints are the basic load flow equations given by
[ At bus P, Pp − JQ p = Vp* I p
n
= Vp* ∑ Ypq Vq
q =1

Let Vp = e p + jf p
Ypq = Gpq - jB pq
n
Pp – jQp = (e p + jfp)* ∑ (G pq − jB pq )(e q + jf q )
q =1
n
= (e p - jfp) ∑ (G pq − jB pq )(e q + jf q )
q =1

Separating the real and imaginary parts]


n
Pp = ∑ [e
q =1
p (e q G pq + f q B pq ) + f p (f q G pq − e q B pq )]

n
Qp = ∑ [f p (e q G pq + f q B pq ) − e p (f q G pq − e q B pq )]
q =1

P = 1, 2…….n
Where ep and fp → Real and imaginary components of voltage at the pth node.
Gpq and B pq → are the nodal conductance and susceptance between the
pth and qth nodes.
2) Inequality constraints:
They are
a) Generator constraints
b) voltage constraints
c) Transformer tap settings
d) Transmission line constraints.
a) Generator constraints:

The KVA loading on a generator is given by Pp2 + Q 2p and should not


exceed a prespecified value cp
i.e. Pp2 + Q 2p ≤ C 2p
The generator active powers Pp cannot be outside the range stated by the
in equality
i.e. Pp min ≤ P p ≤ P p max.
Similarly the generator reactive power Qp cannot be outside the range
stated by the inequality
i.e. Qp min ≤ Qp ≤ Qp max.
b) Voltage constraints:
The voltage magnitudes and phase angles at various nodes should vary
with in certain limits.
|Vp min| ≤ |V p| ≤ |V p max.|
δp min ≤ δp ≤ δp max
Where |Vp| and δp → for the voltage magnitude and phase angle at the
pth node.
c) Transmission line constraints:
The flow of active and reactive power through the transmission line
circuit is limited by the thermal capability of the circuit and is expressed
as C p ≤ C p max
Where Cmax → is the maximum loading capacity of the pth line.
d) Transmission tap settings:
If an auto-transformer is used, the minimum tap setting could be zero
and the maximum one
i.e. 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.0
Similarly for a two winding transformer if tappings are provided on the
secondary side
0≤t≤n
Where n is the ratio of transformation. Phase shift limits of the phase
shifting tranformer
θp min ≤ θ p ≤ θ p max
1.2 Heat rate curve, cost curve, incremental fuel and production costs,
input-output characteristics:
Input-output characteristics:
Figure 1.1 shows the input-output
characteristics
The input-output curve of a unit can Fuel
be expresed in Million kilocalories input
per hour (or) directly in terms of
rupees per hour versus output in
megawatts. A unit consists of a Power output (MW)
boiler, turbine and generator only. Figure 1.1. Input-output characteristics.
Figure (1.1) where (MW)min is the minimum loading limit below which it is
uneconomical to operate the unit and (MW)max is the maximum output
limit. The input-output curve has discontinuties at stem value openings
which have not been indicated in the figure.
Heat rate curve:
From Figure (1.1) the curve heat rate is defined as the “ratio of fuel input
to the corresponding power output” and their units → are million Btu per
MWhr.

Cost curve:
The cost curve can be determined
experimentally. Figure (1,2) show the
fuel cost curve, the discontinuity occur
when the output has to be excited by Real
using additional boilers, steam cost
condensers, discontinuities also appear
if the cost represents the operation of an
entire power station, so that cost has
discontinuities on paralleling of PG(min) PG(max)
generates. Figure 1.2. Cost curve
Incremental fuel cost:
∆ input
Incremental fuel rate =
∆ output
i.e. It is a ratio equal to a small change in input to the corresponding
small change in output. The incremental quantities tend to zero,
incremental fuel rate tends to
d (input )
incremental fuel rate =
d (output )
dF
=
dP
Where F → is the fuel input in million Btu per hr
and P → is the power output in MW.
The units of incremental fuel rate are Million Btu per MWhr.
The slope of the fuel cost curve is incremental fuel cost.
dc i
is called the incremental fuel cost.
dp Gi
Where i stands → for the unit number.
Incremental fuel is expressed in
terms of Rs per MWhr, which is
obtained by multiplying the
incremental fuel rate by the fuel Increme
cost in Rs per Btu. ntal fuel
cost (IC)
If the cost of incremental fuel
curve is approximated as a
quadratic equations
1 2 Power output
C i= a i PGi + b 1P Gi + d i Rs/hour
2 Figure 1.3. Incremental fuel cost versus
power output
dci 1 
= (IC)i =  a i * 2PGi  + b i + 0
dPGi 2 
= a i P Gi + bI
Incremental production cost:
Incremental production cost consists of the incremental fuel cost plus the
incremental cost of labour, supplies, maintenance and water. It is difficult
to express exactly these costs as a function of output and also they form
generally a small fraction of the incremental cost of fuel, the incremental
cost of production will wither to be considered equal to the incremental
cost of fuel.
The incremental efficiency is defined as the reciprocal of incremental fuel
rate (or) incremental production cost and is given as incremental
output dP
efficiency = = .
input dF
1.3 Optimum generation allocation with line losses neglected (or)
Economic dispatch neglecting losses:

F t → is the total fuel input to the system


F n → is the fuel input to nth unit
Pd → is the total load demand.
P n → is the generation of nth unit.
The economic dispatch problem is defined as
n
Min F t = ∑ Fn …………..(1.1)
n =1
n
Subject to Pd = ∑ Pn …….(1.2)
n =1
Use of lagrangion multiplier the auxiliary function is obtained as
 n 
 ∑
F = F t + λ  Pd − Pn 

 n =1 
λ → is the lagrangian multiplier
Differentiating F with respect to the generation P n and equating to zero
gives the condition for optimal operation of the system.
∂F ∂F
= t + λ (0 − 1) = 0
∂Pn ∂Pn
∂Ft
= −λ = 0
∂Pn
∂Ft
⇒ =λ
∂Pn
But F t = F 1 + F 2 + …….. + Fn
∂Ft ∂F
∴ = n
∂Pn ∂Pn
dFn
= =λ
dPn
and, the condition for optimum operation is
dF1 dF2 dF3 dF
= = = ............. = n = λ ………(1.2(a))
dP1 dP2 dP3 dPn
dFn
Where = incremental production cost of plant n.
dPn
→ units Rs/MWhr.
The incremental production cost of a given plant, a limited range is
represented by

dFn
= F nn P n + f n …………..(1.3)
dPn
Where F nn = Slope of incremental production cost curve
F n = intercept of incremental production cost curve.
The simultaneous solution of equations (1.2), (1.2(a)) gives the economic
operating schedule. Equation (1.2(a)), called the coordination equations.

Therefore, any good technique for solving a set of linear equations can be
used but since the inequality constraints have also to be taken into
account. Computer solution for optimal loading of generators can be
obtained interatively as follows:

1) Choose a trial value of λ (0).


λ (0) > f n of the various generators.
2) Compute the individual generations P 1, P2 ………P n corresponding to
incremental cost of production from equation (1.3).

3) Check if the equality


n
∑ Pn = P n is satisfied
n =1

4) If not, make a second guess λ 11 and repeat the above step. Flow chart for
optimum generation allocation with line losses neglected are given below.
Start

Read Fn, Fnn, Pd, ε

Assume a suitable value of λ and ∆λ

Set n = 1

λ − Fn
Solve the equation Pn =
Fnn

Check yes
If Pn > Pn max. Set Pn = Pn max

No

Check yes
If Pn < Pn min Set Pn = Pn min.

No
Set n = n + 1

No Check if
All buses have
been accounted
If P < P main
Yes
Calculate ∆P = |(∑Pn – Pd)|

Print generation and


is ∆P < ε yes calculate cost of
generation

No
λ = λ + ∆λ is ∑Pn > Pd

yes

λ = λ - ∆λ

Figure (1.1) Flow chart for optimum generation allocation with line losses neglected.

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